UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
AT LOS ANGELES
LIBEAEY
UNIVERSAL KNOWLEDGE
A REPRINT
OF THE LAST (1880) EDINBURGH AND LONDON EDITION
OF CHAMBEES'S ENCYCLOPEDIA,
titjj Copious ^toi&ns ijj ^meritmt (Kbite.
FIFTEEN VOLUMES,
VOLUME XI.
NEW YORK:
AMERICAN BOOK EXCHANGE,
764 BROADWAY,
1881.
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AMERICAN PUBLISHER'S NOTICE.
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LIBRARY OF UNIVERSAL KNOWLEDGE.
OPERA-GLASS (Fr. lorgnette, Ger. theater-perspectiv). This is a double telescope,
which is used for iookiug at objects that require to be clearly seen rather than
greatly magnified, such as adjoining scenery and buildings, the performers of a
theater or opera, etc. It is from its use at an opera that it derives its name. The opera-
glass is short and light, and can be easily managed with one hand. Its small magnifying
power (from 2 to 8 at the most), and the large amount of light admitted by the ample
object-glass, enable it to present a bright and pleasing picture, so that the eye is not
strained to make out details, as in telescopes of greater power, which generally show a
highly magnified but faint picture. It allows the use of both eyes, which gives to the
spectator the double advantage, not possessed by single telescopes, of not requiring to
keep one eye shut, a somewhat unnatural way of looking, and of seeing things stand
out stereoscopically as in ordinary vision. The opera-glass is in consequence the most
popular of telescopes, and requires almost no art in its use.
The opera-glass is the same in principle as the telescope invented by Galileo. It con-
sists of two lenses, an object-lens, and an eye-lens. The object-lens is convex, and the
eye-lens concave. They are placed nearly at the distance of the difference of their focal
lengths from one another. Fig. 1 represents the action of the telescope; o is the object-
lens, and e the eye-lens, and ae is the axis of the instrument. The object-lens would
form an image, cab, of the object
looked at, at or near its focus, but
eye-lens intervening, converts the
light converging to cab to light
diverging apparently from an object
in front, CAB. To show more
clearly the changes which the light
undergoes, the course of a pencil of
rays proceeding from the top of an
object is traced. The ray pro-
ceeding from the top of the object
to the center of the leas, o, makes
an angle, ro\, with the axis. This
is the same as the angle aob; and FIG- 1.
either of these angles gives half the angle under which the object is seen to the unaided
eye. The three extreme rays, r, r, r, of the pencil appear in the figure nearly parallel,
although they come from a point. The object is at a considerable distance from the
object-glass or eye, so that it is not possible in so limited a figure to show their diver-
gence. After passing through the object-lens, the three rays proceed to the point b, in
the image which the object-lens would form at cab, if no eye-lens were there. This
image, as shown in the figure, is inverted, and would be seen as such if the eye were
placed about ten inches (the distance of distinct vision) behind it. The three rays in
question do not reach the point b in consequence of the eye-lens intervening, and their
course onwards to that point, after passing the eye-lens, is shown by dotted lines. The
actual course, after passing the second lens, is shown again by the full lines, r, r, r,
which to the eye placed immediately behind the eye-lens appear to proceed from the
point B in front. As the light comes from B in the same direction as it comes from the
actual point in the object, the image is erect. What holds for the point B, holds for
every point in the image and object. To find the magnifying power, it is necessary to
join B<? and Ce, and produce the lines thus formed to b and'c. As the eye is placed imme-
diately behind the eye-lens, the angle under which the magnified object is seen is the
angle B^C, which is equal to ceb. Now, the angle under which the object itself is seen
at o or at e — for the slisrht difference has no effect at the distance at which objects
require to be seen by a telescope — is twice the angle roA.. or which is the same thing, the
angle cob. The ratio of the angle ceb to the angle cob, which is the magnifying power, is
easily seen to be the same as that of the line on to the line ae. But oa is the focal length
of the object-glass, and ae is the focal length of the eye-glass, so that the magnifying
Operca)trm. (\
Ophthalmia.
power of the instrument is the number of timos tlu; focal length of the eye-glass is con-
tuiued iu that of the object-glass. The longer, therefore, the focal length of the object-
leus, or the shorter the focal length of the eye-lens, the greater the magnifying power.
This may be practically expressed thus: the flatter the object-lens, and the hoi lower the
eye-lens, the more are objects magnified by the glass. The magnifying power may be
found with sufficient accuracy by looking at an object with one eye through the tube
and the other eye unaided, and so handling the glass that the magnilied image seen by the
one eye is superposed on the object seen by the naked eye, when a comparison of theii
relative sizes can be easily made. For great magnification, the instrument requires to be
greatly lengthened — a condition inconsistent with its use as an opera-glass. In addition,
a high magnifying power is attended with the disadvantage that 'the field of view, or
amount of objector objects seen, becomes too limited. On screwing out the instrument,
it will be seen that objects increase in size as the instrument is lengthened, but that the
picture becomes more and more limited, showing that a large power and a large field are
incompatible. The opera-glass need not be set to the same precise point as is necessary
with ordinary terrestrial telescopes, as the lengthening or shortening of the iu.strument
does not produce so decided an effect on the divergence of the light; the change of
divergence, caused by screwing the opera-glass out or in, is so slight as not much to
overstep the power of adjustment of the eye, so that an object does not lose all ii> dis-
tinctness at any point within the range of the Instrument. There is, however, a par-
ticular point at which an object at a certain distance is best seen.
The two telescopes are identical in construction, and are placed parallel to each other.
The blending of the two images is easily effected by the eyes, as in ordinary vision.
Opera-glasses have now come into such demand, that they form an important article of
manufacture, of which Paris is the great seat. So largely and cheaply are th.-y pro-
duced in Paris that it has nearly a monopoly of the trade. They m'ay be had from 2s.
6d. to £6 or £7. The cheapest opera-glasses consist of single lenses, those of the better
class have compound achromatic lens. A very ordinary construction for a medium
price is to have an achromatic object-lens, consisting of two lenses and a single eye-
lens. In the finest class of opera-glasses, which are called field-glasses, both eye-lenses
and object-lenses are achromatic. Plossl's celebrated field-glasses (Ger. fddsteener) have
twelve lenses, each object-lens and eye-lens being composed of three separate lenses.
OPER CT7LUM (Lat. a lid), a term used in botany chiefly to designate the lid or cover-
ing of the mouth of the urn or cap ule (thf.at) which contains the spores of mosses.
Before the ripening of the spores, the operculum is generally concealed by the caJy^trn;
but after the calyptra has been thrown off. the operculum itself also generally falls
off, leaving the peristome visible, and the mouth of the urn open. In some cases the
operculum does not fall off, and the urn opens by valves.
In zoology, the terns operculum is chiefly employed to denote the covering which
many gasteropod mollusks form for the mouth of their shell. It is attached to the back
of the foot of the mollusk. In some it is calcareous, forming a shelly plate : in some it is
horny; whilst gasteropods very nearly allied to those which possess it, are destitute of
it altogether. The operculum increases in various ways, so as to present in different
genera great diversity of structure, concentric, spiral, unguiculate, etc.
OPHICEPH'ALTTS, a genus of fishes, of the familv fi»a.baftid(e(q.\'.), sometimes regarded
as constituting a distinct family pplrirepJidliflce. because there is a mere cavity for retain-
ing water to supply the gills, and no pharyngeal laminae, and because of the long eel-
like form and the flattened head, which is' covered with larce scales. Some of them are
common in the fresh waters of the East Indies, are often found among wet <rrass, often
travel from one pool to another, and are capable of subsisting for a lon<: time in half-
dried mud, descending into it when the pools dry up. The COUA-MOTA or GACHVA of
India (0. gachna) is much used for food by the natives, although generally rejected by
Europeans on account of its very snake-like appearance. It is very tenacious of life.
and is not only brought to the Indian markets alive, but is cut to pieces whilst still liv-
ing for the convenience of buyers.
OPHICLEIDE (Gr. opJii*. serpent, and kiefs, key), a musical wind-instrument of bra«s
or copper, invented to supersede the serpent (q.v~) in the orchestra and military kinds.
It consists of a conical tube, terminating in a bell like that of the horn, with a mouth-
piece similar to that of the serpent, and ten ventages or holes, all stopped by keys like
those of the basson. but of 1-irger size. Ophicleides are of two kinds, the kiss and tho
alto. The bass ophicleide offers great resources for maintaining the low part of masses
of harmony. Music for it is written in the bass clef, and the compass of the instrument
is from B, the third space below the bass staff to C, the fifth added space above it.
including all the intervening chromatic intervals. The alto ophicleide is an instrument
of very inferior quality, and less used. Its compass is also tliree octaves and one note.
The music for it is written in the treble cleff. and an octave higher than it is played.
Double bass or monster ophicleides have sometimes been used in lanre orchestras,
but the amount of breath which is required to play them has prevented their coming
iuto general use.
OFEIDIA See SEUPTTNTS.
7Operculunj.
Ophthalmia*
OFKIOGLOSSE2E, a suborder of filices or ferns (q.v.), consisting of a few rather elegant
little plants with an erect or pendulous stem, which has a cavity instead of pith, leaves
with netted veins, and the spore-cases (thecce) collected into a spike formed at the
edges of an altered leaf, two-valved, and without any trace of an elastic ling. They are
found in warm and temperate countries, but abound most of all in the islands of tropi-
cal Asia. Several species are European, and two are British, tiie botrychium (q.v.)
lunaria, or moouwort, and the common adder's tongue (ophioglossum vulgatvm), which
was at one time supposed to possess magical virtues, and was also used as a vulnerary,
although it seems to possess only a mucilaginous quality; on account of which some of
the oilier species have been employed in broths. It is a. very common plant in England,
its abundance in some places much injuring pastures.
0 PHIR, a region frequently mentioned in the Old Testament, and from which tho
ships of bolomon, fitted out in the harbors of Edom, brought gold, precious stones,
sandal-wood, etc. The voyage occupied three years. Where Ophir was situated has
been a much, in fact, a superfluously disputed question. It was probably either on the
e. coast of Africa about Sofala, or in Arabia, or in India, but in which of tne three
countries is doubtful, lluet, Bruce (the traveler), the historian Robertson, M. Quatre-
mere, etc., are in favor of Africa; Micbaelis, Niebuhr (the traveler), Gosellin, Vincent,
"Winer, Flirst, Knobel, Forster, Cruwfurd, and Kalisch, of Arabia; Vitiinga, Relaiid,
Lassen, Hitter, Bertheau, and Ewald, of India. Josephus, however, it should be said,
placed Ophir in the peninsula of Malacca, and his very respectable opinion has been,
adopted by sir J. Emerson Tennent in his work on Ceylon. For a complete discussion
of the point, see Karl Ritter's Erdkunde (vol. xiv. 1848), 80 octavo pages of which are
devoted to Ophir. According to Ritter, who accepts the view of Lassen, Ophir was
situated ;,t the mouth of the Indus.
OPEIB, called by the Malays. Gunong Pasrmnn, a volcanic mountain in the high-
lands of Padang. island of Sumatra, lies in Oc 4' 58" n. lat., and 99° 55' e. long.; the
c;>t( in peak, called Telamnn, attains the height of 9,939 ft. above the sea The western
peak, is called Pasaman. The numerous inhabitants have cleared off forest and brought
under cultivation large tracts of land on the slopes of Ophir, and ils base is studded
with villages. The Ophir districts are most beautiful, and the lofly waterfalls, con-
trasting with the bright-green foliage of the mountain, highly picturesque.
OPHISU SUS. See SXAKE-EEL.
OPHITES (Gr. opJiiiai, •' serpent-brethren." from op7iis, a serpent), a sect of gnostics
(q.v.), who while they shared the general belief of dualism, the conflict of matter and
spirit, the emanations, the demiurgos, and other notions common to the many sub-
divisions of this extraordinary school, were distinguished from all by their peculiar
doctrine and worship connected with their ophis or serpent. The ophites, like most other
gnoslics, regarded the demiuncos. or the Jehovah of the Old Testament, with great abhor-
rence, but they pursued this "notion into a very curious development. Regarding the
< mancipation of man from the power and control of the demiurgos as a most important
end, they considered the serpent who tempted Eve, and introduced into the world
' know-led sre" and revolt against Jehovah, to have been the great benefactor of the
character, by causing the bread designed for the eucharistic sacrifice to be licked by a str-
_ _ _ _rv
originated in E^ypt, probably from some relation to the Egyptian serpent-worship, and
spread thence into Syria and Asia Minor. Offshoots of this sect are the Cainitcs. See
CAIN and SETHITES.
OPHIU'RAXS. See STAR-FISH, ante.
OPHTHAL'MIA (derived from the Greek word ophflialmos. the eye) was originally
and still is sometimes used to denote inflammation of the eye (jenwcilly, but it is at tho
present time usually restricted to designate inflammatory affections of the mucous coat
of the eye, termed 'i\\QconjrtncHta.
There are several important and distinct varieties of ophthalmia (in the restricted
sense of the word) which require special notice.
C/itt'rr/i«i Ophthalmia.— Its leading symptoms are redness of the surface of the eye
(the redness being superficial, of a bright scarlet color, and usually diffused in. patches),
sensations of uneasiness, stiffness and dryness. with slight pain, especially when the eye
is exposed to the light; an increased discharge, not of tears, except at the beginning of
the attack, but of mucus, which at first is thin, but soon becomes opaque, yellow, and
thicker; pus (or matter, as if. is popularly termed) being seen at the corner of the eye, or
between the eyelashes alone the edges of the lids, which it glues together during the
night. The disease results in most cases from expneure to cold and damp, and is very
apt to be excited by exposure to a draught of aii', especially during sleep. It is popu-
Ophthalmic. O
Opie.
larly known as a cold or a blight in the eye. With regard to treatment, the patient should
remain in rooms of a uniform temperature, and should at once lake about five grains uf
calomel, followed by a black draught. The eye should be frequently bathed with poppy
decoction, lukewarm or cold as the patient, prefers. If the affection dors not readily
yield to these measmvs. a drop of a solution of nitrate; of silver (four grains of the nitrate
to an ounce of distilled water) should be let fall into the eye twice or thrice a day. It
usually causes a smarting sensation for about ten minutes, after which the eye feels
much easier than it did before t lie drop was applied. The adhesion of the eyelid's in the
morning may be avoided by smearing their edges at bedtime with a little spermaceti
ointment.
Purulent ophthalmia differs from catarrhal ophthalmia, in the severity of its symptoms,
and in its exciting causes. It is a violent form of inflammation of the conjunctiva; is
accompanied with a thick purulent discharge on the first or second day of its com-
mencement, and is very apt to occasion loss if vision. There are three remarkable
varieties of this affection, called respectively (1) purulent ophthalmia of adults, or
Egyptian ophthalmia, or contagious ophthalmia; (2) gonorrlieal ophthalmia; and (3) puru-
lent ophthalmia of newly-born children. (1) Purulent ophthalmia «f ml '/It* begins with
the same symptoms as catarriial ophthalmia, but in a very exaggerated form. The con-
junctiva rapidly becomes intensely red, and soon appears raised from the sclerotic by
the effusion of serum between them, projecting around the cornea, which remains buried,
as it were, in a pit. Similar effusion takes place beneath the mucous membrane lining
the eyelids, causing them to project forwards in large livid convex luas.M^, which often
entirely conceal the globe of the eye. These symptoms are accompanied by severe burn-
ing pain, great headache, fever, and prostration. When the disease is unchecked, it is
liable to produce ulceration or sloughing of the cornea, with the escape of the aqueous
humor and protrusion of the iris; and even when these results do not follow, vision is
often destroyed by permanent opacity of the cornea. It is a common disease in India,
Persia, and Egypt; and in consequence of its having been imported from the last named
country into England by our troops in the beginning of the present century, it got the
name of Egyptian ophthalmia. Some idea of its prevalence and of its danger may In-
formed from the facts (1) that two-thirds of the French army in Egypt were laboring
tinder it at the same lime, and (2) that in the military hospitals at Chelsea and Kiltnain-
ham there were, in Dec., 1810, no fewer than 2,317 soldiers who had lost the sight of
both eyes from this disease. Until after the war in Egypt, the disea c \va- unknown in
Europe. Since that time it -has not unfrequently broken out in this country — not only
among troops, but in schools, asylums, etc. The disease is unquestionably contagious
but there are good reasons for believing that it often arises, independently of contagion.
from severe catarrhal ophthalmia under unfavorable atmospheric and other conditions;
and that having so originated, it possesses contagious properties. Gmwrrlu-al ophthalmia
arises from the application of gonorrhea! discharge or matter to the surface of tin
and hence is most common in persons suffering from -the disease from which this variety
obtains its specific name. It is, moreover, not unfrequently occasioned by the common
but disgusting practice adopted by the poorer classes, of bathing the eyes in human
urine, under the idea that by this procedure they strengliien the sight In its symptoms.
it is almost identical with ordinary purulent ophthalmia. The pn rule n topi 'lli<t'l>.
children usually begins to appear about the third day after birth. It is a very common
affection, and its importance is apt to be overlooked until it has made considerable pro-
gress. If the edges of the lids appear red and glued together, and if the eye. when the
lids are separated, shows redness and swelling of the conjunctiva, there H no doubt of
the nature of the disease, which, if not checked, progresses in much the same wav as in
adults. It is, however, much more amenable to treatment, and with propel care the
sense of sight is seldom impaired, provided the disease has not extended to the cornea
before medical aid is sought. Of the treatment of purulent ophthalmia in Hies: various
forms, we shall say nothing more than that it must be left exclusively to the medical
practitioner, whose advice should be sought as soon as there is the slightest suspicion
of the nature of the case.
There is one more form of this disease which is of very common occurence, and has
received the various names of atrnmous (or w.mfuloittt). pustular, and plih/i-ffnnlar
ophthalmia. It is intimately connected with the scrofulous constitution, and is mo-t pre-
valent in children from 4 to 10 or twelve years of age. The most prominent symptom
is extreme intolerance of light, the lids being kept spasmodically closed. When 'they are
forcibly separated, a slight vasciilarity, usually stopping at thi- edge of the corn- a. i<
observed, and at or about the line of separation between the cornea and sclerotic -nnll
opaque pimples or pustules appear. The treatment consists (1) in improving the general
health by due attention to the secretions, and the subsequent administration of tonics
(such as quinia and cod-liver oil), and change of air; and (2) in local applications, such
as solution of nitrate of silver, or wine of opium, dropped into the eye, or simulating
ointments (such as dilute citrine ointment) smeared over the edaes of the lids at bedtime.
This form of di<ea<e. being dependent on constitutional causes, is often very obstinate.
and is always liable to recur. It is not unfrequently attended with the annoying com-
plication of a skin disease, known as crnsta lactca, on the cheeks, in consequence of the
irritation cau.->ed by the How of scalding tears. The crusts or scabs are easily removed
9 Ophthalmic.
Opie.
by a poultice or warm water dressing after which the part must be bathed by a lotion,
consisting of a dram of oxide of zinc in four ounces of either pump or rose water.
OPHTHALMIC GAXGLION, one of the four cephalic ganglia of the great sym-
pathetic nerve. It is about the si/.e of a pin's head, and situated at the back part of the
orbit, between the optic nerve and the external rectus muscle. It li :s in a quantity of loose
fat which makes its dissection somewhat difficult. . It has three branches of communi-
cation which enter its posterior border. The long branch is derived from the nasal
b/anch of the ophthalmic nerve (first division of the 5th nerve). The second branch, or
root, is derived from a branch of the third nerve supplying the inferior oblique muscle
of the eyeball. The third branch, or root, is a slender filament from the cavernous
plexus of' I he sympathetic. According to Tiedemann this ganglion receives a iihu.ucnt
of communication from Meekel's ganglion (q.v.). Its branches of distribution are the
short ciliary nerves. These are 10 or 12 delicate filaments arising from the fore-part of
the ganglion in two bundles. They run forward with the ciliary arteries, pierce the
sclerotic coat at the back part of the globe, pass forward in delicate grooves on its inner
surface, and are distributed to the ciliary muscle and the iris. It is therefore seen that
the ophthalmic ganglion is one of the most important nerve centers in the whole body,
although no larger than a pin's head. The ciliary muscle is the muscle of accommo-
dation of the eye, causing variation in the form of the aqueous humor and the crys-
talline lens so as to accommodate the focal length of the eye to the distance of objects.
Its supply of nerve force to the muscular fibers of the iris is also intimately connected
with the focal length of the eye-apparatus, and its connections with this part of the eye
are of marvelously beautiful character.
OPIITHALMOL'OGY. See EYE; EYE, DISEASES OF THE, ante.
OPHTHALMOSCOPE, THE, is an instrument recently invented for the purpose of
examining the deep-seated structures of the eye, and for detecting disease in them. In
its simplest form, it is merely a concave circular mirror, of about 10 in. focus, made of
silvered glass or polished steel, and having a hole in the center; and with it there is sup-
plied, as a separate piece of apparatus, a convex lens an inch and a half in diameter,
with a focal length of about two and a half inches, set in a common eye-glass frame,
with a handle 3 in. long. The patient (his pupil having been previously dilated by the
application of a drop of solution of atropine) is made to sit by a table in a dark room,
with a sliding argand lamp placed by the side of his head, with the flame on a level with
the eye, from which it is screened bj- a little flat plate of metal attached to the burner.
The following description of the mode of using the instrument, and of the parts brought
into view by it, is borrowed from the article on this subject contributed by Mr. Haynes
Walton to the last edition of Bruit's Surgeon's Vade Mecum : "The operator sits directly
in front, and holding the instrument close to his eye, and a lilile obliquely to catch the
light from (he lamp, he commences, at the distance of about 18 in. from the patient, to
direct the reflection on the eye. When this is got, the convex lens must be held at a
distance of two and a half inches from the eye, and the focusing commenced by moving
it slowly backwards and forwards. When the light fairly enters the eye a reddish glare
appears; ;iml as it is focused. an orange-red or orange-yellow is seen; then the blood-vessels
of the retina come into view. The retina itself presents a whitish aspect, through which
the ehoroid is more or less discernible. The entrance of the pic nerve should now be
sought. The way to discern it is to make the patient look inward. It appears as a
white circular spot, in the center of which are the central vein and artery of the retina,
giving off six or eight branches." This optic disc is the most important part to b3
observed; but a thorough ophihalmoscopic examination will reveal structural differences,
not only in it, but in the retina, ehoroid, and vitreous humor, and will reveal cataract in
its early stage. In short, the ophthalmoscope is now as essential in the diagnosis of
diseases of the deep-seated parts of the eye as the stethoscope is in the diagnosis of
thoracic diseases.
OPIE, AMKLTA (ALDERSON). 1769-1853, b. England; second wife of John Opie, the
paint'-r, whom she married in 1798. She had already written much, but had published
but one novel. After her husband's death, she lived at her father's house in Norwich.
She wrote but little after becoming a member of the society of friends in 1825. Among
her works are FatJier and Daughter, 1801; P<>ems, 1802; Adeline Mowbray, 1804; The
Warrior's Return and Other Poems, 1808; Detraction Displayed, 1828; and Lays for tfie
Dead, 1833
OPIE, .Tonx, A. R., was b. at the village of St. Agnes, 7 m. from Truro, Cornwall,
in May, 1761. His father, a master carpenter, wished him to follow the same trade, but
his bias for art was strong; and his attempts at portrait-painting having attracted the
notice of Dr. Wolcot, afterward celebrated as Peter Pindar, he had the advantage of his
advice in the practice of the art, and his exertions in procuring him employment. And
at length, in 1780, he was taken to London by Dr. Wolcot; and immediately came to be
•Ckoowledged by the fashionable world as the " Cornish Wonder." This tide of good
fortune soon ebbed, but not before Opie had realized a moderate competency. The loss
of popular favor, however, only served to bring out more strongly those points in Opie's
character 011 which his reputation mainly rests, viz., manly independence and strong
Opinion*. 1 A
Opium.
love of art. lie stooped to no device to retain fashionable patronage, but calmly and
unremittingly entered on that department of painting winch, according to the notions of
his time, was I ne only style of high arl, viz., historieal or scriptural subjects, executed
oil a large scale. His pencil wa> em;. loved by Boydell in his well-meant and n. ;•;.:.! iflcent
scheme to elevate British art; he also painted a number ot works in the illustration of
Bowyer's "English History," Mackliu's "Poets," and "Biblical Gallery," ;n :<1 other
similar undertakings. His" pictures of the "Murder of .James 1. of Scotland,'' the
•• Slaughter of Ki/./,io," "Jcphthah's Vow," "Presentation in the Temple," " Arthur and
Hubert," "Belisarius and Juliet in the Garden," are his most noted \\orks. Opic \\1is
elected an associate of the royal academy in 1786, and academician in the following
year. He devoted part of his time to various literary efforts tending to the illustration
of art: these; were chiefly the "Life of Reynolds" in Dr. Wolcol's edition of Pilking-
ton's Dictionary of Painter*; a letter in the J^'orth Briton, recommending the formation
of a national gallery, reprinted &» An Inquiry into the Requisite C> ////<?
Arts in ttntnin; lectures on art, delivered at the royal institution, which, though li
to with great attention by a select and fashionable audience, do not seem to have been
satisfactory to himself, as he declined to continue them. When Fuseli, on being appointed
keeper, resigned the professorship of painting, Opie was appointed to that oJliec; and
tiie four lectures which he delivered — he died before completing the course— bear the
stamp of practical experience and shrewd observation. Opie was twice married. He
obtained a divorce from his first wife; but his second, well known ; s one of UH most
popular novelists of the day, appreciated his high character, which she set forth, after
his death, in a memoir published along with his lectures. He died somewhat suddenly
in his house, St. Bernard street, Oxford street, April 9, 1807, and was buried in the
crypt of St. Paul's, near the grave of Reynolds.
OPIN ICTTS, one of the fabulous creatures known in heraldry, with thehe;\n and reck of'
nn eagle, the body of a lion, wings, and a short tail like that of a camel. Such :< mon-
ster, with wings endorsed or, was the crest of the company of barber-surge (•
London.
OPINION OF COUNSEL, is the technical name for the advice given by a barrister or
advocate. The attorney or solicitor writes a statement of facts, called "a case" in
England, and "a memorial" in Scotland, which ends by asking certain queries, and the
answer written by the counsel is his opinion. A counsel is not liable for any dai
caused by his giving a wrong opinion though the result of gross ignorance, this being
one of the privileges of counsel.
OPITZ, MARTIN, a famous German poet, was b. Dec. 23, 1597. at Bur.zlau, in Silesia.
He received an education of the highest kind; and after some time spent at the court of
the duke of Liegnitz, he accepted, in 16-:2, an invitation by Bethlcn Gabon prince of
Transylvania, to teach philosophy and the Hitmaniora at Weissenburg; but disliking
the rudeness of the country, he soon returned to the court of the duke of Liegnitz. In
1624 his first poems were published, and in the same year his work Von. dcr den
Poeterei, in which he laid the foundation of a system of German poetics. In 1 '••.'."•
he went to Vienna, where, on account of an elegy on the death of an archduke, he
received a laurel crown from the hands of the emperor, Ferdinand II. In 16','ii he
became secretary, although a Protestant, to the Imrggraf Karl Hannibal of Dohna, a
distinguished Roman Catholic and imperialist, and was employed in vario-
lions with foreign courts. In 1629 the emperor raised him to the rank of nobility.
After the death of the burggraf of Dohna, in 1633, he returned to the courts •
and Brieg. About this time he published V,xm\ a didactic poem, and his 7
in Widerif&rtigkeit'des Kriegs. the best of his poems, which were followed by an opera
called Judith, a translation of the Antif/oncoi Sophocles, and a translation of i
In 1038 he was appointed secretary and historiographer to Ladislaus IV. of Poland.
But in the midst of his days, and when he had attained to fame and prosperity, he was
cutolf by the plague at Danzig. Aug. 20, 1639. Opity. was more honored by his contem-
poraries than almost any other poet ever was. German poetry, which bad been neglected
and despised, began again to be esteemed and cultivated. The popularity of Opit/. and
his relations \yjth the chiefs of the Roman Catholic party, led to the adoption, through-
out the whole of Germany, of the form given to the German language by Luther. \\ hich
had previously obtained general acceptance only in the Protestant states. His poetry is
characterized by careful attention to language and meter, and by reflection rather than
by brilliant fancy or deep feeling. There are several editions of his works, hv>i n»ne is
quite complete (3 vols., Breslau, 1690; 3vols., Arnst. 1646; and 3 vols. Frankfort and
Leipsic, 1724.)
O'PIUM, one of the most valuable of medicines, is the dried juice of the unripe cap-
sules of a species of poppy (q.v.). papnwr .wmu'ferum, sometimes called the common
poppy, and sometimes the white poppy, although the latter name is really appropriate
only to one of its varieties. The pi ant "is probably a native of some of the wanner parts
of A«ia. although it is now common in cultivated and waste grounds throughout all the
s. and middle of Europe, and is occasionally found in Britain. It is an annual, varying
in height from 1 to 6 ft., erect, branched, of a glaucous green color, with ovate-oblong
sessile leaves, the stem and leaves generally smooth, the branches terminated by large
nOpinieus.
Opium.
flowers on long stalks, the capsules globose or roundish-ovate and smooth. There are
two principal varieties cultivated for the opium which they yield, which have been
regarded by some botanists as distinct species; tlieone (pa-paver somniferum) having gen-
erally red or violet-colored flowers, numerous flower-stalks rising together, globose cap-
sules opening by a circle of pores under the persistent stigma, and black seeds; the o'her
(P. ojficiii'ilc) having white flowers, solitary flower-stalks, the capsules somewhat ovate,
the circle of pores almost wanting, the seeds white. The former variety is generally
cultivated in the mountainous parts of the n. of India, the latter in the plain of Bengal,
where the poppy-lields are described by Dr. Hooker as resembling green lakes studded
with white water lilies. The cultivation of the poppy for the sake of opium is carried
on in many parts of India, although the chief opium district is a large tract on the
Ganges, about 600 m. in leiiglh and 200 m. in breadth, which was divided by the east
India company into two ifyciirtes, that of Behar and that of Benares, the central factory
of the former being at Patna, and that of the latter at Ghazeepore. The poppy is also
extensively cultivated for opium in t'ae Asiatic provinces of Turkey, in Egypt, and in
Persia. Opium of very gooil quality is also produced, although not to any considerable
amount, in some par!s of Europe, and even in Britain. It is sometimes alleged that a
much warmer climate than that of Britain is requisite for the profitable production of
opi:'.;n, but the chief fault of the climate seems rather to be the frequency of wet
weather. Very fine specimens of opium have been produced, and the produce per acre
has bi'c.'ti found amply remunerative; but a great difficulty is experienced in ob aining
labor at a moderate rate for a few days only at a time, and when the experiment is con-
ducted on a small scale, only for a few hours daily. This difficulty was much felt in an
experiment, otherwise most successful, which was made at Edinburgh, by Mr. Young,
a siirgjon, who, about the year 1830, obtained 56 Ibs. of opium from one acre of poppies,
and sold it at 36s. a Ib. It was of excellent quality. His mode of cultivation was sim-
ilar to that usual in India, The seed being sown in spring on a rich soil, the plants
were kept clear of weeds, and when they had flowered and produced capsules, incisions
were made in the capsules, and the exuded juice collected as described below. The
capful -_>s vary from the size of a hen's egg to that of the fist. In India, the poppy flow-
ers in the end of January and beginning of February.
The poppy requires for its profitable cultivation a rich soil, and in India is generally
sown in the neighborhood of villages where manure can be easily obtained. The soil
ought to be fine and loose when the seed is sown. The subsequent cultivation consists
chiefly in thinning and weeding. Irrigation is practiced. Mild moist weather, with
night-dews, is deemed most favorable during the time of the collection of the opium.
Very dry weather diminishes the flow of the juice, and ranch rain is injurious.
The opium poppy is cultivated for other purposes besides the production of opium,
concerning which see POPPY.
Opium, as a commercial article, is of great importance, exceeding indeed that of any
oth'.T drug in use, and the cultivation of the opium poppy (papaner somm'ftnim) in Brit-
ish India forms a most extensive branch of agriculture, and the collection and prepa-
ration of the drug itself employs a large number of persons in the Patna, Malwa, and
Benares districts of Bengal. Indeed, during the whole existence of the East India Com-
pany, the production of this drug was of the first importance; its employment as a habit-
ual narcotic, as well as a medicine amongst all the eastern nations, demands an enor-
mous supply. The seed is sown in India in the beginning of November: it flowers in
the end of January, or a little later; and in three" or four weeks after, the capsules or
poppy-heads are about the size of hens' eggs, and are ready for operating upon. When
this is the case, the collectors each take a little iron instrument, called a nushttir; it is
made of three or four small plates of iron, narrow at one end and wider at the other,
which is also notched like a saw; with these instruments they wound each full-grown
poppy-head as they make their way through the plants in the field. This is always done
early in the morning, before the heat of the sun is felt; during the day the milky juice
of the plant oozes out, and early on the following morning it is collected by scraping it
off with a kind of scoop, called a sittooha, and transferred to an earthen vessel called a
kni-nice, hanging at the side of the collector. When this is full, it is carried home and
transferred to a shallow open brass dish, called a fliallec, and left for a time tilted on its
side, so that any watery fluid may drain out; this watery fluid is called pumeicdh, and
is very detrimental to the opium unless removed. It now requires daily attendance,
and has to be turned frequently, so that the air may dry it equally, until it acquires a
tolerable consistency, which requires three or four weeks; it is then packed in small
earthen jars, and taken to the r/odoinis, or factories; here the contents of each jar are
turned out and carefully weighed, tested, valued, and credited to the cultivator. The
opium is then thrown into vast vats, which hold the accumulations of whole districts,
and the mass being kneaded, is again taken out and made into balls or cakes for the
market.
This is a very important operation, and is conducted in long rooms, the workmen
sitting in rows, closely watched by the overseers to insure the work being carefully per-
formed. Before each workman is a tray, and within easy reach is placed the tagar, a tin
v s<;-l for holding as much opium as will make three or five balls. On the tray is another
basin containing water, and a smaller tray; on this tray stands a brass cup, into which
1 9
Opium.
the ball or cake is molded, also a supply of thin layers of pnppy petals, formed by
laying them out overlapping each other, and pressing iliem up<ni one smother; these are
prepared by women in the poppy-tields, and with thoe is a cup filled with a sticky fluid
called U'leah, made from opium of interior quality. The operator begins his work by
taking the brass cup and placing on its bottom one of the cakes of poppy petals, which
he smears over with the leirnh; then adds other cakes of petals to overlap and adhere to
the first, until the cup is lined and a coat of petals is thus formed for the opium, of
which he takes the exact quantity as near as he can guess, works it into a ball, and
places it in the basin, so that th~> lining of petals encloses it and sticks to it, in con-c-
queuce of the lewuh smeared on the inner side of the thin cakes of petals. Oilier petals
are put on the upper part of the ball, and the whole gathered round it, forming a case
about as thick as a bank-note. Each man's work for the day is kept by itself, and after
having been duly registered, is taken to a vast drying-room, where the balls are placed
in tiers on lattice-work racks, and are continually turned and examined by boys, to keep
them from insects and oilier injuries. After being fully dried, these balls are packed in
chests for the market.
The manufacture of opium is carried on to the greatest extent in India, but large
quantities are also made in Turkey, and this latter is considered the best in quality, it
is also made at Trebizond in Persia, and in Egypt; occasionally it has been produced iu
Germany, France, and England. Of the Indian opium there are several qualit:
Bengal, Patna or Benares opium, Garden Patna, Malwa, fine Malwa, Cutch, and Kaii-
deish opium.
The opium revenue for India in 1875-76 was given at £8,471,425. The number of
chests sold was 49,695, at £139 per chest, or £26 higher than the previous year's average.
The net profit was £90 per chest. The area under cultivation in Bengal and Bombay
was 500,608 acres. In 1873-74, 94,746 chests of opium, valued at £1,195.692, were
exported. Next to China, the largest consumption of Indian opium is by the Burmese
and the natives of the Malacca straits, who take annually to the value of nearly a million
sterling.
In Europe, with very slight exceptions, opium is used for medicinal purposes only,
and large quantities of it undergo a still further stage of manufacture, in order to :-ep'a-
rate from it the active principles morphine, narcptiue, etc. In Great Britain, the chief
manufacture of these salts of opium is carried on in Edinburgh, where two linns. Messrs.
T. and H. Smith, and J. F. Macfarlane & Co., have attained great reputation, and manu-
facture these products upon an immense scale, supplying probably a fifth of the whole
quantity manufactured.
Chemical and Medicinal Properties. — The only variety recognized in the British phar-
macopoeia is the Turkey opium. The chemical composition of opium has been studied
by various chemists, amongst whom must be especially mentioned prof. Mulder of
Utrecht, and prof. Anderson of Glasgow. The following constituents occur in most
kinds of opium:
Meconic acid 3HO,Ci4HO,i, from 4 to 8 per cent.
g .[Morphia C31HIONO6, from 4 to 12
82 Codeia CseH^NO,, less than 1
JflThebala C38H21NO6,
n^ 1 Papaverine C40H31NO8,
|f Narcotine C4,H,5NO14, from 6 to 10
oo [Narreia C4«H29NOi8, from 6 to 13
Meconine CSjHioOg, less than 1
Resinous matter from 2 to 4
Caoutchouc v from 4 to 6
Mucilage, gum, and extractive matters from 40 to 50
In addition to the six alkaloids named in this table, a seventh, named opianine, has been
fou ml in Egyptian opium, but in no other varieties.
Some of the most important and characteristic of these constituents, as meconic ncid,
morphia, and narcotine, are noticed in special articles. The only isolated con.-iituents
of opium which are now used in medicine are codeiu (so called from the G:v< -k word
kdd'>'<t,n. poppy-head), which has been asserted by Magcndie and others to act in ihe s.mie
manner as, although less powerfully than, morphia, but which is now seldom prescribed,
as it is not a pharmacopceial preparation ; and morphia, which has 'already been de-
scribed.
The only test given in the British pharmacopoeia for the purity of opium is the
determination of its percentage of morphia, which is a process requiring a considerable
amount of chemical skill.
Following the arrangement adopted by Pereira (Elements of Mutfrin Indira. 4th ed.),
•we have j«st quoted, we shall consider (1) the effects of one or a few doses of opium
employed medicinally or as a poison; (2) the effects of the habitual employment of
opium, either by chewing or smoking it; and (3) its good and bad effects on the different
systems of organs.
1. In xmnfl done*, as from a quarter of a grain to a grain, it acts as an agreeable stim-
ulant, this effect being followed by a desire to sleep, accompanied by dryuess of the
1 ^
Opium.
mouth and throat, thirst, and slight constipation. When it is giver, in a full medicinal
dose (as from two to four grains), Ihe stage of excitement is soon followed by well-marked
depression or torpor, both of the bodily and mental organs, and an almost irresistible
sleepiness; these effects being usually succeeded by constipation, nausea, furred tongue,
headache, and listlessness. When it is administered in a dangerous or poisonous dose,
the symptoms, as summed up by Dr. Christison in his work On, Poisons, begin with gid-
diness and stupor, generally without any previous stimulus. The stupor rapidly increas-
ing, the person becomes motionless, and insensible to external impressions; he breathes
very slowly, generally lies quite still, with his eyes shut and the pupils contracted; and!
the whole expression of the countenance is that of deep and perfect repose. As the!
poisoning advances, the features become ghastly, the pulse feeble and imperceptible, the
muscles exceedingly relaxed, and, unless assistance is speedily procured, death ensues
If the person recovers, the insensibility is succeeded by prolonged sleep, which com
monly ends in twenty-four or thirty -six hours, and is followed by nausea, vomiting, gid-
diness, and loathing of food.
2. The habitual use of opium, whether the drug be eaten or smoked, is undoubtedly
in most cases injurious to the constitution, although probably not to the extent that some
eastern travelers assert. Sir R Christison, and other eminent physicians, have shown
that in numerous cases very large quantities of this drug may be regularly tjikcn with
impunity; and Dr. Chapman (Elements of Therapeutics, vol. ii., p. 199) i elates two re-
markable cases of this kind — one in which a wineglasst'ul of laudanum wr.s uuven seve-
ral times in the twenty-four hours, and another (a case of cancer of the uterus) in which
the quantity of laudanum was gradually increased to three pints (laity, a considerable
quantity of solid opium being also taken in the same period.
Opium-mucking is a habit that is chiefly confined to China and the islands of the Indian
archipelago. An extract, called chandoo, is made into pills about the size of a pea. The
following is the account given by Marsden, in his llistory of Sumatra, of the process
employed: "One of these pills being put into the small tube that projects from the side
of the opium pipe, that tube is .applied to a lamp, and the pill being lighted is consumed
at one whiff or inflation of the lungs, attended with a whistling noise. The smoke is
never emitted by the mouth, but usually receives vent through the nostrils." Although
the immoderate practice of opium-smoking is most destructive to those who live in pov-
erty and distress, yet from the evidence of Mr. Smith, a surgeon, resident at Pulo Penang,
and of Dr. Eatwell, who passed three years in China, it does not appear that the Chinese
in easy circumstances, and who have the comforts of life about them, are materially
affected, in respect to longevity, by addiction to this habit.
3. As the discussion of the physiological action of opium on the different organs
would, in its most condensed form, occupy too much space, we shall confine our remarks
to the practical conclusions at which physiologists and physicians have arrived respecting
the utility and the danger of prescribing this drug in various conditions of the principal
vital organs.
a. Cerebro-spinal .System. — Under proper regulations it is a remedy which may be used
to stimulate the circulation within the cranium, to promote sleep, to diminish abnormal
or increased sensibility, and to allay pain generally; Avhile it is contra-indicated in apo-
plexy, cerebral inflammation, paralysis, and hysteria. Dr. Pereira relates a case in which
one grain of opium, administered to an hysterical young woman, proved fatal.
b. Digestive System. — "Under proper regulations," says Pereira, "opium is an admis-
sible remedy for the following purposes: to diminish excessive hunger; to allay pain,
•when unaccompanied by inflammation; to diminish the sensibility of the digestive organs
in cases of acrid poisoning, and in the passage of biliary calculi; to produce relaxation
of the muscular fibers of the alimentary canal in colic, and of the gall-duct:- in the pass-
age of calculi, and to diminish excessive secretion from the intestinal canal in diarrhea;"
while it is contra-indicated "in diminished secretion from the gastro-intestinal membrane,
in extreme thirst, in loss of appetite and weak digestion, in obstinate costiveness, and in
diminished excretion of bile."
e. Vascular System. — In vascular ex'citement with great diminution of power, as after
hemorrhage, opium is often serviceable; but when the pulse is strong as well as quick,
or when there is simultaneously a tendency to abnormal sleepiness, it is contra-indi-
cated.
d. Respiratory System. — "Opium, under proper regulations, may be useful to dimin-
ish the contractility of the muscles of respiration, or of the muscular fibers of the air-
tubes, as in spasmodic asthma; to diminish the sensibility of the bronchia in the second
stage of catarrh, and thereby to allay cough by lessening the influence of the cold air;
and. lastly, to counteract excessive bronchial secretion ;" while it is contra-indicated in
difficulty of breathing, arising from a deficient supply of nervous energy, as in apoplec-
tic cases-, in cases in which the venous is imperfectly converted into arterial blood; and
in the firs* stage of catarrh and pneumonia, both from its checking secretion, and from
its tendency to impede the due arterialization of the blood.
e. Urinary System. — Opium is a valuable remedy to allay the pain in the kidney and
adjacent parts in cases of renal calculi, and also to produce relaxation of the ureters
when the calculi are passing along these tubes; it is also of great service in certain forms
of irritable bladder.
O|Ki!>.,l nim.-.i. 1 {
Opossum.
There can be no doubt that the essential and p imary operation of opium is on tho
nervous system, the other effects being for tin- most, part secondary.
Opium is undoubtedly the most valuable remedy of the whole materia medica. " For
other medicines," says Dr. Pereira, " we have one or more substitutes; but for opium,
none — at least in the" large majority of cases in which its peculiar and beuelicial influence
is required." V,'e not only exhibit it to mitigate pain, to allay spasm, to promote sl--ep,
to relieve nervous restlessness, to produce perspiration, and to check profuse dischargci
from the bronchial tubes and intestinal canal; but \ve also find it capable of relieving
some diseases in which none of the above indications can be always distinctly perceived.
In combination with tartar emetic, it has been strongly recommended in fever with much
cerebral disturbance; ill association with calomel, it is the most trustworthy remedy in
cases of inflammation of membranous parts; in insanity, its value cannot be overe>ti-
mated; it is the remedy chiefly trusted to in delirium tremens; it is more serviceable
than any other medicine in diabetes; and to conclude with a more common and less
serious affection, its efficiency, when administered in small doses (as ten or fifteen dn.ps
of laudanum three times a day), in promoting the healing of ulcers in which granulation
proceeds too slowly, is very marked.
In addition to the solution of muriat of morphia (q.v.) which, on the whole, is the
best preparation of opium for internal use in the majority of cases, the British pharma-
copoeia contains an opium pill (containing one part of opium in five of the pill); a pill of
lead and opium (chiefly used in pulmonary hemorrhage): an aromatic powder of cliaik
and opium (containing' one part of opium in forty of the powder); powder of ipecaeuan
and opium (or Dover's powder [q.v.], containing one part of opium in ten of the p..\v-
der); powder of kino and opium (containing one part of opium in twenty of the powder,
and, like the aromatic powder, chiefly used in diarrhea); tincture (see LAI DAM:M), and
camphorated tincture of opium (commonly known as paragoric elixir, and much used in
chronic cough — containing two grains of opium in the fluid ounce); in addition io an
enema; a wine (used chiefly as si local application to the eye in cases of ophthalmia): an
ointment of galls and opium (used as an external application to piles); and a liniment
and a plaster, which are applied to remove local superficial pains.
In a case of poisoning by opium, the first and most essential point is the evacuation
of the contents of the stomach. The stomach-pump, if it can be procured, should be
employed, and strong coffee should then be pumped into the stomach after the removal
of its contents. The next best remedy is an emetic of sulphate of zinc (about a scruple),
and if this is not at hand, a dessert-spoonful of flour of mustard, stirred up in a tumbler
of warm water, will usually produce the desired effect. The patient must, if possible,
be prevented from falling asleep, and for this purpose he should be kept constantly
walking between two strongmen, while a third person in the rear should, at short inter-
vals, flick him sharply with a rough wet towel, or (if procurable) a good birch rod.
Cold water should also be occasionally dashed over the head and chest. In a few appar-
ently hopeless cases, death has been averted by artificial respiration, and by the applica-
tion of electro-magnetism.
OPOBALSAMUM. See BALSAM and GUM.
OPODELDOC is a popular synonym for soap liniment (q.v.). The origin of the term,
which was apparently applied by Paracelsus to various forms of liniments or local appli-
cations, is not known. The opo is the same as the opo of opoponax, opobahamum, etc.,
and is doubtless derived from the Greek opos, juice. It has been suggested by an emi-
nent Anglo-Saxon scholar that the original word was opoditta, and that doc or dork was
added merely as a glos* to ditta — a view that is confirmed by the fact, that in .^Elfric's
Glossary, dill (ditto) is Englished by dock.
OPOP ONAX, a gum resin obtained by puncturing the roots of a species of parsnip
(Pattinaca Opoponax). The chief interest in this material is the great importance which
the ancient physicians attached to it as an antispasmodic medicine. It was employed
by Hippocrates, Theophrastus, and Dioscorides. who have each left descriptions of it.
The plant grows generally throughout southern Europe, and the gum is still collected,
, but is not much used.
OPOB TO (Port, 0 Porto, the port), a city of Portugal, and, after Lisbon, the most
important seaport of the country, in the province of Minho, on the right bank and two
miles from the mouth of the Douro. in lat. 41° 9' n , long. 8° 37' \i. ; and is 495 m. n.n.e.
of Lisbon. Though possessing few imposing edifices, the town, seen from a distance
with its irregular outline marked with many towers, its whitewashed houses gleaming
among trees and terraced gardens, has a fine picturesque effect. Its picturesquene-s,
however, has been secured at the cost to a great extent of comfort, as many of its streets
are narrow, dirty, and so steep as to be impassable for carriages. Of the old walls that
surrounded the ancient town, remains are still to be seen. The principal street is the
Rua Nona dos Inylezea, a spacious, handsome, modern thoroughfare, from winch a good
view of the bishop's palace, which seems to be hung high in the air. is obtained. Here
is situated one of the finest edifices in Oporto, the English factory house, a building of
white grnnite with a beautiful f«9ade. and comprising on a magnificent scale all the
appurtenances of a club-house, as ball-room, library, refreshment-room, etc. The
houses in the Rua Xota de S. Jodo, the most regular street iu the city, are lofty, and are
•j ~ O;?ob:il.samuin.
Opossum.
faced with gaily painted and gilt balconies. Of the 11 squares, the greatest is the Praw
de 8. Ocid/o, on a height, the appearance of which is enhanced by beautiful buildings
and a terrace, with a tine seaward view, planted with trees. On the high rocks, on the
southern bank of the river, stands the convent of da Serra, which at one time was extra-
ordinarily rich. The most beautiful of the convents was that of *S. Beuto, now converted
into 'barracks. The cathedral, which must originally have been a noble edifice, but has
been infamously modernized, stands near the bishop's palace. The Torre dw Clerif/os
(Tower of the Clergy), said to be the highest in Portugal, was built in 1748. Formerly,
there were in all 80 convents and chapels in the city. Of existing institutions, there ar«
four hospitals, and numerous educational and benevolent establishments. Oporto is the
principal industrial seat in the country. It carries on manufactures of linen, silk, cotton,
and woolen fabrics, cloth of gold, silk and cotton hosiery, lace, buttons, gold and silver
wire, cutlery and hardware, excellent furniture, pottery, glass, leather, paper, hats, sails,
and tlie articles required on shipboard. Royal tobacco and soup-works, two iron-foun-
dries, and several sugar-refineries are also in operation. The entrance to the Douro is
rendered highly dangerous b}' a, shifting bar of sand; but yet the commercial traffic on
the river is considerable. The exports of wine were larger in 1874 than in any former
{rear, amounting to 301,310 hectoliters, of which seven-elevenths was shipped for Eng-
and. In 1871 Oporto imported cotton goods from England to the value of £329,488;
woolen goods, £69, 413 — more than in any former year. Oporto builds very fast sail-
ing ships. In 1875 the port owned 137 ships of 38,540 tons. Fop. of Oporto 76,000.
In ancient times the site of Oporto was occupied by the harbor-town Port tin C'ale,
afterwards Porto C'ale, from which has been derived the name of the kingdom Portugal.
It was an important city during the supremacy of the Moors, was destroyed in 8^0 by
Almansor of Cordova, but was restored and peopled by a colony of Gascons and French
in 999. It was famous for the strength of its fortifications during the middle ages, its
walls being 3,000 paces in circumference, 30 ft. in height, and flanked with towers.
From the 17th to the present century Opo:to has been the scene of an unusual number
of popular insurrections. In 1808 it was taken by the French; but in the following year
it was retaken by an Anglo-Portuguese force under Welling! on. In 1832, Dom Pedro,
the ex-emperor of Brazil, was unsuccessfully besieged for a year in this city by the forces
of Dom Aliguel.
OPOS'STTM, DidelpJiix, a genus of marsvr/'fita, having ten cutting teeth in the upper
jaw and eight in the lower, one canine tooth on each side in each jaw, three compressed
premolars. ;md four sharply tuborculated molars on each side — 50 teeth in all; the
tongue bristly; the tail long, prehensile, and in part scaly; the feet plantigrade; five toes
on each foot, their claws long and sharp; but the inner toe of the right foot converted
into a thumb, destitute of a claw, and opposable to the other digits; the muzzle long and
pointed, the mouth very wide, the cars large and destitute of hair. The unwebhed feet
and non-aquatic habits distinguish this genus from cJieironecten (q.v.), also belonging to
the family ditldplndte. Brit the genus didclpJiis itself is divkled by some naturalists into
several genera; and there are differences not unimportant, particularly in the well-
developed pouch of some species, and the merely rudimentary pouch or abdominal folds
of others. All the existing species are American, but fossil species are found in other
parts of the world. The opossums were the first marsupial animals known, and are
noticed as very wonderful creatures by some of the earliest writers on America. Some
of the smaller species much resemble rats and mice, except in their long and pointed
muzzle; others greatly resemble shrews; the largest known species are scarcely equal in
size to a large cat. It is in some of the smaller species that the pouch is rudimentary;
all the larger species have a well-developed pouch in which the young are carried, and
to which, even after beginning to venture forth from it, they retreat on the approach of
danger. The young of the species which have a merely rudimentary pouch, also remain
attached to the nipple of the mother fora time; and afterwards for a time are carried
on her back, intwining their prehensile tails with hers, and clinging to the fur of her
back. — The VIRGINIAN OPOSSUM (D. Virginiana) is one of the" largest species. It
abounds iu the warmer parts of North America, and its range extends considerably to
the n. of Virginia. Its form is robust, its head very large, its color dull white; its fur
long, fine, and woolly, thickly interspersed with longer coarse white hairs, except on the
head and some of the upper parts, where the hair is short and close. The tail is not
quite so long as the body. The Virginian opossum lives much in forests and among the
brandies of trees, to which it usually retreats to devour its prey, twining its tail around
a branch for security. Its food consists of small quadrupeds and reptiles, birds' eggs,
and insects; also in part of fruits and the juicy stalks of plants. It often visits poultry-
yards, and displays much cunning in its stealthy quest of prey; although otherwise it
seems, like the other marsupiata, to be very low in the scale of intelligence. It seeks to
escape from enemies by running to the woods and ascending a tree; but if escape is
impossible, it feigns death, and maintains the imposture in very trying circumstances,
however it may be kicked and beaten; but the true state of the case may be ascertained
by throwing it into water. The American word 'possum-ing makes a figurative applica-
tion of this part of the natural history of the opossum. The female sometimes produces
Ib young at a birth; the young when born are blind, naked, and shapeless, and weigh
Opp«ln. -| £
Optics.
scarcely more than a grain each; they do not begin to leave the pouch until they have
attained about the size of a mouse. The female opossum shows a very strong attach-
ment to her young. The opossum is very easily tamed, but its strong odor makes it
an unpleasant pet. The flesh of the opossum is said to be good. The hair i-; woven
into Barters and girdles by the Indian women. — Other species of opossum are found in
the more southern parts of America. Of these one of the largest is the CHAH KATI.NO
OrossuM (D. canci'iconi) of Guiana and Bra/il. which is nearly a^ large as the Virginian
opossum, lives chiefly in marshy places, and feeds much on crabs. The smaller species
are numerous in the tropical parts of America. — The name opossum is often given in
Australia to the phalangers (q.v.).
OPPELN, a t. of Prussian Silesia, capital of the government district of the same name,
on the Oder, 51 in. s.e. of Breslau. Since 1816, when it was erected into an espei -ial seat
of government for upper Silesia, the town has been much beautified both with new
edifices and with parks and gardens. It contains four churches — one of which, Adel-
bert's church, was founded in 995 — an old castle on the island Pascheke in the channel
of the Oder, a town-house, and theater. Pop. '75, 12.489, who carry on a considerable
transit-trade in timber, zinc, lead, hardware, cattle, and wines; and manufacture ribbons,
linen goods, leather, and pottery.
OFPENHEIM, a t. of the grand duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, in the province of Rhenish
Hesse, on the left bank of the Rhine, 10 m. s. by e. from Mayence, and on the railway
betwreen Mayence and Spires. It stands on the steep slope of a hill abounding in \ ine-
Sirds, and carries^ on a pretty active trade in wine. Oppenheim occupies the site of the
oman castle of Baucouia, and was made a royal palatinate under the Carlovingians.
It afterwards became one of the most important free towns of the empire. It was taken
in 1218 by archbishop Adalbert of Mayence, in 1620 by the Spaniards, in 1631 by the
Swedes under Gustavus Adolphus, and in 1634 by the imperialists, suffering much upon
all these occasions. In 1689 the Fiench under Melac almost entirely destroyed it. The
church of St. Catharine, a fine specimen of the German architecture of 1262-1317, lies
yet in a ruinous condition, except the eastern part. In 1878 the German reichstag voted
£2,500 for its restoration. Pop. '75, 3,328.
OPPERT, JULES, b. Hamburg, 1825; educated at Heidelberg, where he studied law,
and at Bonn, where he devoted himself to Arabic and Sanskrit. His first work was a
treatise on The Phonetic System of the Old Persians. Being a Jew, and prevented on
religious grounds from obtaining a position at a German university, he removed to France
in 1847. He was professor of German in the lyceumsof Laval and Rheims sin < i s>i\elv,
and accompanied the expedition to Mesopotamia equipped by the French government.
He returned in 1854, and has since made a special study of the cuneiform in.M'i iptions.
In 1857 he was called to the chair of Sanskrit in the school of languages connected with
the imperial library at Paris. He has published among other works: The lm«Tij>i.t(>im of
the Achemenida, 1852; Assyrian Studies; TJie French Scientific* Expedition 1<> Mry>)'><>tir,iiin:
A Sanskrit Grammar, 1859; The Great Inscription of the Khorsalad Palace, 1864; History
of 'the CJialdean and Assyrian Empires, according to the Monument*, 1866; and The Immor-
tality of the Soul among tlie Chaldeans, followed by a translation of the Goddess Istar Astarte's
Descent to Hell, 1875.
OPPIAN, b. Cilicia, 2nd c., in the reign of Marcus Aurelius, or according to others in
his philosophical studies that he failed to pay his respects to life new emperor, who in
consequence banished him to the island of'Melita. in the Adriatic. His -on Oppian
accompanied him, and during his residence on the island finished his Cynegetics, or treat-
ise on hunting, and Halieuttc*. or treatise on fishing. He then went to Rome, and
offered both these poems to Antoninus Caracal la. the son of Severus, who was so |:
•with them that he invited their author to ask any reward he pleased. Oppian contented
himself with asking that his father might be released, and allowed to return to Cilicia. The
emperor, besides granting this request, is said to have given him a piece of gold for
every verse. Oppian went back to Cilicia, and died of the plague, at the age of 30.
The Halieutics, written in hexameters, contain five books treating of fishes and fishing.
The poem shows some zoological knowledge, though with many absurdities. The <"////-
egetics are in four books of hexameters, so inferior to to the Halieutics as to give rise to
the supposition that they were composed bv different persons. There is an English
translation of the Halieniifs by Draper and Jones, Oxford, 1722. and an English transla-
tion of the first book of the Ugnegetic* by Mawer, London, 1786.
OPPOSITION, the party in either house of the British parliament who are opposed to
the existing government, "and who would probably cone into power on its displacement.
The existence of a fair and temperate opposition, keeping a watch over the acts of tht
ministry, is undeniably conducive to good government: while, on the other hand, the
conduct of public affairs may be seriously embarrassed by an opposition whose proceed-
ings are conducted in a factious or obstructive spirit. The name opposition ib not gen-
Irr Oppeln.
Optics.
erally applied to A party, merely because opposed to the existing administration, if there
is no likelilioou ot their succeeding to power on a change of government.
OPTIC NERVE. See EYE.
OPTICAL ILLUSION. Of all the senses none is more deceptive than the sense of
sight; it often deceives us as to the distance, size, shape, and color of objects; it fre-
quently makes them appear as ii in situations where their existence is impossible; and
often makes us think them movablt, when they are not so, and vice versa. An object
appears to us as large or small, near 01 distant, according as the rays from its opposite
borders meeting at the eye form a large or a small angle: when the angle is large, the
object is either large or near; when small, the object must be small or distant. Practice
alone enables us to decide whether an object ot large apparent size is so on account of its
real size, or of its proximity; and our decisioais arrived at by a comparison of the object
imposition, with other common objects, such as trees, houses, etc., which may chance to
be near it, and of which we have by experience come to form a correct idea. The same
is, of coarse, true of apparently small objects. But when all means for comparison are
removed, as whrn we see a distant object floating on an extensive sheet of water, or
erect in an apparently boundless sandy plain, where no ether object meets the eye, then
our judgment is completely at fault. Imperfection in the acquired perceptions of sight,
as it is called, produces many other illusions; it leads us to consider spherical solids at a
distance as flat discs, and deceives us regarding the size of objects, by their color; the
sun appears larger than he would if illumined by a fainter light, and a man in a white
habit seems larger than he would if he wore a dark dress. Illusions are also produced
by external causes; and instances of this sort are given under MIRAGE, REFLECTION, and
REFRACTION.
The property which the eye possesses of retaining an impression for a very brief,
though sensible period of time (about one-quarter of a second), after the object which
produced the impression has been removed, produces a third class of illusions. Common
examples of this are the illuminated circle formed by the rapid revolution of an ignited
carbon point, piece of red-hot iron, or other luminous body, and the fiery curve pro-
duced by a red-hot shot projected from a cannon.
Another form of illusion is produced to a person who is seated in a vehicle in motion,
and it is very deceptive when the motion is so equable as not to be felt by the person him-
self. The illusion is most complete when the attention is riveted on an object several
yards off; this object then appears as a center round which all the other objects seem to
revolve, those between the observer and the object moving backwards, and those beyond
the object moving forwards. This illusion occurs on a large scale in the apparent motion
of the heavenly bodies.
Other illusions arise from a disordered state of the organs of vision; such are the
seeing of things double or movable (if they are not so), or of a color different from the
true one; the. appearance as of insects crawling over a body at which the eye is directed,
etc.
OPTICS is the science whose object is the investigation of the laws that regulate the
phenomena of light and vision. The nature of light wiVl be found treated of under
LIGHT, and its various properties under CHROMATICS, DIFFRACTION, INTERFERENCE,
LENS, POLARISATION, REFLECTION, REFRACTION. SPECTRUM, etc. ; and we shall confine
ourselves in this article to a historical sketch of the rise and progress of the science.
Optics, as a science, is entirely of modern growth, for though the Greeks and their
disciples the Arabs had made some progress in mathematical optics, their knowledge
was confined to the law of reflection and its more immediate consequences. Euclid,
Aristotle, Archimedes, Hero, and Ptolemy were acquainted with the fact that light is
transmitted in straight lines, but with the important exception of Aristotle, and some of
his follower-!, the ancient philosophers believed that rays proceeded from the eye to the
object, instead of in the contrary direction. Ptolemy was well acquainted with atmos-
pheric refraction. Alhacen (1070) and Vitellio the Pole (1260) were almost the only cul-
tivators of this science during the middle ages, and their additions to it were unimpor-
tant. The lens, though known from early antiquity, was not applied as an aid to
defective eye-sight till after the time of Roger Bacon. Jansen, Metius, and Galileo
separately invented the telescope about the beginning of the 17th c. ; and the last-men-
tioned philosopher, by its means, made various important astronomical discoveries.
Kepler, a short time after, gave the true theory of the telescope, explained the method
of finding the focal length of lenses, and applied it to find the magnifying power of the
telescope, besides pointing out the mode of constructing an instrument better adapted
for astronomical purposes than that of Galileo; he also made some useful experiments
on the nature of colors, and showed that images formed on the retina of the eye are
inverted, a fact previously discovered by Maurolycus of Messina. From this period
the science of optics steadily advanced, and its treasury of facts received numerous addi-
tions through the labors of De Dominis, Suell (the discoverer of the law of refraction in
1621), Descartes, Fermat, Barrow, Mariotte, and Boyle. Up to the time of Newton it
was generally believed that color was produced by refraction, but that philosopher
showed by a beautiful series of experiments that refraction only separates the colors
already existing in white light. In his hands the. theory and construction of the tele-
U. K. XL— 2
Opt imates. -| Q
Oracle.
scope underwent many valuable improvements, and in 1672 the description of his reflect-
t'flg/ telescope was submitted to the royal society. Gregory had constructed ;in instru-
ment ou similar principles some years before. About liie same time, Grimaldi made liia
interesting series of experiments on the effects of diffraction, and noticed the remarkable
fact of the interference of one pencil of light with the aciion of another. The complete
theory of the rainbow, with an elegant analysis of the colors of thin plates, and the
hypothesis concerning the nature and propagation of light, now known an the "corpus-
cular"' theory, completed Newton's contributions to the science. The important services
of the ingenious but eccentric Hooke cannot be easily stated in such u brief extract, as
he discovered a little of everything, completed nothing, and occupied himself to a large
extent in combating faulty points in the theories of his contemporaries. It must nor,
however, be forgotten that he has as much right as iluyghcns to She credit of originat-
ing -the umlulatory theory, which is the favorite one at present. The double refr
of Iceland spar was discovered (1609) by Bartboliu, and fully explained in 16(JO by
Iluyghens, the propounder of the undulatory theory, who also aided the progress of
mathematical optics to a considerable extent. The velocity of light was di.scovercd by
Romer (16")), and in 1720 the aberration of the fixed stars and its cause were made
known by Bradley, who likewise determined with accuracy the amount of ntmosphene
refraction. Bouguer, Porterfield, Eider, and Lambert rendered essential service to phys-
ical optics; the same was done for the mathematical theory by Dollond (the inventor of
the achromatic telescope), Clairaut, Dalembe.rt. Boscovich, etc.; while in later times the
experiments of Delaval on the colors produced by reflection and retraction; the di
sion of the phenomena arising from unusual reflection or refract! >n, carried on by Vince,
Wolltiston, Biot, Monge, and others; the discovery of polarization of light by Plains
(1808), and its investigation by Brewster, Biot, and Seebeck; of depolarization by
(1811), and of the optical properties as connected with the axes ofcryst.-ii
Brewster; and the explanation of these and other optical phenomena, in accordance with
the umlulalory hypothesis by Young — the discoverer of the interference, (q.v.) of i
and Fresnel, went far to give optics a width of scope and symmetry which i
by few other sciences. The development of the undulatory theory and of optical science
generally has been carried on in the present century by Lloyd, Airy, Cauehy, and others;
and more recently important .discoveries in connection with the physical modifications
and chemical properties of light have been made (the latter chiefly, as far as the
trum is concerned, by Kirchhoff), for a notice of which, and other discoveries, see
PHOTOGRAPHY, SPECTKUM, and other articles.
OPTIMATES AND POPULARES, in the politics of republican Rome, were the con-
servative or aristocratic, and the democratic or progressive parties respectively, The
populnres comprised the great body of the people, including not only the proletariat but
many men of wealth, but without personal influence. The optimal-'* were the :s;
racy, the great official houses, and their followers. The two parties perpetuated the old
contests between the patricians and plebians. Thepopulares triumphed under the leader-
ship of C. Gracchus, and were crushed by Sulla.
OPTIMISM (Lat. optimum, best) the name given to the doctrine of those philosophers
and divines who hold that the existing order of things, whatever may be its s, •
imperfections of detail, is nevertheless, as a whole, the most perfect or the best which
could have been created, or which it is possible to conceive. Some of the :idvoe:r
optimism content themselves with maintaining the absolute position, that although <•• d
was not by ariy means bound to create the most perfect order of things, yet the existing
order is de facto the best: others contend, in addition, that the perfection and wisdom of
almighty God necessarily require that his creation should be the most perfect which it, is
possible to conceive. The philosophical discussions of which this controversy is the
development are as old as philosophy itself, and form the ground work of all the sy
physical as well as moral, whether of the Oriental or of the Greek philosophy: of Dual-
ism, Parsism. and of the Christian Gnosticism and Manichcisai in the cast ; and in the
west, of the Ionian, the Elcatic, the Atomistic; no less than of the laternnd more familiar,
Stoic, Peripatetic, and Platonistic schools. In the philosophical writing; of the fathers.
of Origen, Clement of Alexandria, and above all of Augustine, the problem of the seem-
ing mixture of good and evil in the world is the great subject of inquiry, and tluougli
all the subtleties of the mediaeval schools it continued to hold an important and promi-
nent place. But the full development of the optimistic theory as a philosophic:.!
tern was reserved for the celebrated Leibnitz (q.v.). It forms the subject of his most
elaborate work, entitled Theodicea, the main thesis of which may be briefly stated to be
— that among all the systems which presented themselves to the infinite intelligence of
God, as possible. God selected and created, in the existing universe, the best and most
perfect, physically as well as morally. The TJtcodicen, published in 1700, was designed
to meet the sceptical theories of Bayle, by showing not only that the existence of evil,
moral and physical, is not incompatible with the general pefection of the created uni-
verse, but that God, as all-wise, all-powerful, and all-perfect, lins chosen out of all pos-
sible creation the best and most perfect: that had another more perfect creation been
present to the divine intelligence, God's wisdom would have required of him to select it;
and that if another, even equally perfect, had been possible, there would not have been
1 Q Optimatea,
Oracle.
any sufficient determining motive for the creation of the present world, The details of
the controversial part of the system would be out of place in this \vork. It will be
enough to say that the existence of evil, both moral and physical, is explained as a neces-
sary consequence of the tiuiteuess of created beings; and it is contended that in the
balance of good and evil in the existing constitution of things, the preponderance of the
former is greater that in any other conceivable creation. The great argument of the
optimists is the following: If the present universe be not the best that is possible, it must
be either because God did not know of the (supposed) better universe, or because God
was not able to create that better one, or was not willing to create it. Now every one
of these hypotheses is irreconcilable with the attributes of God: the first, with his omnis-
cience; the second, with his omnipotence; and the third, with his goodness. See Leib-
nitz, Theodieea; Baumeister's llistoria, de Mundo Optimo. The view of the universe
diametrically opposed to optimism is pessimism (peasimus, worst), and has of late been
frequently maintained : see Sally's Pessimism (1877).
OPUNTIA. See PRICKLY PEAR.
O'PUS OPERAN TIS (Lat. literally " the work of the worker"), a well-known theologi-
cal phrase, intended to convey that the effect of a particular ministration or rite is
primarily and directly due, not to the rite itself (opus), but to the dispositions of
the recipient (operands). Thus, in the act of kissing or praying before a crucifix, of
sprinkling one's self with ho!}' Avater, of telling the prayers of the rosary upon blessed
beads, the fervor and personal piety of the supplicant, and not the material object of the
religious use, is held to be the efficient cause of the grace which is thereby imparted.
The term is used chiefly by writers of the Roman Catholic schools, in whose system,
however, the sacramental rites are held to differ from all others in this respect. See
OPUS OPERATUM.
O'PZTS OPEKA'TUM (Lat. literally " the work wrought") is the phrase employed
in the Catholic theological schools to describe the manner of the supposed operation of
the sacramental rites in the production of grace (q.v.). It is intended to imply that the
ministration of the rite (opux) is in itself, through the institution of Christ, an efficient
cause of grace, and that, although its operation is not infallible, but requires and pre-
supposes certain dispositions on the part of the recipient, yet these dispostions are but
conditioner sine qua turn, and do not of themselves produce the grace; and hence, when
the sacraments are administered to dying persons in a state of apparent insensibility,
this is done in the hope and on the presumption that the dying person may, though seem-
ingly unconscious, be nevertheless really disposed to receive the sacrament: but it is by
no means held that if these dispositions be wanting, the sacrament will itself justify him.
It is a mistake, therefore, to suppose, as is often done in popular controversy, that Catho-
lics ascribe to the sacramental rites such magical or talismanic power that they can sanc-
tify even an unrepentant sinner. Their efficacious operation pneaupposes as conditions the
repentance and other moral dispositions of the recipient, although the grace which they
give is due not to these dispositions, but to the sacraments asrcceived icith the dispositions.
OVZOOMER, CAROLUS WILKELMUS, b. Holland, 1821; educated at Leyden, where
he attacked Christianity in his Examination of the Dutch Annals of Theology. He was
cailed to the chair of philosophy at the university of Leyden in 1846. His best known
philosophical work is his Path of Knowledge, 1851, in which he maintains rational
empiricism.
OE, in heraldry, the metal gold, represented in heraldic engravings by an unlimited
number of dots.
OSACHE, Alriplex, a genus of plants of the natural order chenopodiacea, having male,
fenvile, and hermaphrodite flowers; the male and hermaphrodite flowers with a 3-5
partite calyx, and 3-5 stamens; the female flowers with a compressed and 2-lobed or
2-partite calyx. The species are numerous. Some of them are of frequent occurrence
in waste places, and as weeds in gardens in Britain and throughout Europe. GARDEN
OIIACIIE (A. hortcim*), also called }!OU:NTAIN SPINACH, was formerly much cultivated ID
England, and is still cultivated in some parts of Europe as a substitute for spinach. It
is a native of Tartary, an annual, with a stem about 3 ft. high, and cordate-triangular
loaves, which are thick and glaucous, and have a slightly acid flavor. The leaves are
sometimes greenish, sometimes reddish, which is the case also in other species, and the
flowers resemble the leaves in color. — The leaves of the sea orache(J. littoralix), a native
of the British coasts, .are used in the same manner, and those of the common garden-
wcecK A. patulu and A. anyusiifolia, are excellent substitutes for spinach. — It is men-
tioned in Remy and Brenclifey's ji>«rn^ to the Salt Lake City, that an ornche, with pale
pink leaves and a salt taste, is cultivated by the Indians on the Humboldt river for its
seed, which resembles that of Quinoa (q.v.), and is used like it for making porridge and
bread.
OBACLE, the response delivered by a deity or supernatural being to a worshiper 01
inquirer; also the place where the response was delivered. These response? were sup
posed to be given by a certain divine afflatus, either through means of mankind, as in the
orgasms of the Pythia, and the dreams of the worshipper in the temples; or by its effect:
on certain objects, as the tinkling of the caldron at Dodona, the rustling of the sacred
Oran. 9 A
Oraiig.
laurel, the murmuring of the streams; or by the actions of sacred animals, as exempli-
fied in the Apis or sacred bull of Memphis, and the feeding of holy chickens of the
Romans. This arose, iu fact, from the idea that the doily signified his intentions to men.
by signs or inspirations, which, however, had always to he interpreted to the inquirer by
the priesthood. 8nch responses were, however, c'o-ely allied to augury, which differed
i:i this respect that auguries could be taken anywhere, while the oracular spots were
denned and limited. Oracle dates from the highest antiquity, and flourished in the
most remote ages, and gradually declined with the increasing knowledge of mankind.
Among the Egyptians all the temples were probably oracular, although only a few are
mentioned by Herodotus, as the oracle of Latona, in the city of Buto; those of Hercules,
.Mars, Thebes, and Meroe. In the hieroglyphic texts the gods speak constantly iu an
oracular manner, and their consultation by the Pharaohs is occasionally mentioned. la
later days the most renowned of these oracles was that of Amnion, in the Oasis (q.v.),
where oracular responses were rendered either by the shaking of the statue of the god,
or by his appearance in a certain manner. Oracles were also used by the Hebrews, as
in the consultation of the Urim and Thummim by the high priest, and the unlawful use
of Teraphims, and consultations of the gods of Phenicia and Samaria. The Hebrew ora-
cles were by word of mouth, as the speech of God to Moses, dreams, vii-ions, and pro-
phetical denunciations; besides which, there were oracles in Phenicia, as that of Bclze-
bub and others of the Baalim. They were also in use throughout Babylonia and Chal
daea, where the responses were delivered by dreams given to4he priestesses, who slept
alone in the temples as concubines of the gods. So numerous were they in the ancient
world, that 300 are said to have been in existence.
The most celebrated oracles of Asia Minor were those of Tel missus in Caria or Lycia,
which gave responses by dreams, and that of Apollo at Patara; but the Grecian oracles
enjoyed the highest reputation for truthfulness, and the most celebrated of these were
the Dodonean, the Delphic, and that of Trophonius and Amphiaraus. The Dodonean
(see DODONA) was the only oracle in Greece which was given by Jupiter; the others
were either those of Apollo, or of certain soothsayers, to whom that god had imparted
the gift of prophecy, or of other gods. The most renowned of all was the Delphic
oracle (see DELPHI), and was Panhellenlc. or open to all Greece, consulted for public
purposes, and occupying a position resembling in some respects that of the papacy in
Hie middle ages in Europe. The name of the first priestess who gave oracles was
Phemouoe. The consultations were generally in the Delphic month, ]>i/*it>s or April,
and once a day on other months; and the precedence of consulting the oracle was deter-
mined by lot, but rich presents obtained for Croesus and the Lydians the privilege of
first consultation. Sacrifices were offered by the inquirers, who walked with laurel
crowns on their heads, and delivered in sealed questions; the response was deemed infal-
lible, and was usually dictated by justice, sound sense, and reason, till the growing politi-
cal importance of the shrine rendered the guardians of it fearful to offend, when they
framed the answers in ambiguous terms, or allowed the influence of gold and presents to
corrupt the inspirations. The other oracles of Apollo were at Aba in Phocis; at Ptoon,
where a man prophesied, which was destroyed in the days of Alexander the Great; and
at Ismeuus, s. of Thebes, Hysia, Tegyra, and Eutressis. In Asia Milior the most cele-
brated was that of Brancliidae, close to Miletus, celebrated in Egypt. Gryneum. and
Delos. Besides that of Dodona, Zeus had another at Olympic; and those of various
other deities existed elsewhere. A secondary class of oracles of heroic or prophetic
persons existed in Greece, the two most celebrated of which were those of Amphiaraus
and Trophonius. The first mentioned was one of the five great oracles in the
days of Croesus, and was situate at Oropus, in Attica, being the shrine of a deified
magician, or interpreter of dreams, having a fountain close to it. Those who consulted
it fasted a whole day, abstained from wine, sacrificed a ram to Amphiaraus. and slept
on the skin in the temple, where their destiny was revealed by dreams. That of Troph-
onius was at Lebadea, in Bceotia, and owed its origin to a deified seer. It was given in
a cave, into which the votary descended, bathed, and annointed, holding a honeyed
cake. He obtained a knowledge of futurity by what he saw or heard, and returned
dejected from the cavern. Then, seated upon the seat of Mnemosyne, he gave an
account of what he had heard, and, conducted to the chapel of good fortune or good
genius, recovered his usual composure. There were some other oracles of minor impor-
tance. Besides these oracles, written ones existed of the prophecies of celebrated seers,
as Bacis and Musaeus, which were collected by the Pisistratidse, and kept in the acropolis
of Athens. Those of the Euclus, Panolmus, and Lycus were also celebrated. Others
of the Sibyls or prophetic women, daughters of Zeus and Lamia, were popular, and at a
later period (see SIBYLS), Athenais and others, prophesied in the days of the Seleucidae.
Amongst the oriental nations, as the Arabs and others, divination was and is extensively
practiced, but there are no set oracles. The Celtic Druids are said to have delivered
responses, and the oracle of the Celtic god Bclenus or Abelio, in the Isle de Sein, was
celebrated. Herod. Hist. v. 89, viii. 82; Curtius, iv. 7; Hare, Ancient Greeks, (12mo,
Lond. 183G, p. 141); Bos, Antiquities of Greece (1833, p. 31).
ORAN' (Arab. Waran), & thriving municipal t. and sea-port of Algeria, capital of the
province of the same name, stands at the inner extremity of the gulf of Oran, 220 m.
01 Oran.
-1 L Oruiig.
w.s.w. of Algiers. The province of Oran, sometimes called the province of the west,
from the fact of its forming the western frontier of the country, is bounded on the n. by
the Mediterranean, on the e. by the province of Algiers, on the w. by the empire of
Morocco, and on the s. by the desert. Area about 100,000 sq.m. , of which 13,514 belong
to the Tell (q.v.), and a large portion to the Sahara. Pop. '72, 513,492. four-fifths of
whom were Arabs. The town of Oran is the seat of the government offices — the pre-
fecture, the civil, criminal, commercial tribunals, etc. It also contains a college, prim-
ary and native schools, Protestant and other churches; synagogues; mosques; a branch
of the bank of Algeria; exchequer, post, and telegraph offices; three great barracks, St.
Philippe, le Chateau-Neuf, and !e Chateau- Vieux; a military hospital, with accommoda-
tion tor 1400 beds (an immense new building, which overtops all surrounding edifices),
and various splendidly appointed magazines and government stores. The town, which
is girt by walls, and defended by strongly armed forts, is seated at the foot of a high
mountain, crowned by the forts Santa-Cruz and Saint-Gregpire. The port does not
offer safe ancuorage ; although it has been much improved within recent years. Large
vessels, however, have still to find shelter in the roadstead of Mers-el-Kebir, 3 m. distant.
The streets and promenades of Oran are generally spacious, the houses elegant and airy.
The principal edifices are the Chateau-Neuf, the residence of the general of division;
the Hotel de la Prefecture; the great mosque de la Rue Philippe; the Catholic church;
and the barracks. Pop. of commune, comprising the three suburbs, Mers-el-Kebir, La
Senia, and A'in-el-Turk, '72, 40,674. The country in the vicinity is bare and arid,
although the land is not sterile. To the s. of the town the country is uncultivated; but
towards the s.e., highly cultivated lands are seen. In the vicinity there are a great
many farms, cultivated with the greatest care, and most of them furnished with build-
ings necessary to their efficiency. Cattle are reared, and grain, tobacco, and cotton are
grown. The vine already covers large tracts of laud, and its cultivation is annually
extending, It is cultivated with the most complete success, and the wines are of good
quality.
Besides the commune of Oran, there are in the province the communes of Sidi-bel-
Abbes (q.v.), of Mostaganem (pop. 11,950), of Mascara (pop. 8,629), and of Tlemcen(q.v.)
The town of Oran was built by the Moors. It was taken by the Spaniards in 1509,
by 'the Turks in 1708, and again by the Spaniards in 1732. In 1791 it was destroyed by
an earthquake, and shortly after it was altogether abandoned by the Spaniards. Oran was
taken by the French in 1831, has since remained in their hands, and has by them been
developed into a large and prosperous town. Vessels witli an aggregate tonnage of 65,000
tons enter and clear the port yearly. The annual imports amount to about £1,307,700,
and the exports to £260,990. A bishopric was established at Oran in the year 1867.
OEANG, or ORANO-OTJTAXG, Simia satynix, or Ptthsms wtyrus, or P. AMU, a species
of ape found in the forests of Malacca, Cochin-China, and some of the islands of that
part of the world. The name is sometimes extended in signification, so as to include all
the species of the restricted genus simia or pithecus, a genus which exists only in the s.e.
of Asia and the eastern archipelago: and was also till of late extended even to "the African
apes now forming the genus troglodytes, the species which is the subject of this article being
distinctively called the REDOUAXG, when it and the chimpanzee were the only anthropoid
apes known. The name orang is Malayan, and signifies man or rational being ; outang
signifies irild, or of the, icwl*. The genus simia or jrithecus differs from troglodytes (the
chimpanzee and gorilla) in the more lengthened muzzle — the lower part of the face pro-
jecting suddenly and remarkably; in the very large canine teeth; in the great breadth of
the central incisors; and in the great length of the arms, which are so long that the fin-
gers can touc.h the ground when the animal stands erect. The ears are also small, and
lie close to the head. The eyes are close together; the nose is little elevated; the lips are
scarcely visible when the mouth is shut. The apes of this genus are arboreal in their
habits, and not gregarious. They are ill-adapted for walking on the ground, and in a
wild state probably almost never assume an erect posture, and although they can be
taught to do it in confinement, they maintain it with difficulty, and only when standing
still; even then often seeking to adjust the balance of the body by raising the arms above
and behind the head. In climbing and swinging among the branches of trees, the hands of
the hinder extremities are used as readily as those of the anterior, and the great length of
the arms is useful in enabling them to take hold of distant branches. The fingers of all
the extremities are very long.
Some of the most important distinctions between the anatomy of the anthropoid apes
and that of man, are noticed in the article CHIMPANZEE. The orang and its congeners
are regarded as differing more widely from man in their anatomical characters than tha
chimpanzee and gorilla; although the number of ribs is the same as in man, and there
are a few other particulars in which the orang more nearly resembles a human being than
any of the African apes do. The projecting muzzle is much less notable in the young
than in the adult orang, and the aspect of the adult males is further rendered hideous by
great callosities on the oiieeks. In the adult state, the ridges of the skull also greatly
increase in thickness and prominence.
The species of this genus exhibit in a much greater degree than those of troglodytes an
anatomical character .common also to many other apes and monkeys, a pouch in the
^ a_ 99
Orange.
throat, opening from the windpipe, and capable of being dilated Stvilh air at the pleasure
of the animal. In the orang, it branches into several subordinate pouches, which are
situated among the muscles of the throat. The use of this organ is not known. It does
not appear to have any connection with the voice; and has been supposed, not very
probably, to be of some service in leaping, by diminishing the specific gravity sf the
animal.
There are at least two other species of the genus besides that best known as the orang,
one of these being the great pongo (q.v..) of Borneo (S. or P. Wonnlii), ;ind the other (8.
or P. morio), also a native of Borneo, of comparatively small size. The natural histoiy
of these apes has not been thoroughly investigated; and. until recently, it was supposed
that the species first known might be identical with the great ape believed to exist in the
woods, and that the differences of size and other characters might depend merely on.
age. The orang is about 3 ft. in length from the heel to the crown of the head, it is
covered with brownish-red hair, which, on the back and arms, is 5 or 6 in. long, but very
short on the backs of the hands and feet. There is little hair on the face, and none on
the palms of the hands. "VVheu taken young, it is easily tamed, and becomes sufficiently
familiar. It displays considerable sagacity, and some playfulness and love of mischief,
but is not so frolicsome as many of the monkey tribe. Young specimens have sometimes
been brought to Europe, but none have lived long. The temper is believed to change
very much to the worse, when the animal reaches maturity.
OEANGS, the name of one or more species of citrus (q.v.), of which the fruit is much
prized. Botanists generally regard all the oranges as of one species, citrux aitrantium,
but some follow Kisso in making the sweet orange, the bitter orange, the l.ergamot
orange, etc., distinct species. The wild state of the orange is not certainly known,
although its characters may be pretty confidently inferred from the degeneration of cul-
tivated varieties; and no cultivated plant shows a greater liability to degenerate, so that
seedling oranges are almost always worthless. Nor is its r.ative country more certain,
although there is much reason to believe that all the kinds have spread over the world
from the warmer central and eastern parts of Asia. It has been alleged that the ('range
is a native of North America, near the gulf of Mexico; but the probability rather seems
to be that it has been introduced, and has become naturalized.
The COMMON ORANGE, or SWEET ORANGE (dints aurantium of Rissio), is an ever-
green tree of moderate size, with greenish-brown bark; the leaves oblong, acute, some-
times minutely serrated, the leaf-stalks more or less winged, the flowers white, the fruit
roundish, the oil-cysts of the rind convex, the juice sweet and acid. It is cultivated in
almost every part of the world of which the climate is warm enough, but succeeds best
in the warmer temperate or sub-tropical climates, as in the s. of Europe, where it is very
extensively cultivated, as far n. as the s. of France. The orange does not seem to have
been known to the Greeks or Kornans, but was probably brought to Europe by the
Moors, and is supposed to have been introduced into Italy so recently as the 14th c.,
fully 1000 years after the citron. In the n. of Italy, oranges are sometimes grown in.
conservatories, but often in the open air, except during winter, when they are covered
with temporary houses of boards. In the s. of England they are sometimes in like man-
ner grown in the open air, with a shelter of boards or matting in Avinter, but trained
against a south wall; attaining a large size, and yielding good fruit. The abundant
importation of the fruit, however, renders the cultivation of the orange in Britain unnec-
essary; and, in general, only small plants are to be seen in green-houses or conserva-
tories, as mere objects of interest. In former times, when the evergreen shrubs in culti-
vation were much fewer than now, orange trees were very commonly cultivated in pots,
both in green-houses and in windows of apartments in Britain, as is still the case in the
northern parts of Germany. The orange loves a rich soil, and succeeds well in a strong
clay. There are many varieties in cultivation, which arc perpetuated by grafting upon,
seedling orange stocks, and by layers.
'Of the varieties of the sweet orange, perhaps the most deserving of notice are the
PORTUGAL or LISBON ORANGE, the most common of all, having the fruit generally
round or nearly so, and a thick rind; the CHINA ORANGE, said to have been brought by
the Portuguese from China, and now much cultivated in the s. of Europe, having a
smooth thin rind and very abundant juice; the MALTESE or BLOOD ORANGE, remarkable
for the blood-red color of its pulp; the EGG ORANGE, having fruit of an oval shape: and
the TANGERINE ORANGE, having a small flat fruit, with a pleasant odor and finely
flavored pulp. The ST. MICHAEL'S ORANGE appears to be a sub-variety of the China
orange. The MAJORCA ORANGE is seedless, resembling in this certain cultivated varie-
ties of other fruits.
The BITTER ORANGE, SEVILLE ORANGE, or BIGARADE (citrus vulgaris, or C. bigara-
3ia). is distinguished from the sweet orange by the more truly elliptical leaves, the acid
.ind bitter juice of the fruit, and the concave oil-cysts of its rind. Its branches are also
.spiny, which is rarely the case with the sweet orange. The varieties in cultivation arc
numerous. The bitter orange was extensively cultivated by the Moors in Spain, prob-
ybly for medicinal purposes. The rind is more bitter than that of the sweet orange, and
is used as a stomachic and tonic. Its chief use, however, is for flavoring puddings,
bakes, etc., and for making marmalade.
The BERGAMOT ORANGE (C.bcrgamia) is noticed in a separate article.
23'
The MANDARIN ORANGE, or CLOVE ORANGE (C. riobUis), recently introduced from
China, has fruit much broader than long, with a thick rind, very loosely c.':taclied to the
flesh, so that there is often a space between them. The leaves are smaller than those of
any other kind of orange.
Orange leaves are feebly bitter, and contain a fragrant volatile oil, which is obtained
by distilling them with water, and is known in the shops as essence de petit grain. Orange
flowers yield, when distilled with water, a fragrant volatile oil, called oil of neroli, which
is used in making caw de Cologne, and for other purposes of perfumery. The flowers both
of the sweet orange and of the bitter orange yield it, but those of the bitter orange are
preferred. Dried orange flowers, to be distilled for this oil, are an article of export from
the s. of Europe. They are packed in barrels, and mixed with salt. The dried flowers
have a yellowish color; the fresh flowers are white and very fragrant. The use of them
as an ornament in the head-dress of brides is common throughout great part of the
world. The small green oranges, from the size of a pea to the size oi' a cherry, which
fall from the trees, both of the sweet orange and the bitter orange, when the crop is too
great to be brought to maturity, are carefully gathered and dried, and are the orange
berries of the shops. They are used in making cura9oa. They also yield a fragrant oil
on distillation, the original essence de petit grain; and they are smoothed in a turning-
lathe, and employed as issue pr.a^c; not readily acquiring a fetid ordor, as pease do when
employed for this purpose. The'dried and candied rind of the ripe bitter orange, well
known as orange-j>cd, is used as a stomachic, and very largely fcr flavoring puddings
and articles of confectionery. The rind of the sweet orange is sometimes employed in
the same way. but, is inferior. A fragrant essential oil is obtained from the rind of the
orange by distillation with water, and is sold by perfumers as oil ofsiosctoranye, or oil
of bitter orang:?, according as it is obtained from the one or the other, although the two
kinds of oil are very similar. The rind of the orange is used in the preparation of a fine
liquor called ora.nyc rowglio, which is an article of export from some parts of Italy.
Besides the use of the sweet orange as a dessert fruit, and as a refrigerant in cases of
sickness, its juice is extensively used as a refrigerant beverage, and is particularly valu-
able in febrile and inflammatory complaints.
. Orange trees are often extremely fruitful, so that a tree 20 ft. high, and occupying a
space of little more than 12 ft. in diameter, sometimes yields from 3,000 to 4,000 oranges
in a year. The orange tree attains an age of at least 100 to 150 years. Young trees are
less productive than old ones, and the fruit is also less juicy, has a thicker rind, and
more numerous seeds.
The wood of the orange tree is yellowish-white and close-grained. It is used for
inlaying and for turnery.
The fruit of the orange tree is of great commercial importance, for not only is it one
of the most delicious and wholesome of fruits, but fortunately it is also the most easily
kept and carried from place to place No fresh fruit possesses in the same degree as tha
orange, and its congeners, the lemon, citron, lime, etc., the property of being easily
packed in boxes, when nearly ripe, and being in that state able to stand the close confine-
ment of a ship's hold during a voyage of two or three weeks. The orange is much culti-
vated in the Azores, Maha, Sicily, Spain, and Portugal, and it is from these localities
that Britain receives its supply. Those from St. Michael's, one of the Azores, and from
Malta, are the best varieties in our markets; but the mandarin orange of China and the
navel orange of South America are much superior. The latter occasionally reach this
country in small quantities from Brazil; they are nearly double the size of the ordinary
orange, and have a peculiar navel-like formation on the top of the fruit, which is some-
what oval in shape. The very small orange, now often seen in our shops, with an
extremely aromatic rind, is the Tangerine orange, of which there are two varieties — the
greater and lesser. The latter is hardly an inch in diameter, but the flesh is sweet, and
the rind deliciously fragrant. The larger variety is about half the size of a common
orange, and is the one generally seen.
The bitter orange is called the Seville orange in consequence of large plantations,
which the Moors planted round the city of Seville, having for a long time furnished the
chief part of those used in this country; but it also has several varieties, which are all
remarkable for the bitterness of the rind, and the not very pleasant sharpness of the
juice. Their chief use is for making the well-known confection called orange marma-
lade, and for this the true large-fruited variety is the best, but it is now somewhat scarce.
Oranges, when gathered for export, must not be quite ripe; those fully formed, and
witii the color just turning from green to yellow, are chosen. Each is wrapped in a
piece of paper, or in the husk of Indian corn, and they are packed in boxes and half-
boxes, chests and half-chests — the former are the Sicilian packages, the latter are St.
Michael's, Spanish, and Portuguese. A box contains about '250, a chest about 1000
oranges; and the price ranges from 15s. to 80s. per box, and from 30s. to 50s. a chest.
The crop begins to arrive early in November, and the ships continue to bring them until
the spring. The quantity consumed in Great Britain alone is enormous; and since the
duty was removed, has reached nearly two millions of bushels annually.
Orange-peel, or the rind of the orange, is used both in medicine and in confectionery
— for the former purpose, it is merely cut into long strips, and dried; for the latter, it is
carefully separated, either in halves or quarters, from the fruit, and after lying in salt
Orange.
water for a time, is washed in clear water, and then boiled in syrup of sugar, or candied,
and is sold extensively as candied peel. The rinds of the citron and lemon are treated iu
the same nuumer.
ORANGE (anii\ a fruit cultivated in Florida, Texas, Louisiana, southern California,
and some other stales. In Florida there are extensive groves of wild oranges, which are of
,. use in budding other varieties, and the cultivation of the orange is an important, industry.
In Florida three methods of establishing an orange grove are in use. .Kiiner Mocks are
raised from seed, budded in a nur.-ery, and set out when of proper si /.e; or young wild
trees are transplanted and budded; or a wild grove is cleared, and budded with sweet
fruit.
ORANGE, a co. in central Florida, bounded on the n.e. by St. John's river; 2.500
eq.m. ; pop. '80, 6,618 — 1023 colored. The surface is even, and much of it covered
with swamp, lakes, and great forests of pine. The soil is sandy. Cattle-grazing is the
principal pursuit, and large numbers of cattle are raised and exported. Corn, sued
potatoes, and cotton are cultivated to some extent. Co. seat, Orlando.
ORANGE, a co. in s. Indiana, drained by Lost creek and Paloka creek, on the
Louisville, New Albany and Chicago railroad; 400 sq.m.; pop. '80, 14,363—14.315 of
American birth. The surface is undulating, and iu the s. hilly. The soil is fertile, and
produces good crops of corn, wheat, oats, tobacco, and potatoes. There are flour and
saw mills, and manufactories of whetstones and harnesses. Co. .seat, 1'aoli.
ORANGE, a co. in s.e. New York, adjoining New Jersey, bounded e. by Hie Hud-
son and s.w. by the Delaware; drained by the Shawangunk, Wallkiil, and Ramapo
rivers; traversed by the Erie and New Yon\, and the Oswego Midland railroads; 800
sq.in. ; pop. '80, 88,217 — 75,812 of American birth. The surface is diversified, much of
it occupied with the Hudson highlands, and contains iron, granite, and limestone. The
soil is fertile, and produces good crops of corn, grass, oats, and potatoes. It is c;ne of
the best dairy-farming districts in the state, and produces immeuse-quaiitities of milk
and butter. West Point is in this county. Co. seat, Goshcn.
ORANGE, a co. in n. central North Carolina, drained by New Hope creek and the
Neuse, Flat, and Haw rivers, on the North Carolina railroad; about (iOO sq.m. ; pop. '80,
80,902- — 66,343 of American birth. The surface is undulating and heavily wooded, and
the soil generally fertile. The great staple is tobacco. Corn, wheat, oats, potatoes,
sweet potatoes, and cotton are also raised. Sandstone is abundant. Co. seat, Hills-
borough.
ORANGE, a co. in c. Texas, adjoining Louisiana, bounded on the c. by the Sabine
river, on the s. by Sabine lake, and on the w. by the Neches river; 400 sq.m.; pop. '70,
1255. The surface is mostly even, well wooded in some portions. The soil is fertile,
and adapted to agriculture or grazing. The principal productions are corn, sweet
potatoes, and cotton. Rice grows well on the wet lands. Many cattle are raised. Co.
seat, Orange.
ORANGE, a co. in e. Vermont, drained by the "White river and Wait's river, on the
Connecticut and Passumpsic River railroads; 680 sq.m.; pop. '80. 23,529-^-21,819 of
American birth. The surface is diversified and hilly, and much of it heavily wooded
with beech, maple, elm, and oilier trees. Copper and slate arc found. The soil is
fertile, and produces good crops of corn, oats, hay, and potatoes. The sugar maple
abounds, and much maple sugar is made. Other staples arc wool and butler. There
are flour, saw, and woolen mills, and manufactories of carriages and .agricultural tools.
Co. seat, Chelsea.
ORANGE, a co. in n. central Virginia, s. of the Rapidan river, intersected by the
North Anna; on the Potomac, Fredericksburg and Piedmont, and the Chesapeake and
Ohio railroads; 280 sq.m.; pop. '80, 13,051 — 6,844 colored. The surface is uneven and
heavily wooded. The soil is fertile, and the principal productions are corn, wheat, and
oats. Co. seat, Orange Court- House.
OSANOE (the ancient Arausio), an ill-built, decaying, and dirty, but also an inter-
esting town of France, in the department of Vaucluse, stands in a beautiful plain on the
left bank of the Aigue, 16 m. by railway n. of Avisnon. Its chief manufactures are silks,
muslins, serges, etc.; and there are numerous oil-works, dve works, and tanneries. It
carries on a considerable trade in wine, spirits, oils, truffles, saffron, honey, madder,
and essences. Pop. '76, 6,782.
Orange was the capital of a small independent principality of the same name (now
comprised in the department of Vaucluse), which was ruled b\ its i>nn sovereigns from
(the llth 1o the 16th century. The last of these sovereigns, Philibert de Chalons, died
in 1531 without issue. His sister, however, had married a count of Nassau, and to that
'house the estates and titles passed. The count of Nassau who obtained the principality
of Orange was William, the father of William I., the stadthohtarof the I'nitcd Provinces
(see WILLIAM. PRINCE OF ORANGE). William III., prince of Orange and kingof England,
having died in 1702 without issue, there began a long-continued controversy as to the
succession between Frederick I. of Prussia (as grandson of one of the last princes of
Orange), the representative of the older branch of the house of Nassau (q.v.), and the
Orange,
\
head of the younger line. At the peace of Utrecht (1713) the king of Prussia took the
settlement iuto his own hands, so far as the territory of Orange was concerned, by making
it' over, for certain equivalents, to the king of France. The title, prince of Orange,
remained with the younger Nassau line, afterwards kings of the Netherlands, and is now
borne by the heir-presumptive to the Dutch throne.
In the vicinity of Orange are several notable Roman remains. The triumphal arch,
60 ft. high, is celebrated for the beauty of its architecture, and for its richly sculptured
bassi-riliei-i. Of the theater, the remains are sufficiently entire to give a good idea of the
arrangements of this institution as it existed among the Romans.
ORANGE, a township in New Jersey, United States, four m. n.w. of Newark, contain-
ing three villages, Orange, North Orange, and South Orange. Orange mountain com-
mands a noble view of New York city and bay, and its slope is laid out in beautiful
parks, and ornamented with villas. It is the site of a Roman Catholic college and a
water-cure establishment. Pop. '70, 9,348.
ORANGE (ante), a city in Essex co., N. J., primarily the name given in honor of
the prince of Orange to a pleasant village w. of Newark, which, sincelts intersection by
what is now the ilorrisand Essex divisibu of the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western
railroad, has greatly increased in population and importance. A few years ago it was
divided by legislative enactment into the city of Orange and the tOAvnships of East and
West Orange. But, notwithstanding the separating influences that have been thus
strengthened, a substantial unity binds the whole region together, which will probably
constitute one large city at no distant day. It stands on ground rising from the city of
Newark by successive ridges to the summit of the Orange mountain, which is 650 ft. in
height. The streets and avenues are laid out mostly at right angles and have Telford road
beds, which afford about 60 in. of admirable drives. Llewellyn park, extending from the
base to the summit of the mountain, contains 750 acres, 50 of which form a ramble for
the common use of the residents, who now include about 50 families. There are 10 m.
of drives through the park, kept in order by an annual contribution from each family.
Eagle rock, at one extremity, affords a tine view of New York and its environs. The
•whole region, including South Orange, contains about 80 churches, nearly as many
school organizations, seven stations of the Delaware, Lackawauua and Western railroad,
besides several of the Watchung road, a line of horse cars running to Newark, one
national and two savings banks, the Park and Mansion House hotels, with elegant
accommodations for bcaideis, several post-offices, an orphan asylum, hospital, Seton
Hall (Roman Catholic college), and a large number of residences in vaiious styles of
architecture, many of them elegant and tasteful. The total population of the city and
towns is about 30,~000.
ORANGEBURG, a co. in s.w. South Carolina, hounded on the n.e. by the Congaree
and Santee rivers, and on the s.w. by theEdisto; on the South Carolina railroad; 900
sq.m. ; pop. '80, 40,995 — 28,201 colored. The surface is diversified and the soil fertile.
The principal productions are corn, wheat, rice, cotton, and sweet potatoes. Co. seat,
Orangeburg Court -House.
ORANGE COLORS, for painters' use, are various shades of alteration produced ou
chrome yellow (see YELLOW), by acting on it either with diacetate of lead or a weak
alkaline lye, both of which redden the otherwise pure yellow, and give it an orange tint.
— For dyers, a beautiful orange red is obtained from safflower; and orange yellows are
made by mixing, in proper proportions, any of the red with the yellow dyes.
ORANGE OIL, an essential oil obtained by distilling or pressing the rind of the
orange. It is composed principally of the hydrocarbon hcsperidine, CJO H16. It changes
rapidly on exposure to the air, acquiring a turpentine-like odor, the occurrence of which
is prevented or retarded by the addition of 5 or more per cent of alcohol. It commences
to boil at 847°F., and 97.8 per cent goes over below7 356°. The remainder is a soft,
inodorous, yellow resin. 1 lie oil of oranf/e flowers, or oil of neroli, is a volatile oil of a very
agreeable odor, and much use.d in perfumery. It is usually obtained in the preparation
of orange flower water, separating upon the surface in small quantities. It has a brown-
ish color, a bitterish, aromatic taste, and a density ^f 0.889. It is neutral to test paper, and
shows a bright violet fluoresence when mixed with alcohol. On being shaken with a con-
centrated solution of bisulphite of sodium it assumes an intense permanent crimson hue.
It is a hydrocarbon having the same composition as hesperidine do H,B, and contains a
small quantity of an inodorous cry stall izable camphor. The commercial oil of neroli is
generally yellowish or reddish yellow, and is frequently adulterated with oil of bergamot
and orange leaves.
ORANGE RIVER. See GAKII-P.
ORANGE RIVER FREE STATE. The Orange River Free State is the name assumed
by the republic of Dutch boers. who, after retiring from Natal when declared a British
colony, established themselves in the country lying between the two great branches of
the Orange river, the Ky Gariep and the Gariep, known to the colonists as the Vaal and
Orange fivers, and separated from the coast region by the great chain of the Quath-
lamba, Maluti, and Drachenberg mountains.
OR
Orangeman.
The Orange River Free State forms a sort nf connecting link between the Cape Colony,
the. Transvaal Terrhory, and Natal. It consists chiefly of vast undulating plains, \vliich
slope down from the Maluti mountains to the Yaal river, dotted over here and there win
rocky hills, locally called "Kopjies," although in the northern part hundreds of square
miles are found with hardly a break oil the horizon. It comprises an area of above
00,000 square miles.
\\ hen the emigrant Dutch boers took possession of this country, it was inhabited by
different tribes of Betjouanas and Coninnas, all of whom have been dispersed, except the
powerful Basuto tribe, under the chief JMo-hesh, who still maintain themselves in the
fastnesses of the Maluti mountains, and a few Balclapi and oilier Beljouauas, who dwell
round the Wesleyan missiou station of Thab' Unchu and Merametsu.
All the rivers of this region are afflueuts of either of the branches of the Gariep;
amongst them may be named the Modeler. Valsch, Great and Little Vet, Avhich run into
the Ky Qariep or Vaal river, and the Caledon, a considerable stream, which joins the
Orange river after draining the Basuto country.
This region is a vast plateau, rising from 0,COO to 5,000 ft. above the sea-level, with
very little wood, except along the lines of the water-courses that traverse it. Travelers
crossing this slate from the Capo Colony to Natal arrive at the top of the passes leading
to the latter colony without a mountain being in sight, and then rind themselves suddenly
on the edge of an immense mountain-chain, with the coast region several thousand feet
below them, extending to the Indian ocean. Immense herds of the larger antelopes for-
merly tenanted these vast plains, and are vividly described by capt. Harris, Gordon
Gumming, and others; they are no\v fast disappearing. The diamond-fields recently dis-
covered lie in this state arid in Griqua Laud, a narrow strip of territory bounding it on
the west.
The Free State is divided into the following districts: Bloem Fontein (chief towns,
Bloem Fontein the capital, Boshof); Winbnrg (chief towns, "NVinburg, Cronstadi);
bmithfield (chief town, Smithneld); Harrismith (chief town, Harrismith); Fauresmith
(chief town, Fauresmith). The chief town, Bloem Fontein, is situated about 150 m.
n. v. of Colesberg, on a tributary of the M odder river, in lat. 29° 8' south. It contai.i.i
about 250 houses; Dutch, Episcopal, and Roman Catholic churches; has two local banks,
and is the scat of an episcopal see of the church of England. It is distant about 8(<0m.
overland from Cape Town, and has a post twice a week with it. The other villages
or small towns are all increasing and flourishing, but do not present anything remark-
able.
By the latest estimate the population of the Free Slate was 50,000 whites and 25,000
colored inhabitants. In 1875-76 the revenue, principally derived from local taxation and
quit-rents of farms, was £103,091.
The history of the country forming the Free State may be summed up in a few words.
Capt. Harris describes it, before 183(3, as a howling wilderness, inhabited by wandering
hordes of Bushmen and broken Iribes of Betjouana and Zulu refugee;: from the armies of
the gr-.vt Zulu tyrants, Chaka, Diugaan, and Maselikutse. After the Kaffir war of 1KJ5-
36, a spirit of dissatisfaction arising in the minds of many of the frontier boers, an exten-
sive emigration took place along the n.e. frontier of the Cape Colony; the majority of
the emigrants, however, having Natal as their ultimate goal. However, after the British
government had declared it an English colony in 1843, the boers again fell buck on this
ijgion, and by degrees declaring their independence of the British crown, and forming
a sort of Alsatia on our very borders, after some opposition, and one or two conflicts
with our troops, the country was annexed by sir H. Smith to the British empire, under
the name of the Orange River sovereignty; and continued so until 1854, when sir G.
Clerk formally gave it up, and allowed the inhabitants to form a government according
to their own wishes. The government is now in the hands of a president, freely ei
by the landrost and heemraden ii the several districts; while the volksraad, or' peoples'
council, exercise legislative functions. This state labors under the very serious di>ad-
vantage of being, like the kingdom of Bohemia, entirely inland, and lias no port on the
ocean at which customs dues can be collected; thus throwing the whole of the expense
of government on local taxation.
About the year 1862 a large number of Griquas — a tribe of bastard Hottentots, who
inhabited the south part of the state — sold their farms to the Free State government, and
migrated in a body to the coast side of the mountains in Independent Kaffraria, occupy-
ing a large tract of country there known by the name of No Man's Land.
In 1866 a treaty was concluded with Moshesh, chief of the Basutos. by which a por-
tion of the territory known as Basuto Land was ceded to the Orange River Free State.
The boundaries n greed on by this treaty were, however, somewhat modified by the gov-
ernor of Cape Colony in 1869 — a significant fact.
The Dutch boers profess the Dutch Reformed faith, and speak a dialect of Dutch,
corrupted with Hottentot and English words. They marry young, and keep up, to some
extent, nomadic habits. The roads and internal communication are good. Lime and
timber are rather scarce, but building-stone and thatch abundant. Wooled sheep have
increased amazingly within the last few years; and farms that 10 years airo would hardly
fetch £50, now sell" at from £2,000 to £3,000. The value of imports in 1875 was £697,-
025; of exports, £1,530,883.
-1 ' Orangeman.
OR'ANGEMAN, one of tlie unhappy party designations which contributed for nearly
a century to create and keep alive religious and political divisions of the worst, character
throughout the British empire, but especially in Ireland. The Orange organization had its
origin in the animosities which had subsisted between Protestants and Catholics in Ireland
from the reformation downwards, but which reached their full development after the revo-
lution of 1688, and the wholesale confiscations of Catholic property by which that event
was followed. From that time, the Catholics of Ireland may be said legally to have lest
all social, political, and religious status in Ireland. Some attempts which were made
in the latter part of the 18th c. to ameliorate their condition, excited, especially in the
E., the alarm of the Protestant party, who regarded the traditionary "Protestant ascend-
ency" as endangered. Acts of violence became, of frequent occurrence, and, as com-
monly happens, combinations for aggressive and defensive purposes were formed, not
alone by the Protestants, but also by their Catholic antagonists. The members of the
Protestant associations appear at first to have been known by the name of " Peep-of-day
Boys," from the time at, which their violences were commonly perpetrated; the Catholics
who associated together for self-defense being called " Defenders." Collisions between
armed bodies of these parties became of frequent occurrence. In 1785 a pitched battle,
attended with much bloodshed, was fought in the county of Armagh. The steps taken
to repress these disorders were at once insufficient in themselves to prevent open violence,
and had the effect of diverting the current into the still more dangerous channel of
secret associations. The rude and illiterate mob of Peep-of-day boys made way for the
rich and influential organization of the Orange society, which, having its first origin in
the same obscure district which had so long been the scene of agrarian violence, by
degrees extended its ramifications into every portion of the British empire, and into
every grade of society from the hovel to the very steps of the throne. The name of the
Orange association is taken from that of the prince of Orange, William III., and was
assumed in honor of that prince, who, in Ireland, has been popularly identified v.'ith the
establishment of that Protestant ascendency which it was the object of the Orange associa-
tion to sustain. The first ' ' Orange lodge" was founded in the village of Loughgall, county
Armagh, Sept. 21, 1705. The immediate occasion of the crisis was a series of outrages
by which Catholics were forcibly ejected from their houses and farms, 12 or 14 houses
being sometimes, according to a disinterested witness, wrecked in a single night; termi-
nating, Sept., 1795, in an engagement, called from the place where it occurred, the
Battle of the Diamond. -The association which began among the ignorant peasantry
soon worked its way upwards. The general disaffection towards English rule, which at
that time pervaded Ireland, and in which the Catholics, as a natural consequence of
their oppressed condition, largely participated, tended much to identify in the minds of
Protestants the cause of disloyalty with that of popery; and the rebellion of 1798 insep-
arably combined the religious with the political antipathies. In November of that year,
the Orange society had already reached the dignity of a grand lodge of Ireland, with a
grandmaster, a grand secretary, and a formal establishment in the metropolis; and in
the following years, the organization extended over the entire province of Ulster, and
had its ramifications in all the centers of Protestantism in the other provinces of Ireland.
In 1808 it extended to England. A grand lodge was founded at Manchester, from which
warrants were issued for the entire kingdom. The seat of the grand lodge was trans-
ferred to London in 1821. The subject more than once was brought under the notice of
parliament, especially in 1813; and, in consequence, the grand lodge of Ireland was dis-
solved; but its functions in issuing warrants, etc., were discharged vicariously through
the English lodge. The most memorable crisis, however, in the history of the Orange
society was the election of a royal duke (Cumberland) in 1827 as grand master for
England; and on the re-establishment of the Irish grand lodge in 1828, as imperial grand
master. The Catlioli ; relief act of the following year stirred up all the slumbering
antipathies of creed and race, and the Orange association, was propagated more vigor-
ously than ever. Emissaries were sent out for the purpose of organizing lodges, not
alone in AVales and Scotland, but also in Canada, in the Mediterranean, and in the other
colonies. But the most formidable part of this zealous propagandism was its introduc-
tion into the army. As early as 1824 traces of this are discoverable, and again in 1826.
No fewer than 82 regiments were proved to have received warrants for holding lodges
in Ireland, and the English grand lodge had issued 87 warrants for the same
purpose.
The organization of this strange association was most complete and most extensive.
Subject to the central grand lodge were three classes — county, district, and private
lodges — each of which corresponded and made returns and contributions to its owa
immediate superior, by whom they were transmitted to the grand lodge. Each lodge
had a master, deputy-master, secretary, committee, and chaplain. The only condition
of membership was that the party should be Protestant, and 18 years of age. The elec-
tion of members was by ballot, and each lodge also annually elected its own officers and
committee. The general government of the association was vested in the grand lodge,
which consisted of all the great dignitaries, the grand masters of counties, and the mem-
bers of another body called the grand committee. This lodge met twice each year, in.
May and on Nov. 5 — the day pregnant with associations calculated to keep alive the
Protestant antipathies of the body." All the dignitaries of the society as well as its vari-
Oranienbaum. OQ
Oratory.' ^°
ous committees and executive bodies, were subject to annual re-election. In 1835 the
association numbered 20 grand lodges, H) district lodges, 1500 private lodges, and from
200,000 to 220,000 members. The worst result of the Orange association was the constant
incentive it supplied to party animosities and deeds of violence. 'The spirit of fraternity
which pervaded its members waa a standing obstacle to the administration of the law;
and all confidence in the local administration of justice by magistrates was destroyed.
An alleged Orange conspiracy to alter (lie succession to the crown in favor of the duke of
Cumberland led to a protracted parliamentary inquiry in lS!-"»: :u:d this inquiry as well
as a'shocking outrage perpetrated scon afterwards by an armed body of Orangemen, on
occasion of a procession in Ireland, so discredited the association and awakened the pub-
lic mind to a sense of its folly and wickedness, that its respectability has since that time
gradually diminished. For several years the lord chancellor laid down a rule, by which
no member of the Orange association was admitted to the commission of (he peace: and
the association became comparatively without influence, except among the very lowest
classes in the north of Ireland. Of the colonial offshoots of the Orange association those
of Canada have at all times been the most active, carrying >viih them all the bitten;
the domestic feud with the Roman Catholics. Outrages against Catholic churches and
convents were of not unfrequent occurrence until recently; and on occasion of the visit
of the prince of Wales to Canada, an attempt was inade to force from his royal highness
a recognition of the association, which was only defeated by his own firmness, and by
the judicious and moderate counsels of his advisers. A few years ago the Orangemen
of British America constituted above 1200 lodges, with about 150,000 members. The
association has branches in the United States also.
The Orange association in Ireland, which had bcgjjm to fall into genera disrepute,
received an impulse among the working classes from a series of sanguinary conflicts with
Roman Catholics on occasion of the anniversary celebrations of the society; and eren
ctill the peace of many districts in the north of Ireland is only r, •cscrvcd on such occa-
sions by the presence of an overpowering force of military and constabulary. The
repeal of the processions act has failed up to the present time to put an end to the tradi-
tional collisions of the parties.
ORA-'NIENBAUM, a Russian t. on the gulf of Finland, 20 m. w. of St. Petersburg;
pop. 4,043. It has a marine hospital and an imperial palace built by prince Menshikoff,
and afterwards the favorite residence of Peter III. The palace is surrounded on all sides
by orange trees (oranienbiiuiuc), whence it derives its name.
OEATO'BIO (Ital. oratorio, chapel or oratory, the place where these compositions
were lirst performed), a kind of sacred musical composition, either purely dramatic or
partaking both of the drama and the epic, in which the text is illustrative of some relig-
ious subject, sometimes taken directly from Scripture; and the music consists of recita-
tives, airs, duets, trios, quartets, choruses, accompanied by an orchestra, sometimes
also by an organ, and introduced by an instrumental overture. The oratorio is not
intended for scenic representation.
St. Filippo Neri, born in 1515, has been considered the founder of the oratorio. He
engaged poets and composers to produce dialogues, on subjects from scriptural and
legendary history, in verse, and set to music, which were performed in his chape! or
oratory on Sund lys and church festivals. The subjects were Job <ni<f //A /•'/// mix; The
Pnt'Hii/il $>>n; The Angel Gabriel with the Virgin; and The Myslei-y of the Iiirurniition.
Stradella composed various oratorios, of which San Gioranni Ldtlixta, produced in 1G70,
is praised by Dr. Burney. A number of oratorios, or azioni nacre, by Apostolo Xeno
and Metastasio, were set to music by Caldara in the beginning of last century. Sebas-
tian Bach's Passions- Musik was a species of oratorio, originally performed during the
service of the church, the congregation joining in the chorales. Its form arose out of
the practice prevalent in the Lutheran church, of having the gospels for the day
repeated on Good Friday, and some other festivals, by different pen-ons in a recitative
and dialogue style. By far the greatest master of oratorio was Handel, who pet
that species of composition, and was the first to introduce it into England. At
the age of 20. when on a visit to Italy, he produced his oratorio of La AV.v//, <-r<->'»ne at
Rome. Either, the first oratorio written by him in England, was composed for the
chapel of his patron, the duke of Chandos, in 1720, the words altered from Racine. It
was performed privately at Cannons in the same year, but laid aside, and not produced
in public till 1732. An oratorio was then so complete a novelty in England, that it was
deemed necessary to give the following explanation in advertising it: " By His Ma ;
command, at the King's theater in the Haymarket, on Tuesday the 2d May, will be per-
formed the sacred Story of Esther, an oratorio in English, composed by Mr. Handel,
and to be performed by a great number of voices and instruments. — N.H. There wil)
be no acting on the stage, but the house will be fitted up in a decent manner for the
audience." For many years after the appearance of Esther, no more oratorios were pro-
duced by Handel, who devoted himself to operas and other secular music; and it wa:
only after the temporary failure of his health, that at Ihe ripe age of 53 he resumed thr
composition of oratorios. The great oratorios which have made his name immorta,
were r." produced in the decline of life, some of them after he was afflicted vuth blind-
ness, and they were performed for the most part in the Old Haymarket theater. Dcbo*
9Q Oranlenbaum.
a <* Oratory.
rst performed in 1733; AthaliaTt., in 1734; Israel in Egypt, in 1738; The Memah,
in 1741; Samson, in 1742; Judas Maccabceus, in 1746; Joshua, in 1747; So'omon, in 1749;
and Jephtha, in 1751. The two crowning works were Israel in Egypt and The Mumiah —
the former ranks highest of all compositions of the oratorio class. The Messiah — which,
in consequence of its text being taken entirely 1'rom Scripture, was called by Handel
The Sacred Oratorio — ranks very near it in point of musical merit, and has attained an
even more universal popularity; from the time when it was first brought out, down to
the present day, it has been performed for the benefit of nearly every important charita-
ble institution in Britain. Judas Maccabceus is perhaps best known from the flowing
and martial grace of that unrivaled military march, " See the Conquering Hero Comes;"
and Saul is associated in every one's mind with the most solemn of till funeral marches.
The orchestra was but imperfectly developed in Handel's time, and his oratorios had
therefore originally but meager instrumental accompaniments; they have since been,
generally performed with additional accompaniments written by Mozart. From Han-
del's time downwards, it was the practice in London to have oratorios performed twice a
week during Lent in the various theaters, which were on1.}' given up on the institution
of the oratorio performances at Exeter Hall. Haydn composed three oratorios — The
Return of Tobias, The Seven Last Words, and T/ie Creation. The Seven Last Words, a
work full of sweetness and of energy, hardly answers to the common conditions of an
oratorio; it is rather a series of symphonies, intended to follow as many short sermons
on the sentences uttered by our Lord on the cross, the text being a subsequent addition
by the composer's brother, Michael Haydn. The Creation originated in a visit of Hayda
to London in 1791, when he heard for the first time some of the works of Handel, none
of which were then known in Germany. Though less grand than the oratorios of Han-
del, it is full of fresh lovely songs, bright choruses, picturesque recitatives, and exqui-
site instrumentation. Beethoven's sole oratorio, The Mount of Olives, is a pure drama,
rather than the mixed composition generally known under the name. Spohr's Last
Judgment, produced in 1825, contains some grand music, particularly in the choruses.
Costa's Eli deserves mention among modern oratorios. But since the time of Handel no
other writer of oratorios has approached Mendelssohn. The greatest works of that com-
poser are his oratorios of Si. Paul and Eljah; the former was first produced at Diissel-
dorf in 1836, the latter at Birmingham in 1846; and at the time of his death he was
engaged in a third oratorio, called Christus, which he expected would be his greatest,
and of which but a few fragments have been published. The oratorios of Mendelssohn
have tended greatly to revive the popularity of this kind of composition in Britain. At
Exeter Hall in London, and at the musical festivals throughout England, oratorios are
performed on a large scale, and with a power, a precision, and a perfection unknown
elsewhere. The choruses at the provincial festivals are, for the most part, supplied by
Birmingham, Manchester, Leeds, and the other large towrns. The greatest oratorio per-
formances are now those of the Triennial Festivals at the Sydenham Crystal Palace. At
the festival of 1877, the chorus amounted to over 3100 voices, and there was an orches-
tra of 450 performers.
ORATORIUM (Lat. "oratory," called in Greek, euTderion or proxeitkteriori), as contra'
distinguished from ecdeaia, "a church," is the name given to an apartment or building
designed for worship of a private or domestic character. From the earliest times, the
use of oratorio is traceable in the history of the church; and before the regular organiza-
tion of parishes, they had probably a considerable place in the common, although not in
the public worship. At a later period, oratoria became a common appendage of the
castles and residences of the nobility, and were of two kinds; the first, simply for pri-
vate or family prayer and other devotion; the second, for the celebration of mass. Th«
latter fell properly under the jurisdiction of the bishop or the parochial clergy, and
many jealousies and disputes grew out of their establishment or direction. The council
of Trent (Sess. xxii., De Reformations) placed them under very stringent regulations,
which have been enforced and developed by later popes, especially by Benedict XIV.
ORATORY. See ELOQUENCE; RHETORIC.
OKATOKY, CONGREGATION OF THE. The origin of this learned congregation, and
its early history, have been detailed under the head of St. Philip Neri (q.v.). It is
remarkable, however, that this extraordinary man, unlike mo-'t other founders of relig-
ious bodies in the Roman Catholic church, had never committed to writing any definite
body of rules for the government and direction of the brethren. Even^ his scattered
papers, from which his plans and intentions might have been collected, had been burned
by his orders a short time before his death. Soon after that event, the fathers, at the
instance of Baronius, compiled from the existing practices and from memory a rule for
the congregation, framed so as to embody the .spirit of St. Philip. This rule was
approved of by Paul V. on Feb. 21, 1612. The fathers of the congregation are a body
of priests living in community, but without vows, and under a constitution of a highly
democratical character. They are at liberty to withdraw at any time, and to resume
possession of the property which they had brought with them at entrance; and even
during their association, each member manages his own financial concerns, on/y contrib-
uting a fixed sum to the common expenses of the community. There is no superior-
general, as in other orders. Each house is distinct and independent. In each, the
Orbigny. QA
Orchard.
superior is elected only for three years, and bis position does not give him any personal
pre-eminence whatever. The members take their places according to seniority, not
according to official rank, and Hie superior is compelled to take his turn in all the
duties, even down to the semi-menial office of serving in the refectory. The main occu-
pations of the fathers, beyond those of at lending to the public service of the church, and
the dutfcs of the pulpit and the confessional, lie in the cultivation of theological and
other sacred .studies, of which " conferences" for the discussion, in common, of theolog-
ieai questions, form a principal feature. The congregation has produced many men of
great eminence in sacred science, among whom have been already named the great
church historian, cardinal Baronius, and his continuators. To these may be added the
celebrated explorers of the Roman catacombs, Bosio, Severani, and Aringhi; and the no
less eminenu patristica! scholar, Gallandi. The houses of the Oratory in Italy before the
revolution were numerous, and in high repute. Few towns of any impoitanee were
without a house of the Oratory. The congregation was early established in France by
the celebrated Pierre (afterwards cardinal) de Berulle, in common with two Italian
fathers, and from France it extended to the Low Countries. One important difference,
however, is noticeable between the French Oratory and the lioman origim'l. In the
former, f 11 the houses of the country are subject to a single superior-general. In France,
also, the Oratorians took charge of seminaries and of theological teaching. The French
Oratory, as well as the Italian, reckons many illustrious members; but the fame and
utility of the French congregation were much marred by the unhappy controversy about
Jansenism. In the year 1847 this congregation was introduced into England by Dr.
John Henry Newman (q.v.). Boon after his secession from Anglicanism, he established
a house, the members of which were for the most part ex-Angiicans like himself, near,
and finally at Birmingham; and soon afterwards, a second at London, which has since
been transferred to Brompton.
ORBIGNY, ALCTD^ DESSALINES D', 1802-57; b. France; educated at La Tlochelle.
In 1826 he went to South America on a scientific expedition, equipped by '.lie French
government. He remained eight years, exploring the country from Brazil to Patagonia,
making extensive collections in natural history and botany. He also acquired a largo
number of historical manuscripts, and vocabularies of the native languages. He was
lecturer on paleontology at the museum of natural history, 1836-53. Among his works
are: A Voyafje in South America, 1834-52; and French Paleontology, 14 vote., 1840-51.
OBBI3 PICTTJS (the Pictured World), the title of the first picture-book or illustrated
manual of instruction for the young, by the celebrated educationist, Comcnius, published
at Nuremberg in 1607. It was long a great favorite with the youth of Germany, and con-
tinued to be reprinted, in various modified forms, down to recent limes. Comenius,
•with the instinct of a great teacher, felt that to give words without things in the pupil
was not simpiy to retard his progress, bi>t to lay the foundation of vague ;;nd inaccurate
conceptions. Hence hfs introduction of the pictures of things into the work above
named, which, among other things, was intended for those beginning the study of Latin,
the connecting of the word with the picture tending to give the pupi-1 a firmer hold or a
quicker perception of both word and thing. The great and distinguishing merit of
Comenius's book is, that it brought distinctly into notice the necessity of giving children
in (he earliest stages of their education, not simply a word, but the form of the thing of
which the word was the symbol. Further advance on this idea was made by Pestalozzi,
who aimed at presenting "to the eye of the child the thing itself, whenever 'it was prac-
ticable to do so; and he regarded this as essential to the right education of the human
faculties in their infancy, From this, again, flowed the excellent custom of giving object
jessons in infant schools
OESIT, in astronomy, is the path described :n space by a heavenly body in its revolu-
tion round its primary.* The path so described i-s of an elliptic form, find would IK?
accurately an ellipse were it not for the disturbing influence of the other heavenly
bodies. Sec PERTURBATIONS. The cor ;plete determination of a planet's orbit is of the last
importance lo astronomers, as it enables them to predict the planet's place in the heavens
at any period, and thus determine the exact date of eclipses of the sun and moon, of tran-
sits and occupations of the planets, and of the appearances and disappearances of comets.
For the determination of i\. planet's orbit, it is necessary to know three tilings: 1. The
situation of the plane of the orbit in space; 2. the position of the orbit in this plane;
and 3. the situation at a given epoch, and rate of motion, of Hie planet in its orbit.
Since the plane of Ui3 ecliptic is for convenience taken as the reference plane, the posi-
tion of the plane of a planet's orbit is known when its inclination to the plane of the
ecliptic (1). nnd the line of intersection of the two planes (2). nro known. Since
the sun, which is the focus of the planetary orbits, lies in this line of intersection, the
orbit cannot lie wholly above or below the plane of the ecliptic, but mint cut it in two
points, called Nodes (q.v.), and the position of the line of intersection, or line of nodes,
is generally given in terms of the longitude (or angular distance) of the, ascending node,
reckoning from the equinox. The situation of a planet's orbit in its piano is determined
when we know its form (3), size (4), and the position of its major axis or line of
* The sun is the primary of the planets and comets, and each planet is the primary of its satellites
(secondary planets;.
01 Orblgny.
UA Orchard.
aspides (5). The size and form of the orbit depend upon the length of its major and
minor axes, but astronomers prefer to employ the major axis and eccentricity (see
ELLIPSE); and the position of the major axis is known by determining the heliocentric
longitude of its perihelion (i. e. , the extremity of it which is nearest the sun). To complete
our knowledge of a planet's motion, all we now require are the epoch of its appearance
at some determinate point of its orbit, say at the perihelion (6), and the velocity of its*
motion in its orbit (7), for when this last is known, the law of areas, as given in Kepler's
second law, enables us to determine the position of the planet in its orbit at any future
period. These seven facts, the possession of which gives us a complete clue to a planet's
motion, are called the seven "elements of a planet's orbit." What has been here stated
concerning the planetary orbits, is equally true of the comets and satellites, though, in
the case of the latter, the effect of disturbing forces is so great as to produce a considera-
ble change of the elements in one revolution.
ORCA. See GRAMPUS, ante.
ORCA'GNA, ANDREA DI CIONE, 1325-85; b. Florence; studied art with his father,
Clone, a famous goldsmith, and afterward with Andrea Pisano. In association with
his brother Bernardo, he painted a number of works in the Florentine churches, and in
the Campo Santo at Pisa, where he executed the Triumph of Ueatli and the Last Judg-
ment, and Ins brother the Hell. The Hdl .and Last Judgment were engraved by Lasinio
in his PMurc del Campo Santo di Pica. Oicagna reproduced them in the Santa Croce at
Florence; he had already painted in the Slrozzi chapel, in Santa Maria Novella, i\Hell
after Dante's Inferno, in which some of the portraits are those of personal enemies. His
reputation as an architect was high, and he built the Loggia de' Lanzi in the Piazza
Granduca at Florence, the clrureh of Or' San Michele, ard the famous tabernacle of the
Virgin in that monastery; a white marble Gothic altar in pyramidal form, covered with
figures and sculptures. The adoption of the semicircular arch in preference to the
pointed has been attributed, but wrongly, to Orcagna. The semicircular arch had
already been employed by Arnolfo di Lapo'and others. Orcagna signed himself sculptor
upon Lis paintings, and painter upon his sculptures.
OKCHAED (Goth, aiirtir/ards, middle high Ger.icvrzgarte, Ang.-Sax. ryrtgeard, ortgeard,
a yard or garden for worts or vegetables), a piece of ground specially devoted to the
growth of fruit trees, and in which these are planted as near to each other as their
profitable cultivation will admit of, no space being left for culinary vegetables, as in
the fruit-garden, The introduction of such crops to any considerable extent is
injurious to the trees of an orchard, by exhausting the soil, and the vegetables produced
are not good. In some orchards the soil is regularly digged, and manure pretty freely
supplied, the trees being dwarf standard*, trained to a low and bushy form, in rows about
12 i't. apart, with rows of gooseberries, currants, or raspberries between them. Such
orchards are often very productive, and are not liable to suffer much from winds, whilst
the trees also protect each other from frosts in spring. Other orchards are formed in old
pastures, the turf being replaced when the trees are planted, or, if they are formed on.
land that has been uader the plow, it is sown down with grass. In these, also, msnure is
occasionally given. In many cases the grass of orchards is employed for pasturing cattle
or sheep, the trees being standards or half-standards, with stems so tall th:it their branches
are beyond the reach of the animals, and in this way the grass produced by the soil is
returned to it in the form of manure. In forming orchards of this kind, it is not unusual
to plant the .vAwAx upon which the proper grafts or buds are afterward inserted. Great
orchard^ of this kind exist in Devonshire, Herefordshire, and some other southern coun-
ties of England, devoted to the growth of apples for the production of cider, and to a'
smaller extent, of pears for the production of perry. Orchards are not so common in
Scotland as in England, where they are not only frequent appendages of the manor-
house, but even of the farm-house. Apples, pears, plums, and cherries, not of the finest
kinds are the fruits chiefly produced in British orchards, although some in England also
yield walnuts, chestnuts, medlars, mulberries, quinces, etc., and there are even a few
email fig-orchards in the most southern parts. Fig and peach orchards are very com-
mon i:i the more southern parts of Europe; and oranges, lemons, etc., on the shores of
the Mediterranean.
An orchard requires a dry soil, which ought also to he free and open, not a stubborn
clay. A gentle slope, exposing it to the sun, is preferable to perfectly level ground.
Protection from prevalent winds, especially in Britain from the s w. winds, which often
blow strongly in autumn, is very necessary; but it is not less important that there should
be a free circulation of air. in default of "which the trees become covered with lichens
and mosses, and cease to be productive. An orchard is of ten surrounded by a hawthorn-
hedge, but a small orchard must not have a very high hedge. Forest trees are often
planted as a screen, but must not be too near. Where walnut and chestnut trees will
ripen their fruit, they are often planted, on the side most exposed to winds, for shelter.
In laying out the ground for an orchard, it is not unusual to form it into ridges, on
the crown of which the trees are planted. But, however this maybe, the trees are planted
in rows running n. amis., so that, the rays of sun may penetrate among them somewhat
equally. In planting the trees, their roots arc spread out as much as possible, as it is
found desirable to encourage them to extend near the surface, rather than to penetrate
Orchomenos. ^^
deep into the ground, pnrticukrly whore no dicing or cropping is intended. The rerr.arks
on soil and manures in the article FKUIT-(.TAK».-,N are applicable also to orchards.
The districts of Scotland most celebrated lor their orchards are a portion of Clydes-
dale (Lanarkshire) and the ('arse of Gowrie (Perthshire) in both of which the apple-
orc hards arc of very considerable economical importance.
ORCHARD-HOUSE, a structure adapted to the cultivation of fruits, of finer kinds
than can be produced in the open air, or in greater perfection, without the aid of ariilicial
heat. It is the invention of Mr. Rivers of London, and is a "glass-roofed shed," the
front of which is lower than the back, so thai the roof slopes towards the sun. The
merit of the invention, however, consist not so much in tlie structure itself, or in the
protecting of fruit-trees and admitting of the sun's rays by glass, as in the mode of their
treatment, by which a limited space can be made to produce a prodigious quantity of
fine fruit. The trees are planted in pots, are never allowed to attain aconsiderabi
and are so trained and pruned as to have the greatest possible amount of fruitful \\<»><l
within the smallest possible compass. The pots have a large hole in the bottom, through.
which the roots may pass; and are placed upon a border carefully prepared for them,
of loose and open materials, such as cinders, lime-rubbish and broken bricks, enriched
by manure. After the fruit is gathered, the roots are cut through at the bottom of the
pot, and the trees are set aside To rest for the winter; and this treatment is repeated from,
year toycar. The orchard-house is generally a very low structure, so that the foilnge
aud fruit arc very near the glass; its back being only 7 ft. high, and i!s front only 2^ ft.,
for a width of 12 feet. A path is excavated as a trench of 2 ft, deep, and 2| ft. wide,
through the middle of it. For details as to glazing, ventilation, etc., we refer to Mr.
Rivers's pamphlet, The OrcJuird- house, and to Chambers's Information for the People, i.
pp. 591-92 (new ed.). Plants for orchard-houses may now be purchased in nurseries. In,
the pamphlet of Mr. Rivers, instructions will be found as to the training aud treatment
of different kinds of trees.
ORCHESTRA (Gr. orchestra, from orcheomai, I dance), in the Greek theaters, the
place allotted to the chorus of dancers; in modern theaters, the part of the building
assigned to the instrumentalists; and in the modern concert-room, the place occupied
by the instrumental and vocal performers. The word orchestra is also used to denote
the musicians collectively.
A complete orchestra consists of stringed and wind instruments, and instruments of
percussion. The employment of sti'iuged and wind instruments together was long
deemed a barbarism. Gliick was among the first composers who showed that they could
be effectively combined, and his ideas were more fully developed by succeeding com-
posers The perfecting of the old instruments, and the introduction of new ones, for-
merly confined to military bands, have added immensely to the power and resources of
the modern orchestra, whose capacities, however, have sometimes been misused.
The proper strength of an orchestra must depend on considerations connected with
the locality. The stringed instruments should in all cases greatly outnumber the wind
instruments; and those latter, the instruments of percussion. The stringed instruments
in general use are the violin, viola, violoncello, and double-bass, and their force often
amounts to as many as fifty, while even in a large orchestra there are seldom more flutes,
hautboys, or bassoons than two of each. The horn trumpet, and ophicleide or serpent,
the other wind instruments admitted into the orchestra, are used as sparingly; and of
instruments of percussion, a pair of kettle-drums is often considered sufficient, though
cymbals aud triangles are occasionally added. In a small orchestra, trumpets, trom-
bones, the serpent, and the kettle-drum should be avoided as being too noisy. By far
the greatest part of the work falls to the share of the stringed instruments, life part's for
•which form a complete quartet for first violin, second violin, viola and violoncello, which
should be perfect within itself, independently of the parts for the wind instruments. The
object of the double-bass is to enforce the violoncello part. This full quartet is occasion-
ally interrupted by harmony in two or three parts, or passages in unisons or octaves.
The success of the combination of wind and stringed instruments depends on the skill
and judgment of the composer. The bassoon, horn, or flute may double any given part
of the stringed instrument quartet, so as to produce an effect of re-enforcement, or it may
have its own distinctive melody. An occasional variety is produced by the entire cessa-
tion of stringed instruments for a short period, letting the wind instruments be heard
alone.
The orchestra of a concert-room should be so arranged that the front is about five ft.
above the level of the floor, and it should rise gradually in steps towards the end wall,
whose angles ought to be rounded off so as to enable the whole body of sound to be
reflected. Reverberation is essential to the proper effect of music. From the exigences
of dramatic representation, a theatrical orchestra must necessarily be much inferior to a
concert orchestra; the instrumentalists, brought together in the lowest part of a theater on
a horizontal plane between the spectators and the stage, are deprived of most of the
advantages arising from a proper arrangement.
ORCHIDE.E, or ORCHIDA'CE^, often popularly called ORCHIDS, a natural order of
endogenous plants, remarkable for the structure of their flowers, which are also of great
beauty and exquisite fragrance. The perianth somatimes exhibits much variety of forms.
o q Orchard-houseo
Orchomenos.
even in the same species; but is always irregular, its segments differing much from each
other. There are unusually .six segments, arranged in two rows (cdlyx and corolla);
although some of the most extraordinary forms of orchideous flowers are produced by
the combination of certain segments into one piece. Spurs and other appendages of some
of the segments are also common. The inner segments are often beautifully colored.
The inferior segment of the corolla is called the lip (labellum), and is of ten lobed, spurred,
or furnished Avith curious appendages of different kinds. The stamens are united with
the style into a single central column, the distinctive character of the Linnaean class
gynvndrM, of which the orchidese form the chief part. There is usually only one anther,
with a tubercle on each side of it, the tubercles being abortive anthers; but sometimes the
two lateral anthers are perfect, and the central one is abortive; and very rarely all the
three anthers are perfect. The anthers are usutlly two-celled; the grains of pollen coher-
ing in two or more masses. The ovary is inferior, one-celled; the stigma usually a mere
hollow in front of the column. The fruit is usually a capsule, opening with six valves,
three of which have placenta); the seeds numerous and very small. In a few cases the
fruit is fleshy. The orehidese are generally herbaceous perennials; but some of i hose
found in warm climates are shrubs, and some of these, as vanilla, are climbers. The
root is usually composed of simple cylindrical fibers, which are often accompanied
•with one or two fleshy tubercles, a tubercle dying and a new one being produced annually.
The leaves are always simple, alternate, often sheathing at the base, often leathery,
sometimes arising, in tropical species, not directly from the stem, but from fleshy bulb-
like excrescences of it. The species of orchidese are. very numerous, about 3,000 having
been described. They are found in all parts of the world, except the coldest and the
most arid regions; but are most numerous in the humid forests of the torrid zone, and
particularly in America. Many of them are epiphytes, adorning the boughs of trees with
splendid flowers. This is chiefly the c ise with tropical species, those of colder climates
mostly growing on the ground. Only about thirty-eight gpecies are reckoned in the
British flora. — SALKP (q. v.), a delicate and nutritious article of food, is obtained from
the root-tubercles of a number of species. The only other product of the order which
is of any commercial importance is vanilla (q.v.). The fragrant faaui (q.v.) leaves
are the leaves of an orchid. Several species a;e known to possess tonic, stimulant, and
juitispasmodic properties, but none are of much importance in medicine.
Orchids have of late been much cultivated on account of their flowers, and many
tropical species are amongst our most esteemed hot-house plants, houses being sometimes
specially devoted to them. Many of the epiphytal kinds may be planted in pots filled
with loose fibrous peat; the roots of others are placed in baskets, or are fastened to blocks
of wood, with a little moss or some such thing around them, to keep them from becom-
ing too dry, and are thus placed on the shelves, or suspended from the roof of the house.
Careful attention to temperature is necessary, and also to ventilation; and although
much heat and moisture are requisite, the atmosphere must not l>e constantly very hot
and humid, but seasons of rest must be given to the plants, which in their native climates
have generally a wet and a dry season, the latter being to them in many respects- what the
winter is to plants of temperate regions.
Lindley has particularly signalized himself in the study of this interesting order of
plants.
ORCHIL AND ORCHELLA WEED. See ARCHIL.
ORCHIS is a genus of OrcMrlece, to which, as now restricted, eleven of the British
species are referred. Some of them are among the most common of British Orchideas,
adorning meadows and pastures with their flowers in summer. The roots of some of
the species yield salep. The Up of the flower in this genus has a spur. The flowers of
the early purple Orchis (0. mascuaJ), one of the most common species, are some-
times fragrant; but those of the lizard Orchis (0. hirtina), found in chalky dis-
tricts in the south of England, are remarkable for their disagreeable goat-like or lizard-
like smell.
ORCHOMENOS, a famous and very ancient city of Bceotia, the capital of the once
independent kingdom of the Minyae, and hence called Minyean Orchomenos, to distin-
guish it from another Orchomenos in Arcadia. It was situated northward from the
lake Copa'is, on the left bank of the Cephissus, and extended from the marshy edges of
the lake up the face of a steep rocky hill on which stood the acropolis. In the earliest
times its dominions extended to the sea. Homer compares its treasures to those of
Egyptian Thebes, and tells us that it sent 30 ships to the Trojan Avar. Some time after
this event, it became a member of the Boeotian confederacy. During the Persian war,
like the other towns of Boeotia, it abandoned the national cause. Its government was
thoroughly aristocratic, and after the Peloponnesian war, when Thebes became a democ-
racy, Orchomenos took part with Sparta, and shared in its first triumph over Thebes; but
the victory of Epaminoudas at Leuctra (371 B.C.) placed Orchomenos at the mercy of
the Thebans, who soon after destroyed it by fire, and sold its' inhabitants as slaves. It
was again rebuilt during the Phocian war, but a second time destroyed in the reign of
Philip of Macedon, who, however, once more rebuilt it; but it never again became
prominent in history. Orchomenos was famous for its great musical festival in honor
of the Graces, whei poets and musicians assembled from all quarters to compete for
U. K. XI.— 3
Orcin. O 1
Order.
prizes. The ruins of Orchornenos arc still to be sneu near the modern village of Skripii.
See K. O. Milller's Orchonienos und die Minyer, Leake's J\:o)-tkcru GVf.a," and Murc'a
Tour iu 6Y.
OECIN AND ORCEIN are coloring matters obtained from lichens. Orcin (C,4HgO4-f 2
Aq) may be. obtained by boiling ce"tr.;n species of Roccella or L<'C<I/I<>/-<( with lime for
some hours, removing the lime by a current of carbonic acid, evaporating and abstract-
ing with boiling alcohol, from which the orcin separates in red crystals, \\ith chloride
of lime, it gives a purple red color, which quickly changes to a deep yellow. Orcin is
the true color-producing substance br Cbromogen of these lichens. In the ]
ammonia, it absorbs oxygen, and is converted into orcein (Ci4H7N(),;), a nitrogenous
compound of strong tinctorial power? When isolated, orcein forms a red flncculein
powder, which is freely soluble in alcohol, forming a scarlet fluid. Potash aud ammo-
nia dissolve it readily, forming a splendid purple color, which is the basis of the ordi-
nary archil of commerce. With metallic salts, its alkaline solutions yield beautiful
purple lakes.
ORD, EDWARD O. C., b. Md., 1818; son of James Ord, an officer of the war of 1812;
graduated at the U. 8. military academy at West Point in 1839. In July, 1839, he
was appointed 2d lieut. of the 3d artillery. He served m the Florida war with the
Seminole Indians 1839-42, and was then ordered to the frontier, taking part in many
expeditions against the Indians. He was employed on the coa-t survey
-46. When the war broke out in 1861 he was on duty iu California, whither he
bad twice before been sent; tbe first time to establish order and a respect for the
law, in the performance of which duty he was forced to use very stringent men
executing several notoriously desperate men; and again in 185"), having been made
cspt. Sept. 7, 1850. He was appointed brig.gen. of volunteers in Sept., lH>i, and
the following November "was placed in command of a brigade of Peinisvh ania reserves,
under gen. JMcCall, and was raised to the rank of maj. of the 4tli artillery in the
regular army. He was in action at the battle of Dranesville, near the Potomac, De<.
20, where he defeated the confederate cavalry under gen. Stuart, For this service he
was brevetted maj. gen. of volunteers in May, 1862, and a month later was transferred to
the west, where he participated in the engagements that made memorable the months of
August and September, events in which the army of the Mississippi figured. He was
placed in command of Corinth under gen. Grant, and subsequently oi' tlie 2d division of the
di.-trict of w. Tennessee. For gallantry at luka, Sept. 19-20, he was b.evetted col. At
Ilatchie, Oct. 5, he was in command, and was dangerously wounded, for his services he
was brevetted brig.gen. During the siege of Vicksburg and capture of Jackson, he
commanded the 13th army corps, and afterward the 8th corps in the middle department,
July 9-21, 1864, and the 18th corps in operations before Richmond, July 21 to Sept. 30,
1864. He was again severely wounded in the assault and capture of fort Harrison, neaf
Richmond, Sept. 29, 1864, and brevetted maj. gen. On Jan. 9, 186-"ii. lie super.-ed -d gen.
Butler in command of the department of Virginia and North Carolina, and of the army
of the James, which he commanded from Jan. to June, 1865, through the si ge <>f Peters-
burg, .and subsequent movements against the army of northern Virgini;:. under
Lee, to the surrender at Appomattox Court House, April 9, 1865. His ra.ik at the
of the war was lieut. col. of the 1st artillery, dating from Dec. 11, 1885, in the regular
army, and maj. gen. of volunteers, which latter he continued to hold, and was at the
head of various departments until Sept., 1866, when, having been promoted to brig.gen.
in the regular army the July previous, he was mustered out of the volunteer service.
He was commander of the 4th military district of Mississippi and Arkansas, from April
to Dec., 1867, and has been .in Command of the departments of California, the Platte, and
Texas. He retired from the service Dec. 8, 1880.
ORDEAL (Anglo-Saxon, ordaal ; from or, primitive, and dual, judgment; Gcr. vrtJuif.
judgment), a practice which has prevailed largely among various widely separated
nations, of referring disputed questions, particularly such as relate to the guilt or inno-
cence of an individual, to the judgment of God, determined either by lot, or by the suc-
csss of certain experiments. Of its existence among the ancient Jews, we have an
instance in Numbers v., where a Hebrew woman, accused of adultery, is required to
drink the waters of jealousy as a test of innocence; a similar ordeal for incontinence is
in use among the natives of the Gold Coast of Africa. Compurgation of accused persons
by fire, as existing among the Greeks, is referred to in Sophocles's Antigone. Among
the Hindus, the ordeal has been in use to be practiced in nine different ways — by the
lulanw, })y fire, by water, by poison, by the cosha, or drinking water, in which images of
(he sun and other deities had been washed, by chewing -ricf,, Y\ !»>t /•//. oy red-hot
and by drawing two images out of a jar into which they have been thrown. (.1
Researches, vol. i., p. 389).
The ordeal seems to be prevalent throughout Africa. ''When a man," says Dr.
Livingstone, "suspects that any of his wives have bewitched him, he sends for the
witch-doctor, and all the wives go forth into the field, and remain fasting till that person
has made an infusion of the plant (called 'goho'). They all drink it, each one holding
up her hand to heaven in attestation of her mnocency. Those who vomit it are consid-
ered innocent, while those whom it purges are pronounced guilty, and put to death by
. OK Ovcin.
Order.
burning. The innocent return to their homes, and slaughter a cock as a thank-offering
to their guardian spirits. The practice of ordeal is common among all the negro nations
n. of the Zambesi." The women themselves eagerly desire the test on the slightest prov-
ocation: each is conscious of her^own innocence, and has the fullest faith in the mvavi
(the ordeal) clearing all but the guilty. There are varieties of procedure among the dif-
ferent tribes. The Barotse pour the medicine down the throat of a cock or dog, and
judge of the innocence or guilt of the person accused by the vomiting or purging of the
unimal.
Throughout Europe in the dark ages the ordeal existed under the sanction of law.
and of the clergy. The most prevalent kinds of ordeal were those of fire, water, and the
wager of battle. Fire ordeal was only allowed to persons of high rank. The accused
had to carry a piece of red-hot iron for some distance in his hand, or to walk nine feet
barefoot and blindfolded over red-hot plowshares. The hand or foot was bound up
and inspected three days afterwards: if the accused had escaped unhurt, he was pro-
nounced innocent; if otherwise, guilty. Under such a judicial system, there were
probably few acquittals; but it is believed that in the severer kinds of ordeal, precau-
tions were sometimes taken by the clergy tc protect those whom they wished to clear
from suspicion. Queen Emma, mother of Edward the confessor, when suspected of a
criminal intrigue with Alwyn, bishop of Winchester, is said to have triumphantly vin-
dicated her character by walking unhurt over red-hot plowshares. Water ordeal was
the usual mode of trial allowed to bondsmen and rustics, and was of two kinds — the
ordeal of boiliiir/ water, and of cold water. The ordeal of boiling water, according to the
laws of Athelstane, consisted in taking a stone out of boiling water, where the hand had
to be inserted as deep as the wrist; what was called the triple ordeal, deepened the
water to the olbow. The person allowed the ordeal of cold water (the usual mode of trial
for witchcraft) was flung into a river or pond; if he floated without any appearance of
swimming, he was judged guilty — while if he sank, he was acquitted.
Tli'1 ir<(fjer of battle was a natural accompaniment of a state of society which allowed
men to take the law into their own hands. The challenger faced the west, the chal-
lenged person the east; the defeated party, if he craved his life, was allowed to live as a
"recreant;" that is, on retracting the perjury which he had sworn to. See BATTEL,
TRIAL BY.
Other kinds of ordeal were practiced in particular circumstances in different parts of
Europe. In the ordeal of the bier, a supposed* murderer was required to touch the body
of the murdered person, and pronounced guilty if the blood flowed from his wounds.
The ordeal of the euchariat was in use amons the clergy: the accused party took the
sacrament in attestation of innocence, it being believed that, if guilty, he would be
immediately visited with divine punishment for the sacrilege. A somewhat similar
ordeal was that of the corsned, or consecrated bread and cheese: if the accused swallowed
it freely, he was pronounced innocent; if it stuck in his throat, he was presumed to be
guilty. Godwin carl of Kent, in the reign of Edward the confessor, when accused of
the murder of the king's brother, is said to have appealed to the ordeal of the corsned,
and been choked by it. An early form of ordeal, abolished by Louis le debonnaire in
816, was that of the rross: the accuser and accused stood upright before a cross, and he
who first fell, or shifted his position, was pronounced guilty. It was done a*vay with,
as being irreverent towards the mystery of the cross. Besides these, there was the orde-.il
by lot, dependent on the throw of a pair of dice, one marked with a cross, the other
plain.
Trial by ordeal at first carried with it the sanction of the priests, as well as of the
civil power, though the clergy in the course of time came to discountenance it. la
England it seems to have been continued till the middle of the thirteenth century. On
the continent it was, generally speaking, abolished rather earlier, although as late as 149&
we find the truth of Savonarola's doctrine put to the test, by a challenge between one of
his disciples and a Franciscan friar, to walk through a burning pile. In Scotland, in
1180, we find David I. enacting, in one of the assemblies of the frank tenantry of the
kingdom, which were the germ of parliaments, that no one was to hold an ordinary court
of justice, or a court of ordeal, whether of battle, iron, or water, except in presence of
the sheriff or one of his sergeants; though if that official failed to attend after being duly
summoned, the court migJ.it be held in his absence. The first step toward the abolition of
this form of trial in Saxon and Celtic countries, seems to have been the substitution of
compurgntion by witnesses for compurgation by ordeal. The near relatives of an accused
party were expected to come forward to swear to his innocence. The number of com-
purgators varied, according to the importance of the case; and judgment went against
the party whose kin refused to come forward, or who failed to obtain the necessary
number of compurgators. To repel an accusation, it was often held necessary to have
double the number of co:npurg;;tor3 who supported it, till at length the most numerous
body of compurgators carried the day.
OEDEE. In classic architecture, the order or ordonnance comprises the column with
its base and capital and the entablature. There are five orders: (1) Tuscan, (2) Doric,
(3) Ionic, (4) Corinthian, (5) Composite. The first and fiflh arc Roman orders, and are
simply modifications of the others. The remaining three are the Greek orders. See
COLUMH, GREEK ARCHITKCTUUK, ROMAN ARCHITECTURE.
Ordor. on
Orders.
ORDER, in natural history, a group constituted for the purpose of classification,
inferior to chi.™ ami sub-class, but superior to family, tribe, genus, etc. The term NATI K u/
()KD:-:K is used in botany to designate an onh'r belonging to the natural system of classi-
fication, in contradistinction to one of an artificial system devised for mere convenience
of the student, and signifies that the limits of the order agree with the truth of nature,
and that it thus exhibits affinities really existing. In all branches of natural history,
classification now proceeds on this principle.
ORDER, in Natural History (ante). The use of the term order is not precisely the
same in zoology as in botany. Zoology, from its greater scope and complexity, requires
a more varied extension and application of all divisions or groupings; of kingdoms, sub-
kingdoms, classes, sub-classes, orders, etc., but by .common consent, orders in botany
are frequently termed families, Avhilsl what answers to family in zoology is called tribe
in botany. Thus, it is common to speak of the order Ranuuculacete as the croirfuot
family. It is divided in five tribes, viz: clematidea?, anemoneae, ranunculeae, heile-
boriueae, and cemicifugeae. These tribes are then divided into genera, as clemaiix,
anemone, ranunculus, etc., and these genera, again, into species. In some casvs a tribe
in botany has much the same position as a sub-family in zoology, but its order has nil
the marked distinctions of an ordinal grouping, and never descends to the position of a
family, although it may be so denominated. The use of the term order in zoology is
illustrated in the article INVERTEBKATE ANIMALS.
ORDER. This word is applied to an aggregate of conventual communities compre-
hended under one rule, or to the societies, half military half religious, out of which the.
institution of knighthood sprang. Religious orders are generally classified as monastic,
military, and mendicant,
The earliest comprehension of monastic societies under one rule was effected by St.
Basil, archbishop of Caesarea, who united the hermits and cenobites in his diocese, and
prescribed for them a uniform constitution, recommending at the same time a vow of
celibacy. The Basilian rule subsists to the present day in the eastern church. Next in
order of time was the' Benedictine order, founded by St. Benedict of Nursia, who con-
sidered a mild discipline preferable to excessive austerity. The offshoots from the
Benedictine order include some of the most important orders in ecclesiastical history,
among others the Carthusians, Cisterciaus, and Prsemonstrants. The order of Augusti-
nians professed to draw their rule from the writings of St. Augustine; they were the
first order who were not entirely composed of laymen, but of ordained priests, or persons?
destined to the clerical profession.
The military orders, of which the members united the military with the religious pro
fession, arose from the necessity under which the monks lay of defending the possession
which they had accumulated, and the supposed duty of recovering Palestine from the
Saracens, and retaining possession of it. The most 'famous orders of this kind were th<t
Hospitallers or Knights of St John of Jerusalem, the Knights Templars, and the Teu-
tonic order. Many other military orders existed, and not a few continue to 'exist,
particularly in Spain and Portugal. The phraseology of the old military orders is
preserved in the orders of knighthood of modern times, into which individuals are-
admitted in reward for merit of different kinds, military and civil.
The three mendicant orders of Franciscans, Dominicans, and Carmelites were insti-
tuted in the 18th century. Their principal purpose was to put down the opposition to
the church, which had begun to show itself, and also to reform the church by example
and precept. At a later period the order of the Jesuits was founded, with the object of
increasing the power of the church, and putting down heresy. — Notices of the more
important orders, monastic, military, and medicant, will be found under separate articles.
See also KNIGHTS and MONACHISM.
ORDERICUS, VITALIS, a mediaeval historian, horn at Atcham, near Shrewsbury in
1075, was taken to France at the age of five, and educated for the monastic life in the
abbey of Ouche, at Lisieux. He became a priest in 1107, and died, it is thought, about
1143. Ordericus is the author of a so-called church history (Histories- En- in 1:5
yols. It is a chronicle of events from the birth of Christ down to his own time. Books
3-6 give an account of the Norman wars in England, France, and Apulia down to the
death of William the conqueror. The last half of the book is the most valuable, being a
record of the history of the author's own times, The first edition of the Hi*i
siaxtica was published by Duchcsne, in his Hist. Norm. Scrip. (1619). It has also IK en
B-inted by the French historical society (2 vols. 1840), and was translated into French by
ubois (4 vols. 1825-27).
ORDERLIES are soldiers or sergeants appointed to wait upon general and other com-
manding officers, to communicate their orders, and to carry messages. The orderly
officer, or officer of the day, is the officer of a corps or regiment, whose turn it is to
superintend its interior economy, as cleanliness, the goodness of the food, etc. Oni'trly
non-commissioned officers are the sergeants in each company who are " orderlv," or on duty
for the week. On the drum beating for orders, they proceed to the orderly room, take
down the general or regimental orders affecting their respective companies, show them,
to the company officers, and warn the necessary men for any duties specified in those
O>T Order.
O ( Orders.
orders. An orderly book is provided by the captain of each troop or company in a regi-
ment for the insertion of general or regimental orders from time to time issued. .
ORDERS, ARMY, are general, divisional, brigade, or regimental. General orders are
issued by the commander-in-ehief of an army, and affect the whole of his force. The
others emanate from generals of division or brigade, or from officers commanding regi-
ments, and severally affect their respective commands.
ORDERS, HOLY, an institution regarded in the Greek and Roman churches as a sacra-
ment, by which ministers are specially set apart for the service of religion, and are
regarded as receiving a certain religious consecration, or, at least, designation for their
office. While soine"of the reformed churches altogether deny the distinction of ranks in
the ministry, none of them admits more than three ranks, of bishop, priest, and deacon.
But in the "Roman and Greek churches a further classification exists. In the Roman
church, a distinction is made between the major (or holy) orders and the minor orders.
Of the major orders, three have besn described in general terms, under the head hier-
archy (q.v.), viz., the classes of bishops, priests, and deacons. A fouith rank of sub-
deacons is generally regarded as one of the major orders, but its functions closely resemble
in their nature and their degree those of the deacon. The minor orders in the Roman
church are four in number— those of door-keeper, reader, exorcist, and acolyte. To none
of these orders is any vow of celibacy annexed. Some o! their functions had their origin
in the peculiar religious condition of the early church. The duties of door-keeper arose
chiefly out of the discipline in regard to the" penitents and catechumens; but although
these functions find no room in the modern discipline of the Roman church, the door-
keeper of the modern church is held to succeed to other functions of his ancient proto-
type in relation to the catechetical instruction of children and of the poor and ignorant.
Preparatory to the receiving of these orders, candidates are initiated in what is called the
ton.-.iu-c, which consists in the cuttintr off of the hair, as a symbol of separation from the
Avorld and its vanities— a rite which appears also as one of the ceremonies of the religious
profession. Tonsure, however, is not reckoned as an order; it is but a distinguishing
characteristic of a class. In the Roman church the sacrament of orders is held to pro-
duce an indelible character, and therefore to be incapable of being forfeited and of being
validly repeated. This, however, applies only to the holy orders. The Greek church
has the distinction of major and minor orders, in common with the Roman. But the
Greeks commonly exclude sub-de;;conship from the major orders, and 4!! the functions
of the four minor orders of the Roman church are united by the Greeks in one single
order, that of reader (ttnaffiwstex).
In the Vno-lican and other Reformed Episcopal churches the three higher orders of
bishop priest, and deacon are alone retained. An Anglican clergyman may be deprived
of his benefice, or suspended by his bishop, for various ecclesiastical offenses; and the
of the court of arches to pronounce sentence of deprivation has also been recog-
trea«on petit treason, murder, and certain other felonies, before judgment. A bishop
may be' deprived of his see by his metropolitan, with or without the co-operation of a
synod of the bishops of the province, but it has been questioned whether he can be law-
fully deprived of his orders as bishop. A clergyman of the church ot England and Ire-
land cannot become a member of the house of commons. In the Presbyterian ^and other
non-
character
deposit,
from one "charge 'to 'aiYother" or, after a time, inducted into a new charge, is not rc-or-
daitied. A minister having no charge or flock may yet dispense the sacraments i Inly
called upon. A minister deposed ceases altogether to be a minister, and is no more capa-
ble of any of the functions of the office than if he badneve^T^n ordained.
The ceremony of
ordination of minister
head of the person ordained: and is always
proper and Scriptural form (1 Tim. iv. 14), but not essential.
In th- church of tfrotland and other Presbyterian churches, when an already ordained
Minister is in hicted into a new charge, no imposition of hands takes place. In the bcot-
tish and American Presbyterian churches, candidates for the ministry are licensed to preach,
the ffospel before being called to any particular charge, and are then styled licentiates or
• probationers. They are licensed, according to an old phrase, " for trials of their gilts,
but are not entitled to dispense the sncraments.
There is nothing to prevent a minister of the church of Scotland, or any Presbyterian
or link-pendent church, from being a member of the- British house of commons.
ictions of the office than if he had never been ordained. _
; imposition of ?iands \s\iscdh\ almost all Protestant churches in the
ers the ordaining bishop or presbyters placing the right hand on the
-mlained: and is 'always accompanied with prayer. It is deemed a
Ordinal. OO
Ordinary.
promulgating, or enforcing the ord'-r* trvst'ng *o parliamentary protection, and taking
ou themselves the personal responsibility of the proceeding. In .such <M--.CS an act of
indemnity afterwards passed has relieved from liability those who advised the order or
acted under it, and given compensation to all who suffered by its enforcement. This
course was adopted in 1766 with regard to an embargo on the exportation of corn, i
in consequence of a deficient harvest and prospect of famine. An important constitu-
tional question was raised by the famous orders in council issued by Great Britain in 1807
and 1801), in reprisal for Napoleon's Berlin and Milan decrees. The Berlin decree, issued
on Nov. 21, 1808, declared the whole of the British islands to be in a state of block-
ade, and all vessels trading to them to be liable to capture by French ships, li also
shut out all British vessels and produce both iium France and from all the other coun-
tries vrhich gave obedience to the French. A subsequent decree, issued soon afterwards,
obliged all neutral vessels to cany letters orcertiiic.Ues of origin— thai is, attestations by
the French consuls of the ports from which they had sailed, that no part of the cargo was
British. In retaliation for the fterlin decree, the British government issued, on Jan. 7,
1807,
port
ex tens
the result was that new orders were issued bjT the British government on the llih and
£lst of Nov., 1807, declaring France and all slates subject to the French to l>e in a slate
of blockade, and all vessels liable to sei/ure which were found to have certificates of
origin on board, or which should attempt to trade with any of the ports of the world
thus blockaded. Neutral vessels intended for France, or any other hostile country, were
ordered, in all cases, to touch first at some British port, and to pay custom-house dues
there, after which they were in certain cases to be allowed to depart for their destination;
;>.nd vessels clearing from a hostile country were similarly to touch at a British port before
proceeding on their voyage. On Dec. 27, 1807, Napoleon's Milan decree was issued,
which declared the whole British dominions to be in a state of blockade, and all coun-
t.'ies were prohibited from trading with each other in any articles of British produce o-
manufacture. The Americans, and those of the public of Great Britain who were inter-
ested in the export trade, exclaimed loudly against the edicts of both powers, and Il-
legality as well as the expediency of the orders in council wcfe called in question in p>u
liament. The result was that an inquiry was instituted into the effect of the orders,
from which no direct result followed. But, in the mean-time, on April 26, 1808, a next
order in council was issued, limiting the blockade to France, Holland, a part of Ger
many, and the north of Italy, and the order which condemned vessels which had certifi-
cates of origin oil board was rescinded. Subsequent orders introduced a system ot
furnishing licenses to vessels to proceed to hostile ports after having fir.-t touched an 1
paid custom-house dues at a British port: no fewer than 16,000 of these licen- I
to have been granted. The l:\gality of these orders has been called in question on the
ground that they were more of a legislative than an executive character, in so far as a
fictitious blockade, where there is no blockading force present, is contrary to the law of
nations; it has been defended on the ground that they were issued in execution of the
royal prerogative of declaring and conducting war. They are generally believed to have
added to the general distress, and the check on the progress of manufactures product- 1
by Napoleon's decrees ; but, on the other hand, it has been maintained that they were
essential to the effective prosecution of the war.
There are various matters connected with trade and the revenue as to which orders in
council have been authorized by statute; parliament, in fact, delegating its legi-
authority to the queen in council. For example, the international copyright act, 7 and
8 Viet. c. 12, contains a provision for empowering the crown, by order in council, to
extend the privileges of British copyright to works first published in any state which
gives a like privilege to the productions of this country.
ORDINAL, the service used in Episcopal churches for the ordination of ministers.
The English ordinal was drawn up by a commission appointed in the third y.
Edward VI. (1550), and added to the Book of Common Prayer. It was sli'.-htly nv
in the reign of Elizabeth, and was again revised by the convocation of 1GG1. The
lish ordinal, in its general structure, resembles the ancient services used for that purpose,
but possesses much greater simplicity, and has some features — e.g., the numerous
tiohs addressed to the candidates — peculiar to itself. There are separate services ('or the
" making of deacons" and the "ordering of priests," but these are practical!
one, and used on the same day The service for the consecration of bishops is altogether
distinct.
The ordination takes place at one of the ember seasons, and during the public service,
after morning prayer and a sermon on the subject, and begins with the presents ii<>n of
the candidates by the archdeacon. . The bishop inquires as to their li'nr-ss, and com-
mends them to the prayers of the congregation. The litany is then s:dd with special
petitions for the candidates for each order, and the communion service <V;nimeric"s with
a special collect, epistle, and gospel. Between the epistle and gorpe! the o-itli of suprem-
acy is administered, and the candidates fur deacons' orders are questioned by the bi-hop
and ordained. The gospel is read by one of the newly ordained deacons. " The candi-
QQ Ordinal.
Ordinary.
dates for priests' orders are then solemnly exhorted and interrogated, and the prayers of
all present are asked for the divine blessing upon them. For this purpose a pause is,
made in the service for silent prayer. After this the hymn, Veni Creator Spiritua (Come,
Holy Ghost, our souls inspire) — a composition of great antiquity, supposi^d to be as old
as the 4th e. — is sung1, and, the candidates kneeling before the bishop, he and the assist-
ant presbyters lay their hands upon the head of each, with the "words, "receive the Holy
Ghost for the office and work or a priest in the church of God," etc.
The only other ceremony is the presentation of each candidate with the Bible in
token of authority to preach; as the deacons had been before presented with the New
Testament with authority to read the gospel. The service concludes with the adminis-
tration of the sacrament of the Lord's-supper.
The consecration of bishops is performed by an archbishop, or some bishop appointed
in his place, and two or more of his suffragans, and may take place on any Sunday or
holy day. The service is very similar to that for the ordination of priests.
ORDINANCE OF 1787, an act of congress under the confederation in respect to the
government of the territory of the United States n.w. of the Ohio river. The large
states which, by their original charters from the English crown, included within their
boundaries portions of the u.wr. territory, were not willing at first to relinquish jurisdic-
tion over their several parts, but smaller states like Maryland and New Jersey claimed that
the territory ought to be surrendered as common property, inasmuch as it was tiie united
effort of all the states that had secured independence. Accordingly, after considerable
agitation, New York fixed a limit for its western boundary, and ceded a part of its lauds
for the states that became members of the confederation. Virginia soon followed, giving
xup the state's lands n.w. of the Ohio; and a law was passed for the temporary govern-
ment of the tc.'Titory, which provided for the organization of a state whenever its inhab-
itants numbered 20,000. No settlements of any consequence, however, were made during
the following three cr four years. The ordinance of 1787, three years later, has usually
been attributed to Nathan Dane, a representative from Massachusetts in the congress of
the confederation, although it has been claimed that a clergyman, the rev. Manasseh
Cutler, originated it. The ordinance defined tho rights of the citizens, prohibited slavery
within the territory, and prcwid,;d that the navigable waters leading into the Mississippi
and St. Lawrence rivers, and the carrying-places between the same, should be coixtnon
highways. It was passed at a very critical time in the formation of the union, and
subsequent events have shown that it was of the greatest importance, as there was danger
of the whole region becoming a slave territory.
ORDINARIES, or HONORABLE ORDINARIES, in heraldry, certain charges composed of
straight lines, and in very common use, to which writers on heraldry had assigned
abstruse symbolical meanings, but whose real chief peculiarity seems to be that Ihey
originally represented the wooden or metal fastenings of the shields in use in actual
war 'are. The ordinaries are usually accounted nine — the chief, pale, fess, bar, bend,
bens, sinister, chcveron, saltire, and cross. Heralds vary a little in their enumeration,
some taking in the pile in'place of the bar. Each is noticed under a separate article.
ORDINARY, a term used in the British navy in two senses. First, as regards ships,
vessels in ordinary are those out of actual use, commonly dismasted, and occasionally
roofed over to protect them from the weather. They are congregated near the several
dock-yards, where their masts and gear lie ready for their immediate fitting for sea \7hen.
required. A few men have charge of each vessel; a certain number of vessels constitute
a division, with a lieut. in command; and a linc-of-battle ship, called a "guard-ship
of ordinary," is responsible for the different divisions at each port. The ships are
moored in safe places, as up the Medway, in the recesses of Portsmouth and Plymouth
harbors, etc.
As regards men, an ordinary seaman is one capable of the commoner duties, but who
has not served long enough at sea to be rated as an able seaman (q.v.). His pay is lid.
a day on entering, and 13d. a day on promotion to the first class, or Is. and is. 3d. if1
engaged for continuous service.
ORDINARY (Lat. ordinaries) is the name commonly given to a person, who, in virtue
of his office, and in his own consequent right, is competent to do certain acts or to decide
certain causes. In this sense there are many functionaries who may be called by the
name ordinary. But the word in canon law, when used without other additions, is
understood to mean the bishop, who is the ordinary of his own diocese, and is compe-
tent of himself to do every act necessary for its government, and for the ordering of the
spiritual concerns of his flock. The jurisdiction of the ordinary is called by that name,
in contradistinction to "extra-ordinary jurisdiction," which arises from some abnormal
circumstances, and from " delegated" jurisdiction, which is imparted by the ordinary to
another person to be exercised vicariously.
In English law the ecclesiastical jurisdiction which was formerly vested in bishops
and their officers relating to wills and marriages was recently abolished, and transferred
to a new judge called the judge ordinary, who is entirely disconnected with the church.
The bishops still retain their jurisdiction in matters of discipline as regards the clergy. —
In Scotland the judge ordinary gciaeraHy means the sheriff depute or substitute, who has
Ordinary. Af)
Ordnance.
ordinary jurisdiction in the county. Lord ordinary is the name given to certain judges
of the outer house in the court of session.
ORDINARY OK ARMS, in heraldry, an index or dictionary of armorial coat . arranged,
not according to names, like an armory, but according to" the leading rhaiycs in the
respective shields, so as to enable any one conversant with heraldic language, on seeing
a shield of arms, to tell to whom it belonged. A very imperfect ordinary for England
is appended to Edmonsou's JI> niidi-y: a far more fomplcic and elaborate work of the
same kind, Pap\vorth's Ordinary of British Armorial*, partly edited by Alfred Morant,
was published m 1874.
ORDINATION, the rite or ceremony by which ministers of the Christian church are
dedicated to their sacred office. The use of a ceremonial for such purposes is traceable
among the Jews (Exod. xxix. 24, Levit. xxi. 10, Num. iii. 3): and the New Testament
contains frequent reference to the specific* ceremonial of "imposition of hands" (Acts vi.
1-7, xiii. 1-4, xiv. 23; 1 Tim. iv. 14, v. 22; 2 Tim. i. 6). In the Roman, the Gicck, and
the other eastern churches this rite of ordination is held to be sacramental, and it is
reserved, at least as regards the major orders (see ORDERS, HOLY), exi lusively to bishops.
In extraordinary cases it was permitted to cardinals and to certain abbots to confer the
minor orders. Considerable controversy exists among Catholic writers as to what are
essential portions (nialeria sacra >/icnti) of the rite of ordination. J-N me place it in the
"imposition of hands," sjme in the "presentation of the instruments" symbolical of
each order. The controversy derives some importance from the diversity which exists
between the Greek and Roman ceremonial; but on this head Roman Catholics maintain
that the essential rites are contained alike in both ceremonials. As regards the r
of the rite of ordination, the mere fact of iis being conferred by a bishop suHiccs; but
there is not any part of the Roman discipline which is more jealously guarded by laws
than the administration of orders. The candidate can only be lavfulh/ ordained by " his
own bishop" (proprius episcopus), or with the authority of his own bishop, which must
be communicated to the ordaining bishop by what are called dimis>orial letters. The
candidate may be claimed by a bishop as by " his own bishop" under any of four titles
—of birth, of domicile, of benefice, or of connection by personal service; and if an ordi-
nation be attempted without some one of these titles, heafy ecclesiastical penalties are
incurred as well by the ordainer as by the ordained. On the part of the candidate him-
nelf, certain qualifications are required; and certain disqualifications created or pro-
pounded by the canon law, called irregularities, are held to render an ordination in some
cases invalid, and in all unlawful.
immorality, or simony, or who was unprovided with a title (i.e., an appointment to
in some church), which should provide him with a maintenance; or who, being a candi-
date for deacon's orders, was under 20, and for priest's under 24 years of age: but the
age for admission to deacon's orders is changed to 23. A college fellowship is admitted
as a title. (For the ceremony of ordination see ORDINAL.) A person can only be ordaitu d
by the bishop in Avhose diocese he is to serve, except on letters dhnintory from that bishop
to another.
In other reformed churches ordination is performed by the presbytery, or by one or
more ordinary ministers. Some small Protestant denominations have no ceremony of
ordination whatever.
ORDINATION (ante), the Roman Catholic church, the Churrh of England, and
the Protestant Episcopal church of the United States do not consider.valid unless the
officiating bishops are in the line of succession from the apostles. The former rejects
ordination by the Greek and other eastern churches not as invalid, but as unlawful,
because the officiating bishops are not in ecclesiastical connection with the pope. In
common with the eastern churches, it places ordination among the seven sacraments,
and teaches that it conveys to the candidate supernatural grace ai:d fitness for his
nnd imparts to him a permanent character which forever distinguishes him from the
laity. Presbyterian churches believe that, in accordance with apostolic precedent, the
power to ordain is vested in the ministers of a presbytery, all of whom are, in scriptural
usage, identical with bishops. In Congregational churches (including the Baptist) the
power of ordination rests with the local "church, which is always expected in the in
of fellowship to call a council of churches to which they intrust the exercise of the i
on behalf of the church; thus a congregation exercises the right of judgment concerning
the qualifications of a candidate, and gives him a call to be its minister: after which it
invites other churches in council to examine his credentials, character, and tl;< < -I
views. If the council be satisfied with him they ordain him with* prayer and laying on
of hands. In Wesleyan Methodist churches ordination is performed in the annual con-
ference, with a bisho'p or president at its head, and without the laying on of hands.
Among Calvinistic Methodists the sanction and assistance of their ministers alone is
required. The society of Friends select their ministers according to their usual quiet
methods of arriving at general consent, and dispense with all ceremonial in setting them
apart to the work.
A-\ Ordinary.
Oranance.
ORD'NANCE (ordinance., primarily, any disposition, arrangement, or equipment; and
then applied incidentally to a particular part of the equipment or apparatus of war), a
name applied to the guns and munitions of an army generally, and in particular to the
great guns. Descriptions of the various sorts of ordnance will be found under CANNON,
FIREARMS, GUN, HOWITZER, MORTAR, RIFLED ARMS.
ORDNANCE, BUREAU OP. See UNITED STATES ARMY.
ORDNANCE DEPARTMENT, one of the oldest departments under the crown, was
abolished by an order in council of May 2"), 1855, after an existence of at least 400 years.
Its constitution, its important functions, and the causes which led to its dissolution, will
be found under BOARD OP ORDNANCE. The early history of the department is lost in
the middle ages; but it appears to have risen gradually under the Lancastrian kings. A
master of the ordnance is mentioned in the time of Richard III. ; but we read of John
Louth being clerk of the ordnance as early aS 1418. Henry VII. constituted the board,
adding a lieutenant, a surveyor, and a storekeeper, to whom, a clerk of the cheque was
subsequently joined. With the exception of the last, whose office was abolished in the
beginning of the present century, this organization w.as maintained until the abolition of
the whole. In 1604 James I. dignified the master and lieutenant with the respective titles
of master-gen, and lieut.gen. The history of the ordnance office is of importance in
British history, as in ail wars it has been responsible not only for the management of the
materiel of the armies, but also for the direction of the pcrsdiind of the artillery and engin-
eers. By an order in council of June 2o, 1870, the department of ordnance in a very
modified form was revived under the surveyor-general of the ordnance, as a section of
the war office, responsible for all supplies and materiel of war.
ORDNANCE SELECT COMMITTEE was, until 1870, a committee composed of scientific
officers, to advise the secretary of slate for war on all inventions in war maierid. It had
its offices at Woolwich, in the midst of the manufactories of the royal arsenal, and near
the head-quarters of the royal artillery, by whom most of the designs had to be practically
tested. The president of the committee was usually a general officer of artillery; and a
cap nin in the royal navy served as vice-president. Since 1870 these functions have been
fulfilled by officers of the department of the director of artillery and stores, who has his
head-quarters at the war office.
ORD'NANCE SUR'VEY. By this term is understood the various operations undertaken
by the ordnance department of the British government for preparing maps and plans of
the whole kingdom and its parts. The idea of a general map of the country to be exe-
cuted by the government was first proposed after the rebellion in 1745, when the want of
i any reliable map of the northern parts of Scotland was much felt by the officers in com-
' mand of the royal troops. Its execution was intrusted to lieut.geu. Watson, the deputy
quarter-master of North Britain; but 'it was mostly carried out by maj.gen. Roy, an
officer of engineers. The drawing, on a scale of one inch and three-iourths to the mile,
was completed in 1755; but in consequence of the war which broke out in that year, was
never published. In 1763 it was proposed to extend the survey to the whole kingdom;
but the first steps to effect this were taken only in 1784, when maj.gen. Roy commenced
measuring a ba-e-Jine on Hounslow heath, near London. This principal triangulation
was designed partly for astronomical purposes, and partly as a basis for a map on a small
scale. Tiie base-line was remeasured with great care in 1791; and detail plans were com-
menced by officers of the royal engineers, partly for practising them in military drawing,
and partly for the purpose of forming plans of some portions of Kent for the use of the
ordnance. The principal object was, however, the instruction of a corps of military sur-
veyors and draughtsmen, the plans themselves being regarded as of secondary import-
ance. In 1794 the survey for the one-inch map was begun, and some sheets were pub-
lished in 1798. As the series of principal, triangles were extended westward towards
the Land's End, it was thought right to measure another base, for verification, on Salis-
bury plain in 1794; and two other base-lines were subsequently measured — one in 1801 at
Misterton Carr, and the other in 1808 on Ruddlan marsh. Though first intended chiefly
as a military map, the publication of the survey soon created a desire on the part of the
' public for better maps, and surveyors were then hired to hasten Hs progress. This,
however, was very slow, the map being at one time entirely suspended during the war in
the beginning of this century, and even the parts which were executed, having been done
by contract, were found very inaccurate. In this condition the survey of England con-
tinued during the first quarter of the present century, sometimes delayed by the govern-
ment from motives of economy, at other times urged on by the county gentlemen, who
wished the map either as a hunting-map or for local improvements.
In Scotland, the principal triangulation was begun in 1809, but was discontinued in
the following year, to enable the persons who had been employed there to carry for-
ward the subordinate triangulation required for constructing the detail maps in Eng-
land. In 1813 it was resumed, and continued steadily up to 1819; a new base line hav-
ing been measured on Belhelvie Links, near Aberdeen, in 1817, and the great sector
used at various stations, both on the mainland and in the islands. In 1820 it was again
suspended, was resumed in 1821 and 1822, and anew broken off in 1823, the large theo-
dolite being wanted in order to proceed with the principal triangulatiou in s. Britain.
In 1824 the survey of Ireland was begun, and nothing more was done in Scotland till
4.9
Ordnance.
1838, except that some detail surveying for a one-inch map was continued for a few
years iu the southern counties. The chief strength of the surveying corps was now
transferred to Ireland. A map of that country was required for the purpose of making
a valuation which should form the basis of certain fiscal arran<rcments and other
improvements which the social evils and anomalies of Ireland urgently demanded. For
Uiis map a scale of 6 in. to the mile was adopted, as best suited for the purposes in view.
On this scale the whole map was completed, and published in 1845, though the tir-t por-
lions were in an imperfect form, and needed revision, which was proceeded with in 187;j.
In 1838 the triangulation of Scotland was resumed; and the survey of Ireland hav-
ing been finished in 1840, surveys for a six-inch map were begun for the northern por-
tions of England which had not been mapped on the one-inch scale, In com;
with this map the base-line on Salisbury plain was remcasured with great accuracy iu
1849, and its length found 36577.8581 feet. In 1841 some secondary operations for a
map of Scotland, also on a, six-inch scale, were begun; but proceeded so slowly, that
in 1850 only the map of Wigtownshire and some parts of Lewis were completed. Much
dissatisfaction having been expressed in Scotland by the press and public bo.li<' i, as ID
the slow progress of the map and the six-inch scale on which only ii was published a
committee of the house of commons (lord Elcho's) recommended the six-inch maps to be
stopped, and the one-inch map completed as speedily as possible. This ciiM.uc pro-
duced, much discussion as to the relative value of the one-inch and six-inch scales then
in use, and the expediency of adopting a still larger scale as more valuable to the pub-
lic. Circulars were issued, asking the opinion of various public bodies, and of scien-
tific and practical men, as to the proper scale for a great national survey. The
preponderance of opinion was in favor of a scale of 1-2500 of nature, or nearly one inch
to the acre. This scale was therefore ordered by a treasury minute of May 18, is-").!
(lord Palmerstou's), and though subsequently stopped, in consequence of a motion by
sir Denham Norreys in the house of commons in June 1857, was again recommended by
a royal commission (Dec. 1857), and ordered to be resumed by another treasury
minute (Sept. 11, 1858). In 1861 a select committee was again appointed, and reported
that it is desirable that tlr.- cadastral survey on the scales directed by the treasury min-
ute of May 8, 1855, be extended to those portions of the United Kingdom that ha\e
been surveyed on the scale of one-inch to the mile only. This recommendation lias
now been adopted by the government, and the survey 'is at present proceeding on the
following scales: Towns having 4,000 or more inhabitants are surveyed on a scale of
1-500 of the linear measurement, which is equivalent to 126.72 in. to a mile, or 41f ft.
to an inch; Parishes (in cultivated districts) 1-2500 of the linear measurement, equal to
25.344 in. to a mile, or one sq.inch to an acre; counties on a scale of 6 in. to a mile;
kingdom, a general map one inch to a mile.
The sheets of the one-inch map join together, so as to form a complete map of the
whole kingdom. This is true also of the sheets of each county on the six-inch scale, and
of each parish on the 1-2500 scale, but the sheets of different counties and parishes are
not connected. The 1-2500 scale also applies only to cultivated, populous, and mineral
districts; the Highlands of Scotland, and other extensive moorland and uncultivated
tracts, being only surveyed on the six-inch scale, and published on the pne-inch scale.
In the report on the progress of the ordnance survey, it is stated that in England, up
to the end of 1876, an aiea of 28,654 sq.m. (the area of England being 58,000 sq.m.) had
been surveyed; to the end of 1877, the area was 29,839 sq.miles. Since 1854, when the
survey on the scale of l-2500th began, the English counties that had been survyed we're
Durham, Westmoreland, Northumberland, Cumberland, Middlesex, Kent, Essex, Sur-
rey, Hampshire, and Sussex, also (it having been decided that the mineral districts
should take precedence of the rest of the kingdom) Cheshire, Flintshire, and Denbigh-
shire, with portions of several other counties.
In Scotland, up to the end of 1876, 30,421'sq.m. (out of a total area of 31,000 sq.m.)
had been surveyed, of which 451 sq.m. were done in 1876. The survey of the whole of
Scotland was completed in 1877. At the end of 1875 maps on the 1-2500 scale had been
published for an area of 11,107 sq.miles. On the six-inch, scale an area of 21,332 sq.m.
had been published ; 15,950 sq.m. of the one-inch map have been completed and pub-
lished with hills. — In Ireland, as stated, the six-inch maps have been long published,
and are now in process of revision. A one-inch map of the whole in outline has been
published, and is being completed by the addition of hills. The engraving of hills in
the remainder is also being proceeded with. In all the three kingdoms, plans ofcmany
of the towns on the 10 and 5 ft. scale are also published.
The sketch now given of the history of this great national undertaking will show
that iUhas been conducted at different times on different scales and plans, and that the
system now pursued was only adopted after much discussion both in parliament and
out of doors. The map was originally begun as a military map, and the scale of one
inch to the mile chosen, without considering whether some other scale would not offer
greater advantages. Many now think that a scale a little larger, and an aliquot part of
nature, such as 1-50,000, or about 1£ inch to the mile, would have been preferable for
the small map; in which case a scale of 1-10,000 of nature, or about 6fc in., might have
been chosen for the intermediate, instead of the six-inch scale selected at first for mere
local purposes iu Ireland. Be this as it may, the arguments in favor of the one inch
Ordnance.
map are, that it is the most convenient both as a general and traveling map. For gen-
eral views of the structure of a country, the distribution and relations of its mountains,
plains, valleys, and rivers, the one-inch is admitted to be superior to the six-inch, and
thus better adapted in the first instance for laying roads, railways, or other extensive
public works, or for the publication of a general geological survey. Such a map, on the
other hand, is on too small a scale to admit of correct measurement of small distances;
it is in some respects a generalized picture, and not a correct plan. The six-incli maps
were at first selected in Ireland as the smallest size on which correct measurements of
distances and areas could be made. On them every house and field, and almost every
tree or bush, might be laid down. Hence they are superior for working out details, as in
minute surveys of,railways or roads, or the complex geological structure of rich mineral
districts. On such sheets, too, a proprietor or fanner may find every field laid down, and
the relative heights indicated by contour lines, and may therefore use them for drainage
and other improvements. It has also been proposed to use these six-inch maps as a record
of sales or encumbrances of land, thus lessening the cost and simplifying the transfer of
property. On the other hand, their size unfits them for most of the purposes for which
the one-inch map is useful, and the contour lines give a far less vivid and correct
impression of the physical features of a country than the hill sketching of the one-inch
map. Most of the purposes of the six-inch plans are attained in a still more perfect
manner from the 25-inch plans or cadastral' survey. This l^st name is taken from the
French cadastre (a register of lands), and is defined (in the JRecveil des Lois, etc.) as a
plan from which the area of land may be computed, and from which its revenue may be
valued. The purposes to which these large plans may be applied are, as estate plans,
for managing, draining, and otherwise improving laud, for facilitating its transfer by
registering sales or encumbrances; and as public maps, according to which local or gen-
eral taxes may be raised, and roads, railways, canals, and other public works, laid out
and executed.
Nearly all the states of Europe have produced trigonometrical surveys, many of them
of great excellence as scientific works. All of these have been published, or are in course
of publication, on convenient scales; generally smaller than one inch to a statute mile.
The most important of these are :
Austria and northern Italy, scale ^iw or f of an inch to a mile.
Bavaria, Baden, Wurtemberg, and the Hessen territories g^-J^nr or | of an inch to a
mile.
Belgium, -5-^-^ or f of an inch to a mile.
Denmark, survey map in preparation.
— , Iceland, surveyed and published on different scales.
France, 3^^ or f of an in. to a m. ; and a reduction to ^Winnr or 5 m. to an inch.
Great Britain, 1 in., 6 in., and, in the lowland districts, 25 in. to a m. ; and the coast
survey, general charts, 2-J in. to an in. ; harbors and bays, from 2 in. to 12 in. to a
mile.
Hanover and e. Prussia, r^Vinr or T7T of an in. to a mile.
Italy (see Sardina, Tuscany, etc.), survey maps of Naples, Rome, etc., in progress.
Greece (French survey) s^Vinr or 4 T\ m. to an inch.
Netherlands, 5^^ or ITT m- to a mile.
Prussia, -jTniWs or TT °f au m- to a m., and many smaller.
Russia, survey map in progress.
Sardinia, sETnnnr or J of an in. to a mile.
Saxony, ?Tl1)ffo or 1^ in. to a mile.
Switzerland, T^oVtru or TT °f an mch to a mile.
Spain and Portugal, surveys commenced.
Sweden and Norway, surveys in progress.
Tuscany, ^^Vsrs or about 3 m. to an inch.
The greatest extra European work of the kind is the Trigonometrical Survey of India,
which was begim seventy years ago, and has been conducted with great ability. The
work is drawing to a close, but will still occupy several years. The maps are published
on a scale of ^g^Vcir or i °f an mc^ to a mile. In America, the coast survey of the
United States, a map of great accuracy and minute detail, has been going on for many
years. The general charts are published on a scale of sutnnj or f of an inch to a mile ;
the harbors and ports ^-fans or 3^ of an inch to a mile. No systematic survey has yet
been undertaken for tli3 interior of the country.
No portion of South America has been trigonometrically surveyed, except the repub-
lics of Peru and Chili, which are in progress.
The geological survey, though under a different department of government (science
and art), maybe shortly noticed here. The English survey was begun in June, 1835,
and has now been completed, with the exception of Cumberland, Yorkshire, Norfolk,
and Cambridge. The Irish survey was begun in 1840, but was subsequently suspended
till 1845. It is now completed in the counties of Dublin, Meath, Westmeath, Longford,
Kildare, Queen's county, King's county, Carlow, Wicklow, Wexford, Kilkenny, Water-
ford, Cork, Tipperary, Kerry, Limerick, and Clare. In 1854 the survey was extended
to Scotland, and now extends over the counties of Edinburgh, Haddington, Fife, Kin-
Orebro. A A
Oregon.
ross, Linlithgow, Peebles, Lanark, Ayr, Renfrew, Dumbarton, Stirling, Perth, Wigton,
Kirkcudbright. Dumfries, Selkirk, Berwick, and Roxburgh. The surveys are made on
the 6 inch maps in the parts of the country where these exist; but the results are pub-
lished on the 1-iuch scale only, except some of the coal-fields, which are issued also on
the 6-inch scale. Besides the maps, sheets of sections, horizontal and vertical, with
valuable memoirs, are also published.
OREBRO. See OCREBRO, ante.
OR'EGON, one of the United States of America, in lat. 42° to 46° n., long. 116° 40' to
124° 25' w. ; bounded n. and e. by W ashington territory, from which it is chiefly separated
by Columbia river; e. by Idaho, the Lewis or Snake river intervening; s. by Nevada and
California; and w. by the Pacific ocean; being 350 m. from e. to w., by 275 from n. to
s., with an area of 95,274 sq. miles. The principal rivers are the Columbia and its
branches — the Willamette, Fall river, Snake river, and theOwyhee. The Columbia is a
large river, navigable 93 m. to the Cascade mountains, through which it passes; but the
entrance is difficult. The Willamette drains a large and fertile valley between the moun-
tains and the ocean. The Cascade mountains, which have extinct volcanic peaks of
4,000 to 10,000 ft. high, run n. and s.. dividing the state into two unequal regions. The
western third of the Estate, bordering the Pacific, has a mild, equable, aud moist climate,
with valleys of great fertility, where pines grow from 250 to 300 ft. high, and firs from 4
to 10 ft. in diameter. The rainfall at Astoria, mouth of the Columbia river, is 80 inches.
East of the mountains the climate is dry and variable, and the soil less fertile. Gold and
silver are found in the Cascade mountains, with copper, platinum, iridium, and osmium.
Coal has been discovered on Coos bay. The chief agricultural productions are wheat,
oats, potatoes, and apples. The great forests abound with the grizzly and black bear,
panther, wild-cat, elk, deer, and antelope; among the birds are the California vulture,
golden eagle, American swan, Canadian goose, etc.; while the rivers swarm with salmon.
There were, in 1870, twenty-two organized counties. Most of the settlements are cm the
Columbia river and in the Willamette valley. The chief towns are Salem, the capital,
on the Willamette river; pop. 4,000; Portland, 10,000; and Oregon City, about 2.000.
Within the state are about 10,000 Indians and 2,000 Chinese. Four colleges have been
founded, one medical school, numerous academies, common schools, daily and weekly
papers, and churches of several denominations. Oregon was the name formerly given to
the whole territory w. of the Rocky mountains claimed by the United States as far n. as
lat. 50° 40' north. This claim was resisted by the British government, which asserted a
right to the entire territory, and in 1818 a treaty was made, and renewed in 1827, giving
joint occupation, which was terminated in 1846 by notice f rom the United States govern-
ment, and the question seemed likely to involve the two countries in war, when a com-
promise was offered by lord Aberdeen, on the part of the British government, and
accepted by that of the United States, by which the boundary was settled on the i'orty-
niiith parallel. The northern portion is now Washington, and the eastern Idaho terri-
tory. The coast was discovered, and Columbia river entered, in 1792 by capt. Gray of
Boston. It was explored in 1804 and 1805 by capts. Lewis and Clarke, U. S. army.
In 1811 John Jacob Astor founded Astoria as a trading-depot of the American fur com-
pany, but sold out afterward to the Northwest fur company. In 1845 the gift of 320
acres of land to each married couple of settlers caused a large immigration. The territo-
rial government was organized in 1848, and in 1859 it was admitted as a state. Pop. in
1860, 52,464; in 1870, 90,776.
OREGON (ante). The name Oregon originally applied to all the w. part of the
United States possessions n. of the Spanish province of California. The Columbia river
was once known as the Oregon. Bryant, in " Thanatopsis," alludes to it under that name
in the line —
" Or lose thyself in the continuous woods where rolls the Oregon,"
etc. The Greek navigator De Vuca discovored its coast in 1592; the Spanish admiral
Fonte, in 1640; and Spain, for a time, claimed it. She ceded her rights, such as they
were, to England by treaty in 1790. The American capt. Robert Gray of Boston explored
the great river in May, 1792, named it after his vessel, the Columbia, and by the atten-
tion called to it in a circumstantial report to the United States government gave the color
of an original title to a claim by the United States to the valley of the river. France
then held a shadowy claim to all the continent w. of the Mississippi and n. of the Span-
ish possessions, under the name of Louisiana. The United States acquired all of that by
the purchase of Louisiana in 1803. The report of capt. Gray was made the basis for a
continental exploring expedition ordered by Jefferson and made by captains Lewis and
Clarke in 1804-6. Their really original surveys up and down the Columbia and its
great tributaries gave tlie United States its best title to the country. In 1811 the Ameri-
can Pacific fur company, of which John Jacob Astor was the director, established a trad-
ing-post at the mouth of the Columbia, and called the place Astoria. In the war of 1812
its property was sold to the Northwest fur company (a British company, subsequently
merged into the Hudson bay company) to prevent its seizure by British war vessels.
These companies maintained their fur depots at fort Vancouver, 60"m. above Astoria, up
to I860. In 1832 a few settlers came from the United States. Overland immigration from
A — Oretoro.
^t£) Oregon.
the states commenced in 1833 on a very small scale; only made possible across the vast
plains and numerous ranges of intervening mountains through the thorough knowledge
of the country which 'had been acquired by the hunters and trappers employed by the
Hudson bay company in all the country between the Mississippi and the Pacific. A
missionary colony, headed by Dr. Marcus Whitman and rev. Mr. Spaulding, arrived in
1834. The first considerable immigration was caused by the gold excitement in Califor-
nia in 1849, which, by establishing the overland route, placed the rich valley of the Wil-
lamette within reach of exploring parties from California, as well as direct immigration
down the Snake river. An organization for a territorial government had been effected
by the few settlers in the state in 1843, and a territorial constitution adopted by their
votes in 1845. A treaty with Great Britain, concluded in 1846, settled a disputed bound-
ary question. Congress passed the act to organize the territory of Oregon Aug. 14, 1848.
It then embraced all of the region claimed by the United States n. of the 42d parallel,
and w. of the Rocky mountains. The terrilorial government was inaugurated March 3,
1849, on the arrival of the first appointed governor, Joseph Lane. Washington territory,
organized Mar. 2, 1853, took from Oregon that part n. of the Columbia river and lat. 4t>~.
A state constitution was framed and ratified in 1857, and Oregon was admitted into the
union as a state Feb. 14, 1859, with its present boundaries. In 1850 congress passed the
"donation law," giving 320 acres of public lands on the Pacific slope to any actual
settler upon it. and 320 acres more to the wife, on all lands entered previous to December
of that year; and from Dec. 1, 1850, to Dec. 1, 1853, the right ui like manner to enter ICO
acres each. Under that law 8,000 acres were registered in Oregon, including what is no\v
Washington territory. It mostly fell into the hands of speculators. The following have
been her governors, provisional, territorial, and state:
James Shields, provisional 1848-49 i John Whittaker, state 1859-62
Joseph Lane, territorial 1849-51 i Addison C. Gibbs, state 1862-66
John P. Gaines, " 1851-53 George L. Woods, 1866-70
Lafayette S. Grover, " 1870-78
Willian M. Thayer, " 1878-82
Joseph Lane, " 1853-53
John W. Davis, " 1853-55
John L. Curry, " 1855-53
In 1843 there were about 400 white colonists in Oregon, and as many more hunter*
and trappers.
The subsequent decennial censuses show population as follows: 1850, 13,294 >bO,
52465- 1870 90,923; 1880, 174,767. The proportion of males to females in 1850 was
about two to one, and since that time as 3 to 2. The proportion of native to foreign
population in 1870 was as 7 to 1, and nearly one-half of all the population even at that
time had been born in the state. Oregon received emigrants from every state of the
mere were lo.ou* lamuies, averaging *.»* pi-i^uus m ctu.u, »,»!«« unuuu£D, „ v,, ,,_,,!,„
4.69 persons in each. There were 3,003 natives above 10 years old unable to read and
write, and 1424 foreigners; of whom 808 were Chinese and US Indians. The Indians
of Oregon in 1875 living on reservations number about 8,000, located at five reserves, as
follows^ the coast Indians, at Siletz river, on the Pacific coast, 75 m. s. of the mouth of the
Columbia; the Quinault tribe.on the coast, 80 in. n. of the Columbia; the Klamath Indians,
just c. of the coast range, near the California line the Warm Springs Indians, in a small
reservation 40 m. s. of "the Dalles; the Malheurs in the e. part of the state near the 44th
parallel; and the Uraatillas about 30 m. s.e. of Walla Walla. A small part of the Indians
rove along the banks of the Columbia to fish, and a still smaller number have taken to
farming among the settlers. In the reservations there are 6,000 sq.m., making "50 acres
to each Indian. Of roving Indians the number is greater and more uncertain. The
Modoc war of 1872 in the lava plains of the s. border of Oregon showed the power
of a few Indinns and white outlaws to make much trouble. In 1878 a more serious
attack on white settlements was made in e. Oregon. A band of Bannacks, joined by
Shoshones, Piutes, Snakes, and Malhes, ravaged a large district, killing stock and
murdering settlers; but were followed so closely by the U- S. forces under gen. Howard
that the panic caused by their unexpected show of strength and destructiveness rapidly
subsided. It was the most matured and united movement by the Indians against the
settlers ever made in the state, and resulted in widespread destruction to property,
and considerable loss of life. Their 'quick defeat and the measures taken to force the
Indians into reservations near military stations have since effected the clearance of the
whole country from the same dangers.
Three ranges of mountains — or, rather, two ranges and one broad upheaval, with many
ranges ramifying from it — divide the state into four widely different parts. Next to the
sea 'is the Coast range, of an average height of 2,500 ft., maximum 5,000 ft., drained by
deeply fissured streams runnimr directly to the sea on the w., and into the Willamette
valley eastward. Parallel with the coast, and from 40 to 70 m. e. of it, is the great Cas-
cade range— the northerly continuation of the Sierras of California, and the loftiest
mountains of the state. Between these two ranges flows the Willamette n. to the
Columbia, and makes the most fertile and beautiful region of the state. The strip on
46
Oregon.
the coast slope, and the narrow valley of the Willamette, are but small parts of the state,
but the richest by nature and by far the most settled. The Blue mountain* are the third
of the great divisions of Oregon, forming a vast irregular plateau, with spurs in every
direction, and draining by "streams n. to the Columbia, s. to the Humboldt and
the Klarnath rivers, and e. to the Snake. Their n.e. spurs are called Eagle mountains.
These mountains have not so lofty peaks as those of the Cascade range, but, springing
from a much more elevated and expensive upheaval, they form a more elevated mountain
system than is generally supposed, ranging from 4,000' to 9,000 ft. above the sea. The
peaks of the Cascade range, on the other liand. rising from the low level of the Willam-
ette and Columbia river valleys, are seen in all their majesty. Mount Hood, the most
northerly, is 11,22.") ft. high, 30m. from the Columbia, and 110m. from the Pacitic.
mount Jefferson, 50 m. further s., is 10,200 ft. high, and mounts Thielson, Scott, Pitt, and
tiie Three Sisters are of about equal elevation/ This great range is broken through in
its southern part by the Willamette and Klamnth rivers, which rise e. of it, but How
w. through great gaps, the former to the Columbia by a n. coum: after it gc:s
through the mountains, and the latter south-westerly through California to the Pacific.
The Cascade mountains are volcanic, and indicate that eruptions have taken place from
them at no very remote period. The Indians have traditions that mount Hood lias h< < n seen
in an active state. The valley of the Columbia, where it forms a part of middle Oregon,
receives as tributaries from the Blue mountain range John Day's river, down the valley
of which it is expected the Union Pacitic railroad connection with Oregon will he made;
and the Des Chutes river, which drains a gnat hisin between the Cascade and the Blue
mountains. The s. pan of middle Oregon has many small lakes, Mime of il.em salt,
tome basins without outlets, and others which drain s. to the Ih.mboldl ; n;l Klamath
rivers. The principal lakes are the Klamath, Goose, Warner, and Harney. East Ore-
gon is drained by short streams flowing n. into the Columbia, and by the 1'oilowing
rivers flowing easterly into Snake river, viz.: Grande Itonde, Powder, Burnt, Malheur,
and Owyhee rivers. The last two, in the s.e. part of the state, drain considerable val-
leys, mainly valuable for grazing.
The sea-shore of Oregon is 300 m. in length, and has many fine bays ami good
harbors. The most southerly is the mouth of Rogue river at Ellenburg. At, Port,
Oxford, a fewr miles n., is a small bay furnishing partial protection from storms Tlio
mouth of Coquille river is accessible to vessels of sight draught. Coos bay, in hit. 43° 20',
is 10 m. long. 2 m. wide, with 18 to 24 ft. of water, and a changeable bar at its mouth
that occasionally impedes entrance. Empire City and Marshal it on are located upon it.
The Umpqua mouth can be entered by vessels of light draught, and the river is navi-
gated by small steamers to Eoseburg,90 miles. Yaquina buy at the mouth of Yaquina river.
in hit. 44° 40', is a wide estuary with 10 to 12 ft. of water on its bar. Tilhunook bay, in
lat. 45° 34', has an area of upwards of 6 sq.m., with 24 to 50 ft. of water at the entrance
and in the bay. Tillamook is its port. Nehalem river, in lat. 45' 41' 30'', forms a bay 4
in. long, 8m. wide, with an entrance 200 to 400 ft. wide, and 18 ft. at high tide. False
Tillamook bay. a few miles n., is a small, round, secure harbor. Next comes the mouth
of the Columbia river. All the harbors named have a light-house or light-houses at their
entrances. The Columbia river is the great harbor of that coast. It is 5 m. wride at its
month, has 2 channels — the s. 2 m. wide with 24 ft, of water at low tide, and the n. 600
yds. wide with 21 ft. depth. Fogs and a shifting bar make some difficulties at its'
entrance at times. Cape Hancock" on the n. of the entrance, has a light-house, and on
cape or point Adams, on the s., is fort Stevens and a light-house. There are many har-
bors on both sides of the Columbia, and ships ascend it 115 m. to the Cascades. The
Willamette joins it 110 m. from the mouth, and is navigable by light steamers 126 m.
above Portland, which is located on the w. bank 7 m. sihove the Columbia. Ships can
ascend to Oregon Citv, 11 m. above Portland. A ship canal has been constructed around
the falls of the Willamette at the former city at a cost of $4oO,000, which provides for
the steamboat navigation before mentioned. ' The U. S. government commenced the con-
struction of a ship canal around Cascade falls on the Columbia in 1877, to be 7,200 ft.
long, with two locks 300 ft, long, by 50 ft. wide each, overcoming a fall of 26 feet.
Above the Cascades there are 296 m. of steamboat navigation on the Columbia, inter-
rupted only by the rapids of the Dalles.
The Pacific slope of the state west of the Cascade mountains is tempered by the cool
waters of the Pacific, so that its extremes of heat and cold are not great, Mists, frequent
rains, and but little snow, characterize its winters. The summers aie not excessively
warm, but are o'ten long without rain. Thunder-storms are rare, and hail-storms
unknown. At Portland the average temperature for January was 80.30°; the highest,
44.90°; averajre for January is 39.5°; February, 41°; March, 45.5°; April, 52.4°; May,
46.8°; June, 62°; July, 68.6°; August, 71°; September, 62.6°; October, 54.9°; November,
44.9°; December, 42.3°. The lowest temperature in January, 1875, was 3°; the lowest
in 1876, 20", in January; and in 1874, 26°. The interior mountain county of the state
east of the Cascade range is relatively hot and dry in summer, with deep snows and
intense cold in winter. In the Columbia valley, at 'Dalles, the mercury sometimes falls
to 8° below zero. The annual rainfall at Astoria is SO in.; in Portland, 52.8 in.; in
east Oregon, from 12 to 20 in., most on the high mountains and least in the valleys; in
the upper valley of the Willamette, from 37 to 44 inches. Observations from 1820 to
Oregon.
1876 inclusive, at Eola, near Salem, show an average of 37J in. yearly, which is the same
as at Cincinnati, Ohio. There are no diseases peculiar to the climate. In some places
alluvial lands and narrow valleys are subject to malarial fever.
Eastern Oregon, like southern Idaho, exhibits evidence of volcanic action at no
remote period. Clefts and canons afford excellent studies of geologic structure. The
geologic formations of Oregon are eozoic, volcanic, tertiary, and cretaceous. The coast
range and the mountains of the n.e. part are eozoic, and the Cascade range and southern
mountains generally volcanic. A narrow strip of tertiary is found on the Pacific border,
the Willamette valley, the upper portion of the Umpqua valley in the s.w., and the
northern part of the state e. of the Cascade range. On the upper vallej's of the Des Chute,
Crooked, and John Days rivers cretaceous formations are developed. Minerals of nearly
all kinds have been found in Oregon. Gold is found in nearly all the valleys of the
streams flowing into the Snake river, and in the sands of the sea-shore. It was found,
in 1852, in the s.w. corner of the state, where mining is still carried on; but since 1861,
when gold was discovered in nearly all the streams flowing into the Snake river, and in
the upper part of John Days river, the eastern part of the state has been much the most
productive. The easy diggings were mostly worked over in the ten years following, and
railways have not yet' furnished facilities for the machinery necessary to costly develop-
ments. Silver is said to 'occur in nearly all the quartz ledges in the state, but extensive
mining in quartz is in its infancy. Baker co., on the e. border of the state, has the
greatest show of gold and silver ores. By the census of 1870 there were shown to be 168
gold mines in Oregon, 136 of them placer. 26 hydraulic, and 8 quartz, employing b80
men, with a capital of $-321:000. Yearly wages paid, $79,022; value of materials used,
$29,930; of products, $417,797. The commissioner of mining statistics, however, for
the same year gives the number of quartz mills in the state as 15 — 1 for silver and 14 for
gold — with 62 stamps and 19 arrastras. Many of these were then idle. Previous to 1870
nearly all the mining was for gold. The census of 1880 will show a great increase in the
number and value of silver mines, and in the value of capital and machinery engaged on
them. Copper is found in oxides and carbonates in many parts of the state, and natives
in ledges principally in the eastern and south-western counties. Iron, ore is found in
nearly every part of the 'state, but is not yet extensively worked. Six m. s. of Portland
there is a bod at Oswego, in which the ore is 54 per cent pure iron. Lignite coal is
found in many places in the coast range, in the Umpqua and Willamette valleys, nnd.e.
of the Blue mountains. Considerable quantities are shipped from Coos bay. Limestone,
marble, granite-, sandstone, slate, and syenite suitable for building are found in abundance
all over the state. Salt springs abound in the southern part of the state, and soapstone
in the Klamath basin. Stones of chalcedony, agates, carnelian, and jasper are found
along the banks of the Columbia river.
The native animals of Oregon differ little from those of all the north-western states.
The grizzly, cinnamon, and black bears are probably as abundant in this state as in any
oilier, but the former is seldom found of so great size as in California and Nevada. A
large wolf, the cayote, the panther, and wild cat are the principal carnivora. Of the deer
family are the black-tailed, elk, antelope, and big-horn mountain sheep. The latter are
very shy and rare, and found only on the high mountains. The elk generally herd on
high table-lands among the mountains. Their meat is the finest of all of the deer"
family. Bears are generally in the woods near to streams. Fur-bearing animals were
formerly abundant. Among them are the silver foxes, beavers, otter, polecat, muskrat,
martin, and weasel. Seals (not fur-bearing) frequent the Columbia up to the cascades.
Fish are the great river product of Oregon. The salmon and salmon-trout of the
Columbia and its tributaries, in size, abundance, and high flavor, fresh or salted, are
known throughout the world. All the small rivers that flow to the sea are also stocked
with these fish. A large amount of capital is engaged in the catch and canning of
salmon. The first cannery was established in 1868 by Mr. Hume, of Maine, who estab-
lished a wide demand in the United States and in England for his canned goods. There
were, in 1878, 28 large canneries upon the Columbia, a majority of which were at
Astoria, but scattered also along the river to 15 m. above the cascades. The catch of
salmon that year was 1,250,000 fish, averaging about 23 Ibs. They are caught iu nets,
of which about 40 m. in length are set for them nights. At Astoria 500 to GOO boats
soniL'times leave in the afternoon at once to go to the fishing grounds on the bar below.
Twelve thousand is about the highest daily catch at the Astoria grounds, and 62 Ibs. the
maximum si/e of the fish. The canneries are built over the river on piles, and the work
in them is principally done by Chinamen, except that done with machinery, which is
employed to the fullest practicable extent. The work must be pushed with the greatest
possible celerity during the height of the catch, which lasts in all about 100 days, but
has its great days that tax all the machine and hand power of the vast establishments
night and day. Nine million cans were required in 1878 by the Astoria canneries, and
put up in 450,000 cases containing 11,600,000 Ibs. To Great Britain direct shipment was
made of about 142,000 cases, and 271,000 cases went to San Francisco. The total export
for the year ending July 30, 1879, amounted to $12,282,047; in 1878, $14,644,973; in
1877, $11,571,855. The fishermen earn five dollars a day (hiring the height of the fish
catch.
Oregon has become, more than any other state except Texas, the primary market for
Oregon.
live stock; the great herders of "Wyoming and Colorado doing much of their "stocking-
up" by purchase of Oregon cattle, of which 100,000 head passed east through Idaho the
past sea.-on. East Oregon furoishea the larger pan of these. In 1870 the sales of live
stock in the state amounted to $6,828,67."). exclusive of those slaughtered, \\hieh were
valued at $1,865,735. At the present time these values are probably doubled. In 1870
there were 120,000 cattle in the slate; in 1*75, 276.000; in 1878, 426.000. The number
• of hogs in 1870 was 119,455; in 1875, 181,500. Of milch cows there were in 1870,
62,400; in 1875, 80,900; ia 1878, 93,000. The raising of horses is increasing considera-
bly at the present time, but the climate of Oregon will not permit them to be reared so
cheaply as in California.
The total wheat crop of Oregon in 1870 was 2,270,000 bush. ; in 1877, 7, Si) ;.076 bush. ;
the latter believed to be an average of 19 bush, per acre. The oat crop of 1877 was
4,127,663 bush., averaging 35 bush, per acre. The wool clip increased i'voin 1,750,600 1'us.
in 1871 to 5,736,650 Ibs. in 1878. The quality has improved as rapidly as ihe quantity,
and Oregon wool commands the best prices in eastern markets. Its exhibit at the cen-
tennial fair in 1876 received medals and diplomas, according to the report of the com-
missioners, for " merino wool, very fine specimens of fiber, and good staple, very much
resembling Australian wool, and giving evidence that Oregon can produce wool of very
great value." Much wool is consumed by the cloth-mills of the state. Oregon IMS a,
climate particularly favorable to the potato, the quality of which commends it to states
south, while for Indian-corn her summers are too short and moist.
The timber grown on the alluvial lands and in the mountain valleys of Oregon is
unsurpassed in magnitude except by the " big trees of California." In the familic.-
ables and picea the trees of Oregon and Washington territory are the best of their species
in the world. The long-leaved Oregon pine is found in mountain valleys, where it grows
to the height of 170 ft., in straight trunks, without waste for lumber seven-eighths of
their height, with a diameter of from 4 to 6 feet. The redwood, which belongs to the
cedar family, is found on the Coast range of enormous size, sometimes 15 ft. in diameter.
Its lumber is admirable for building purposes, being strong, easily worked, light, not
liable to quick decay, and noxious, by its odor, to insects. A spruce, known as red pine,
red fir, and red spruce, resembles the Norway spruce, but is distinct, makes a valuable.
lumber, grows 150 ft. in height, and 3 to 6 ft. in diameter.
. Public lands. There are five U. S. land-offices in the state, located respectively at
Oregon City, Roseburg, the Dalles, La Grande, and Parkville. Under the pre-emption
law a citizen may enter or pre-empt, on payment of a fee of $2, the right to purchase 100
acres either within or without the limits of a railroad grant at the rate of $2.50 per acre
for the former, and $1,25 for the latter. The grants to the Oregon and California, and
Oregon Central railroad companies, comprise the odd numbered alternate sections
within 20 m. on each side of the road to the extent of 12,800 acres per mile. The com-
panies sell their lands sit 'from $ 1125 to $7 per acre, 10 per cent off for cash, or on 10
years' lime with interest at 7 per cent, one-tenth of the principal to be paid yearly. The
"United States have made extensive surveys, so that there are vast tracts of good land for
sale under the homestead and pre-emption laws. The state also has for sale a large
quantity of desirable lands granted by the government. Its chief land office is at Salem.
The state has three customs districts and ports of entry: for s.w. Oregon, at Coos bay ;
for the Columbia river, at Astoria; and for the "Willamette, at Portland. The foreign
entrances represented 30.064 tons; the American, 11,771 tons. Clearances, foreign,
42,439 tons; American, 17,576 tons. The commerce upon the Columbia and Willam-
ette rivers has r.ssumed a great magnitude by regular lines of steamers connecting with
railways and canals around the falls. Smaller boats and rafting contribute largely to
swell its volume. In 1868 there were 9 steamers engaged in the carrying-trade on the
river. In 1875 the Oregon Steam Navigation Co., Oregon Steamship Co., and Willam-
ette Transportation Co. had together 32 steamers and barges with an aggregate of
18.898 tons. Twelve small steamers owned by individuals represented 2,473 tons. In
1878 the number of steamers had increased to 72. with a£ri.rrcgate tonnage of 25,089,
besides 20 river barges, making 5,661 tons Previous to 18(58 the export, trade, except
that to the Sandwich islands and Puget sound (about $100,000), was to San Franci-co.
and aggregated to the latter port that year $1,678,793, in 1875 it was $4,105,025, and in
1878/$6.134,491. Before 1868 gold dust and ores formed three-fourths of all the
exports of Oregon. They are now but one-third of the value of salmon alone.
The railways of Oregon are the Oregon Central, from Portland to St.. Joseph, 49 m.,
leased to the Western Oregon Railroad Co. ; the Oregon and California railway, from
Portland up the Willamette to Roseburg, 199 m., successors of the Oregon and Central
Railroad Co., chartered by congress July 25. 1866, and owners of a land grant; the
Willamette Valley railroad, from Dayton to Dallas, 35 m.; and the Oregon Railway and
Navigation Co., from Wallulu to Celilo, 100 m., with branches, viz.: the Dalles and
Des Chutes railroad, around the lower cascade, 6 m. ; the Dalles and Celilo railroad, 14£
in.; the Walla Walla and Columbia River railroad, 32 m. : and Whitman and West on,
20 m., making a total of 172 miles. This company commenced business July 1, 1879.
It is a strong corporation, controlling the Oregon Steamship Co. and the Oregon Steam
Navigation Co., including portage of the Columbia river (one in Washington territory
around the lower cascade), and the Walla Walla aud Columbia River railroad. It owns
4Q
Oregon.
4 ocean and 28 river steamers, 5 barges, and 7 wharf boats. The controlling managers
of this company are in Boston, Xew York, and Chicago. They are pushing a road up
the valley of John Day river toward the s.e. part of the state, to meet a branch of the
Union Pacific, now under construction from Ogden through s. Idaho: which roads
are likelv to be completed to make a transcontinental road eastward from Oregon dur-
ing the year 1882or 1883.
The number of .manufacturing establishments given by the census of 1820 was 969,
employing 2,184 hands, $4,376,849 capital, paying $1,120,173 for wages, consuming
$3,419,756 of raw material and producing $6,877,387 value of manufactures. Flouring
mills produced of this $1,530,229, lumber, $922,576; woolen fabrics, $492,857. In 1874
the exported part of the flour-mill products amounted to about $4,000,000; the lumber
and timber to $3,000,000, and woolen goods to $1,000,000. Iron foundries, machine
shops, rolling mills, quartz crushing mills and smelters, wool and paper mills, linen fac-
tories, extensive tanneries, and factories for making building lumber, agricultural imple-
ments, and wooden ware, indicate the direction of the manufacturing work of the state.
The fish-canning factories have been referred to.
The constitution was adopted in 1857, and authorizes any male citizen of the United
States 21 years old and six months a resident of the state to be a voter, and any like
foreigner who shall declare his intention to become a citizen one year before an election,
and have been a resident of the state for six months. The governor, secretary of slate
(who is auditor), and state treasurer are elected for four years, and ineligible four out of
.any period of 12 years. The legislature has a senate of not more than 30 members
elected for 4 years; and a house of representatives of not more than 60 members elected
for two years. They meet biennially. The judiciary consists of a supreme court of six
or more judges, having appellate jurisdiction; six circuit courts, each presided by one
of the judges of the supreme court, having civil and criminal jurisdiction, and appellate
jurisdiction from the county courts; and county courts with one judge, elected for four
years, who is also judge of probate. An act was passed by the legislature in 1878 creat-
ing a separate supreme court of three judges. The circuit court judges are elected one-
third every two years. One or more justices of the peace are elected in every town-
ship or mining district, and have jurisdiction in cases involving $250 or less. Judges of
the supreme court can be removed by the governor upon the joint resolution of two-
thirds of the legislature. A state printer and superintendant of public instruction are
fleeted every four years. General elections are held biennially on the first Monday of
June of even years. To amend the constitution the amendment must pass two succes-
sive legislatures, and be approved by popular vote. The constitution prohibits the legis-
lature "from contracting any state debt exceeding $50,000, or assuming the debt of any
county, town, or corporation, and limits each county to $5,000 of indebtedness except
' ' to repel invasion or suppress insurrection. '' The salaries of governor, secretary of state,
and superintendent of public instruction are $1,500 each; treasurer, $800; and members
of each house $3 per day, and $3 for every 20 miles of travel, not making more than $120
to any one member.
The board of education for the state consists of the governor, secretary of state, and
superintendent of instruction. County superintendents and boards of district school
officers are chosen at the biennial county elections. The foundation for the public
schools of Oregon is exceptionally strong. An irreducible school fund of $500,000 fur-
nishes a part of it. A large body of swamp lands was donated to the state by the United
States, and has been placed at the disposal of the board of school commissioners to be
sold so as to make the most of their value. The number of children in the public schools
in 1859 was 32,715; of school age 56,464. The very sparse settlement of a large part of
the state makes the maintenance of schools difficult in many places, so that the average
duration of schools in 1875 was only 4| months. Value of school property the same
year, $332,764; number of school houses, 555; number of teachers employed that year,
860; average salary of teachers, $40 per month. The total receipts from all funds for
public schools was $204,760, made upas follows: District tax, $47,243; state appor-
tionment, $31,589; county apportionment, $87,573; rate bills and subscriptions, $34,672,
other sources, $3,683. The university of Oregon established by the legislature in 1872,
Is under the control of nine directors, six of whom are appointed by the governor, and is
endowed by the state at the start with $50,000, called the university fund. The following
colleges were in operation in 1874. The Pacific university and Tualatin academy at Forest
Grove, not denominational, had 8 instructors, 124 students and 5,000 volumes id library;
the Willamette university at Salem, Methodist Episcopal, 9 instructors, 322 students,
2,500 volumes; McMinnv'ille college at McMinnville, Baptist, 6 instructors, 150 students;
Christian college, at Monmouth, Christian Brothers, 9 instructors, 180 students; Philo-
math college at Philomath, United Brethren, 6 instructors, 134 students, and Corvallis
college at Corvallis, Methodist Episcopal, 6 instructors and 134 students. The Pacific
university, Philomath college, and Willamette university admit women. A medical
department of the latter had 11 professors and 14 students. Ninety thousand acres of
the congressional land grant for school purposes were given in 1872 to endow a state
agricultural college which was grafted as a department on Corvallis college, where it has
a farm, and receives an annual grant of $5,000 from the state. "^ The number of libraries
in the state, public and private, In 1870 was 2,361, with 344,959 volumes; of which about
U. K. XL— 4
Oregou. KA
Oretii.
one-fourth were public, and classified as follows: State library, 3,578 volumes; town,
1,161; court and law, 180; school, college, etc., 4,400; Sabbath-school, 33,547; church,
10,420; benevolent associations, 1,096.
The number of newspapers and periodicals in 1880 is 64. In 1874 there were 41,
viz.: 4 daily, 1 tri-weekly, 33 weekly, 1 semi-monthly, and 2 monthly. The aggregate
circulation was then 45,750. The church organizations and relative strength arc given
below from the census of 1870: Organizations, 220; edifices, 135; sittings, 39,425; value
of property, $471,000.
Partial statistics for 1879 show of Baptist churches, 77; Roman Catholic, 18; Congre-
gational, 28; Jews, 1; Presbyterians, 27; Protestant Episcopal, 34; Seventh Day Adven-
tists, 7; Unitarian, 2; Universalist, 5. The number of the Methodist churches is nol
stated, but there are 3 conferences of 5,500 members.
No public building for state charities had been erected up to 1875. A school is main-
tained for deaf mutes, an asylum for the insane, and another for the blind, under state
control, in buildings leased for the purpose. In the deaf mute school in 1874 there were-
29 pupils; in the blind asylum, 8; in the insane asylum, 195; of whom 140 were males
and 55 females and 124 natives of the United State and 71 of foreign countries. The
penitentiary was erected in 1874 and has a farm and commodious yards connected with,
it. The convicts are employed at brick-making, or on the farm, or let out to contractors.
In 1779 they numbered 200.
The decennial valuations of property for taxation have been as follows:
ASSESSED VALUE.
Estimate of
YEARS.
Real.
Personal.
Total.
Real value.
1850
$5 063 474
1860. . .
$6,279,602
812,745,313
819024915
28930637
1870
17,674,202
14.124,308
31,798,570
51 558932
The tax for state purposes in 1870 was $177,653; for county, $362,753; and for towns
and cities, $4,550; total, $580,596. Total public debt,' $218,486, of which $10t;.r,s;} -,vns
state, $105.903 county, and $6,000 town. The liabilities of the state in Sept., 1878,
were $651,595. Balance in the treasury at same date, $112,895.
OREGON, a co. in s. Missouri adjoining Arkansas, watered by the Spring and
Eleven Point rivers; 730 sq.m. ; pop. '70, 3,287. The surface is uneven, broken with,
hills, heavily wooded; the soil is fertile. The principal productions are corn, wheat,
and oats. Co. seat, Alton.
OREGON RIVER. See COLUMBIA RIVER, ante.
OKEIDE, a new alloy lately introduced by the French as a substitute for ormolu,
which it excels in its gold-like character. Tliere are two formulas for composing it. la
the first the ingredients are: copper, 100.0; tin, 17,0; magnesia, 6.0; sal ammoniac. 3.6;
quicklime, 1.80: argols, or unrefined tartar, 9.0. In the second, zinc is substituted for
the tin. The latter does not possess the same brilliancy as the former. The metals are
first melted, and the other ingredients, after being thoroughly incorporated together
by powdering and mixing, are slowly added, and the whole is kept in a state of fusion
for about an hour, and the scum removed from time to time.
O'REILLY, ALEXANDER, Count, 1725-94, b. Ireland. He went to Spain at an early-
age, became a soldier in the Spanish army, and served in Italy in the war of the Austrian
succession. He served for a short time in the armies of France and Austria, and then
re-entered the Spanish service, where he was brig.gen. and afterwards inspector-gen., in
which position he introduced many reforms in the discipline and tactics of the army. In
1768 O'Reilly was sent to Louisiana, which had been ceded to Spain in 1762. Hi-re he-
put down the disaffection of the French, and in so doing committed many tyrannous and
cruel acts. His system of court martials and executions was particularly unjust in vic\v
of the fact that up to the time of his arrival the Spanish authority had not been asserted
in the colony. Upon his return to Spain he was given command of an expedition against
Algiers, which proved a failure (1775). He d. while on his way to take command of th»
army of the eastern Pyrenees.
O'REILLY, PRIVATE MILKS, (pseud). See HALPINE, CHARLES G.
OBEL, a government in the s.w. of Central Russia, bounded on the w. by little Russia
and the government of Smolensk. Area, 17,951 sq.m.; pop. '70, 1,596,881. The
surface is fiat, with rising grounds in the vicinity of the towns of Kromv and Malo-
Archangelsk, from which the Oka and Sosna respectively take their rise. The govern,
ment is drained by the Desna on the w., an affluent of the Dnieper; the Oka on the n.,
an affluent of the Volga; and the Sosna on the e., an affluent of the Don. The soil is
fertile, and the climate mild. The western part of the government abounds in woods.
In the district of Briansk, in the n.«r., there are a number of iron mines. Agriculture
and the cultivation and preparation of hemp are the chief employments of the peeplo.
K 1 Oregon.
Orelli.
Corn la very extensively grown, and great quantities are sent to St. Petersburg, Riga, and
the Black sea ports for export. The principal article of export is wheat, in grain and in.
flour. Sail-cloth, rope and hemp-yarn manufactures are carried on ; glass and iron works
are numerous. The hemp of Orel is reckoned the best in liussia ; and the oil obtained
from hemp-seed, and used in Russia as an article of food, is extracted at 2,000 miles.
The rearing of cattle and horses is much attended to; almost all the considerable laud-
owners keep studs.
OREL, a thriving t. of Great Russia, capital of the government of the same name,
stands on the Oka, as its confluence with the Orlik, 226 m. s.s.w. of Moscow, and 678
m. s.s.e. of St. Petersburg. It was founded in 1566, as a stronghold in defense of what
was then the Russian frontier, against the inroads of the Tartar tribes of the Crimea.
Its importance as a fortress ceased after the annexation of Little Russia, and it then
became a commercial town. The town owes much to its advantageous position on a
navigable river in the midst of the most fertile provinces of Russia. The railway from
Moscow to Odessa, on the Black sea, passes through Orel, and the Vitebsk line affords
it direct railway communication with the port of Riga, and thus its export trade has
been greatly promoted. It is the seat of a bishop, and contains numerous churches; its
heuses are for the most part constructed of wood. There is an important ferry here over
the Oka. The chief manufacturing establishments in the town, are yarn and rope
factories. The principal articles of export are cereals and hemp. On June 7, 1848,
Orel suffered severely from a great fire, which destroyed 1237 houses, four bridges, and
a number of granaries. Pop. '67, 43,575.
ORELLANA, FRANCISCO, cl. about 1550; b. Spain, went to Peru in 1531, in the
expedition commanded by Francisco Pizarro, participated in the contest which conquered
the country, and was the first European who crossed the continent of South America.
He was of respectable family and went to America to better his fortunes. In 1540, with
Gonzalez Pizarro (brother to Francisco). Orellana, as second in command of 350 Spaniards,
4,000 Indians, and 1000 dogs (for hunting natives), penetrated the forests and climbed
the snow-clad Andes nits, between Quito and the country beyond, which was reported
to abound in gold, silver, cinnamon, etc. Many hardships and misfortunes were met,
and-the explorers were shaken by earthquakes, overtaken by tempests, and drenched by
floods, which cut off their means of communication, and reduced them to the greatest
straits. After many trials of endurance they reached the province of Zumaco, and were
cheered by the sight of the cinnamon tree growing in great abundance. They had been
subsisting on roots and berries, while following the course of a river supposed to be the
Napo, a branch of the Maranon for 200 leagues, and had nearly exhausted their supply, when
Orellana was ordered down the Hver with the bark which they had built — large enough
to hold their baggage — manned with 50 soldiers. They were warned to keep near the
army which would follow by land, and after procuring provisions the orders were to
return immediately, leaving the baggage where they loaded the provisions. He pro-
ceeded down the river till he came to the place where it joined the Amazon, made no
discoveries of the means of subsistence, but was the first European to navigate that
stream. He parted with his commander at this point and proceeded down the river, the
voyage lasting 7 months, and his party were reduced to the extremity of hunger, eating
their shoes and devouring their saddles. Many deaths occurred from skirmishes with the
natives, and mutinies broke out among the crew, which only his firmness quelled. lie
reached the coast in August, 1541, having passed over 1000 leagues of the river. From
its mouth he sailed to the island of Cubagua and thence to Spain carrying glowing
accounts of the El Dorado, and embellishing his story with descriptions of the marvelous
race called the Amazons, who were female warriors, and dwelt by the banks of the river
which had no male population, and where gold was so plenty that the roofs of the
temples were made of gold. He readily induced a company to join him. and the king of
Spain granted him extensive possessions and a commission to colonize El Dorada. He
set out with 4 ships and 400 men in 1549, but he lost one ship and 150 men before reach-
ing Teneriffe. He arrived at the mouth of the Amazon near Montealegre, but every
vessel in his fleet was wrecked, and he d. shortly after of malarial fever.
ORELLI, JOHANN KASPAR, an eminent philologist and critic, was b. at Zurich. Feb.
13, 1787. His father was long the Landror/t of Wadenschweil. He studied in the
Carolinnm at Zurich, and betook hin:self enthusiastically to the study both of the ancient
and of modern languages and literature. In 1806 he was ordained as a clercyman.
He spent some years as a tutor at Bergamo; and while there, published, in 1810, two
parts of a work entitled Beitrage zur Q-esehicliU der Ital. Poestie. In 1813 he became a
teacher in the cantonal school at Chur; in 1819. professor of eloquence and hermeneutics
in Zurich; and after the foundation of the Zurich high school, in which he took an
active part, he wax one of its chief ornaments. There never was a man more zealous in
the course of education. It was during this latter and most distinguished period of bis
career that he produced most of his learned works, and trained to a correct knowledge
of antiquity a numerous band of scholars. His political sympathies and opinions were
not, however, confined to the ancient world ; he took the liveliest interest in the struggles
of Greece for freedom, and in the political reformation of his native country. He died
Jan. 6, 1849. Orelli edited many classical authors with great learning, taste, and acute
Orenburg. «Q
Orford. o-
discrimination; in particular, his editions of TTorace (2 vols. Ziir. 1837-88), Tactitns (2
vols. Ztir. 1846-47), and Cicero (4 vols. Zur. (1826-31) deserve mention; also an Omtiiut-
sticon Tullianum (3 vols. Zilr. 1836-38), executed in association with Baiter, and an
Inscnptianvm Latinarnm Se-lectarum Collectio (2 vols. Zilr. 1828).
0 RENBURG, a Russian government in the Ural region, lies partly in Europe and
partly in Asia, and extends between the governments of Tobolsk on the n.e. and
Samara on the s.w. Area of the government, 73.600 sq.m. ; pop. '70, 900,547. The
goveiumant is divided into four districts — Orenburg, Verchue, Uralsk, Ovsk, and
Troitsk and Teheiabiusk. Capital, Orenburg (q.v.). Till 1865, Orenburg comprised
within its area the whole of what is now the distinct government of Ufa (q.v.); but in
that year the part of Orenburg lying to the n.w. of the Ural mountain range was organ-
ized into the new government. The populations, the surface, soils, flora, and fauna of this
extensive country are of the most various kinds. The government is one of the most
elevated in the empire ; but it also contains extensive low-lying tracts and su-ppes.
It is traversed by numerous navigable rivers, by means of which and by canals it is in
communication with the Caspian and Baltic seas, and with the Arctic ocean. The main
streams are the Bielaia (running into the Kama, a tributary of the Volga), the Tobol, and
the Ural. As many as 2,300 larger and smaller lakes lie within the frontiers. Of the
\vhole area, about three-tenths are forest, a half- is waste land, and only about a twentieth
part is cultivated. The hill country has much pleasant scenery, but s:rcat tracts of the
steppe regions are utterly barren and desolate. The inhabitants are made up of Hussians,
Bashkir, Tartar, and Kirghis tribes, Kalmucks and certain Finnish peoples, with a lew
Germans. The trade is chiefly with Bokhara, Khiva, Tashkend, and the Kirgheez; the
exports are gold, silver, and other metals, corn, skins, and manufactured goods; the
imports, cattle, cotton — the demand for and supply of which have greatly increased
since the commencement of the American war — and the other articles of Asiatic trade.
The imports are either disposed of to Russian merchants in the custom-house on the
frontier, or are carried by Asiatic traders into Russia, and sold at the great national
market of Nijni-Novgorod. There are in the province numerous iron and copper works,
as well as valuable gold diggings, both belonging to the crown and to private individuals.
The salt mines are valuable. There is a small-arms factory on a large scale, and a few
other factories. Cattle-breeding is very extensively carried on. The number of horses
iu Orenburg is larger than in any other Russian government. The southern frontiers
are defended, at intervals of 12 or 12 m. , by fortified settlements, inhabited by Cossacks;
those on a larger scale being surrounded by a bulwark and a moat. This line of forts
extends over a frontier of 2,000 m. eastward to the boundaries of China; the series from
the mouth of the Ural to the Tobol, occupied by upwards of 242,000 Ural and Orenburg
Cossacks, being known as the Orenburg line. The region of which Orenburg forms
part was originally called Bashkir-land, and became subject to the Czar of Moscow in
1556. Besides the towns giving name to the governmental districts, the only other place
of consequence is Mijask.
ORENBURG, a t. on the eastern frontier of European Russia, in the government of the
same name, on the river Ural, 1393 m. s.e. of St. Petersburg, lat. 51° 45' n., long. 88° 6'
east. The foundation of the fortress and town were laid here in 1742. Pop. '67, 33,431.
It is the centre of the governor-generalship of the government of the same name, has an
excellent custom-house, and carries on an extensive trade with Kirgheez and other
Asiatic tribes. It imports cotton, silk-stuffs, and shawls from Bokhara, Khiva, and
Tashkend; tea (brought mostly on camels) from China; and sheep and cattle from the
Cossacks and Khirghiz. The sheep are killed in autumn for the fat and skins, which are
purchased by Russian merchants. Corn, skins, and metals are the principal exports.
In the neighborhood is the very rich rock-salt mine of Iletsk. At Orenburg the Ural is
frozen from Oct. till March.
ORENBURG GUM, an exudation of the larch tree, resinous and somewhat sweet in
tnste. It is gathered in quantities by the peasants of Siberia and Russia, and is an
article of commerce, making a fair substitute for gum arable.
ORLNSE (anc. Aquce calidce Ciliorum, or Aqnas Ch-iginis\ a city of Spain, the capital
of the province of Orense, in Galicia, near the frontier oj Portugal, on the left bank of
the Minho. Orense contains a number of interesting ecclesiastical edifices. It is highly
reputed for its hot sulphurous springs, called Lax Burgos, which issue— three in num-
ber— almost boiling from a granite rock in the western part of the town The baths of
Orense were known to the Romans, and were in much repute among the Goths. Orense
carries on manufactures of linen, leather, and chocolate. It has a large trade in hams,
which are in great repute throughout Spain. Pop. 10,775.
ORENSE, JOSE MARIA D'ALBAIDA, Marquis, 1802-80; b. Spain; when a young man
became imbued with republican principles and spent his life in endeavoring to establish
a Spanish republic. He wras many times arrested on charges of disaffection and con-
spiracy, and banished from the country. In 1868 he became a member of the cortes. and
in 1870 was opposed to the enthronement of Amadeus. After the abdication of king
Amadeus, 1873, he was again chosen a member of the cortes, but after a few months
resigned his place.
K O Orenburg,
Orford.
OREODAPH'NE, a genus of trees of the natural order Lauracea, sometimes called
MOUNTAIN LAUREL. The fruit is succulent, partly immersed in a deep thick cup formed
of the tube of the calyx. Oreodaphne opifera is a native of the countries on the lower
part of the Amazon. A volatile oil obtained from the bark is used as a liniment, and
when kept for a short time deposits a great quantity of camphor. — Oreodaphne copuluris
is a very large tree with strong-scented wood, the bark of which yields the cinnamon of
Mauritius. It grows also in Bourbon and Madagascar. — Oreodaphne ftetenn, a native of
the Canaries, has wood (Til-wood) of a most disagreeable odor. Oreodaphne bullata, found
at the cape of Good Hope, is also remarkable for the disagreeable odor of its wood, the
Stink-wood of the colonists; but it is hard, durable, beautiful, takes an excellent polish,
and is used in ship-building.
OREODONT'ID^E, a family of extinct ungulates found in the miocene and pliocene
tertiary formations of North America. They are regarded as forming a link between
swine "and ruminants, but in outward appearance had but little resemblance to the
former. The family lias been divided into two sub-families, oreodontinm and aynochos-
rince. In oreodontinoe the orbits were closed behind and the lachrymal bones were con-
tained in well marked depressions. This sub-family included the genera meryc&idoden,
or oreodou, eporeodon, merychochwrus merychyus, and leptanclie/tia. In agriochwrirw the
orbits were incomplete, and the lachrymal bones were not contained in fossae, but this
sub-family is limited to one genus, agrichcerus. Oreodon may roughly be taken as the
type of the family. It was an even-toed ungulate, about the size of a sheep, having
swine characteristics on one hand, and those of the deer on the other: feet tetradactylous;
metacarpals and metatarsals not anchylosed. Dental formula *«j--3; c- — -\prn-. — :;
o — o 1 — 1 4 — 4
q 9
m — ^- — 44. The incisors were small, the canines large, three-sided, and worn like
o — o
those of the hog. A diastema separated them from the premolars, and the latter, as
well as the molars, were of the ruminant type. A remarkable characteristic was the
existence, beneath each eye, of a sinus called " larimer," or lachrymal sinus, a sebaceous
gland possessed by the deer family (cervidce), and which secretes a peculiar, stroug-
imelling, waxy substance.
ORES. Any mineral or combination of minerals containing as much metal as to b«
profitably extracted, is reckoned by miners an ore. The proportion necessary for this
purpose is, of course, very various, according to the value of the particular metal and
the facility or difficulty of reducing the ore. A rock containing only 1 per cent, of iron
is never called an ore; one containing the same proportion of gold is a very rich ore.
Metals rarely exist in ores in a pure or native state; they are almost always chemically
combined with oxygen, sulphur, or other elements.
Ores present themselves in a multiplicity of forms and positions in the solid erust of
the earth. Sometimes they are sprinkled through the whole mass of the rocks in which
they occur, as is often the case with gold, tin ore, and magnetic iron ore. Sometimes
they are deposited in regular parallel beds between the strata of other rocks, as in the
case of many iron-stones and of cupreous schist. At other times they occur in irregular
lumps or concretions; or they fill up the fissures of other rocks, forming veins, particu-
larly silver, copper, and lead ores; or lastly, they are found in detritus, gravel, sand,
and other alluvial deposits. This last form is evidently the result of disturbance and
transport from some of the other positions above specified. And as the metallic parts
of the mineral masses or rocks so disturbed and transported are the heaviest, and are
insoluble in water, they are more concentrated in these deposits than in their original
position, and can therefore be extracted with greater advantage. Such deposits are called
icdx/iings, from the metal being separated from the other debris by the process of wash-
ing. Gold and platinum are mostly got in this way in the Ural and Altai mountains,
and gold in Guiana, California, and Australia. Tin ore is also found in alluvial deposits
in Cornwall and India. The reduction of ores is treated of under METALLURGY and
the names of the several metals.
ORES'TES, legendary hero of several Greek tragedies, as the Iphigenia in Tauris of
Euripides and the Electro, of Sophocles; son of Agamemnon and Clytemne=tra, and after
the murder of the former by his wife and her lover ./Egisthus was saved by Electra, his
sister. When grown to manhood he was sent to Mycenae by direction of the Delphic
oracle, to avenge his father's death. He slew ^Egisthus and Clytenmestra with his own
hand, and in punishment for the matricide was hunted from country to country by the
Eumenides (furies). Again he resorted to the Delphic oracle, and was told that he could
free himself from persecution only by carrying off the, statue of Diana from Tauris.
There lie was seized, and with his friend Pylades was about to be sacrificed to the god-
dess, when Iphigenia, the priestess, discovered that Orestes was her brother, and by her
connivance they escaped and carried off the statue. Orestes became king of Mycenae,
and married the daughter of Menelaus.
OREUS. See HISTLA:A, ante.
ORFA or URFA. See EDESSA, ante.
ORFORD, EARLS OF. See WALPOLE, ante.
Orflla. KA
Organ.
ORFILA, MATEO JOSE BON A VENTURA, a celebrated physician and chemist, and th*
recoguized founder of the science of toxicology, was b. at Mahon in Minorca, April 24
1787. His father, who was a merchant, intended that his son should follow the same
pursuit; but young Orflla showed so strong a predilection for the study of medicine, that
all thoughts of a mercantile career for him were dismissed, and he was scut to the
medical schools of Valencia and Barcelona. In the latter of these seminaries he so dis-
tinguished himself that the junta of the province resolved to defray the expense of his
further education in Paris, on condition of his returning to Barcelona to lill one of the
chairs in their medical school; and accordingly Orflla departed for Paris in 1S()7. The
junta were prevented from fulfilling the agreement by the outbreak of war with France;
but Orfila, who had now made many friends in Paris, was enabled to continue his
studies. In Oct., 1811, he received the degree of. doctor of medicine, and immediately
commenced a private course of lectures on chemistry, botany, and anatomy, which was
largely attended, and, along with his successful practice, soon rendered him famous. In
1813 appeared the first edition of his celebrated work on poisons, entitled Trnite des
•Poisons tires des J3egn.es Mineral, Vegetal, et Animal, or Toxitologie Generate (Paris). The
work was commended by the Institute, and rapidly passed through a number of editions.
In 1816, on the occasion of a short visit to Minorca, he met with an enthusiastic recep-
tion; and on his return to Paris became court physician. In 1819 he was created a
(citizen of France, and became professor of jurisprudence; and in 1823 was transferred
to the chair of chemistry, to which, in 1831, was added the deanshipof the faculty. His
prosperity was now at the full; his lectures were more popular than ever; his works
were reckoned as masterpieces; and he himself, by the geniality of his disposition and
his many accomplishments, was a universal favorite in society. In all cases of suspected
poisoning he was a most important witness. From 1834 he was a member of the
council of public instruction, and procured the passing of many useful measures, such
as the creation of secondary medical schools and the multiplication of means of instruc-
tion and observation. He also organized the clinical hospital, founded a new botanic
garden, and a museum of comparative anatomy, which is now known by his name. On
the outbreak df the revolution of 1848 he was deprived of his place in the medical
faculty on account of his conservative opinions, but retained his professorship. He diec"
at Paris, Mar. 12, 1853. His great work on toxicolog}r has gained for him undying
fame; it is a vast mine of information, the result of the author's solitary indefatigable
researches; and includes symptoms of poisoning of all kinds, the appearances in .tiie
body to which poisons give rise, their action, and the means for their detection. It Is
well written, and exhibits the accuracy of language equally with the sound judgment
of its author. His other works are not nearly so famous, partaking more of the charac-
ter of compilations; the chief of them are: filemens de Uhimie appliques d Iti _V/'/, <•//,/•
(Paris, 1817; 8th edition, 1851); Trnite de Medecine Legate (1823-25; 4th edition, 1847);
Memmres sur Plusieurs Questions Medico-legales (Paris, 1839); and RecJierches to//' Ytm]xii-
sonnement par I'Acide Arsenieux, etc. (Paris, 1841). He also contributed largely to various
journals, dictionaries, encyclopaedias, and other periodicals. He has left a number of
memoirs, which have not yet been published.
ORGAN (Gr. organon, a contrivance requiring skill on the part of the user of it), a
musical instrument played by finger-keys, and in general partly also by foot-keys, and
consisting of a large number of pipes of metal and wood made to sound by a magazine
of wind accumulated by bellows, and admitted at will by the player. The following
description is necessarily restricted to the most fundamental arrangements of this very
complicated instrument. As met with in cathedrals and large churches, the organ com-
prises four departments, each in most respects a separate instrument with its own
mechanism, called respectively the great-organ, the choir-organ, the wceH-on/tut, and the
pedal-organ. Each has its own clavier or keyboard, but the different claviers are
brought into juxtaposition, so as to be under the control of one performer. Claviers
played by the hands are called manuals; by the feet, pedals. Three manuals, belonging
to the choir, great, and swell organs respectively, rise above each other like stops in
front of where the performer sits; while the pedal-board by which the pedal-organ is
played is placed on a level with his feet. The condensed air supplied by the bells ar* is
conveyed through wooden tubes or trunks to boxes, called wind-chests, one of which
belongs to each department of the organ. Attached to the upper part of each wind-
chest is a sound-board, an ingenious contrivance for conveying the wind at pleasure to
any individual pipe or pipes, exclusively of the rest. It consists of two parts, an
board and au under board. On the upper board rest the pipes, of which a number of
different quality, ranged behind each other, belong to each note. In the under board is
a row of parallel grooves, running horizontally backwards, corresponding each to one of
the keys of the clavier. On any of the keys being pressed down, a valve is opened
which supplies wind to the groove belonging to it. The various pipes of each key stand
in a line directly above its groove, and the upper surface of the groove is perforated with
holes bored upwards to them. Were this the whole mechanism of the sound-board, the
wind, on entering any groove, would permeate all the pipes of that groove; then- is,
however, in the upper board another series of horizontal grooves at right angles to those
•f the lower board, supplied with sliders, which can, to a small extent, be drawn out or
KK Orfila.
Organ.
pushed in at pleasure by a mechanism worked by the draw-stops placed within the
player's reach. Each slider is perforated with holes, which, when it is drawn out, com-
pletes the communication between the wind-chest and the pipes: the communication with
the pipes immediately above any slider being, on the other hand, closed up when the
slider is pushed in. The pipes above eacli slider form a continuous set of one particular
quality, and each set of pipes is called a xtop. Each department of the organ is supplied
with a number of stops, producing sounds of different quality. The great-organ, seme
of whose pipes appear as show-pipes in front of the instrument, contains the main body
and force of the organ. Behind it stands the choir-organ, whose tones are less powerful
and more fitted to accompany the voice Above the choir-organ is the swell-organ, whose
pipes are inclosed in a wooden box with a front of louvre-boards like Venetian blinds,
which ma}r be made to open and shut by a pedal, with a view of producing crescendo
and diminuendo effects. The pedal-organ is sometimes placed in an entire state behind
the choir-organ, and sometimes divided, and a part arranged on each side. The most
usual compass of the manuals is from C on the second line below the bass staff to D on
the third *pace above the treble staff; and the compass of the pedals is from the same C
to the D between the bass and treble staves. The real compass of notes is, as will be
seen, much greater.
Organ-pipes vary much in form and material, but belong to two great classes, known
as mouth-pipes, (or flute-pipes) wad. reed-pipee. A section of one of the former is re presented
in the figure. Its essential parts are \\icfoot a, the body b, and a flat plate c, called
the lanyuayf, extending nearly across the pipe at the point of junction ot foot and
body. There is an opening, de, in the pipe, at the spot where the language is
discontinuous. The wind admitted into the foot rushes through the narrow slit
at d, aud, in impinging against e, imparts a vibratory motion to the column of air
in the pipe, the result of which is a musical note, dependent for its pitch on the
length of that column of air. and consequently on the length of the body of the
pipe: by doubling the length of the pipe, we obtain a note of half the pitch, or
lower by an octave. Such is the general principle of all mouth-pipes, whether of
wood or of metal, subject to considerable diversities of detail. Metal pipes have
generally a cylindrical section; wooden pipes a square or oblong section. A
mouth-pipe may be stopped at the upper end by a plug called a tampion, the
effect of which is to lower the pitch an octave, the vibrating column of air being
doubled in length, as it has to traverse the pipe twice before making its exit.
Pipes arc sometimes half -stopped, having a kind of chimney at the top. The reed-pipe
consists of a reed placed inside a metallic, or occasionally a wooden pipe. This reed is a
tube of metal, with the front part exit away, and a tongue or spring put in its place.
The lower end of the spring is free, the upper end attached to the top of the reed; by the
admission of air into the pipe, the spring is made to vibrate, and in striking either the edge
of the reed or the air, produces a musical note, dependent for its pitch on the length of the
spring, its quality being determined to a great extent by the length and form of the pipe
or bell within which the reed is placed. When the vibrating spring does not strike the
edge of the reed, but the air, we have what is called the free reed, similar to what is in
use in the harmonium (q.v.). To describe the pitch of an organ-pipe, terms are used
derived from the standard length of an open mouth-pipe of that pitch. The largest pipe
in use is the 32-feet C, which is an octave below the lowest C. of the modern piano-forte,
or two ocaves below the lowest C on the manuals and pedal of the organ: any pipe pro-
ducing this note is called a 32-feet C pipe, whatever its actual length may be. By a
32-feet or 16-feet stop, we mean that the pipe which speaks on the lowest C on which
that stop appears, has a 32-feet or a 16-feet tone.
The stop* of an organ do not always produce the note properly belonging to the key
struck; sometimes they give a note an octave, or, in the pedal-organ, even two octaves
lower, and sometimes one of the harmonics higher in pitch. Compound or mixture stops
have several pipes to each key, corresponding to the different harmonics of the ground-
tone. There is an endless variety in the number and kinds of stops in different organs;
some are, and some are not continued through the whole range of manual or pedal.
Some of the more important stops get the name of open or stopped diapason (a term which
implies that they extend throughout the whole compass of the clavier); they are for the
most part 16 feet, sometimes 32-feet stops; the open diapason chiefly of metal, the close
chiefly of wood. The duMana is an 8-feet manual stop, of small diameter, so called
from the sweetness of its tone. Among the reed-stops are the elation, oboe, bassoon, and
vox huintinii, deriving their names from real or fancied resemblances to these instruments
and to the human voice. Of the compound stops the most prevalent in Britain is the
sesquialtera, consisting of four or five ranks of open metal pipes, often g, 17th, 19th, 22d,
26th, and 29th from the ground-tone. The resources of the organ are further increased
by appliances called couplers, by which a second clavier and its stops can be brought into
play, or the same clavier can be united to itself in the octave below or above.
Organs are now generally tuned on the equal temperament. See TEMPERAMENT.
The notation for the organ is the same as for the pianoforte, in two staves in the treble
and bass clefs; but in old compositions the soprano, tenor, and alto clefs are used.
Instruments of a rude description, comprising more or less of the principle of the
organ, seem to have existed early. Vitruvius makes mention of a hydraulic organ, but
Organ. 56
his description is not very intelligible. The organ is said to have been first introduced-
into church music by pope Vitalian I. in 666. In 757 a great organ was sent as a present
to Pepiu by Byzantine emperor, Constantino Copronymus, and placed in the church of
St. Corneille at Compiegne. Soon after Charlemagne's time, organs became common.
In the llth c. a monk named Theophilus wrote a curious treatise on organ-building.
But it was not till the 15th c. that the organ began to be anything like the noble instru-
ment which it now is. The family of the Antignati, in Brescia, had a great name as
organ-builders in the 15th and 16th centuries. The organs of England were also in high
repute, but the puritauism of the civil war doomed most of them to destruction; and.
when they had to be replaced after the restoration, it was found that there was no longer
a sufficiency of builders in the country. Foreign organ-builders were therefore invited
to settle in England, the most remarkable of whom were Bemhard Schmidt (generally
called father Smith) and his nephews, and Renatus Harris. Christopher Schreider,
Snetzler, aud Bytield succeeded them; and at a later period Green and Avery, some of
whose organs have never been surpassed in tone. The largest English organs are those
of York cathedral, Birmingham town hall, Christ Church, London; and a gigantic and
exceedingly perfect instrument, completed in 1876 for the hall Primrose Hill, London.
The latter surpasses in size the famous Haarlem organ, long reckoned the largest in the
world, which is 103 ft. high and 50 broad. The German organs are remarkable for
preserving the balance of power well among the various masses, but in mechanical con-
trivances they are surpassed by those of England.
For a full account of the structure of the organ see Hopkins and Rimbault, T/ie
Organ, its History and Construction (Lond. 1855). Rink's Praktisehe Orgelschule, Leipzig,
v. y., is the best work on organ playing. See also Dr. Staiuer's The Organ (1877).
ORGAN (ante). The pipes are of wood or metal. Metal pipes consist of tin, pure
or with some alloy of lead, a common proportion being one-third tin with 'two-thirds
lead. Heavy bass pipes are made of zinc. The fused metal is poured into a large box,
from which it is drawn through a wide, shallow gate to the surface of a casting table,
which may be 2£ ft. wide and 20 ft. long. If the metal have as much as 40 per cent of
tin, when cooling the crystalizing tin forms spots upon its surface, and the spots vary
in size with the quantity of tin present. The builder varies the quality of his metal to
produce pipes of different sonorous qualities as his experience dictates. The material
is then cut from the sheet, and formed into pipes on a mandril and very neatly soldered
at the joint where the edges meet. For the sides and backs of wood pipes the builder
chooses the clearest seasoned pine; for froms he uses cherry, maple, apple, or pear.
The inside is coated smoothly with glue, to fill the pores and give a more resonant sur-
face. The stock must be thick enough to withstand the vibrations of the tone without
producing a rolling effect. The speaking length of a pipe is the distance from the lan-
guage to the end; the pipe is usually straight for convenience of manufacture, but may be
bent in any direction or may even return upon itself, as is observed in the convolutions
of tubes in cornets and horns.
Remembering that musical tones are caused by Vibrations having a fixed and known
rapidity, it is evident that a tone may exist in company with other tones whose rates of
vibration are 2, 3, 4, 5 times as great, no fractional multipliers being used. The first
tone of the series is called the fundamental tone, the others its harmonics. A trained
ear will detect the presence of harmonics in all but the very simplest tones. A tone
which is deficient in harmonics is thin and cutting; a succession of pure octaves has
this quality; the audition of the intermediate tones gives fullness to the sound and bind*
all together into a more perfect compound. The tones emitted from both open and
stopped diapasons are almost free from harmonics, and the defect is cured by opening at
the same time other smaller pipes which yield the hamouics wanting in the larger pipes
of stronger tone. The resulting tone has the same pitch as the fundamental, but richer
in quality, in which the trained ear may also recognize the harmonics.
The tuning of metal pipes is effected by cutting a slit at the top of the pipe and roll-
ing the metal down; the tone becoming sharper by this means. The tuner must not be
rolled too low, for when rolled back cuts will be left at the sides, which will interfere
with the voicing of the pipe. For tuning open wood pipes a sheet of metal is placed
horizontally over the open edge covering a part of the orifice; if the end be more covered
the tone is flatted, if uncovered the tone is made sharp. Stopped wooden pipes are
tuned by a wooden plug, covered with leather, called a tampion: the tampion is
depressed to sharpen, and withdrawn to flatten the tone. The scale of an organ pipe ig
the ratio of its diameter to its tone length. A pipe of large diameter has a fuller tone
than one of small scale. Open diapasons have largest scale, and string-toned stops have
smallest scale. The length of the foot — the conical part below the mouth — does not
affect the quality of the tone. The high cutting of the mouth gives a flute quality to
a tone, and requires more wind, but if the mouth be cut too high the tone becomes
unsteady; the mouth is said to be cut high when the vertical breadth of the opening is
large. If the length of a pipe be doubled the tone is lowered an octave; hence, reckon-
ing the semitones, the thirteenth pipe from a given letter has half, or double, the lemrtli,
as the pipes are counted up or down the scale; but the seventeenth pipe will have half,
or double, the diameter, and intermediate pipes diminish in the ratio of the diminution,
of their lengths.
57
The following table gives the peculiarities of most of the stops now in use :
Organ*
Name.
Quality
of Tone.
Tone Length.
Actual Length.
Dimensions
of Largest Pipe.
Material.
Remarks.
Sub-Bourdon, or Man- 1
ual Untersatz j
Double Open Diapason
Double Dulciana. . . .,. . . -j
Contra-Gamba
Flute.
Organ.
Organ,
Soft.
String.
Organ,
Delicate.
Flute.
Flute.
Flute.
Flute.
Flute.
Flute.
Reed.
Reed.
Reed.
Organ.
Organ.
Organ.
Flute.
Organ.
String.
Flute.
String.
String.
String.'
String.
String.
String.
Flute.
Flute.
Flute.
Flute.
Flute.
Flute.
Flute.
Flute.
Flute.
Flute.
Flute.
Flute.
32
16
}>«
16
("
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
^f 8
1 4
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
8
8
8
8
16
16
16
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
4
4
4
4
8
8
8
3
4
8
81
4f
10J by 8.
12 inches.
Wood. |
Metal.
Metal.
j 50 p. c. tin
j ZincB.
Metal.
Wood. •<
Wood.
Wood.
Wood. j
Wood. -j
Wood.
'. Zinc
) bodies.
Metal. -I
J Free
( reeds.
40 p.c. tin -I
Metal. -j
Metal.
Metal.
Metal.
Metal.
Metal. |
Metal.
Metal.
Metal.
Metal.
Metal. |
Metal.
Metal.
Wood.
Wood. •<
Wood. -|
Metal.
Wood.
Wood.
Wood.
Metal.
Wood,
f
Metal.
Metal. •}
Used only in largest organs;
rarely below tenor C°.
French "Montre;" German
"Principal."
Lower octave mounted in.
front; if not, often of stop-
ped wood; trebles 50 per
cent tin.
Sometimes inverted cones,
with bell mouth.
Generally placed in choir-
lower octave stopped
wood.
Open, with in verted mouths;
lower octave stopped
wood.
With round mouths. Effect-
ive in giving body to tone
of full organ.
Trebles of double depth,
with two mouths, for
greater volume of voice.
Useful in supporting a cho-
rus or a congregation;,
adding dignity to other
stops.
Low mouthed; sounds also
the fifth.
High mouthed; clear tone;
choir O.
Sub-octave trumpet; large-
organs.
Sub-octave oboe ; lower
pipes bent to go in a swell
box.
Clarinet tone; smooth and
pleasant.
Seventeen lower pipes usu-
ally in front of case. '
With sliding bells for tuning.
Rarely used. French
"Flute a Pavilion."
Inverted cones ; horn-like
tone.
Conical, top $ dia. of mouth;
tone light, sympathetic.
Small dia. ; tone very gentle.
Tone softest in organ.
Inverted cones ; pleasing
tone.
Slender: incisive quality.
Softer than gamba. Swell
O.
Conical, with bell; fuller
tone than of gamba.
Like bell G, but softer.
Pipes like salicional, with.
holes near top.
Violin quality ; choir O.
Half stopped, with chimney.
Mild flute tone.
Mouths cut high; clear bell
tone; smaller than stopped
diapason.
Large scale, double depth,
with mouths on front and
back; full tone.
Low mouths; sounds also
the fifth.
Bass, often stopped wood;
tone clear and horn-like.
More subdued than Melodia.
Clarinet quality.
Powerful nollow tone.
Small scale; very sweet and
delicate.
Two dulcianas to each note,
one a little sharper than
the other, producing a
waving or tremulant effect-
Two pipes to each note, with
tremolo.
JEolina -j
Double Melodia
Tibia Major
Double Mouthed/
Bourdon Dauble Stop- )
Quintaton
Still Gedect
Double Trumpet Bom- )
Contra Fagotta
Open Diapason Princi- /
pal f
Dulciana, or Dolce
Bell Gamba
Rohr Gedect
Stopped Diapason
Doppel Flute
Quint adena
Melodia . . .
Clarabella
Hohl- Flute
Philomela
Voix Celestes, or Unda )
Bifra
Organ.
Organic.
58
Name.
Quality
of Tone.
Tone Length.
Actual Length.
Dimensions
of Largast Pipe.
Material.
Remarks.
Trumpet
Reed.
Reed.
Reed.
Reed.
Reed.
Reed.
Reed.
Reed.
Reed.
Reed.
Organ.
String.
Organ.
Flute.
Flute.
Flute.
Flute.
Flute.
Flute.
Flute.
Flute.
String.
Reed.
Flute.
Flute.
Flute.
Organ.
Flute.
Flute.
Flute.
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8-
8
8
8
8
Metal.
Metal.
Metal.
Metal.
Metal.
Metal. -j
Metal.
j Free {
) reeds. (
Metal.
( Free |
j reeds. )
Metal.
Metal.
Metal.
Metal.
Wood.
Metal.
Metal.
Metal.
Wood.
Wood.
Metal.
Metal.
Metal.
j M«tal,
1 Wood.
Metal.
Metal.
Metal.
Metal.
Metal.
Metal.
Powerful ; loud solo-stop.
Large scale trumpet, voiced
with heavier wind pres-
sure: oi'ten flaring fan-Uke
at top of case, and finished
with bells like trumpets.
Powerful trumpet in surli (').
Sniiill scale with be!!-inoutk;
delicate wailing tone.
With sliding bells: choir O.
With tremolo and llutes; ro-
sembles a choir <•!' voices.
Pipes enlarged between
mouth and top.
Very delicate.
Conical pipes ; soft tone.
Free reeds in flat boxes.
The stop to which the organ
is tuned.
An octave dulciana.
Perforated between mouth
and top; overblown to
speak an octave above
their length; tone very
full, flute-like.
Maple tubes, polished, with
round mouths.
Clear tone.
Large scale ; horn-like tone.
Delicate tone.
Mouths inverted like melodia
Large scale, full wind, mouth
inverted.
Half stopped, with chimneys.
Stronger than violin.
Octave trumpets.
Tuned a fifth above 8 ft.
pitch.
Tuned 12 diatonic tones
above 8 ft. open diapason.
Same pitch as twelfth, but
more delicate.
Two octaves above 8 ft.
pitch. .
Same pitch as fifteenth;
choir O.
Same pitch as fifteenth;
swell O.
Made like flute harmonique.
Tuba Mirabilis
Cornopean, or Horn. . .
Oboe
Clarinet
Vox Humana
Cor Anglais
Vox Angelica
\
Musette
Physharmenica
Octave, or Principal. . .
Violin
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
m
2
2
2
2
4
4
4
8
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
2§
2
2
2
2
Celestina
Flute Harmonique
Traverse Flute
Flute Octaviante . . .
Night Horn
Flute d'Amour
Wald Flute
Concert Flute
Flute, il Chiminee
Fagara
Ciarion
Quint
Twelfth, Octave Quint, I
Gemshorn Quint
Fifteenth, Super-)
Octave, or Doublette. (
Piccolo
Flageolet
Harmonic Piccolo
PED
AL STOPS.
Double Open Diapason, )
Organ.
32
H
24 by 20,
Wood or
Metal
When of metal, the pipes
Double Bourdon
Flute.
32
16
15 by 12.
Wood
Bombarde
Reed.
32
32
1 Wood or I
Used only in largest organs.
Open Diapason, or 1
Principal f
Organ.
16
16
14 by 12.
1 Metal j
) Wood or
1 Metal
Most effective of wood; the
stop which gives majesty
to organ -tone; causes
Bourdon, or Sub-Bass..
Dulciana
Flute.
Organ
16
16
8
16
8Jby5.
9 by 7.
Wood.
j Wood or 1
building to tremble.
Very valuable, as sub-bass
for soft combinations, and
in small organs strong
enough for the full organ.
Deep smooth, mellow tone.
Violone.or Contra-Bass
String
16
16
1 Metal, f
Wood ]
Small scale ; effect of doubl*
Gamba
String.
16
16
Metal
bass viol.
Conical tube, with bell top.
Trombone.,.
Reed.
16
16
( Metal or )
Powerful.
Bassoon
•Reed
16
16
j Wood. (
Slender scale • delicate tone.
Quint, or Quintan- )
Flute.
10*
!H
Wood. ]
Tuned a fifth higher than the
Violoncello
String.
8
8
Metal.
Sometimes wood.
59
Organ.
Organic.
PEDAL STOPS— CONTINUED.
Name.
Quality
of Tone.
Tone Length.
Actual Length.
Dimensions
of Largest Pipe.
Material.
Remarks.
Principal, or Octavo. . .
Flote
Organ
Flute.
Organ.
Reed.
Organ.
Flute.
Organ.
8
8
8
4
4
2
8
8
8
8
4
4
2
Wood.
Wood.
Metal.
Metal.
*
Octave higher than 16 ft. dia.
Like melodia.
Soft; like manual dulciaiia.
Loud stops, two octaires
above 16 ft. dia.
Clear tone.
Loud tone; large scale, to
give clearness to pedal
i organ.
Compounds in which two to
five pipes are opened by
the same key; used with
other stops to give fullness
to harmony.
Wood.
Metal.
Mixture, Acuta, Furni-1
ture, Sesquealtera, 1
Cornet. Harmonies, f
Sharp, etc J
Organ-building has been carried to a perfection in the United States rivaled only by
England. The largest organ in this country is in the Music hall of Boston, and was
built by Walcker, a native of Ludwigsburg, Germany. It has 4 manuals, 89 stops, and
4.000 pipes. There are many organs built by Americans containing from 2,500 to 4,000
pipes, and from 50 to 60 stops, which compare favorably with European organs of equal
size. Among the most noteworthy are the following: Trinity church, New York, built
by Henry Erben; Plymouth church, Brooklyn, by E. and G. G. Hook; St. George's,
New York, by Jardine and Son; Tabernacle, Brooklyn, by Jardine and Son; St. Barthol-
omew's, New York, by J. H. and C. S. Odell; Temple Emanuel, New York, by Hall
and tabagh; and Holy Trinity, New York, by H. L. Roosevelt. One of the largest
organs in America is in the Roman Catholic cathedral at Montreal, and was built by R.
S. Warren of the same city.
ORGAN, ORGANIC, ORGANISM. The word organ is derived from the Greek organon,
an instrument, and is sometimes employed almost in its original sense. But it has
received a signification more peculiarly its own, and with which alone the word organism
is connected, as the designation of any of the parts or members of a living body, the
organism being the living whole, animal or vegetable, which these organs compose.
The idea of an organism or of organization is almost as much involved in obscunty and
difficulty as that of life, with which it is so closely connected. But it i? observable that
a living body is entirely composed of organs, and these themselves of other organs, until
•we come to elementary cells; and also, that all the parts are mutually dependent on
each other; and therefore an organism has been defined as a natural whole, in which all
the parts are mutually to each other means and end. The juice which nourishes a plant
is elaborated by the plant itself, although the supplies are drawn from without. The
leaves of a plant are produced by the stem, but react upon the stem in promoting its
.growth. This mutual dependence of parts strongly distinguishes an organism from a
•machine, in which the parts concur for a common end, to which each contributes in its
own way, but in which each does not contribute to the support of all or any of the rest.
In organisms, moreover, besides this support and maintenance of the different parts or
organs, there is a provision for the production of new organisms of the same kind, the
reproduction or propagation of the species, to which there is nothing analogous beyond
the sphere of organic life. Amongst organic beings, as we ascend in the scale from the
lowest kinds of plants and animals to the highest, we observe an increasing number of
organs and of functions of organs. In the animal kingdom organic life appears as
possessed of sensation and spontaneous motion; whilst plants are limited to growth,
assimilation, and propagation. The question as to the nature of organic processes con-
nects itself with a most difficult question as to the relation of chemical processes with
psychical functions, chemical processes being certainly carried on, but singularly modi-
lied or directed by the living powers of the organic being. — The term organic is frequently
iipplied to those things in which an analogy is traced to living creatures, in the mutual
dependence of parts. Such an analogy may be traced in social life and in political life:
and the more perfectly this relation of mutual dependence or mutual usefulness is estab-
lished the better is the state of things, social or political. It is also the highest praise of
a work of art that it suggests this idea of an organic relation of its parts to each other
and to the whole. — Organic laws are those which are fundamental or most essential to the
system to which they belong.
ORGANIC ANAJLYSIS. When a complex organic substance is submitted to chemical
examination the first point is to determine its proximate constituents, or, in other words,
Organic.
the several definite compounds of which it is made up. Opium, for example, is thu*
found to have as it's proximate constituents meronic acid, morphia, codeia, and Home 10
or 12 other substances. The modes by which these proximate constituents arc separated
are various; the chief being the action of certain solvents, such as ether, alcohol, and
water, which extract some of the materials and leave others undissolved. Thus ether it
the special solvent of fatty and waxy matters, resins, and camphors; alcohol dissolves
the same substances with less facility, but on the other hand takes up many substances
which are insoluble in ether; while water, which scarcely acts upon the above-named
matters, dissolves saccharine, gummy, and starchy matters, and salts of organic acids.
The proximate constitutents being thus determined, the next point is to determine their
qualitative and quantitative (or ultimate) composition; and it is to these processes — espe-
cially the last — that the term organic </n<tri/xii< is for the most part restricted.
Qualitative Analysis. — It is shown in the article ORGANIC COMPOUNDS, that the ordi-
nary ingredients for which we must soek are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and
sulphur. Carbon and hydrogen may be simultaneously detected by owning the com-
pound (which must be previously well dried) in a glass tube in contact with oxide of
copper, which readily yields up its oxygen. The carbon is thus converted into carbonic
acid, which, if passed into baryta water, forms a white precipitate of carbonate of baryta,
and the hydrogen into water, which collects in drops in a small cooled receiver attached
to the tube. Carbon may also be usually recognized by the black residue which almost
always remains on burning an organic matter, especially in a narrow test-tube in which
there is little air. The presence of nitrogen may in most cases be readily ascertained by
heating a portion of the substance in a test-tube with an excess of hydrate of potash,
when a distinct odor of ammonia is perceived. Sulphur is detected by igniting the com-
pound with hydrate of potash and niter, whereby sulphuric acid is formed ; and phos-
phorus and arsenic may be detected by the same means. The presence of oxygen cannot,
as a general rule, be directly determined.
Quantitative Analysis. — The first attempts to determine the quantitative composition,
of organic bodies were made, more than half a century ago, by Gay Lussac and
Thenard. The process originally proposed by them has been modified and improved by
various chemists, especially by Berzelius, Prout, and Liebig, and it is mainly owing to-
the great simplifications introduced by the last-named chemist, and to the consequently
increased facility of conducting an ultimate analysis, that our knowledge of the compo-
sition of organic bodies has so vastly enlarged during the last 20 years.
The operation is always effected by causing complete combustion of a known weight
of the body to be anal}rzed, in such a manner that the carbonic acid and water which are
formed in the process shall be collected, and their quantities determined, from which, of
course, the carbon and hydrogen they respectively contain may be readily calculated.
The apparatus required for the analysis of a compound containing carbon, hydro-
gen, and oxygen only, consists of (1) a combustion tube, composed of hard white
Bohemian glass, having a diameter of half an inch or less, and a length of
from 14 to 18 inches. One end is
drawn out in a point and closed,
while the edges of the other (or open)
end are made smooth by fusion in the
blow-pipe flame. (2.) A thin sheet-
iron furnace, in which the tube is
placed and supported during combus-
tion. (3.) A small lisrht tube (which
may be either a bulb- tube, as in the
a, ft, the i combustion tube: c, the central portion, to which figure, or a U-tube, which is filled
the mixture to he analyzed is placed; d. the hulh-tnbe, with fragments of spongv chloride of
containing chloride of calcium; ee, Liebisr's potnsh ^iHiim to -ihsorb flip wnlrrv vmor
apparatus; f. a moveable iron screen; gg, bricks sup- c watCTJ \
porting hh, the furnace. that is driven through it; and (4) Lie-
big's bulb-apparatus, containing a solu-
tion of potash of specific gravity 1.27, for the purpose of absorbing the carbonic acid.
The ohloride-of-calcium tube is connected by a well-dried perforated cork to the open
extremity of the combustion tube, and by a little tube of flexible caoutchouc, secured by
•ilk cord, to the potash apparatus.
In performing an analysis a little freshly prepared oxide of copper is first introduced
into the combustion tube, then a mixture of about 5 grains of the substance to b&
analyzed, with an excess of the oxide, while the tube is lastly filled to within an inch of
its open mouth with the oxide alone. The tube is then placed in the furnace, which may
be heated with charcoal or gas. (Hofman's gas furnace, in which is a peculiar form of
burner called the atmopyre, is the best. It is described in vol. xi. of The Journal <>f il:«
Chemiral ffoirti/.) Red-hot charcoal is now placed round the anterior part of the tube,
containing the pure oxide of copper; and when this is red-hot, the fire is slowly extended
towards the further extremity by shifting the movable screen shown in the figure.
When the tube has been completely heated from end to end, and no more gas is disen-
gaged, the charcoal is gradually removed from the further extremity of the tube, and tbe
point of the latter broken off; after which a little air is drawn through the whole appar-
atus, so as to secure any remaining carbonic acid and watery vapor. The parts are thea
Organic.
detached, and the increase of weight of the chloride-of-calcium tube and potash appar-
atus is determined by an accurate balance. The following account of an actual analysis
of crystallized cane-sugar (borrowed from Fownes's Chemistry) will serve to illustrate the
preceding remarks:
Grains.
Quantity of sugar employed 4.750
Potash apparatus, after experiment 781 13
" before experiment 773.82
Carbonic acid 7.31
Chloride-of-calcium tube, after experiment 226.05
" " before experiment 223.30
Water 2.75
7.31 grains carbonic acid = 1.994 grains carbon, and 2.75 grains water = 0.3056 grains
hydrogen: or in 100 parts of susar, carbon, 41.98; hydrogen, 6.43; oxygen by difference,
51.59.
For the methods of determining other elements quantitatively, such as nitrogen,
chlorine, sulphur, phosphorus, etc., we must refer to the various works that have been
published on organic analysis, amongst which those of Liebig, Fresenius, and Rose deserve
special mention.
ORGANIC BASES. The present remarks must be regarded as supplementary to the
article ALKALOIDS. They refer (1) to the classification of organic bases and (2) to their
formation.
(1) From the fact that nearly all artificial organic bases are (as will be afterward
shown) actually constructed from ammonia, and that whether artificially or naturally
formed, they exhibit the property of basicity, which is the leading characteristic of
ammonia, chemists have been led to refer organic bases generally to the typical body
ammonia, and have succeeded in demonstrating that they are constructed upon or
derived from the simple type NH3. Berzelius believed that all the alkaloids actually
contained ammonia as an ingredient of their composition, a view which is now unten-
able ; and it is to Liebig that we are indebted for tlie idea that they are derivatives of
ammonia, or, in other words, amidogen bases or ammonia in which an equivalent of
hydrogen is replaced by an organic radical. The subject has been thoroughly worked
•out by Dr. Hofmann, who originally proposed to classify these bodies voider the heads
•of am idogen, imidogen, nitrile, and ammonium bases; but afterwards adopted the term*
primary amines, secondary amines, and tertiary amines, in preference to amidogen, imi-
dogen. and nitrile bases — the word amines being applied to all organic bases that are
derived from ammonia (NH3). The amiuQS may be (1) monamines, (2) diamines, (3) tria-
mims, (4) t<t)-<nii!nfx, or (5) pentamines, according as they be constructed upon a
single, double, treble, quadruple, or quintuple atom of NH3. We shall confine our
illustrations of the meaning of these terms to the monamines, both because they form the
most important group and because they are much more readily elucidated than the otl>er
groups, which are extremely complicated in their composition. Monamines are con-
structed upon the single atom of ammonia, H3N. In primary monamines one of the
atoms of hydrogen is replaced by an organic radical, R; and hence their general formula
is RH2K Ethyl-amine or ethylia (C4H6)H2N, or C4H7N, is an example. In secondary
•i/ion/nnines two'of the atoms of hydrogen are replaced by two atoms of either the same
or different radicals. Hence their general formula is RR'HN, where R and R' may be
the same or different radicals. Diettiylia (C4H5)2HN, or C8H, ,N, and methyl-ethyl-amine,
or methyl-ethylia (C2H3)(C4H5)HN, or C6H9N, are examples. In tertiary monamines the
three atoms of hydrogen are replaced by three atoms of the same or different radicals;
their formula therefore is RR'R"N, when R, R', R" may or may not differ from one
another. Trimetliylamine or trimethylia (C2H3)3N, or C6H9N, and methyl-ethyl-phenyl-
amiue cr methyl-ethyl-pheny]ia(C2H3)(C4H6)(C,2H5)N, or C8Hi3N, afford examples of the
radicals being all the same and of their being all different, This last example affords a
good illustration of the fact, that although the modern nomenclature of organic chemis-
try includes long and apparently complex words, these words to a great degree represent
the composition of the substance they are used to indicate; methyl (C2HS), ethyl (C4H»),
and phenyl (Ci2H5), mainly contributing, to form methyl-etlyl-phenylia.
(2.) Although all attempts at forming in the laboratory those alkaloids that naturally
•exist in plants, such as morphia, quinia, and strychnia, have hitherto failed, a large
number of organic bases have been prepared by artificial means, such as: a. By the
destructive distillation of organic bodies containing nitrogen. Thus, in the preparation
of coal-gas, four at least of these compounds are obtained, viz., aniline, picoline, leukol
(or quinoline), and pyridine. b. By the distillation of certain nitrogenous compounds with
caustic potash. In this way aniline is obtained from indigo, c. By the combination of
ammonia with the aldehyds and with certain volatile oils which possess the properties
of aldehyds. Thus acetic aldehyd yields dimethylia, and oil of mustard yields thyosin-
Organic. it*~)
Organo-metaUic.
umine. d. By the substitution (by tin- action of strong nitric acid) of one atom of nitrous
acid (NO4) for one atom of hydrogen in certain hydrocarbons, c. By the processes of
fermentation and putrefaction. Thus wheateu flour yields by putrifactioii trimethylia,
ethylia, and ainylia.
OBGANIC COMPOUNDS. It was formerly believed that the compounds to which the
term organic is applied could only be produced by a vital force acting in a more or less
complex animal or vegetable organism. It is, however, now known that this view n*
altogether untenable, and that many substances which are products of^ animal or vege-
table organisms may also be formed artificially in the laboratory. Thus urea, the chief
and most characteristic organic constituent of urine, may be formed by the direct union
of chlorine and carbonic acid (which form pfiosgene gas) vritb ammonia: and glycose or
grape-sugar may be artificially produced from starch, woody fiber, paper, linen, etc.
Although such cases as that of urea, in which a complex organic product (CtH«O»N») is
produced by the direct union of three inorganic substances (and many other eases of Ihe
same nature might be adduced), show that there is no definite line of. dcmarkaiiou
between organic and inorganic products, it is useful, as a matter of convenience, to
classify chemical compounds according to their natural origin.
The following are the leading characteristics of organic compounds: Those which
occur naturally rarely consist of more than four elements — viz., carbon, hydrogen, nitro-
gen, and oxygen — although a few contain sulphur, arid possibly (but this is doubtful)
phosphorus. By artificial means, however, organic compounds can be formed contain-
taining chlorine, bromine, iodine, selenium, tellurium, and many of the metals. Carbon
is universally present both in natural and artificial organic compounds. The number of
equivalents entering into the composition of organic compounds is usually higher than
in the case of inorganic compounds. There is no organic compound into which less tha»
two equivalents of carbon enter, and, according to some chemists, both oxygen and sul-
phur only enter these compounds in double equivalents. Melissic acid, for example, one
of the constituents of wax), is represented by C«oH8oO4; that is to say, each equivalent
of the acid is composed of 124 equivalents of the elements entering into its composition;
and each equivalent of the solid fat, commonly known as stearine. contains 114 equiva-
lents of carbon, 119 of hydrogen, and 12 of oxygen. No instance is known in which an
organic compound has been formed by the direct union of its elements in a free state, as
many sulphides, chlorides, and oxides (for example) are formed in inorganic chemistry.
Their extreme readiness to decompose under the influence of heat, fermentation, putre-
faction, etc., is another characteristic of organic compounds, although some artificially
prepared inorganic compounds — as, for example, chloride of nitrogen — are also very-
unstable, f
The following scheme may serve to elucidate the arrangement of the elements in
organic compounds. Such compounds may be composed of carbon and oxygen, as car-
bonic oxide, C2O2; or of carbon and hydrogen, as oil of turpentine, C«oHi«; or of car-
bo*n and nitrogen, as cyanogen, C»N; or of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, as grape
sugar, CuHiaOu; or of carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen, as anhydrous cyanic acid, ('.,\< >;
or of carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen, as nicotine, CaoHi4Nj; or of carbon, hydrogen, and
sulphur, as oil of garlic, C8H6S; or of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, as caf-
feine, Ci8HioN4O4; or of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulphur, as oil of mustard,
C8H6NS2; or finally, of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulphur, as taurine,
C4H7XO6Sii. Hence organic compounds may be binary, 'ternary, quaternary, or quinary
in theii composition.
ORGANIC RADICALS. Under the term organic or compound radicals (or radicles, as
some chemists write the word) are included a number of groups of elements, of which
carbon is always one, which comport themselves chemically like simple elementary bod-
ies. The careful study of organic compounds led chemists to perceive that many of
these contained as a proximate constituent a more or less complex atomatic group, which
in its combining relations behaves precisely like the elementary substances, and which,
like them, may be transferred from one compound to another; and hence the inference
was drawn, that all organic compounds were combinations of organic radicals with oxy-
gen, sulphur, hydrogen, or other elements, or of one organic radical with another. In
accordance with this view, Liebig defined organic chemistry as the chemistry of organic
radicals. In order to show how much the theory of organic radicals serves to elucidate
the composition of organic compounds, and to reduce the laws of organic to those of
inorganic chemistry, we wijl point out some of the chemical analogies between the radi-
cal ethyl (C4H6) and the metal potassium (K), and between the radical cyanogen (CSN)
aud the halogen chlorine (Cl). Ac is the symbol for ethyl, Cy for cyanogen.
KO — Oxide of potassium, or Ae = Oxide of ethyl or ether.
potash.
KO,HO = Hydrated potash. AeO.HO = Hydrated oxide of
ethyl or alcohol.
KO,SO3 = Sulphate of potash. A*O,SO, = Sulphate of oxide of
ethvl.
fiQ Organic.
Organo-metallie.
= Chloride of potassium. _ AeCl = Chloride of ethyl.
= Sulphide of potassium. ' AeS = Sulphide of ethyl.
<fec. &c. &c. &c.
HC1 = Hydrochloric acid. HCy = Hydrocyanic acid.
KC1 = Chloride of potassium. KCy = Cyanide of potassium.
NH4C1 = Chloride of ammonium. NH4Cy = Cyanide of ammonium.
HgCl = Chloride of mercury. HgCy = Cyanide of mercury.
&c. &c. &c. &c.
Again, if under certain conditions chloride of ethyl is brought into contact with
kydrated potash, the reaction expressed in the following equation occurs:
Chloride of Ethyl. Hydrated Potash. Alcohol. Chloride of Potassium.
AeCl -f KO,KO = AeO,HO + KC1
which shows that the ethyl and the potassium may mutually replace one another in com-
pounds; and the same might be similarly shown of cyanogen and chlorine.
Comparatively few organic radicals have been obtained in an isolated state; and in
most cases the existence of any special radical is only inferred from the fact, that the
group of atoms of which it is supposed to be composed can be transferred from one ele-
mentary substance to another, and can be made to enter into combination with other
organic radicals. The existence of ethyl was thus inferred long before the substance
itself was isolated, and the radical benzoyl, Ci4H5O2 (symbol Bz), which exists in the oil
of bitter almonds, and on which Liebig specially bases his whole theory of organic radi-
cals, has never been isolated. The simplicity obtained by adopting the radical theory in
place of using merely empirical formulas, is well shown in the two contrasted modes of
symbolically representing the compounds which are obtained from this oil:
Empirical Formula. Rational Formula (Bz=Ci4HsOa).
Oil of bitter almonds, Cl4H6C)a = BzH, Hydride of benzoyl.
Benzoic acid, C14H,O,,HO =BzO,HO, Hydrated tfxide of
benzoyl.
Chlorine-compound, Ci4H5O2Cl = BzCl, Chloride of benzoyl.
Sulphur-compound, Ci4H5O2S = BzS. Sulphide of benzoyl.
Cyanogen-compound, Ci6HsO2N = BzCy, Cyanide of benzoyl.
The organic radicals are either binary or ternary in their composition. Many of
them — as, for example, ethyl — consist of carbon and hydrogen; others, as carbonyl (or
earbonic oxide), of carbon and oxygen; others, as cyanogen, of carbon and nitrogen:
and others again, like benzoyl, of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Into a few radicals a
metallic element enters; these are termed organo-metallic radicals; and cacodyl, which
contains arsenic, and is represented by the formula As(C2H3)3 is the best example of
this class. All recent works on organic chemistry are based either on the theoiy of
organic radicals or on the more complicated theory of types, which will be noticed in a
special article.
OBGANTSTA, the common name of a number of small South American birds, allied
*o wrens, and remarkable for the sweetness of their song. The Peruvian organista
(troglodytes leucophrys of Tschudi) has a modest, cinnamon-brown plumage, with head
and neck of dark olive. " The tender, melancholy strains, and the singular clearness of
the innumerable modulations, charm the ear of the astonished traveler, who, as if arrested
by an invisible power, stops to listen." — Tschudi's Travels.
ORGANO-LYRICON, a musical instrument consisting of a piano-forte combined
with twelve kinds of wind instruments — flutes, bassoon, horns, trumpet, and fife. It
was invented in Paris by M. de Saint Pern in 1870, and was the first of a number of
similar inventions, such as the orchestrion. There were two rows of finger-keys which
were so arranged as to act independently or together, or with a partial effect. Pedals at
the foot of the instrument called into play various tones, and the bellows was worked
by clock wheels and weights.
OEGANO-METALLIC BODIES. Under this term are included a large number of
chemical compounds in which organic radicals, such as methyl (CaH3), ethyl (C4H^),
etc., are united -to metals in the same way as chlorine is combined with zinc, forming
chloride of zinc. If, for instance, in chloride of zinc (ZnCl) we replace the chlorine by
ethyl, we produce one of the bodies belonging to this class, viz., zinc-ethyl, Zn(C4H5).
This substance (which we take as a good example of the class) is obtained by digesting
a mixture of equal volumes of iodide of ethyl and ether with granulated zinc, at a tem-
perature of about 260°, for several hours. Subsequent distillation gives a mixture of
zinc-ethyl and ether, from which the former may be obtained pure by rectificati«n, in
the form «f a colorless, transparent, mobile liquid, which refracts light strongly, has a
pwwerful but not disgreeable odor, and is rather heavier than water, its specific gravity
beiuff 1.182 at 64°. With the exception of cacodyl, As(CaH»)a, these bodies arc the
creatio* of the hist ten or twelve years, during which period numerous compounds of
Organ-point. 04
•Orlgeiies.
organic radicals with zinc, cadmium, magnesium, antimony, arsenic, bismuth, mercury
lead, sodium, and potassium have been discovered.
For further information on this subject the reader is referred to an article by Dr.
Franklaud (who has most successfully devoted his attention to this class of compounds)
in the 13th vol. of The Quarterly Journal of the Cfiemical Society, and to an elaborate
article on " Orgauo-Metallic Bodies" (by the same chemist) in The English Cyclopaedia.
ORGAN-POINT, or PEDAL-POINT, in music, a bass note sustained through a series of
chords, with only the first and last of which it is in harmony. The sustained note may
be the dominant or tonic, and eometimes occupies an upper part instead of the 1>.
ORGAN ZINE a name applied to silk which after having been first wound off from
the cocoons into hanks is then placed on a winding machine, which reels otf the hank-
on to wooden reels. These are then placed on spindles, ^ind the fibers of each are made
to pass through a minute orifice and small brush, which together clean the thread and
remove any knots or projections from it, throwing it at the same time into hanks a^ain
Then the threads of two hanks are taken and again reeled off, this time on to one bank,
being twisted together to the left ; then two of these doubled reels are taken, and the
•ends being laid together, are twisted to tJie right. These operations, consisting of wind
ing, cleaning, throwing, and twice twisting and doubling, constitute organzine silk. See
SILK.
ORGEAT, a kind of culinary preparation, which is both used as an agreeable syrup
to mix in certain drinks, or medicinally as a mild demulcent. It is prepared by making an
emulsion of almonds, which are blanched for the purpose, and beaten into a paste in a
mortar, and then rubbed up with barley-water. The proportions are: 1 Ib. of sweet and
1 oz. of bitter almonds to a quart of barley-water. To this emulsion are added 2 Ibs. of
powdered loaf-sugar, and a quarter of a pint of orange-flower water. There are other
modes of making it, but this is the simplest and best. It is much used in France under
the name of strop d'orgeat.
ORGIES (probably from Gr. erdo, in the perfect, eorga, to sacrifice), or MYSTERIES,
•secret rites or customs connected with the worship of some of the pagan deities; as the-
secret worship of Ceres (q.v.), and the festival of Bacchus, which was accompanied with
mystical customs and drunken revelry. The name is now applied to scenes of drunken-
ne'ss and debauchery.
ORGUES are thick, long, wooden beams, pointed and shod with iron, hung vertically
by separate ropes in the gateway of and over the entrance to a fortified place. They
answer the purpose of a portcullis or door, and are dropped into position by cutting the
ropes from which they hang. Their descent is inevitable, in which they possess an
advantage over the portcullis, which may be held up by the enemy or blown in by
petards, whereas petards have little effect on orgues, for if one beam be destroyed another
can be dropped to fill up the gap.
O'RIA., a t. in Lecce, a province of Italy, 22 m. from Brindisi; pop. about 7,000. It
is situated between two lakes, and the surrounding scenery is fine. There are cotton
manufactories and other industries. Oria is a very ancient city, and the dale of its origin
is not known. It was twice destroyed by the Saracens in the 10th c., and later in the
middle ages was a place of refuge for the Christians who were driven from Constanti-
nople. It was afterwards sold by St. Charles Borromeo for 40,000 ducats, which were
distributed among the poor in a single day.
0 RIEL COLLEGE. In 1324 Adam de Brom, almoner of Edward II., procured from
the sovereign a charter of incorporation for a college, under the name of St. Mary's
house, in Oxford. The origin of the name "Oriel college" is uncertain. It consisted
originally of a provost and 10 fellows. The number of fellows was by subsequent bene-
factions raised to 18, and several exhibitions and scholarships were also founded at vari-
ous times. By the commissioners under 17 and 18 Viet. c. 81, all the fellowships are
thrown open, but two are in the mean time suspended for the purpose of increasing the
number and value of the scholarships, and of augmenting the salary of the professor of
modern history. By the same authority the scholars are placed on the founciation of the
college, a position they did not before enjoy; the scholarships are made ten in number,
tenable for five years, of value £80- per annum, with rooms free. This college was one
of the first to throw open such of its fellowships as it could to competition, and hence
the fellows of Oriel have long been among the most distinguished men in the university.
For several years back, however, its undergraduates have done little in tbe schools.
The fellows divide upwards of £200 a year, in addition to allowances; and the income
of the provostship, to which is annexed a living in ESSGX and a canon ry in Rochester
cathedral, is estimated at £2,000 a year. There are thirteen benefices in the gift of this
college.
ORIEL WINDOW, a projecting window having more sides than one, usually three,
and commonly divided into bays by mulliqns. It is one of the most picturesque features
in mediaeval and Elizabethan domestic architecture, and adds much to the convenience
ef the interior. The word oriel (Med. Lat. oriolum, probably dim, from os, orin, as if a
small opening or recess) formerly meant a chamber er apartment, and a window is so
f* K Organ-point.
Origenes.
called which makes a small apartment, as it were, off a large room. Oriels are also
called bay or bow windows (q.v.).
OBIENTA TION. As Christians from an early period turned their faces eastward
when praying, so Christian churches for the most part were placed e. andw., in order
that the worshipers, as they looked towards the altar, might also look towards the east.
Modern observation, however, has found that few churches stand exactly e. and w.,
the great majority inclining a little either to the n. or to the south. Thus, of three
ancient churches in Edinburgh, it was ascertained that one (St. Margaret's chapel in the
castle) pointed e.s.e. ; another (St. Giles's cathedral), e.-by-s.^s. ; a third (Trinity college
church, now destroyed), e.^s. This deviation from the true e. has received, among
English ecclesiologists, the name of "orientation." Its origin or cause has not been
satisfactorily explained. Some have supposed that the church was turned not to the true
e., but to the point at which the sun rose on the morning of the feast of the patron
saint. But, unfortunately for this theory, neighboring churches, dedicated in honor of
the same saint, have different orientations. Thus, All Saints' at West Beckham, in
Norfolk, points due e. ; while All Saints' at Thwaite, also in Norfolk, is 8° to the n.
of east. There are instances, too, in which different parts of the same church have
different orientations; that is to say, the chancel and the nave have not been built in
exactly the same line. • This is the case in York minster and in Lichfield cathedral.
Another theory is, that orientation " mystically represents the bowing of our Savior's
head in death, which Catholic tradition asserts to have been to the right [or n.] side."
But this theory is gainsaid by the fact, that the orientation is as often to the s. as to
the north. Until some better explanation is offered, it may, perhaps, be allowed to hold,
that orientation has had no graver origin than carelessness, ignorance, or indifference.
ORIFLAMME, or AUKIFLAMME (Lat. axri famma, flame of gold), a banner which
originally belonged to the abbey of St. Deni=, and was borne by the counts of Vexin. pat-
rons of that church, but which, after the county of Vexin fell into the hands of the French
crown, became the principal banner of the kingdom. It was charged with a saltire wavy
or, with rays issuing from the center crossways. In later times the oriflamme became
•the insignia of the French infantry. The name seems also to have been given to other
flags; according to sir N. H. Nicolas, the oriflamme borne at Agincourt was an oblong
red flag split into five parts.
OBI GENES (ORIGEN), called adamantinos or chalchentezos — both epithets expressive
of his firmness of purpose and iron assiduity — one of the most eminent of the early
Christian writers, "the father of biblical criticism and exegesis in Christendom," was
b. 185 A.D., at Alexandria, where his father, Leonidas, seems to have held some superior
office in the church. Origenes received a most liberal education. While, on the one
hand, he was initiated at an early age into Hellenic science and art, the teachings of
Christianity were instilled into his mind by men like Pantsenus and Clemens of Alex-
andria. During the persecutions against the Christians, instituted by Sept. Severus, his
father died the death of a martyr, and Origenes, then 17 years of age, would have shared
it of his own free wiU had not his mother, left unsupported with six children, prevented
him. After a short time his zeal and erudition procured for him the office of catechist
in the Alexandrian church; but no salary being affixed to it, he was fain4o dispose of
his much-loved collection of classical authors for a daily stipend of four oboli (2d.) for
several years. His wants were extremely limited, and his asceticism led him even to
self-mutilation (in accordance with the view he took of Matt. xix. 12): an act for which
he afterwards expressed the deepest sorrow, and which became a dangerous weapon in
the hands of his antagonists. Not a few of his hearers being masters of Greek (Neopla-
tonic) philosophy, Origenes, in order to ward off more successfully their attacks upon
his doctrines, and to combat them on their own ground, applied himself particularly to
this science, and Ammonias Saccas himself is said to have been his teacher. From this
period also may DC dated Origenes's transition from unconscious to conscious belief. He
examined henceforth, with as little prejudice as possible, all the different systems of
human speculations that came under his notice during the many journeys he undertook,
proceeding on the principle "that we are not, under the pretense of piety, to pin our
faith on that which is held by the multitude, and which therefore alone seems to stand
on high authority, but on that which results through examination and logical conclusions
from established and admitted truths." This liberality of his mind and doctrines could
not fail, on the one hand, to bring about many conversions to the faith, as he taught it,
both among "pagans" and "heretics," the latter chiefly of the gnostic sects; and on
the other hand, to raise an outcry among less liberal professors and teachers of the faith,
who had not been so successful in their labors. What gave the greatest offense in his
teachings was his way of explaining, after the manner of the Midrash, known to him
through the Jewish masters (from whom, at an advanced age, he had also learnt Hebrew)
allegorically and symbolically that which in the Scripture warred with the common
human understanding, or seemed repugnant in manner or matter. Furthermore, while
upholding all the ethical portions of the Bible, he rejected a great deal of its supposed
historical and legal contents for all purposes, save, perhaps, as starting-points for homi-
letics. "What edification," he says, "could we find in literally interpreting the story
of Abraham's first telling Abimelech a lie, and then, with Sarah's consent, handing her
U. K. XL— 5
Original.
66
over to him and prostituting her?" As to the discrepancies in the different gospels
respecting the life of Christ, he says: "One of two only is possible. Either these
things are true in a spiritual sense only, or as long as the discrepancies are not satis-
factorily explained away, we cannot believe in the gospels being dictated by the Holy
Ghost, and redacted under the influence of his inspiration."
In 211 he went to Rome, but soon afterward, at the wish of bishop Demetrius, he
returned to Alexandria, which, however, he was obliged to leave precipitately, and to
seek refuge from certain popular tumults in Palestine. Here the bishops received him
with gre^r honors, and desired him to institute public lectures, in which they themselves
became hearers. Recalled again by the Alexandrian bishop, he was sent to Achaia to
combat certain heresies that had broken out there. The wrath that had silently been
gathering against him found its first vent when, in 228, the bishops assembled in Csesa-
rea in Palestine consecrated him presbyter. The bishop of Alexandria took umbrage at
this outrage, as he called it, on his authority. Two councils were convoked, and in 232,
Origenes was deprived of his priestly office, and excommunicated, the principal heresy
charged against him being his denial of eternal punishment. Yet the churches of the
east remained faithful to him. Palestine, Arabia, Phenicia, and Achaia remained in
constant communication with him; and men like Gregory Thaumaturgus (q.v.), Athene-
doros, and others remained or became his faithful disciples ever after, while the bishop
of Cssarea allowed him openly to expound the Scripture in his church. The persecu-
tions under Maximinus again forced him to seek refuge for two years in Cappadocia.
Returning under Gordianus, he resumed his labors and journeys, until, when Decius
ascended the throne, he was seized, imprisoned, and tortured for his faith. He did not
survive his sufferings long, but died, in 254, at Tyre, where his tomb, near the high-
altar of the cathedral, was shown for many centuries, until it was destroyed during the
Crusades.
The number of his works is stated by Epiphanius and Rufinus to have exceeded
6,000, and although this is probably only meant as an exaggerated round number, yet
the amount of writings that issued from his always busy brain and hands cannot but
have been enormous. Seven secretaries and seven copyists, aided by an uncertain
number of young girls, are by Eusebius reported to have been always at work for him.
The great bulk of his works is lost; but among those that have survived, the most
important by far are his two editions of the Old Testament, called respectively Tetriipid
(fourfold) and H&capla (#£rfold). See HEXAPLA. The labor bestowed upon this work
must have been immense, and no less than twenty-eight years is Origenes supposed to
have been engaged upon it. On its importance for Biblical criticism it is needless to
enlarge here. Fragments only have come down to us, the original having been lost
during the siege and capture of Caesarea by the Arabs ; and the Greek as well as the
Roman clergy having almost laid an interdict upon the copying of any of Origenes's
much suspected writings. Montfaucon has collected and edited these fragments (Hexn-
ptorum Orujenis qua supersunt, 2 vols. fol. Paris, 1714), which were re-edited by C. F.
Bahrdt (1769-70). Of his other partly extant, partly lost works, the chief are his books
"On the Resurrection," " On Martyrdom, " " Eight Books against Celsus," "On Prayer,"
besides Epistles, etc. He further revised and enlarged Philo's Lexicon of Hebrew
Names (Hebr&icorum Nominum 8. Scripturceet Mensurarum Interpretatw), whence it has
often, together with many other spurious works, been ascribed to him exclusively.
Little also has survived of his many exegetical writings, commentaries, brief notes, and
homilies on both Testaments. The best editions of his collected works are by De la
Rue (Rudens), (Paris, 1733-59, 4 vpls. fol.); by Oberthilr (Wurzburg, 1785-94, 15 vols!);
and by Lommatzsch, which is critical and more complete (Berlin, 1831). etc.
ORIGINAL SIN. According to this theological tenet, when stated in its extremest
form, men come into the world with the reason and will utterly corrupt. This corrup-
tion originated in the fall of Adam, and has been inherited equally by all his posterity,
so that the natural man is not only incapable of knowing and loving God and goodness,
but is inclined to contemn God and pursue evil; on which account the anger of God has
subjected him to temporal death, and destined him to everlasting punishment in hell.
The doctrine is founded on the account of the fall given in Genesis, and on some pas-
sages in Paul's epistle to the Galatians, and in that to the Romans; which passages, -
however, are held by others to contain no such doctrine; and indeed nearly every point
in the history of the doctrine is the subject of as much controversy as the details of the
doctrine itself. The early church, it is maintained by one school, was unacquainted
with it; and the most orthodox admit that the doctrine had not at that time been fully
developed. The Christian fathers; Justin Martyr, Clemens Alexandrinus, Irenaexis, and
others, ascribe to the natural man a certain ability to know God and choose the good,
they are said to reject distinctly all propagation of sin and guilt, and even to refer
human mortality not to Adam's sin, but solely to the constitution of the body. Oruron,
on the other hand, in opposition to the Gnostics and Manichees, who grounded the sin-
fulness of men on the connection of the soul with a material body, asserted that the
sinfulness was in existence at birth, but ascribed the development of actual sins and their
consequences not to propagation, but to the moral operation of precept and example.
He accordingly found the cause of sin to be in the freedom of the will, the abuse of
67
Original.
•which he explained partly by the operation cf evil powers, partly by the predominance
of the sensuous part of man's nature over the rational mind. The orthodox teachers of
the Greek church, again, held that Adam, by the fall, rendered himself and all his
posterity mortal, but, according to the less rigid schools, they looked for the origin of
gin in the freedom of the will acted upon by the flesh, a*nd by demoniacal influences,
and ascribed to man the power of resisting every evil if he chose. These views, it is
alleged, continued to be held, in substance, by the Christian teachers in the east, and
were fully developed by Chrysostom; but Catholic writers maintain that in all this
Chrysostom and the other Greek fathers are speaking not of the natural powers of the
will, but of the will as assisted by divine grace.
The doctrine took another shape in the Latin church. Tertullian, following up his
dogma of Traducianism, according to which the child derives not only its body but its
soul from its parents, maintained that sinfuluess had been propagated, along with mor-
tality, from Adam to all mankind; he thus defended an onginis vitium, without con-
ceiving it as actual sin and denying all capacity for good in man. This view was fol-
lowed by Cyprian, Ambrose, and even by Augustine in his earlier writings. It was
only during his controversy with Pelagius and Ctelestius that Augustine came to develop
the doctrine of original sin into the full form given above. His great influence in the
western churches procured the condemnation of his opponents, the Pelagians (q.v.), as
heretics at the councils of Carthage (412, 416, 418), although the councils of Jerusalem,
and Diospolis (415) decided in their favor. Building upon the foundation of Traducian-
ism, Augustine laid down that every natural man is in the power of the devil, and
upheld the justice of this as a punishment for the share which the individual had in
Adam's transgression; for as all men existed in the loins of Adam, all sinned with him.
Pelagius, on the other hand, who rejected the Traducian theory, denied that sin is pro-
pagated physically, or that the fall of Adam has exercised any prejudicial influence on
the moral constitution of the posterity; and maintained that all men are born in a state
of innocence, possess the power of free-will, and may therefore live without sin. He
and his followers objected to Augustine, that his doctrine was in direct contradiction to
clear passages of Scripture, and that it made God the originator of evil and an unright-
eous judge.
Great as was the respect for Augustine, the harshness of his doctrine was too shock-
ing-to the natural sentiments to meet with lasting acceptance. In the eastern church it
never gained a footing, and even in the west it met with opposition. In Gaul, John
Cassian, Faustus, Arnobius, and others, took up a view midway between the views of
Augustine and Pelagius, from which they •were called Semipelagians. They attributed
to man a capacity for good which makes it possible for him, not indeed to merit the
favor of God, but to make himself capable of receiving it ; and maintained that it is
only a certain inborn weakness that men inherit from the first pair. The Semipelagian
doctrine found acceptance especially among the monks (in particular among the Fran-
ciscans), continued, to prevail during the middle ages, and among the scholastics found
partisans in the Scotists. Augustine's views also found advocates among the scholastic
philosophers, who, however, added to It many limitations and explanations. Regard
ing the way in which original sin is propagated, many held by the Traducian theory,
while others conceived it to be a sort of infection of the soul by the defiled body, or au
imputation of guilt to all partakers of the human nature. Petrus Lombardus adhered
to Augustine. Anselm of Canterbury conceived original sin to be a want of requisite
righteousness, and thought that this want was imputed to all the posterity of Adam,
although not in the same degree as if they had themselves sinned. Anselm s view was
adopted by Duns Scotus, while Bonaventura and Thomas Aquinas sought to combine
the opinions of Anselm and Augustine. Anselm had thought that his theory afforded a
better explanation of the sinless birth of Christ; and about the 12th c. it began to be
maintained that Mary also was conceived without sin.
The reformers of the 16th c. everywhere made original sin a leading doctrine, and
thus were enabled to combat effectively the Roman Catholic doctrine of the merit of
works; while the Catholic church, in the fifth session of the council of Trent, stamped
what the Calvinist school would call Semipelagianism as the orthodox doctrine. The
reformed churches agreed with the Lutheran on the point of original sin. In this they
followed Calvin rather than Zwingli, who looked upon it as an evil or disease, and as
becoming sin only when a commandment is transgressed. The Armenians and Soci-
nians, on the other hand, denied the doctrine of hereditary sin in the ecclesiastical sense.
The Mennonities spoke of a loss of the divine image in consequence of the fall of Adam,
but still asserted the free-will of man. The Quakers rejected the name of original sin
altogether; they held that there is a germ of sin in man. from which imputable sin
springs, and that, however corrupt, he has still the susceptibility of being awakened to
the inward light. The whole Protestant church held, besides, that Jesus alone was free
from sin, both original and actual. The Roman Catholic church ascribed this attribute
also to Mary, though no public and distinct declaration on the point was given by the
council of Trent. See IMMACULATE CONCEPTION.
The harshness of the Augustinian dogma led, at time of the reformation, to keen
controversies: Erasmus disputed the point with Luther, and would only admit a weak-
ness of the free-will arising from original sin, and by no means a complete annihilation
Orilmela ftQ
Origsa.
of it. From that time the doctrine in Germany continued to be variously attacked and
defended. It lias been discussed by the schools of philosophy. Kant showed the moral
signiik-ition of the dogma, and made out original <in to be a propensity to evil inherent
in" man. The Schelling-Hegei school, again explained it as the linite nature with which
the individual is born. In recent times, the theologians of the old Lutheran and strictly
orihod >x tendencies, such as Olshausen, Tholuck, HeDgStenberg, and others, have come
forwaid as adherents and defenders of the Augustiniaii doctrine; while the more liberal
theologians modify it in various ways, not admitting any moral inborn corruption aris-
ing from the fall, but only a weakness in man's nature for the knowledge and perfor-
mance of good. How far, and wiih what differences, the extreme Augustiu.an view is
hel.l by the churches of England and Scotland, will be seen from the following extracts
from the Thirty-nine Articles and the Westminister Confession of Faith.
From Art. ix. of the Thirty-nine Articles: "Original sin standeth not in the follow-
ing of Adam (as the Pelagians do vainly talk); but it is the fault aud corruption of the
nature of every man, that naturally is engendered of the offspring of Adam, whereby
man is very far gone from original righteousness, and is of his own nature inclined to evil,
so that the flesh lusteth always contrary to the spirit; and therefore in every person born
into the world, it deserveth God's wrath and damnation."
From chap. vi. of the Westminster Confession: "By this sin" (i. e. , the eating of the
forbidden fruit), "they" (i.e., our first parents) "fell from their original righteousness
and communion with God, and so became detul in sin, and wholly oV,"'' <i in out t!/<
ties and parts of soul and body. They being the root of all mankind, the guilt of this sin
was imputed, and the same death in sin and corrupted nature conveyed to all their pos-
terity, descending from them by ordinary generation. From this original corruption,
whereby we are utterly indisposed, disabled, and made opposite to all good, and wh"
to all evil, do proceed all actual transgressions.
ORIHTJE'LA, an ancient t. of Spain in the modern province of Alicante, and 36 in. s.
•w, of the city of that name, stands on the banks of the Segura, in a plain remarkable
alike f jr its beauty and its fertility. It is long and straggling, while its palm
square towers, and domes give it an oriental appearance. It contains a cathedral, num-
erous churches and convents, barracks, etc. The manufactures are linen goods and
hats, and many corn and oil mills and tanneries are in operation. Olive oil is very
extensively made. The vegetation here is gigantic; the oleanders are actual tree-!.
Orilmela has been possessed by Carthaginians, Romans, Moors, aud Spaniards in turn.
Pop. 24,000.
CHI LLON, in fortification, and especially in the earlier systems, is a semicircular
projection at the shoulder of a bastion, intended to cover from the observation of the
enemy the guns and defenders on the flank, which, with such a construction, is some-
what retired or thrown back. The flank thus protected is held by many distinguished
tngineers to be most valuable in the defense of the ditch, in clearing it from an attack-
ing party, or from hostile miners. The retired flank is sometimes Straight, at others
curved. The orillon is as old as the bastion, and is found in the works of Pagan and
Speckle.
ORINO CO, a great river of South America, flows through Guiana and Venezuela, and
reaches the Atlautic ocean s. of Trinidad, in lat. 8° 40' north. The country in which it
takes its rise is inhabited by an aboriginal race called the Guaicas, who have hitherto
prevented all access by foreigners to its sources; but it is known to rise in the Sierra
Parime, one of the chief mountain chains of Guiana, near lat. 3° 40' n., long. 64° 30'
•west. It has been explored by Humboldt to the village of Esmeraldas (lat. 3° 8' n.,
long, 66° 5' w.), and by Schomburgk to within 30 m. of its source. After flowing w.s.w.
20 m. past Esmeraldas the river bifurcates, and the southern branch, the Cassiquiari
(q.v.), flowing s.w., joins the Rio Negro, an affluent of the Amazon. From this point
the Orinoco flows n.w. to its junction with the Guaviare, then n.n.e. to its junction with
the Apure, after which it flows in an eastward direction to its mouth. Length of course
1960 miles. The head of uninterrupted navigation is at the confluence of the Orinoco,
with the Apure, 777 m. from the mouth of the river. Above this point the course of the
river is interrupted by " raudals" or cataracts, of which those of Maypures and Atures
are the most celebrated. Its principal affluents from the left are the Guaviare, the
Vichada, the Meta, and the Apure; from the right, the Ventuare, Caura, and Caroni.
The Orinoco, which is joined by 436 rivers, and upwards of 2,000 streams, drains an
area (usually stated at 250,000 sq. m.) which, according to Wappau's Rep>il>lik<-n r»» SV//7-
Amerika,, may be estimated at 650,000 sq. miles. It begins to form its delta 130 m. from
its mouth, by throwing off a branch which flows northward into the Atlantic. Several
of the mouths are navigable, and the main stream, the Boca de Navios, is divided by a
line of islands into two channels, each two m. in width. Bolivar, a town v.pwards of
250 m. from the mouth of the river, marks the head of tide-water, and here the river is
4 m. wide and 390 ft. deep. Below the junction of the Apure the character of the
scenery seems to be uniform — forests on the right bank, and llanos on the left.
0 RIOLE (Oriolus). a genus of birds of the Thrush family (Mernlida or Turdida) hav-
ing an elongated conical beak, broad at the base; the upper mandible ridged above, and
notched at the point; wings of moderate size, the first feather very short, the third the
«Q Orihuela.
Orissa.
longest; the tail of moderate length, and rounded; the tarsus not longer than the middle
toe; the outer toe joined at its base to the middle toe; claws strong and curved. The
species are numerous, all natives of the Old World, and chiefly of the warmer parts of
it; the adult males generally of much brighter plumage than the females and young
males, the prevalent color yellow. Only one species is found in Europe, the GOLDEX
ORIOLE (Oriole galbula), pretty common in Italy and some other parts of Europe, but a
rare summer visitant of England, and never seen in Scotland, although it occasionally
breeds in the south of Sweden. — The name Oriole is still very commonly given to the
Baltimore bird (q.v.) and other American birds of the Starling family, the chief resem-
blance of which to the true orioles is in color.
ORI ON1, in Greek mythology, was a gigantic hunter, and reputed the handsomest man
in the world. His parentage is differently given. According to the commonly received
myth, he was the son of Hyrieus of Hyria, in Boeotia, and was called in his own coun-
try Kandaon. Another account makes him a son of Poseidon and Euryale, while some
state that he was Autochthons, or "earth-born." So immense was his size, that when
lie waded through the deepest seas he was still a head and shoulders above the water;
and when he walked on dry land, his stature reached the clouds. Once on a time he
came to Chios, in the^Egean sea, where he fell in love with /Ero or Merope, daughter of
(Enopion. He cleared the isle of wild beasts, and brought their skins as presents to his
sweetheart; but her father always put off their marriage; whereupon Orion, one day
giving way to passion (when under the influence of wine), sought to take the maiden by
force. (Enopion now called upon Dionysus (Bacchus) for help, who put out the eyes of
the inebriate lover. Orion, however, recovered his sight in Lemnos, by following the
advice of an oracle, and returned to Chios to take vengeance on (Enopion. Not finding
him, he went to Crete, where he spent the rest of his life hunting in company with Arte-
mis (Diana). The cause and manner of his death are differently related. Artemis, say
some, slew him with an arrow, because Eos, inflamed by his beauty, had carried him off
to Ortygia, and thereby offended the gods. Others aver that Artemis, virgin-goddess
though she was, cherished an affection for him, that made her brother Apollo fiercely
indignant. One day, pointing out to her at sea a black object floating in the water, he
told her that he did not believe she could hit it. Artemis, not recognizing her favorite,
drew her bow, and pierced him through the head; a third myth makes him find his
death from the sting of a scorpion. Asklepios (^Esculapius) wished to restore him to
life, but was slain by a bolt of Zeus. After his death, Orion was placed with his hound
among the stars, where, to this d.ay, the most splendid constellation in the heavens bears
his name.
ORIS'SA, an ancient kingdom of Hindustan, the authentic history of which goes back
to 473 A.D., extended from Bengal — a part of which it included — on" the n., to the banks
of the Godavari on the s., and from the coast on the e. to the river Gondwana on the
west. From its remains of sculptures, inscriptions, etc . we may infer that its early civ-
ilization was high. The temple of the sun at Kanarek — erected about the 12th c.— exhib-
its carvings representing the planets, sculptured figures of animals, etc., which show
that at that date the plastic and mechanical arts were in a more advanced state in Orissa
than they were in England. It maintained its position as an independent monarchy till
1558, when, its royal line having become extinct, it became an outlying province of the
empire of the great mogul. On the breaking up of this empire, the more valuable por-
tions of Orissa were seized by the nizam of Hydrabad. The French, who had taken
possession of a part of the country long known as the northern Circars, attempted to
drive the English (who had also formed commercial settlements on the const), out of
India. The result of the contest for supremacy in India between the English and
French is well known. The Mahrattas, who had 'seized a portion of Orissa in 1740, were
forced to surrender it to the English in 1803. The soldiers of the 'East India company
were marched into Orissa at the commencement of the present century, and an engage-
ment was subsequently entered into between the company and the native chiefs and
princes, by which the former bound themselves to perform certain services -for the coun-
try (as maintaining the river-banks in good repair), while the latter engaged to pay a
yearly tribute. Of the many principalities into which Orissa was divided, a large num-
ber got into arrears with the government, and the result was that numbers of the eshite-;
were sold, and the government, as a rule, became the purchaser. Much of the territory
originally forming a portion of this kingdom thus fell into the hands of the British. The
ancient Orissa, which existed as an independent monarchy for four centuries, and flour-
ished as a principality of the mogul empire after 1.158. is now hardly to be recognized in
the British commissionership of Orissa, with an area of 23,901 sq.m'., and a pop. of ('72)
4,317.999. This country was decimated by famine in 1868-69: and careful surveys of
its coast were made in 1870. Orissa is traversed by a branch of the eastern Ghauts run-
ning parallel with the coast. The hill-districts, which nowhere present an elevation of
more than 3,000 ft., are 'inhabited by the Gonds, the Koles. the Sourahs, and theKhonds.
The Khonds occupied an area extending from n. of the Mahanaddi, s. to the banks of
the Godavavi. Their mountain-haunts are admirably suited for defense, as the districts
which they inhabit are almost inaccessible; and although they do not yet appear to have
adopted firearms, they manage their battle-axes and bows and arrows with an adroitness
Oristano. hf\
Orle. I V
and courage that make them formidable enemies. The Khonds are a totally distinct race
from the inhabitants of the plains, and there is but little resemblance between them and
the other hill-tribes, the Gonds and Sourahs. The chief peculiarities of the Khonds arc.
that their language, which is quite distinct from those of the neighboring tribes, is not.
in the least understood by the inhabitants of the plains; and that human sacrifice formed,
till within the last few years, one of the distinguishing features of their religion. They
do not barter or traffic^ and all commercial transactions are managed for the Khonds by
the Panus, Doms, etc., regarded by their employers as inferior races. There are, how-
ever, no caste prejudices among the Khonds such as generally prevail throughout the
plains of India. Agriculture and war are the only employments. The revolting custom
of human sacrifice prevailed among the Khonds from the earliest times, -although it
was not till 1836 that the attention of the government was specially called to the MI;,-
ject, at the conclusion of an insurrection, in the course of which British officers had
been brought iuto contact with the hill tribes. The Khond victims, called Meriah, were
always bought with a price, sometimes from families of their own tribes who had fallen
into poverty, but generally kidnapped from the plains by miscreants of the Panu race.
The Meriah victims were of both sexes, and of every age; though adults were held in
the highest esteem, because, being the most costly, they were supposed to be more
acceptable to the deity. The object of the sacrifice was to propitiate the earth-god;
and abundant crops, security from calamity, and general prosperity were supposed to be
insured to any one who had cut off a portion of the flesh of the human victim, and buried
Jt in his farm.
The consummation of the Meriah sacrifice was often attended with circumstances of
the most revolting and disgusting cruelty. In some cases the event was preceded by a
month's feasting, intoxication, and dancing round .the Meriah. On the day before the
sacrifice, the priest thus addressed the victim: "We have bought you with a price, and
did not seize you; now we sacrifice you according to custom, and no sin rests with us."
On the following day the victim was made senseless from intoxication, and then suffo-
cated; after which the officiating priest cut a portion of the flesh from the body, and
buried it as an offering to the earth-god. The people, following his example, hewed the
flesh from the bones, and carried the bloody trophy to their distant villages, where it was
buried. In many cases the victim was not intoxicated before sacrifice; but the joints of
his arms and legs were broken with a hatchet, in order to prevent the possibility of
resistance. In 1837 gen. (then capt.) Campbell was appointed assistant-collector in
dan jam, the adjoining district in the plains, and with varied success devoted much of
his time to endeavoring to suppress the rite. He was succeeded in 1841 by maj. (then
lieut.) Macpherson, C.B. Encouraged by the success of his labors, the government in
1845 established, under Macpherson, a separate agency for the suppression of Meriah
sacrifices in the hill tracts of Orissa, in which he was succeeded, in 1847, by nmj.gen.
Campbell, who carried on, with undiminished success, the good work commenced by
Macpherson, pushing his inquiries and exerting his authority among the tribes unvis-
ited by his predecessor; and reports have been sent in from all parts of the country,
stating that for several years hardly any Meriah sacrifices have taken place in the great
hill tract of Orissa. In the year 1852-53 all victims retained for sacrifice were demand-
ed, and in only one instance had the demand to be followed up by force. The practice
of female infanticide has now also become almost wholly suppressed. The irrigation of
a large portion of Orissa is provided for by an extensive and costly system of canals
taken over by the government in 1863.
See Report by Lieut. M.'Plitrson, 1841 ; An Account of the Religion of the Khondt
in Orissa, idem in the Trans, of Asiat. Societies, 1851; Campbell's Personal Narrative of
Service Amongst the Wildlribes of Khondistan, 1864; Calcutta Review, Nos. IX., XL, XV.,
and XX. ; Kaye's History of the Administration of the E. I. Coy., 1853; Memoir: Admin-
istration of India During Last Thirty Tears, 1858; Indian Records— History of the AYw
and Progress of tlie Operations for the Suppression of Human Sacrifice and Female Infanti-
cide in the Hill Tracts of Orissa (1854); and Orissa, by W. W. Hunter, director-general of
the statistical survey of India (1872).
ORISTA'NO, a t. and inferior river port on the w. coast of Sardinia, 56 m. n.w. of
Catrliari. It stands in a fruitful, well-cultivated plain, about a mile from the left bank
of the Tirso or Oristano, and 3 m. from its mouth in the gulf of Oristano. which is about
10 m. in length, with a breadth of 5 miles. It is surrounded by ancient walls flanked
•with towers; contains a cathedral with a great clock tower, the most conspicuous object
in the town; an archbishop's palace, college, and several churches and convents. It car-
ries on manufactures of ironware, cutle.y, and agricultural implements, and a number
of its inhabitants are engaged in the tunny fishery on the coast. Corn, salt fish, and
the wine of Vernaccia are exported. In winter the town is busy and lively; but in
summer it is unhealthy, and during that season all who can afford to do so, leave it.
Pop. 2,500.
ORIZA BA, a t. of Mexico, in the state of Vera Cruz, 70 m. w.s.w. of the town of that
name, and 25 m, s. of the volcano of Orizaba. The vicinity is unusually fertile, and is
covered with forests. The town contains numerous churches, a high school, and an
nOristano.
Orle.
extensive cotton spinning factory. Coarse cloths and tobacco are largely manufactured,
and there is much general industry. Pop. 15,000.
ORKNEY ISLANDS, which, with Shetland, form one county, separated from Caith-
ness by the Pentium! firth (q.v.), lie between 58° 41' 24" and 59° 23 2" n. lat., and
between 2" 22 2" and 3 25' 10" w. long.; and are 73 in number at low water, of which
28, besides Pomona, or the Mainland, are inhabited. The area of the Orkney islands is
610 sq.m., or 390,147 imperial acres. The surface is very irregular, and the land is
indented by numerous arms of the sea. The highest hill is the Ward of Hoy, 1555 feet.
The rocks are of the old red sandstone formation, except a small granite dislrict near
Stromness. Previous to the middle of List century, the agriculture of Orkney was, in
more than an ordinary degree for the time, in a primitive state, There was little com-
munica'ion then with the mainland, and improvements were slowly adopted. The spin-
ning-wheel, for instance, was not introduced there for half a century after it was in
use" elsewhere. Until toward the end of last century, little advance seems to have
been made in the management of the land, the inhabitants deeming it more important
and profitable to direct their attention to the manufacture of kelp. The people used to
suffer periodically from bad seasons and violent storms, when less help could be afforded
to them from without. In 1778 a great hurricane of four hours' duration drove the sea-
spray over the islands. The grain crop was in consequence sea-g anted, and rendered
almost worthless, and there required to be imported 18,000 bolls of meal and bere,
besides other articles, costing £15,000, or nearly twice the gross rental of the county.
Orkney was formerly divided into 32 parishes, having 8 parish ministers. It now con-
tains 22 parishes, forming 3 presbyteries and 1 synod. There are also about 30 congre-
gations belonging to the Free and United Presbyterian churches, besides 3 Independent,
and one or two others.
The temperature of Orkney is comparatively mild, considering its northern latitude.
This arises partly from its being surrounded by the sea, but chiefly from the neighbor-
hood of the gulf stream to the western shores. " For the 13 years ending 1869, the mean
annual temperature was 46°; the mean temperature of January and February, the cold-
est months, 39'; and tnat of July, 55°. The annual rainfall varies from about 28 in. on
the c. side of the isles to 37 in. on the west.
The carrying-trade and merchandise of Orkney have greatly increased of late years.
The exports' rose from £49,308 in 1848 to £181,483 in 1861. According to a carefully
prepared return in connection with a piers' bill, the value of exports, in 1871, exceeded
£250,000. The exports are chiefly of fish and agricultural produce, of which cattle are
the principal.
The total acreage in 1875 under all kinds of crops, bare fallow and grass, was 93,615;
barley and bere, 5,601 acres; oats. 2D,549 acres; turnips, 12,201 acres; potatoes, 3,151
acres. The number of horses in 1875 was 5,614; cattle, 25,762; sheep, 31,898; swine,
4,156. The number of occupants of land was 3,147.
The chief towns are, Kirkwall, (q.v.), the capital (situated in Pomona), and Strom-
ness, in which there are 3 distilleries, producing upwards of 20,000 gallons of whisky
annually; but Kirkwall is the only royal burgh in the shire. The valued rent of the
Orkney islands in 1653 was £57,149 Scots, or £4,763 sterling. The valuation (exclusive
of the burgh of Kirkwall) in 1878-9 was £64,065. In 1871, inhabited houses in the Ork-
ney islands, 6,288; pop. 31,274. P.irliarheniary constituency in 1878-79, 1287, returning
one member conjointly with Shetland.
The Orkneys, under the name Omides [whence the modern adjective, Orcadian], are
mentioned by the ancient geographers. Pliny, Ptolemy, Mela, and by other classical
writers, but of their inhabitants we know almost nothing till the dawn of the middle
«ges. They were most probably of the same stock'as the British Celts. From an early
period, however, the Norsemen resorted to these islands, as a convenient spot from
which to make a descent on the Scotch and English coasts. In 876 Harald Haarfager con-
quered both them and the Hebrides. During the srrcater part of the I0th c. they were ruled
by independent Scandinavian jarls (earls), but in 1098 they became formally subject to
the Norwegian crown. Thus they remained till 1468, when they were given to James
III. of Scotland as a security for the dowry of his wife, Margaret of Denmark. The
islands were never redeemed from this pledge; and in 1590, on the marriage of James I.
with the Danish princess Anne, Denmark formally resigned all pretensions to the sov-
ereignty of the Orkneys. During their long connection, however, with Norway and
• Denmark, all traces of the primitive population disappeared. The present proprietors of
land are chie'ly of Scotch descent; and the inhabitants generally are a mixed race of
Scandinavian and Scotch descent.
ORLE, in heraldry, one of the charges known under the name of sub-ordinaries, said
'to be the diminutive of a Bordure (q.v.), but differing from it in being detached from
the sides of the shield. It may be the sole charge in a shield. Or, an orle gules was the
coat borne by John Baliol. An orle of heraldric charges of any kind denotes a certain
number (generally eight) of these charges placed in orle, as in the coat of the old Scot-
tish family of Gladstones of that Ilk; argent, a s-avage's head couped, distilling drops of
blood proper, thereon a bonnet composed of bay and holly leaves all proper, within an
-ode of eight martlets sable.
70
Orleans.
ORLEANS, an island in the St. Lawrence river, belonging to Montgomery co.,
Quebec, Canada; 69 sq.m. ; pop. '70, 4,924. The- surface is undulating, and covered
in some portions with extensive forests. The soil is rich, and in a high slate of cultiva-
tion. There are a number of villages on the isla-il.
ORLEANS, a parish in s.e. Louisiana, on the Mississippi river, bounded on the n. by
lake Poutchartrain, on. the s.e. by lake Borgue, and on the s. by tin; Mississippi; on the
New Orleans, Mobile, and Texas railroad; 150 sq.m.; pop. "'80, 216,140 — 174,905 of
American birth — 57,761 colored. The surface is low, and liable to inundation, and much
of it is swampy. The soil along the Mississippi is fertile. The principal production is
sugar. The city of New Orleans constitutes the greater part of the co., which is the
most populous in the state. Capital, New Orleans.
ORLEANS, a co. in New York bounded on the n. by lake Ontario, drained by Oak
Orchard creek; on the New York Central, and the Rome, Watertown, and O.j;den>bunj
railroads, and t lie Erie canal; 380 sq.m. ; pop. 70, 27,689 — 23,446 of American birth. The
surface is rolling, and the soil fertile. The principal productions are corn, wheat, hay,
oats, and fruits. Wool, flax, hops, and tobacco are also raised. There are flour and saw
mills, cooper shops, manufactories of carriages, harnesses, etc. Co. seat, Albion.
ORLEANS, a co. in n. Vermont, watered by the Missiquoi. Clyde, Barton, and Black
rivers; on. the Connecticut and Passumpsic River railroad; 700 sq.m. ; pop. 80, 22,08:?—
18,102 of American birth. The surface is hilly, much of it heavily wooded with sugar
maple, oak, 'hickory, and other trees. It contains a number of lakes, of which the 1;
is lake Memphremagog (q.v.). Iron ore and soapstone are found, and granite slate and
other minerals. The soil is fertile, and the pr ucipal crops are potatoes, grass, corn,
and oats. Maple sugar is made, and much lumber is exported. Co. seat, Irasburg.
ORLEANS, an important commercial t. of France, capital of the department of Loiret,
and formerly capital of the old province of Orleannais, which now forms the greater
part of the departments of Loiret, Eure-et Loir, and Loir-et-Cher, is situated on the;
right bank of the Loire, here crossed by a bridge of 9 arches, and is 75| m. s.s.w. of
Paris by railway. Close to the city is the forest of Orleans, one of the largest in the,
country, consisting of 94,000 acres, planted with oak and other valuable trees. Orleans
stands on the verge of a magnificent plain sloping toward the Loire, and watered by the
Loire and Loiret, ami is surrounded on the land-side by a wall and dry ditches, on either
side of which there are pleasantly shaded boulevards. Around it are eight prosperous
and populous suburbs. Among its principal buildings are the cathedral, with two lofty
and elegant towers, one of the finest Gothic edifices in the country; the tower; bishop's
residence; the houses of Joan of Arc, of Agnes Sorrel, of Diane de Poitiers, of Francois
I., of Pothier; the churches and hospitals, which are numerous; ihemusef, the theater,
etc. The town contains three statues of Joan of Arc, of which the equestrian one was
inaugurated in 1855. The situation of the town has many commercial advantages,
arising from its position on a navigable river, on lines of railway which connect it with
Paris and the great trading towns in the s. of France, and on the canal which connects
the Loire with the Seine. Hosiery, cotton and linen goods, refined suuar. vinegar,
bleached wax, leather, etc., are manufactured; and the trade is chiefly in stockings.
sheepskins, wine, brandy, corn, and sugar. Pop. '76, 49,896.
Orleans, originally called Genabum, afterward Anreliani (probably from the emperor
Aurelian), of which the modern name is only a corruption, was besieged by Attila in
451, but relieved by the Romans, who here defeated Attila. It afterwards passed into
the hands of the Franks, was taken by the Northmen in 855. and again in 865. In 1428
it was besieged by the English under the duke of Bedford, but was delivered by Joan of
Arc (q.v.), therefore named the Maid of Orleans. In the wars of the 16th c., Orleans
suffered severely. It was taken by the Germans in 1870, and was their center of opera-
tions against the French army of the Loire.
ORLEANS, HOUSE OF. See BOURBON.
ORLEANS, JEAN BAPTTSTE GASTON. Due d', third son of Henry IV. of France, and
Marie de Medici; was b. at Fontainebleau, April 25, 1608. He possessed tolerable
abilities, but his education was neglected. On his marriage with Marie of Bour
duchess of Montpcnsier, in 1626, he received the duchy of Orleans as appanage, iti^
wife soon died, leaving one daughter, the celebrated Mademoiselle de Montpensier. Hi-
brother, Louis XIII., regarded him with dislike as heir-presumptive to the throne, the
queen having no children; and the treatment which he received at the hands of the king
and of Richelieu, led him to join with his mother in attempting the overthrow of that
minister. He left the court witii a number of other great nobles in Feb., 1631 ; SOUL ht the
support of the duke of Lorraine, whose sister he married, and raised in Hie Spanish Nether
lands a corps of 2,000 men, at the head of which he-crosssed the French frontier assum-
ing the title of lieut.gen. of the kingdom; but was completely defeated by marshal
Schomberg at Castelnaudary, and fled to the duke of Lorraine; whom he thereby
involved in ruin. In 1634, however, he returned to the French court. Richelieu
sought to have his marriage with Marguerite of Lorraine declared invalid, but after a
long struggle, and much disputing among jurists and theologians, its validity was sus-
tained. The duke was, however, again obliged to leave France in consequence of fresh
73
Orleans.
intrigues against Richelieu. After Richelieu's death, a reconciliation was effected
between him and his brother, the king, by the ministers Mazarin and Chavigny; and
Louis XIII. appointed him lieut.gen. of the kingdom during the minority of Louis XIV.
Mazarin and the queen-mother, Anne of Austria, attempting to assume all power to them-
selves, the duke placed himself at the head of the Fronde (q.v.); but with his usual
vacillating weakness and selfish sacrifice of his friends, soon made terms again with the
court. Yet, when Marzarin returned from banishment in 1652, the duke again assem-
bled troops for the prince of Conde, upon which account, after the disturbances were
ended, he was confined to his castle of Blois, where he died Feb. 2, 1660. He left three
daughters by his second marriage.
ORLEANS, Louis PHILIPPE JOSEPH, Due d', b. April 13, 1747, was the great-grand-
son of the preceding. He possessed very good abilities; but early fell into the grossest
debaucheries, in which he continued to the end of his career. Louis XVI. disliked him
on account of his debased character, and the queen for his obstrusiveness. He became
gradually estranged from the court, sought popularity and obtained it, and embraced the
cause of American independence. In the assembly of notables in 1787 he declared
against the miuistenil proposals; and when the king sought to overcome the resistance
of ihe parliament by a Lit de justice, he protested against the proceeding. On the
assembly of the states-general, he took the popular side, and voted with the extreme left
in the national assembly; seeking at the same time to please the populace by profuse
expenditure, with the hope of being made Heutgen. of the kingdom, or perhaps of
opening for himself a way to the throne. When the insurrectionary movements began
in Paris in 1789, he promoted them by secret agents and money. The court sent him on
an ostensibly diplomatic mission to England, from which he returned after more than
six mouths' absence, in July, 1790, and unscrupulously engaged in new intrigues hostile
to the king. But he began to find that he himself was made the mere tool of a party,
who availed themselves of his influence and wealth for their own purposes, and this-
discovery cooled his revolutionary fervor. He withdrew from the Jacobin club, was
reconciled to the king, and appeared at court; but was treated with such disrespect by
the courtiers, that he turned away, and from that time followed in blind rage the stream
of the revolution. He joined Danton's party, was concerned in insurrections, disclaimed
all pretentious to the throne, renounced his titles, assumed the name of Philippe Egalite,
was addressed as citizen Egalite, and was returned by the department of beineaud M.arue
to the national convention, in which he took his place among the mountain party. He
voted for the d^ath of the king, being, it is said, himself threatened with death by the
Jacobins if he should do otherwise, but alleging his sense of duty and his belief that
every one who did anything contrary to the sovereignty of the people deserved death.
The vote was received with a cry of disgust, and by no means increased the safely of
his own position. The mountain party were dissatisfied with him, because he did not
give up the whole of his immense wealth for party purposes. After the desertion of his-
son, the duke de Chartres (see Louis PHILIPPE), the decree for the imprisonment of all
the Bourbons was applied to' him. He was thrown into prison with his family in Mar-
seille, and was brought before the tribunal of the department of Bouches de Rhone on a
charge of high treason. He was acquitted, but the committee of public safety immedi-
ately brought him before the revolutionary tribunal in Paris; and on Nov. 6, 1793 he
was condemned, and on the same day executed amidst the execrations of the multitude
which had so often applauded him.
ORLEANS, PHILIPPE, Due d', regent of France during the minority of Louis XV.,
was the son of Philippe, due d'Orleans, and the grandson of Louis XIII., and was b.
Aug. 4, 1674. He possessed excellent talents, and made unusual attainments both in
science and belles lettres; but his tutor, cardinal Dubois (q.v.), did not scruple 1o minis-
ter to the strong passions of the young prince, and exercised a most pernicious influence-
over him. He gave himself up to debauchery. The king compelled him to marry
Mademoiselle de Blois, his daughter by Mme. de Montespan. He astonished and
alarmed the court by protesting against his exclusion by the testament of Charles II.
from all right of succession to the throne of Spain, and by the attention which he imme-
diately began to give to military and political affairs. His military talents, however,
led to his employment in the wars in Italy and in Cpain; but his presence in Madrid
after his victories was regarded with apprehension both by Philip V. and by Louis XIV.
He had, indeed, formed the design of taking possession of the Spanish throne for him-
self. In consequence of this, he lived for some years in complete exile from the court,
and much dreaded by it; spending his time both in vicious excesses, and in the culti-
vation of the fine arts and the study of chemistry. This study afforded a pretext to-
Mmc. de Maintenon and her party for accusing him of poisoning the dauphin and others
of the royal family, who died suddenly, and in rapid succession, of malignant fever, in
1711. The king refused an investigation which the duke demanded. Louis, having
legitimized his sons, the duke of Maine and the count of Toulouse, appointed the duke
of Orleans only president of the regency and not regent, giving the guardianship of his
youthful heir and the command of the household troops to the duke of Maine; but all
this was set aside at his death, and the duke of Orleans became sole regent. He was
popular, and his first measures increased his popularity; but the financial affairs of the
Orleans. tj A
Oruioiul.
kingdom were perplexing, and the regent's adoption of the schemes of law (q.v.) led to
disastrous results. Meanwhile, on Aug. 26, 1718, he held the celebrated Lit de Justice,
in which he prohibited the parliament of Paris from meddling with financial or political
affairs, and declared the legitimized sons of Louis XIV. incapable of succeeding to the
throne. Dubois, who still possessed an unhappy influence over his former pupil, became
prime-minister, and eventually ruler of France; the regent, who \va> really a man of far
higher abilities, neglecting all duties, and pursuing a course of profligacy almost
unequaled in the worst instances of antiquity. His eldest daughter, the duchess de
JBerry, followed his example, and brought herself to any early grave. Dubois, wishing
'to be made a cardinal, persuaded the regent to sacrifice the Jansenists, and .to compel
the parliament in 1722 to recognize the bull ETntgvnftn* (q.v.). After the king's corona-
tion, Feb. 15, 1723, and the death of Dubois in August, the duke of Orleans, although
disliking public affairs, consented to become prime-minister; but died on December 2
of the same year, physically exhausted by his incessant debauchery. The influence of
his religious and other opinions, and the example of his immoralities, powerfully tended
to promote that state of things which eventually produced the horrors of the French
revolution.
ORLEANS CLOTH, a kind of stuff made for ladies' dresses, in which the warp is of
cotton and the weft of worsted. It is so called fvoui having been first made at Orleans in
France, but it is now extensively manufactured at Bradford in Yorkshire.
ORLEANS, MAID OF. See JOAN OP ARC, ante.
ORLEANS, NEW. See NEW ORLEANS.
ORLOFF, or OULOV, a Russian family that first rose to eminence during the reign of
Paul III., when one of its members, count Gregori Orloff, attracted the notice of the
grand duchess Catherine, afterwards the empress Catherine II., and succeeded Pou-
iatowski as her favorite. It was Gregori who planned the murder of Peter III., and his
brother Alexis who committed the deed, and both received high honors and rich rewards
for this and other services. The flourishing family of the counts Bobriuski resulted from
Oregon's intercourse with the empress. The legitimate line of Orloff soon became
extinct; but Feodor, a brother of Gregori and Alexei, left four illegitimate sons, one of
whom, Mikail, distinguished himself in the campaign of 1814; and another was count
Alexei Orloff, the celebrated diplomatist. Count Alexei was born in 1787, signalized
himself by courage and military talents during the French wars, negotiated the treaties
of Adrianople (1829) and Unkiar-Skelessi (1833), and represented Russia at the London
conference of 1832 on the affairs of Belgium and Holland. In 1844 he was placed at
the head of the secret police; and the ability and energy with which he directed its vast
machinery, rendered him the most dreaded official in Russia. He was high in the favor
of the emperor Nicholas, who employed him in the negotiations with Austria previous
to the Crimean war. In 1856 he sat in the congress of Paris as a representative of Russia,
and on his return was made president of the grand councR of the empire. He died at
St. Petersburg, May 20, 1861.
ORLOFF' (ante), the name of a distinguished Russian family of recent origin in Euro-
pean family annals. IVAN was noted, first, for having taken part in a mutiny in 1689
against the young czar Peter (the great). His coolness at the scaffold obtained him a
pardon, and a commission in the army; and he adopted the name of Orloff. II. GRIGORI
<jrRE(K>iUE WITCH, grandson of the preceding, 1734-83; an intriguer, a protege of Catherine
II., who helped her dethrone her husband Peter III., and when Catherine became
empress vainly sought to marry her. She became tired of him, sent him to Moscow
•when infected with the plague, where he so distinguished himself by energetic perform-
ance of humane duties in arresting the pestilence that he was re-instated in her favor,
afterward sent to prison by her, and died a wanderer and insane. III. ALEXEI, 1737-
1808; brother of the preceding, is said to have acquired the favor of the same Catherine
by strangling her husband with his own hands. In 1768 was made admiral of the Rus-
sian fleet in the Grecian archipelago, achieved brilliant successes in battles with the
Turks in 1770; was rewarded with honor, then exiled by czar Paul. IV. FEDOR, 1741-
96; another brother, made general-in-chief of an army serving against the Turks, and
the father of four illegitimate sons, by whom the family name has been continued. V.
ALCXEI, 1787-1861; one of the above sons, was engaged in the campaign against the first
Napoleon, aid-de-camp of Alexander I. His energy on the accession of Nicholas in
1825 aided to suppress the conspiracy on that occasion, for which he was promoted;
fought against the Turks in 1828, negotiated the peace of Adrianople in 1829, and super-
intended the movements of the Russian army in Poland in 1830-31. !!:• was suspected
of poisoning the grand duke Constantine and marshal Diebitsch, but the charge was not
sustained. In 1833 he was a party to the secret treaty with Turkey by which the Bos-
porus and the Dardenelles were closed to all but Russian ships of war. In 1844 he was
at the head of the police system of Russia, and after the death of Nicholas retained the
favor of Alexander II. In 1856 he was Russia's chief representative at the congress of
Paris, and on his return to Russia was made president of the grand council of Russia,
and a prince. VI. NIKOLAI a son of the preceding, b. in 1827; minister at Brussels in
1859; ambassador to Paris in 1872; recipient of the grand cross of the legion of honor
*7?C Orleans.
Ormond.
from president MacMahon in 1875; and author of a work published in St. Petersburg in
1856, on the campaign in Prussia in 1806.
OELOP (Dutch, orerloop, that which runs over, or covers), in ships of war, is the low-
est deck, immediately above the hold. It contains the magazine, bread-room, and vari-
ous store-rooms; and is used in time of action for the reception and treatment of the
wounded, as, from being below the water-line, it is the safest part of the ship.
ORME, ROBERT, 1728-1801 ; b. Hindustan, of English parentage, son of Dr. Alex-
ander Orine, physician and surgeon of the British army in Bombay; educated at Harrow,
went back to India m 1742, as a writer in the employ of the East India company. He
resided in Anjengo, a city of Travancore. In 1752 he went to England in company
with capt. Clive, afterward lord Clive, baron of Plassey, his friend for many years.
He returned again to India, and in 1754 become fourth member of the council at fort
Saint George, Madras, and rose to be commissary and accountant-general 1757-58. In
1759 he went to England, having made a small fortune. He was influential in establish-
ing the power of Great Britain in India, and active in the interest of his friend capt.
Clive, whom he succeeded in having sent as military commander of that country. He
returned to England finally in 1859, and became historiographer to the East India com-
pany, witli a salary of £300 per annum, retiring to Ealing in 1792, where he passed the
remainder of his life. In 1703 he published the first vol. of the History of the Military
Transactions of the British Natiftn in llimlnrfan, and in 1775 the second vol., the 3 vols.
appearing in 1780. In 1782 appeared Historical Fragment* of the Morji.il Empire of the
Mahrattas, during the reign of Aurungzebe, to which was prefixed a life of the author.
In reference to his history Macaulay says: "He is inferior to no English historian in
style and power of painting, is minute even to tediousness." " In one volume he allots,
on an average, a closely-printed quarto page to the events of every forty -eight hours."
Robertson and Sterne were great admirers of his history, and Boswell, in his life of
Johnson calls him "the able and eloquent historian of Hindustan, who expressed a
great admiration of Johnson.... Johnson was much pleased with such praise from such a
man as Orme. '
OKME'S HEAD, GREAT, a headland in the n.e. of Caernarvonshire, North Wales, 5
m. n.n.w. of Conway, is an enormous mass of limestone rock, surmounted by a light-
house, and forming the extreme point of the western shore of Orme's bay. Lat. 53° 20'
n., long. 3° 51' w. — Litlle Orme's Head forms the eastern extremity of the same bay.
OE MOLTJ is a variety of brass, consisting of zinc 25 parts, and copper 75 parts, which
lias a nearer resemblance in color to gold than ordinary brass (q. v.). It is extensively
used for castings of ornaments for furniture, candelabras, and such articles. When the
casting is made, its color is brought out by & pickle of dilute sulphuric acid, after which
the acid is removed by water, and a liquor varnish is put on to keep it from tarnishing.
ORMOND, JAMES BUTLER, Duke of, was the first of the ancient Anglo-Irish family of
Butler on whom the ducal title was conferred. The family was of illustrious antiquity.
Genealogical legend carried it back to the dukes of Normandy before the conquest, and
it is certain that at the dawn of the 13th c. , it held the hereditary office of royal cup-
bearer or butler, whence the family name. The subject of the present article was b. in
London in 1610. His father, the son of the celebrated Walter, earl of Ormond. was
drowned in crossing the channel; and the old earl having incurred the displeasure of the
king, James I., and being thrown into prison, James, who 'on his father's death became,
as viscount Thurles, the heir of the title, was seized as a royal ward, and placed under
the guardianship of the archbishop of Canterbury. On the restoration of his grandfather
to liberty, he also was released; and in his 20th year he married his cousin, lady Eliza-
beth Preston, and in 1632 succeeded, upon his grandfather's death, to the earldom and
estates of Ormond. During the Strafford administration in Ireland, Ormond distin-
guished himself so much, that on Straff ord's recall he recommended Ormond to the
king; and in the rebellion of 1640, Ormond was appointed to the chief command of the
army. During the troubled times which followed, he conducted himself with undoubted
ability, although, as a necessary consequence of the numberless divisions and subdivi-
sions of party which then prevailed in. Ireland, he failed to satisfy any one of the con-
flicting sections; and when, in 1643, he concluded an armistice, his policy was loudly
condemned as well by the friends as by the enemies of the royalist party in England.
During the long contest of Charles with the parliament, Ormond continued to uphold
the royal interest in his Irish government; and when the last crisis of the king's fortunes
came, he resigned his Irish command, and retired to France, from which country he
again returned to Ireland with the all but desperate design of restoring the royal author-
ity, and after a gallant but unequal struggle, was compelled, in 1650, to return once
more to France. His services to the royal cause continued unremitting during his exile;
and at the restoration he accompanied Charles II. on his return, and was rewarded for
his fidelity by the ducal title of Ormond. His after-life was less eventful, although he
twice again returned to the government of Ireland. It was in 1679 that the well-known
attempt was made by the notorious col. Blood (q. v.) upon the life of Ormond. As he
was returning from a civic festival, he was attacked by Blood and a party of ruffians,
and was dragged from his coach with the intention of his being hanged at Tyburn.
Orinsby. fro
Ornithology.
The attempt drew additional interest from its being commonly supposed to have bet-it
instigated by the profligate duke of Buckingham, Ormond's inveterate foe. He escaped
uninjured, and lived until the year 1688. His letters and other papers are full of deep
historical interest. See Carte's Life of Ortuond.
ORMSBYy»a co. in w. Nevada, bounded on the w. by lake Tahoe, drained by Carson
river; on the Virginia and Truckee railroad; about 170 sq. m. ; pop. '80, 5,410 — 3,254
of American birth. The surface is mountainous, well wooded, and crossed in the \v.
by an offshoot of the Sierra Nevada range. The soil especially in the valley of the Car-
son is fertile, and produces wheat, corn, oats, and barley. There are mines of gold,
silver, and iron. Large amounts of lumber are exported. There are quartz, saw, ami
planing mills. Co. seat, Carson city.
OKMSKIRK, a market t. of England, in Lancashire, in the center of a rich and popu-
lous agricultural district, 12 m. n. of Liverpool by the Lancashire and Yorkshire rail-
way. The parish church has both a tower and spire. Its grammar school has an annual
income from endowment of £150. Silk-weaving, rope-making, basket-making, and
brewing are the principal branches of industry. There are large collieries in the vicin-
ity. Pop. 71, 6,127.
OBMUZ, or HOKMUZ, a small island in the straight of the same name, at the entrance
of the Persian gulf, and within 10 m. of the Persian coast. It is about 12 m. in circum-
ference, and belonged to the Imaum of Muscat till 1854. In the 16th c. it was taken by
the Portuguese, and being made by them an entrepot for goods from India, Persia, and
Ttirkistan, it became important, and the town of the same name rose in population
until it had 40,000 inhabitants. The town was demolished in 1622, by Shah Abbas,
assisted by the English, and its trade was removed to Gombroon (q. v.).
OBMUZD(Ahurmazd, Auramazda, Hormazd, Ormazd), corrupted from Ahurp-Mazdao,
i.e., that Ahura (Vedic Asura), or "spiritual being," who is called Mazdao (i.e., Vedic
Medhas) = "creator of all things;" the name oflhe supreme deity of the ancient Per-
sians, and of their descendants the Guebres and Parsees. It was at first emphatically
employed in this sense by Zoroaster, or Zarathustra Spitama. Ormuzd is, according to
Zoroaster's original doctrine, the creator of the earthly and spiritual life, the lord of the
whole universe, in whose hands are all creatures. He is the light and the source of
light, the wisdom and the intellect, and is in the possession of all good things, such as
"the good mind," "immortality," "wholesomeuess," "the best truth," "abundance,"
etc. ; which gifts he bestows upon the pure in thoughts, deeds, and words, while the
wicked are punished by him according to their wickedness. ("For thou art through
purity, the holy over the wicked, the ruler over all, the heavenly, the friend of both
worlds, Mazda! .... Father of the pure creatures at the beginning, who hath created
the way of the sun, of the stars, who causeth the moon to wax and to wane .... He
holdeth the earth and the unsupported [heavenly bodies?], the waters and the trees, and
giveth swiftness to the wind and the clouds .... The creator of the good mind, the
working good, hath made light as well as darkness, sleep and waking, the morning-
dawns, the noons, the nights," etc. — Yazna, 43:) Sprung from Zarvan-Akarana (the
boundless time), i.e., being from eternity, self-existing, neither born nor created, he unites
within himself — as does man and everything else existing, — the two primeval principles
of good and evil, the (^pento mainyus, i.e., the white, holy spirit and the Angro-
mainyus (corrupted into Ahriman, = the dark spirit. Tljis Zoroastrian conception of
the two sides of the divine being — itself one and indivisible — has, however, in the course
of time, partly through misunderstandings and willfully false interpretations, undergone
important changes. While the Zervan-Akarana was transformed by the Magi — in oppo-
sition to the Zeiidiks — into the Supreme Being itself, the philosophical notion of a duality
in Ormuzd became the theological dogma of god and devil, jealous of each other's power,
bent upon the destruction of each other's works, and consequently in constant war with
each other, they and their armies. Both are — according to this corrupted view of later
times, by means of which the genuine one has been forgotten up to our da}' — supreme
rulers; both have their fixed number of councilors (sprung from an egg, Pint. />/* <nul
Osiris'), who are the actual governors of the whole universe, each in his special province;
which councilors, however, are neither more nor less than certain abstract ideas of
Zoroaster. One personal archangel alone is assumed by the latter, viz., Sraosha (Serosh,
cf Sansr. Shruti), i.e., hearing, tradition. He is vested with very high powers, and
stands between Ormuzd and man; he is the teacher of good religion; he shows the way
to heaven, and pionounces judgment over human actions after death. He is the per-
sonification of the whole divine worship and its outward manifestations, the symbols.
prayers, sacrifices, rites, etc., and the chief combatant of the influence of the I)e\. ~.
who stand symbolically for the Brahmanic religion. Ormuzd is represented as sitting
upon a throne of light, as a venerable man, or seated upon a bull, etc. — For further par-
ticulars about the seasons and the manner of his worship, as well as the general relations
between his and the Brahmauic religion (both the result of a prehistoric conflict betweeu
the Iranians and those Aryan brother-tribes who immigrated into Hindustan proper), we
must refer to PARSERS, PEHSIA, and ZOROASTER.
ORNAMENTATION, or DECORATION, in architecture, applies to something which i*
added to the simple constructive features, or to the form given to those features, for the
nOrmsby.
Ornitnology.
purpose of making them beautiful or elegant. Tims, the Doric shaft, while answering
the constructive purposes of a simple square or round pier, is ornamented with fluting;
find its capital, with its beautifully proportioned eciiinus and abacus, supports as a plain
slab would do the weight of the entablature. The other classic orders illustrate this in
a richer manner. Thus, the Corinthian column, with itslluted and elegant shaft, resting
on an ornamented base, and crowned by an ornamented capital, takes the place of what
might have been, had utility alone been consulted, a plain pier of rubble-work, with a
rough stone to rest upon, and another on the top to receive the load.
In classic architecture, as in every good style, the same principle pervades all the
ornamental features — viz., that they are constructive features ornamented in a manner
s'litnb'c to their use; for instance, a column being a member for support, should be of
such a form as to denote this; the constructive use of a cornice being to protect the top
of the wall, and to shield the front of it from the rain and sun, it should be made of such
a form as to do this, and also to look as if it did it — to express its purpose. In classic
architecture, the cornice consists of several members, in which the constructive deco-
ration is well seen; the mutules and modillions beautifully indicating in an ornamental
manner their original use, while the leaf enrichments of the small moldings give life
and animation to the building. In mediaeval art the same principle prevails in a much
greaier degree, and over a more complex system of construction. The shafts, with their
elegant and purpose like bases and caps, are arranged so that each supports a separate
member of the vaulting. The arch-moldings are divided so as to indicate the rings of
their constructive formation. The buttresses, so elegant in outline, express the part they
serve in supporting the vaulting; the pinnacles, with their ornamental finials, are the
decorated dead-weights which steady the buttresses. The foliage and smaller ornament
is also beautifully and suitably applied, as the growth and vigor of the supporting capi-
tals and corbels, and the running foliage of the stringcourses, arch-moldings, etc.,
fully illustrate.
There are, no doubt, many styles of art to which these remarks can hardly be said to
apply; as, for example, the Assyrian, Egyptian, and Hindu styles, where we find many
features applied in a manner meant to be ornamental, although actually contrarj' to their
constructive use. In these styles (and also in Greek architecture) human figures, bulls,
and other animals are placed as columns to carry the weight of a superincumbent mass.
Tliis is evidently wrong in principle, except when the figure is placed in an attitude to
indicate that he is supporting a weight, as the Greek Atlantes do; but in the former
cases religious notions seem to have overcome true artistic feeling. There are also many
forms of ornament used in ill styles, the origin of which is obscure, and their advantage
doubtful; such are the zigzag, chevron, billet, etc., so common in early mediaeval art,
and the scrolls of Ionic and Indian art, and the complications of the interlacing work of
the north in the middle ages. Such things may be admissible in colored decoration,
such as the" confused patterns of Saracenic art and the shell-patterns of Indian art; but
where ornamental form is wanted, unless the requirements of the construction are care-
fully followed as the guide to the decoration, all principle is lost, and the ornament runs
wild. This has frequently occurred in the history of art, and in no case more markedly
than in the art of the renaissance.
The in itcrhil in use must also have an influence on the form and style of the orna-
ment. Thus, stone-carving and metal-work must evidently require different treatment.
Fac-simile leaves might be formed in iron, but could not be so carved in stone. This
constructive element should be carefully attended to in designing. All imitative art
must be to some extent conventional. Natural objects, such as leaves, flowers, etc.,
cannot be copied absolutely literally; and in suiting the conventional treatment to the
nature of the material used lies the great skill of the artist.
ORN-E, a department of France formed out of the old provinces of Normandy and
Perche. is separated on the n. from the English channel (La Manche) by the department
of Calvados. Area, 2,350 sq.m., more than one-half of which is cultivable land; pop.
'76, 392,526. A range of wooded hills, nowhere rising above 1370 feet, extends across
the south of the department from east to west. North of this range the surface slopes
toward the English channel; south of it, toward the Atlantic. The principal rivers are
the One (which gives name to the department), the Rille, the Sarthe, and Huisne.
The climate is damp, though in general temperate, and the winters are severe. The soil
is fertile, but agriculture is not in an advanced state. The inhabitants consume one-
third more grain produce than is grown on the land. There are several millions of apple
and pear trees planted along the roads, etc., and cider is extensively made. Cattle, and
horses of the purest Norman breed, are reared. Mining is an important branch of
industry; the chief products are iron and copper; marble, granite, and other stones for
building are quarried. The department is divided into four arrondissements, Alen9ou,
Argentan, Domfront, and Mortagne; capital, Alencon.
OBNTTHOLOGY (Gr. ornis, a bird, and logos, a discourse), that branch of zoology of
which the subject is birds. By Aristotle, Pliny, and others of the ancients this study
was prosecuted to some extent, along with other parts of natural history; but it is only
in modern times that ornithology has assumed the rank of a distinct branch of science.
The first modern author to attempt a scientific classification of birds seems to have been
Oriiithorhyuclius. *TO
Orpheus,
Pierre Eelon, noted also as an ichthyologist. whose ni.<t<iria Aclum was published
the middle of the Uith century. Sonic of his clas.-es are very heterogeneous asseml;:
but the tir,st tliree, vi/.. birds of prey, web-footed birds, and i/rnlln'. are so natural as to have
been acknowledged, with some modification of their limits, in all subsequent systems. In
the 17th c. much progress was made in the observation and description of species, not
only of the birds of Europe, but of other parts of the world. In the latter part of the
century attention began to be given to the anatomy of birds. An ornithological sy>1cm,
more perfect than that of Belou, was proposed by \Villughby about 1670, and afterwards
matured and improved by Kay. On this system that of I June was founded. During
the 18th c. the progress of ornithology was very rapid. The birds of many countries
were described in works specially devoted to them, and the habits of birds he:raii to be:
carefully observed: but the system of Linne. as framed by him before the middle of the
century* continued to prevail almost unmodified till the publication of Cuvier's AY//'"?
Animal in 1817. Latham, Lacepede, Illiger, Temminck, and others had indeed
ously proposed systems more or less different from it; and systems have since been pro-
posed by others, particularly by Mr. Vigors and Mr. Swainson, who have- endeavored to
accommodate the classification to certain first principles which they supposed to pervade
nature, but which other naturalists in general regard as fanciful. The system of ( 'uvier
is now generally received by ornithologists, as that of Linne formerly was; not. however,
without modifications, by which it has been sought to accommodate it to the progres> of
science, and some of the names introduced by other authors have obtained very general
acceptance. The system of Linne divided birds into six orders — ac<'iij/fr<x, pt<'<t . an* /v.v,
f/ralhe, galllince, and passerex. That of C'uvier also divided them into six orders—//.
prey (the accipitres of Linne, now often called rjjjtfon*}, ;»/*,•«"/•//«' bird* (JKIXM /••/m-. now
more generally called insesxores. or perching birds, including most of the Liunean jut**, re»t
and part of pwa>), climbers (scanttojv*, part of the Linnenn ]>/c<r>. and often designated
zygodactyli or zygodactytdut birds), yattinawoHH bird* (now often called m.wn.\ the Linneau
gaUiw, but including also the pigeons or <v/ //,//// •>/</', which Linne placed amon
stilt-birds, often called leaders (grattatore-s, the Linneau grallee), and wb-fnotrd birds ( [ijjJuM.-
P£d&8, now also known as natalores or swimmers). These orders arc noticed in separate
articles. Perhaps the most important modification of Cuvier's system which has been
proposed is the separation of the brempennes or struthioits birds from gmlhv. and their
formation into a distinct order, sometimes called cursores or runners; and next to this
may be mentioned the proposed separation of columbida* from gallinaceous birds. — The
progress of ornithology since the commencement of the 19th c. has been very rapid: every
department of it has been assiduously cultivated, and many of the works published have
been not only of great merit, but very sumptuous and beautiful. The works of Audubon
and Gould perhaps merit particular notice.
OENITHORHYN CHUS. See DUCK-BILL.
ORNITHOSAU'RIANS. See PTERODACTYL, ante.
OROBAN CHEiE, or OROBRANCHA'CK.-K, a natural order of exogenous plants', all herba-
ceous, and destitute of true leaves, but having their stems covered with brown or color-
less scales. They all grow parasitically upon the roots of other plants. The calyx is
divided, persistent, inferior; the corolla monopetalous. hypogynous, and irregular. The
stamens are four, two long and two short; the ovary 1-celled, seated in a fleshy disk,
composed of two carpels, with one style. The fruit is capsular, inclosed within the
withered corolla, 1-celled, 2-valved. The seeds are numerous, and very minute. There
are about 120 known species, natives chiefly of temperate climates, and generally char-
acterized by astringency and bitterness, upon account of which some of them have been.
used in medicine (see CANCER ROOT).' Eleven species are natives of Britain, chiefly
belonging to the genus Orobanehe, or BROOM-RAPE; to some of which important medici-
nal virtues were once erroneously ascribed. The enlarged base or root-stock of a species
of Orobanehe is cooked or dried, and eaten by the Indians of the north-western parts of
America.
•
0 ROBTJS, a genus of plants of the natural order LeguminoMB, suborder Papitionaeeet,
allied to Vetches, and sometimes called BITTER VETCH; the style linear, downy beneath
the stigma; the calyx obtuse at the base and oblique at the mouth; its upper segments
.deeper and shorter; the pod 1-celled, 2-valved; the leaves pinnate, without tendrils.
The species are perennial herbacous plants, chiefly natives of Europe. They afford
good food for cattle. Two are natives of Britain, of which the most common is 0. lubc-
rosnx. whose racemes of purple flowers often adorn heaths and bushy places, especially
in hilly districts. The stem is unbranched, erect, about a foot high, with narrow mem-
branous wings; the leaflets in 2 — 4 pairs; the pods long, cylindrical, black: the root
creeping and swelling out into tubers at irregular intervals. The tubers have a sweet
taste, resembling that of liquorice, and are sought after by children ; they are also brui>ed
and steeped in water in some parts of the Highlands of Scotland to make a fermented
liquor, and a kind of liquor is made by steeping them in whisky; they arc well flavored
and nutritious when boiled or roasted, and are used in this way in the Highlands of
£ Gotland, in Holland, Belgium, and other countries.
Orpheus.
ORODUS, u genus of sharks whose remains are found in the carboniferous rocks.
The crowns of the teeth present a series of blunt, but frequently ornamental cones or
'• hills," whence the name of the genus. See PLAGIOSTOMI and SHARK.
OROHIP'PUS. See HORSE, FOSSIL.
OEON TES, the ancient name of a river in Syria, now called Nalir-el-Asi. It rises in
the highest part of Coele-Syria, near Baalbec, flows northward between the mountains
of Libanu.s and Anti-Libauus, as far as the city of Antioch, and then westward to the
Mediterranean *sea, after a course of 240 m., passing by a cross valley* through the
mountains of the Syrian coast. Its lower course is remarkably beautiful, surpassing
everything else that can be seen in Syria. Its rocky banks are 300 ft. high, and the
windings of the river show them off to the greatest advantage. Myrtle-bushes, laurels,
rigs, wild vines, arbutus, dwarf-oaks, and sycamores (Acer pseudo-pldtartiit) are scattered
about in picturesque confusion. Here and there the eye catches a glimpse of some
cavern mouth or ivy-matted precipice, while from the abyss beneath ascends forever
the roar of the impatient stream. The country through which it flows is of great fer-
tility, and in many parts is richly cultivated.
OHOOMIAH. See URUMEYAH, ante.
OROSHA ZA, a t. of Hungary in the district of Bekes, 27 m. s.w. of the town of
Bekes and 65 m. u.e. of Szegedin; pop. '69, 14,554. The chief occupations are cattle-
raising and ihe cultivation of vineyards. The wine is noted for its excellence.
OEO SIUS, PATJLUS, a Spanish presbyter and historian, was born at Tarragona, and
flourished in the early part of the 5th century. He went to Africa about 413 A.D.,
where he made the acquaintance of St. Augustine, and thence to Palestine, to study
under St. Jerome, then living at Bethlehem. He finally settled down in Africa, but
the date of his death is unknown. His chief work, the Hiatorianim adversus Payanos
Libri 7, begins with the creation and goes down to 417 A.D. It is apologetic in design,
being intended to refute the notion then current among the pagans, that the misfortunes
of the Roman empire and the wretchedness of the great masses were owing to the anger
of the gods at the abandonment of their worship, and the profanation of their altars.
The work is a trivial, inaccurate, uncritical miscellany of facts, culled from such second
rate 'authorities as Justin and Eutropius; the style is elegant, but also, as Bacon says,
"watery." Yet it has obtained a place in literature from being a favorite text-book of
universal history during the middle ages, and had the honor of being translated into
Anglo-Saxon by our own Alfred. Some manuscripts bear the puzzling title of Hormetfu.
or Ormuta, conjectured by some to be a corruption of Or. M. ist. ; that is, On&Miindi
Hixloria (Orosius's History of the World). The editio pnnceps of the work appeared at
Vienna in 1471; the best edition is that of Havercamp (Lug. Bat. 4to, 1738). Other
writings of Orosiusare Liber Apologetints de Arbitni Lilertate, and anti-Pelagian treatise,
Commohitomm ad AvguisUniiim, an explanation of the state of religious parties in
Spain in his time. See Morner's De Orom Vita ejusque Histoi-iarum Lifois Septim
adversus Paganos (Berl. 1844).
OROSZHAZA pronounced Oroshdsa), a thriving t. of Hungary, in the co. of Bt-ke-i
Csanad, 31 m. n.e. from Szegedin. Pop. '69, 14,554.
ORATA'VA, a t. on the n. coast of Teneriffe, one of the Canary islands, is situated
below the peak, in one of the most fertile, pleasant, and healthy districts in the world
It contains several beautiful churches, the residence of the governor, and the citadel.
Fishing is carried on to some extent, and there is a trade in wine. Pop. about 9,000.
ORPHAN HOUSE. See MULLER, GEORGE.
OE'PHEUS, (supposed to be the Vedic Ribhu or Arbhu, and epithet both of Indra and
the Sun), a semi-mythic name of frequent occurrence in ancient Greek lore. The early
legends call him a son of Apollo and the muse Calliope, or of (Eagrus and Clio or
Polymnia. His native country is Thracia, where many different localities were pointed
out as his birth-place — such as the mounts of Olympus and Pangaeus, the river Enipeus,
the promontory of Serrhium, and several cities. Apollo bestows upon him a lyre, which
Hermes invented, and by its aid Orpheus moves men and beasts, the birds in the air, the
fishes in the deep, the trees, and the rocks. He accompanies the Argonauts in their
expedition, and the power of his music wards off all mishaps and disasters, rocking mon-
sters to sleep and stopping cliffs in their downward rush. Els wife, Eurydice (?=
Sanscr. Uru, Dawn), is bitten by a serpent (?=Night), and dies. Orpheus follows her
into the infernal regions; and so powerful are his " golden tones," that even stern
Pluto and Proserpina are moved to pity; while Tantalus forgets his thirst, Ixiou's wheel
ceases to revolve, and the Danai'des stop in their wearisome task. He is allowed to take
her back into the "light of heaven," but he must not look around while they ascend.
Love or doubt, however, draws his eyes towards her, and she is lost to him forever
(=nrst rays of the sun gleaming at the dawn make it disappear or melt into day). Hi*
dotith is sudden and violent. According to some accounts, it is the thunderbolt of Zeus
that cuts him off, because he reve;.b the divine mysteries; according to othej's, it is
Dionysius, who. angry at his refusing to worship him, causes the Menades to tear him to
pieces, which pieces are collected and buried by the muses in tearful piety r.t Leibethra, at
•Orpiment. • QA
Oisiiii.
the foot of Olympus, where a nightingale sings over his grave. Others, again, make the
Thracian women divide his limbs between them, either from excessive madness of unre-
quited love, or from anger at his drawing their husbands awiiy from them. Thus far, legend
and art, in manifold hues and varieties and shapes, treat of Orpheus the fabulous. The taint
glimmer of historical truth hidden beneath these myths becomes clearer in those records
•which speak of Orpheus as a divine bard or priest in the service of Zagreus, the Tliracian
Diouysius, and founder of the mysteries (q.v.); as the first musician, the rlrst inaugurator
•of the rites o% expiation and of the rnantic art, the inventor of letters ^nd the heroic
meter; of everything, in fact, that was supposed to have contributed to the civilization
and initiation into a more humane worship of the deity among the primitive inhabitants
of Thracia and all Greece: a task to which Orpheus was supposed to have devoted his
Ufa after his return with the Argonauts. A kind of monastic order sprang up in later
times, calling itself after him, which combined with a sort of enthusiastic creed about
the migration of souls and other mystic doctrines a semi-ascetic life. Abstinence from
meat (not from wine), frequent purifications and other expiatory rites, incantations, the
•wearing of white garments and similar things — not unlike some of the esscnic manners
and customs — were among their fundamental rules and ceremonies. But after a brief
duration, the brotherhood, having first, during the last days of the Roman empire,
passed through the stage of conscious and very profitable jugglery, sank into oblivion,
together with their " orpheotelistic" formulas and sacrifices, and together with the joys
of the upper and the never-ending punishments of the infernal regions which they in-id
out to their rich dupes: according to the sums they grudged or bestowed upon them.
Orpheus has also given the name- to a special literature called the Orphic, the real
origin of which, however, is (according to Ottfried Muller), like Orpheus's own history,
"unquestionably the darkest point in the entire history of early Greek poetry." Like
Olen, Linus, Philammon, Eumolpus, Musaeus, and other legendary singers of prehistoric
Oreece, Orpheus is supposed to have been "the pupil of Apollo and the .Muses," and to
have first composed certain hymns and songs used in the worship of a Dionysius. dwell-
ing in the infernal regions, and in the initiations into the Eleusinian mysteries. A mere
"abstraction," as it were, he was called the first poet of the heroic age, anil though not
mentioned before Ibycus, Pindar, Hellanicus, and the Athenian tragedians, he wa> \ et
placed anterior to both Homer and Hesiod. The fragments current under his name were
first collected at the time of the Pisistratidae, chiefly by Onomacritus, and these frag-
ments grew under the hands of the Orphic brotherhood, aided by the Pythagoreans, to
a vast literature of sacred mythological songs sung at the public games, chanted by the
priests at their service, worked out for dramatic and pantomimic purposes by the dramat-
ists, commented upon, philosophized upon, and "improved" by grammarians, philoso-
phers, and theologians. Although authorities like Herodotus and Aristotle had already
-combated the supposed antiquity of the so-called Orphic myths and songs of their day,
yet the entire enormous Orphic literature which had grown out of them retained its
" ancient" authority, not only with both the Hellenists and the church fathers of the 3d
and 4th centuries A.D. (who, for their individual, albeit opposite purposes, referred to it
as the most authentic primitive source of Greek religion, from which Pythagoras, Hera-
cleitus. Plato had drawn their theological philosophy), but clown almost to the last gen-
eration, when it was irrefutably proved to be in its main bulk, as far as it has survived,
the production of those very third and fourth centuries A.D., raised upon a few scanty,
primitive snatches. The most remarkable part of the Orphic literature is its theogony,
•which is based mainly on that of Hesiod, with allegorizing and symbolizing tendencies,
and with a desire to simplify the huge Olympic population by compressing several deities
into a single one. See THEOGONY. Yet there is one figure which stands out here promi-
•writings of the Neopalitonists, are to be mentioned the Argonautica, a poem of the' Byzan-
tine period, consisting of 1384 hexameters: further, a collection of 87 or 88 liturgical
liyruns: a work on the virtues of stones, called Lythica, etc. Other poems belonging to
the Orphic cycle, of which, however, only names have survived in most instaru
Sacred Legends, ascribed to Cercops; a poem on nature, called Phy&ica, probably byBron-
tinus; Bacchica, supposed to be written by Avignota, the daughter of Pythagoras; .J///&-
yfts, or Orpheus's descent into the Hades; and other poetical productions by Zopyrus,
Timocles, Nicias, Persinus, Prodicus, etc. The best edition of the Orphic fragments is
that of G. Herrmann (Leipzig, 1805). The hymns have repeatedly been translated into
English by T. Taylor and others. See Lobeck's Aglanphamu* (1829); Gerhard, Orplieu*
unddie 0rpA*£er (1861) ; and Schuster, De Theogonfa Orphica Indole (Leip. 1869).
OR PIMENT. See ARSENIC.
OUR, HUGH, 1717-98; b. Scotland; son of Robert of Lochwinoch, Renfrewshire,
came to the United States in 1740, and settled in June in Bridgewater. Mass., where he
plied his trade of gunsmith and the manufacture of scythes and other agricultural imple-
ments. He is said to have made the first muskets ever made in this country, having a
contract from the state, about 1748, to furnish 500. During the revolutionary war he
made the cast-iron and brass cannons and cannon balls for the government. He invented
O -I Orpi.ment
Orsiiii.
several machines, among them one to clean flax-seed by a new process, which he sent to
Scotland, and one to be used in the manufacture of cotton. He represented his district
in the state senate, and had a son, col. Robert Orr, who was a niaker of arms at Spring-
field, Mass.
ORR, JAMES LAWRENCE, 1822-73; b. S. C. ; educated at the university of Virginia-,
and read law, the practice of which he began at Anderson, S. C. He was a member of
the state legislature 1844-45, and of congress 1848-59; and he was elected speaker of the;
35th congress. He was a member of the South Carolina convention which resolved on-
secession in 1860. and the same year was a commissioner sent by that state to come to ant
arrangement with the national government in regard to the federal property in South:
Carolina. He was a member of the confederate senate from 1862 till the close of the war,
when he accepted from the U. S. government the position of provisional governor of his
native state. Adhering henceforth to the republican party, he was appointed a circuit
judge in 1870, and minister to Russia in 1873. He died in St. Petersburg.
ORRERY, a machine constructed for the purpose of exhibiting the motions of the
planets round the sun, and of the satellites round their primaries, which was in high,
repute during the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries, though now regarded as a*
mere toy. It was a combination of the old Planetarium (q.v.), with other machines which
showed the motions of the earth, moon, and planetary satellites. Though the construc-
tion of a machine which would exhibit accurately the motions, distances, and magnitudes
of the planets is impossible, yet an orrery is in some degree useful as giving a general
not on of the way in which the planetary motions are performed. As it was a favorite,
machine at one time, a description of it may not be uninteresting. A number of iroa
tubes equal in number to the planets, and of different dimensions, are placed one within
the other; their lengths being arranged so that the innermost tube projects at both end*
beyond the one next to it, that one similarly projects beyond the third, and so on. At
one end of each tube a rod is fixed at right angles, and a ball or lamp attached to its end;,
the lengths of the rods being proportional (or at least supposed to be so) to the radii of
the planetary orbits. The other ends of the tubes form the axes of toothed wheels, whick
are connected either directly, or by means of combinations of toothed wheels, with a.
winclfc The several combinations of wheels are so adjusted that the velocity of revolu-
tion of the rods is proportional to the times of revolution of the planets. On turning the
winch the whole apparatus is set in motion, and the balls or lamps (representing the
planets) revolve round the center, which is a fixed lamp (representing the sun), at differ-
ent distances, and with varying velocities. There are many nice arrangements, such a*
for producing elliptic motion, but these need not be described.
ORRIS ROOT (probably a conniption of Iris root), the rootstock (rliizome) of certain
species of Iris (q.v.), natives of the s. of Europe, belonging to the division of the genus
having bearded flowers, sword-shaped leaves, and scapes taller than the leaves; viz.,.
/. Florentina, a species with white flowers; /. pallida, which has pale flowers; and"
/. Germanim, which has deep purple flowers. The flowers of all these species are fra-
grant. /. Germanica extends further north than the other species, and its root is some-
times said to be more acrid. Orris root was formerly used in many medicinal preparations-,
as a stimulant, but is now almost entirely disused. It is sometimes chewed to sweeteo.
an offensive breath. Its chief use is in perfumery. It has a pleasant smell of violets,,
which it acquires in drying. Hair and tooth powders, and oils, are often scented with)
it. A tincture of it is also used as a scent, and is often sold as essence of violets.
ORSAY, ALFRED GUILLAUME GABRIEL, Comte d'. See D'ORSAY.
ORSI'NI, an Italian family holding a conspicuous position among the nobility or
Italy from the 12th c. to the present time. The first of note was Giordano, a soldier, who
W;K made cardinal in 1145 and sent as papal legate to Germany; while Matteo, his
nephew, was prefect at Rome. Later, the senators Orso and Matteo, called the great,,
and pope Celestine III. were members of the family. In 1277 Giovanni, son of Matteo,
became pope as Nicholas III., and by his influence the rank and fortunes of the Orsini
were greatly increased. They became rivals of the Colonnas, and in the contests of the
Guelphs and Ghibellines sided with the former. The stronghold of the family was on
lake Bracciano. Pope Alexandria VI. hated both the Orsini and Colonna, and by his.
order in 1505 Francis Orsini, duke of Gravina, and Paolo Orsini were seized and'
strangled at Sinegaglia by Cesare Borgia, while the cardinal was poisoned at Rome. The-
branches of the family have died out with the exception of the Neapolitan Orsinir
Gravina branch. The old Orsini palace at Naples is built on the ruins of the ancient,
theater of Marcelius; and that belonging to the modern f amity at Naples is one of thx"
finest buildings in the city. Pope Benedict III., 1724, was a member of this branch of
the family. Prince Domenico Orsini, duke of Gravina, 1790-1874, was lieut.gen., senator.-
of Rome, and assistant-prince of the holy see. His son, Filippo, duke of Roccagorsa, isr.
the present representative of the family.
ORSINI, FELICE, an Italian revolutionist, who is destined to be remembered for his.'
atrocious attempt on the life of the French emperor, Napoleon III., was b. at Meldola,,
in the states of the church, in 1819. The son of a conspirator, Orsini at an early age
was initiated into secret societies, and before he had reached his twentieth year he war.
U. K. XL— 6
Orsova. QO
Ortolan.
thrown into prison,, and condemned to the galleys for life. The amnesty of Pius IX.
(1846) restored him to liberty, but he was soon after again imprisoned for participation
in political plots. When the revolution of 1848 broke out Orsini was elected a> a deputy
to the Roman constituent assembly. He was invested with extraordinary powers, and
sent to Aucoua and Asroli to suppress brigandage. lie signalized himself by the violence
•with which he executed his commission. He also took part in the defcn.-e of Koine and
Venice; agitated in Genoa and the duchy of Modcua; and in 1853 was shipped for Eng-
Jand by the Sardinian government, where he formed close relations with Mazzini. Fur-
nished with money by the leaders of the revolutionary party, he appeared at Parma in.
1854, and afterwards at Milan, Trieste. Vienna, everywhere agitating in the interest of
insurrection; until at last he was arrested and confined in the fortress of Mantua. In
1850 he succeeded iu making his escape, and 'found refuge in England, where he sup-
ported himself by pvblic lecturing, and wrote a book entitled Tin Anxirinii Jhmtnvnx in,
Italy (Loud. 1856). Towards the end of 1857 he repaired to Paris, with the intention of
assassinating Louis Napoleon, whom he reckoned the great obstacle to the progre-s of
revolution in Italy. His associates in this diabolical design were persons named Pieri,
Rubio, and Gomez. Providing themselves with bombs, they took up their station in a
house clo>e by the opera, and on the evening of Jan. 14, 1858, just as the carriage con-
taining the emperor and empress was drawing up, they threw three of the deadly missiles
under the carriage. An exp.osion took place, and several people were wounded, one or
two mortally, but their majesties remained unhurt. The assassins were arrested, tried,
and sentenced; Orsini, Pieri. and Rubio to capital punishment, Gomez to hard labor for
life. Rubio's life was spared at the intercession of the empress, but Pieri and Orsini
-were beheaded on March 13.
ORSOVA, the name of two towns at the iron gate of the Danube (q.v.).
a Hungarian place, is on an island, and is a station for the Danube steamers. Pop. 1200.
— NEW OKSOVA, on the Servian side, is a fortified town of 3,000 inhabitants.
ORTH, GODLOVE S., b. Penn., 1817: a graduate of Pennsylvania college, Gettys-
burg; studied law, and commenced practice in Indiana in 1839. He represented his
district in the state senate for 6 sessions, and was elected president of that body for one
year. In the war of the rebellion he was capt. of a company on board the ram
llor-ner in sin engagement on the Ohio river in 1862. In 1868 he was elected member of
congress from Indiana, serving 12 years, and resigned his seat to accept the mission to
Austria. On May 24, 1876, he resigned his position abroad, and in August of the same
year declined the' nomination for governor of Indiana.
ORTIIAGORISCUS, a genus of plectognathous fishes. See STJN FISH, ante.
ORTHEZ, a small t. of France in the department of Basses-Pyrenees, on the right
bank of the Gave de Pan, 37 m. e. of Bayonne. Pop. '76, 4,727. The castle of Mon-
cada. now reduced to a few ruined walls, overtopped by one stately tower, was built
here in 1240 by Gaston de Foix. In the immediate vicinity of the town, the British
under Wellington gained a grand and decisive victory over the French under Soult,
Feb. 27, 1814.
ORTHIS (Gr. straiphf), a large genus of fossil brachiopodous mollusca, found in the
Palaeozoic r->rks, most abundantly in the Silurian rocks, but ranging upward to the
Permian scries. The genus contains upwards of 100 species.
ORTHO CERAS (Gr. straight horn), an extensive genus of cephalopodous mollu-oa,
found in the Paleozoic rocks from the lower Silurian to the Trias. It is nearly allied to
the nautilus, and is, indeed, in its simplest forms, nothing more than an unrolled and
straightened nautilus. The shell is straight, the siphuncle central, and the body chamber
email. The members of the genus are the most widely distributed, and the most abun-
dant of any of the Paleozoic fossils. Nearly 200 species have been described, but a con-
siderable number of these have been separated into sub-genera, characterized chiefly by
the form and size of the siphuncle.
ORTHODOXY (Gr. ortltos, right, and doxa, an opinion), a name given by theologians to
religious opinions in agreement with Scripture, or rather with the view of Scripture
entertained either by the church in general, or by the established church of any particu-
lar nation. Its antithesis is HETERODOXY (Gr. heteros, another, meaning "wrong, and
doxa, opinion).
OR THOEPY (Gr. correctness or propriety of speech), a branch of grammar that treats
of the right pronunciation of the words of a language.
ORTHOGRAPHY (Gr. correct writing), a branch of grammar that treats of the ele-
mentary sounds of a language. the signs or letters by which they are represented in
writimi, and the combinations^ these sisns to represent words; it also includes then
dividing of words into syllables (as when a word has to be divided at the end of a 111
and punctuation. In a more restricted sense, orthography ia synonymous wit
of correct spelling. No part of grammar is less satisfactory than this. All alphabets
•were from the first both defective and redundant, and therefore inadequate to represe
exactly the elementary sounds of the languages to which they were applied (see ALPHA-
CO Orsova.
Ortolan.
BET., LETTERS, AND ARTICULATE SOUNDS). The first attempts, then, at writing any lan-
fuage must have exhibited great diversity of spelling. Wherever an extensive literature
as sprung up among a people, and language been made a study of itself, there a greater
or less uniformity of spelling has, by tacit convention or otherwise, become established
for a time. Such was the case with Latin in the time of the Ccesars, with high German
about the 12th and 13th centuries, and with English (Anglo-Saxon) in and for some time
after the days of Alfred. But although language, as depicted to the eye, may be fixed
for a time, the spoken tongue, being a living organism, cannot be thus petrified. A.
written literature may modify, and in some degree retard, but cannot altogether arrest
that incessant change and evolution to which all spoken tongues are subject. The
breaking up of the Anglo-Saxon in its transition into modern English brought neces^a-
rily a period of orthographic chaos. Never was the lawlessness greater than during one
of the brightest periods of the literature, namely, the Elizabethan period. Then, and for
n long time after, all perception of the real powers of the letters seems to have been lost,
and nothing but caprice ruled. Not only were words spelled differently by different
persons, but even among the best-educated classes the same person would spell the same
word (even his or her own name) half-a-dozen ways in the same page. Among the
.-classic writers of the Queen Anne period, some degree of uniformity began to establish
itself, and this was afterwards further confirmed and fixed by the publication of John-
son's Dictionary, since which time the alterations have been comparatively trifling.
The modern spelling thus established conformed itself only partially to the changes the
spoken language had undergone. Of the letters that had become silent through the
wearing away and collapse of the spoken words, some were omitted and others retained,
•with little attention to consistency, or to any principle now discernible. Hence, in the
English language as now written and spoken, there is in general so imperfect a corre-
spondence between the sound of a word and the sounds of the several, letters that are
written to represent it, that the spelling of each individual word has, in a manner, to be
learned by itself. By no possible rules can a learner be taught when he sees the groups
of letters n-o-w, p-l-o-u-g-h, e-n-o-u-g-h, to make out the sounds or spoken words that these
groups actually represent; or, conversely, when he hears the words spoken, to find out
what letters they are to be represented by.. This circumstance presents great difficulty
to foreigners in 'the acquisition of English; which, in other respects, is one of the sim-
plest and most easily learned languages in the world. The orthography of English is
only to be acquired by observation and practice. There are no rules in the proper sense
of the word; the only effective assistance that can be given in this matter is to bring
together, under some kind of classification, the words that are most frequently mis-
spelled. See PHONETIC WRITING.
ORTHOP TERA (Gr. straight-winged), an order of mandibulate insects, in many
respects resembling the coleopiera (q.v.), but having the wing-covers softer and generally
leathery and flexible. The wing-covers also often overlap on the back when at rest, or
meet at an angle, like the roof of a house. The wings are broader than the wing-covers,
and fold in a fan-like manner. A few species are wingless. The body is generally
elongated. The antenme are almost always filiform and many- jointed. The eyes are
usually very large, and there are also in most species two or three stemmatic eyes. The
mouth much resembles that of the coleoptera, but the maxillae are terminated by a
horny denticulated piece, and covered by a galea; and the interior of the mouth exhibits a
distinct fleshy piece, winch some regard as a kind of tongue. The orthoptera undergo only
a semi-complete metamorphosis, the larva and pupa much resembling the perfect insect,
except in the want of wings; which, however, begin to be developed in the pupa. The
earwig family differs so much from the other orthoptera as to have been constituted by some
entomologists into a distinct order. See EARWIG. The orthoptera are divided into two sec-
tions, cuisoria and xaltatoriu; the first with legs udapted for running, as the mantis
family, specter insects, walking-sticks, leaf insects, etc. ; the second having the hinder
legs very large and strong, generally adapted for leaping, as grasshoppers, locusts,
crickets, etc.
OR TOLAN, Emberiza Jiortulana, a species of bunting (q.v.), much resembling the
yellow-hammer, and not quite equal to it in size. The adult male has the back reddish-
brown, the wings dusky black and rufous brown; the tail dusky black, some of the
outer tail-feathers with a patch of white on the broad inner web; the chin, throat, and
upper part of the breast yellowish-green ; the other under parts reddish buff-color. The
plumage of the female is of less vivid hues. The ortolan occurs in great flocks in the south
of Europe and north of Africa. Even in the south of Europe it is a summer bird of
passage, but its migrations extend as far north as Lapland, although in Britain it is a
very rare bird, and only of accidental occurrence. It has no song, but merely a monot-
onous chirping note. It frequents bushy places, but often makes its nest on the ground
in corn-fields, particularly where the soil is sandy. No bird is so highly esteemed by
epicures, and vast numbers are used for the table/ It is taken chiefly by nets, with the
aid of decoy-birds, and after being taken is fattened on millet and oats, in rooms dimly
lighted by lamps. Thus treated, it becomes excessively fat, sometimes so as to die of
obesity; and attains a weight of three ounces. Great numbers of ortolans, potted and
pickled, are exported from Cyprus.
Orion. O4
Osborn.
ORTOX, JAMES, 1830-77, b. X. Y., graduated at Williams college, 1855, and then
studied theology at the Amiover seminary. In 18GO he returned from an extended t^ip
through Europe and Palestine, anil was ordained a Congregational minister. He became
professor of natural sciences in Rochester university in 1SC6, and in the next year took
charge of a scientific expedition across South America which found many fossils and
specimens of value in the Amazon valley, and in 1873 made a second expedition to
Lima and lake Titicaea. From 1869 to the time of his deatli prof. Orton was piol'e-sor
of natural histoiy in Yassar college. He published Tke Min> /•',•< (1 nid< a nil .)/
Director i/ (ISiQ): Th<- Procerbialist and Pact (1852); Atuttx and the Amazon (1M70);
Curative Zuuloyy (1875.)
ORTO NA, a town of s. Italy, on the Adriatic, in the province of Chieti, 14 in. e. of
the town of that name, and 8 m. n. of Lanciano. It gives title to a bishop, and
tains a cathedral and other religious edifices. Its port has ceased to exist, and \
are now obliged to anchor about a mile from the town in unsheltered roads, win-re, how-
ever, the water is deep and the bottom good. Wine is extensively grown, and has u.
local reputation as the best in this part of Italy. Pop. about 7,000.
ORTY'GIA. See DELOS, ante.
O'KTYX. See VIRGINIAN QUAIL.
ORU'RO, a department in w. Bolivia, adjoining Peru, between the e. and w. r\-.
of the Andes, watered by the Desaguadero river; 21,600 sq.m; pop. about 110,000. The
surface is undulating, consisting mostly of a great plain called the valley of the Desairua-
dero. The soil is fertne; the principal productions are quinine and potatoes. Vine-
yards flourish in the valleys, producing a good quality of wine. Cattle, sheep, llamas,
alpacas, vicunas, etc., are numerous. There are rich mines of tin and salt; and gold
exists in some parts. Large quantities of silver are found, especially in the mi:-
Popo, Cerro de Oruro, and El Turco. The climate is even, though great storms occur iu
the wet season. The Desaguadero, which rises in lake Titicaea, empties into lake
Aullaga--, which is without outlet.
ORU RO, or, in the complete form of the name, S<in Felipe de A*l'ir><i <l Or
town of Bolivia, the capital of the department of Oruro. It is situated about 9 m.
e. from Desaguadero, and 32 m. n. from the northern extremity of the salt lake of
Desaguadero, 011 an affluent of the river of the same name which falls into that lake. It
is 12,015 feet above the level of the sea, at the bas : of a very high mountain; but on the
other side of the town is a large plain, often covered with saline efflorescences. The
soil of the whole department is saline, and far from being fertile, but its mineral wealth,
is great. Gold, silver, copper, tin, iron, lead, and antimony are among its products.
Oruro was founded in 1590, in consequence of the discovery of silver mines, which
proved more productive than any in Bolivia, except those of Potosi. It soon became a
wealthy and flourishing city with 70,000 inhabitants; but in consequence of the dimin-
ished productiveness of its mines, and of the anarchy prevailing in the country nfter the
revolution, its population declined, and is now only 7,980. It has recently been made-
the seat of the Bolivian government, and the place of meeting of congress.
ORVIET 0, a city in the province of Umbria (Perugia), which was included in the
former Papal States, but now forms part of the kingdom of Italy, stands on the right
bank of the Paglia, 8 m. n.e. of Lake Bolsena, and 60 m n.n.w of Rome. It occupies a
strong position on a steep hill, is well built, and is surrounded with walls. It has been the
seat of a bishop since 509 A. D. The cathedral, a beautiful specimen of the i
Gothic, and one of the most richly-decorated edifices in Italy, is built of black and white
marble, was begun in 1290, and completed about the middle of the 14th century. The facade
is unsurpassed in richness of material, and in thp Beauty of its mosaics, sculptures, and
elaborate ornamentation. The interior is also magnificently decorated with ^culpturcs.
and paintings. The other chief buildings are St. Patrick's Well, and several palaces.
Pop. 7,500, who trade in corn, cattle, and silk, and a delicate white wine, which is
highly esteemed at Rome.
Orvieto, called in the time of the Longobards Urbs Vetus — of which its present name
is a corruption — has been the place of residence and retreat in turbulent time.- of
upwards of 30 popes. The city is evidently of Etruscan origin, but of its early history
nothing is known.
ORYCTEROP'ID^E. See AARD-VARK.
0 RYX. the name given by the ancients to a species of antelope, a native of the n. of
Africa. It is often represented on the monuments of Eg.ypt, and as these representations
are most always in profile, it is generally made to appear as having only one horn, thus
probably contributing to the fable of the unicorn; and indeed, all the older figures of
the unicorn exhibit a considerable resemblance to this kind of antelope. The name
Antilope oryxv?n.s given by Pallas to the Gems-boc (q.v.), an antelope certainly much
resembling the oryx, but found only in South Africa; and it is now generally believed
that the true oryx of the ancients is a species also known as the ALGAZEL (Antilope:
Qazella or Oryx bezoartica), .common in the n. of Africa.
ORY ZA. See RICE.
O Z Orton.
Osborn.
OSA'CA, or OZAKA, a city of Japan, in n. lat. 35° 5', about 20 m. from its sea-port of
Hiogo, is situated on a large river on the s.e. coast of the main island, in the most central
-and populous part of the empire, and surrounded by the great tea districts. Osaca is
one of thf three imperial cities of Japan, and is a great centre of trade; especially since
16(53, when it became possible for foreigners to settle. The town, clean and regularly
built, is intersected by numerous streams, spanned by hundreds of wooden and iron
bridges. Some of the public buildings are imposing structures, such as the municipal
hail and the new mint. The latter is equipped with the finest obtainable apparatus; and
of late much foreign machinery has been introduced into Osaca, to the great advance-
ment of its manufactures. Besides very numerous Buddhist and other temples, there
are in Osaca two Christian churches, a government college, an academy, and 72 public
schools. The town is connected by railway with Hiogo and Kioto (see MIAKO), 27 m.
further inland. Pop. '77, 281,119. The foreign imports are valued at near £100,000
annually; the exports at £200,000.
OSAGE, a co. in e. Kansas, drained by the Osage, and by Salt and Dragoon creeks;
on the Atchmson, Topeka and Santa Fe railroad; 720 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 19,643 — 16.536 of
American birth. The surface is rolling, most of it prairie, and the rest covered with
forests. The soil is fertile and produces good crops of corn, oats, wheat, hay, and
potatoes. Many cattle are raised. Bituminous coal abounds in some parts. Co. seat,
Lyndon.
OSAGE, a co. in e. central Missouri, bounded on the n. by the Missouri river, on
the n.w. by the Osage river; drained by the Gasconade; on the Missouri Pacific railroad;
600 sq.m.; pop. '80, 11,824 — 9,848 of American birth. The surface is diversified and
hilly, and the soil mostly fertile. The principal productions are corn, oats, wheat,
tobacco, and hay. Co. seat, Linn.
OSA&E OEANGE, Madura aurantiaea, a tree of the natural order Mwraem, a native
of North America. It attains a height varying, according to soil and situation, from
.•20 to. 60 feet. It is of the same genus with Fustic (q.v.), and its wood, which is bright
yellow, might probably be used for dyeing. The wood is fine-grained and very elastic,
.and is much used by the North American Indians for making bows. The osage orange
lias been successfully introduced into Britain as a hedge plant. Its fruit is about the
size of a large orange, has a tuberculated surface of a golden color, and is filled inter-
nally with radiating somewhat woody fibers, and with a yellow milky juice, the odor of
which is generally disliked, so that the fruit, although not unwholesome, is seldom eaten.
OSAGE RIVER, rises in Wabaunsee co., Kansas, flows e. and s.e. into Missouri,
£ through Bates, St. Clair, Benton, Camden, and Miller counties, and after a course
of about 500 m., empties into the Missouri river 9 m. s. of Jefferson. That part of it
•which intersects Kansas and w. Missouri is often called the Marais des Cygnes. It is
navigable for the lower 200 m. of its course.
OSAGES, a tribe of Dakota Indians, the most powerful and warlike of the eight
tribes of southern Soiux, who in 1673 were found by Marquette on lands watered by
the Missouri and its tributaries. They -were confederates of the Illinois, but were forced
to abandon their settlement in 1700, 'and settled in Arkansas. They fought with the
French against the Foxes at Detroit in 1712, and the visit of some of their chiefs soon
^afterwards to France augmented their friendship, whereupon they became allies of the
French against the Chickasaws, and against the English in their last battles. About
1800 tlhey were at war with the Sacs and Foxes, but peace was established in 1804. At
this time most of the Groat O^ages were living in the region of the Arkansas, their chief
being Big Track, and the Little Osages had left the Missouri and settled on the Great
Osne river, their total number at tliis time being 6,300. A treaty was made -with the
chief of the Big Osages and the chiefs of the Arkansas, and the Little Osajjes in 1808, in
which they ceded a part of their land to the United States. The Osages afterwards dis-
puted the 'authority of this treaty, and caused great disturbance by constant plundering.
Their time was spent in warring with the neighboring tribes, and, in an .encounter with
the Cherokee* in 1817, Clermont, chief of the Arkansas Osages, was killed, and his town
hid waste. Other treaties ceding lands were made in 1815, 1818, 1822, and 1825. A
mission which had been established among them by the American board was discon-
tinued in 1845, and a Jesuit mission was begun a year later, but the attempts to intro-
duc-p Christianity were futile. They have always been a thieving, plundering tribe,
showing little inclination for agricultural pursuits. They were removed in 1870 to
their reservation, comprising 1,760,000 acres, partly bounded on the s. and w. by the
Arkansas river, and w. of long. 96°. It is mostly a hilly country, with little ^fertile land.
About 2.000 acres art- snid to be under cultivation. A school has been established among
them, but they are not desirous of education. They now number about 4,000.
OSBORX. SHKRARD, 1822-75; b. England; entered the British navy in 1837, r.nd
soon rose to a captaincy. He commanded the Pioneer, which was sent in search of sir
John Franklin, and took part in the Crimean war. He did efficient work in the Chinese
waters, having' been placed in command of a squadron by the emperor of China in 1862,
to suppress piracy. He returned to England in 1864, and was placed in command of
'.the armor-plated Royal Sovereign, in order to test the turrets which had been constructed
Osborne. O£
Osci.
on a new principle by capt. Cole. In 1873 he became rear-admirnl. ITe has written som«
interesting books entitled, Stray Leaves from an Arctic Journal; A Cruize in Japanese
Waters; The Career, Last Voyage, and Fate of Sir John Franklin; The Past and Future
of British Relations in China; and Japanese Fragments.
OSBORNE, a co. in n. Kansas, drained by Wolf and Salt crocks, and the North,
and South forks of the Solomon river; 900 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 12,518—11,487 of American
birth. The surface is undulating and mostly prairie, and the soil is fertile. Limestone
abounds. Co. seat, Osborne.
OSBORNE, or ST. HELEN'S BEDS, are a series of strata of the middle eocene period,
occurring in the isle of Wight. They have been divided into two groups: 1. The St.
Helen's sands, connoting of layers of white, green, and yellow sands, interstratified
•with blue, white, and yellowish clays and marls, with a maximum thickness of 50 feet;
and, 2, the Nettlestoue grits, composed of yellow limestone and marl, and a shelly free-
stone, which is much used for building, having a maximum thickness of 20 feet. The
fossils of the Osborne beds are species of paludina and cypris, and the spirally sculp-
tured spore-cases of chara. The group is of fresh and brackish water origin, and is
very variable in mineral character and thickness.
OSBORNE, Lord SYDNEY GODOLPHIN, b. England, 1808; third son of the first lord
Godolphin. He was educated at Oxford; was for a number of years rector of Stoke
Pogis, and rector of Durwestou 1841-75. lie has published Gleanings in the M\f\*t <>f
Ireland (1850) ; Lady Eva: Her Last D<tys (1851); Scutari and its Hospitals (1855); Hint*
to tlie Charitable, and Hints for tlie Amelioration of the Moral Condition of a Village (185.6);
Letters on the Education of Young Children (1866); and numerous pamphlets on the
means of improving the homes of the laboring classes.
OSBORNE, THOMES O., b. Ohio, 1832; a graduate of Ohio university, Ath* •;-,
Ohio, class of 1854; went to Crawfordsville, Ind., studied law. was admitted to the bar,
and in 1.858 commenced practice in Chicago. In the war of the rebellion he was col. of
the 39th Illinois volunteers, commissioned in Dec., 1861, and was in action at the
battle of Winchester in 1862. In 1863 he participated in the operations in Charleston
harbor, commanded by admiral Dupout, and in May, 1864, went up the James river
with gen. Butler, on the Dutch gap expedition. At the battle of Drury's bluff he
lost his-right arm. He commanded the 1st brigade, 1st division, 24th corps, at the close
of the siege of Petersburg, conducted by gen. Grant, and, on April 2, 1865. captured fort
Gregg by a gallant charge, securing an important outpost of the fortifications raised
'around Petersburg and Richmond, cutting off the advance of the confederates on the
Lynchbuig road, which was the beginning of the capture of Lee's army. In acknowl-
edgment of this service he was promoted to brig. gen., and was brevetted maj.gen.
After the war he returned to the practice of law in Chicago.
OSCANS. See Osci, ante.
OSCAR 1., JOSEPH-FRANCIS, king of Sweden and Norway, was b. at Paris, July 4,
1799, and was the only issue of the marriage of Charles XIV. (q.v.), formerly marshal
Bernadotte, with Desiree Clary, the daughter of a Marseillais merchant, and sister of
inadame Joseph Bonaparte. After the election of his father as crown-prince of Sweden,
Oscar received the title of duke of Sudermania, and was placed under the tutelage of
the poet Atterbom, for the purpose of acquiring the Swedish language. In 1818 he
entered the university of Upsala. where his education was completed. The effects of
the thorough training he received were seen in his remarkable proficiency in science,
literature, and especially the fine arts. For some time he gave himself up almost entirely
to the study of music, and composed various pieces, including an opera, and several
waltzes, marches, etc. ; he is also the author of several songs and hymns, some of which
are still popular. He also published memoirs on education and penal establishments.
What is of more consequence, he became thoroughly imbued with the national senti-
ments, and after his admission to a share in the administration, opposed, though with
becoming filial respect, the pro-Russian policy of his father. This course of conduct
rendered him immensely popular, and on March 8, 1844, his accession to the throne
was hailed with rapture by the great majority of his subjects. His rule was distinguished
for its liberality and. justice; and many liberal measures, such as those for the removal
of Jewish disabilities, freedom of manufactures and commerce, and parliamentary
reform (the last-mentioned being vigorously opposed by the nobility), were laid before
the riksdag by his orders. He introduced these changes with caution and gentleness,
and had the gratification of seeing, in most cases, his prudence crowned with success.
His foreign policy was of an independent and anti-Russian character, and during the
Crimean war he joined (Nov. 21, 1855) the king of Denmark in a declaration of armed
neutrality, which gradually assumed a more hostile attitude to Russia, and would have
inevitably led to war, had not the Paris treaty so rapidly succeeded. His attitude at
this time gained him general favor and respect throughout Europe. On July 19, 1823,
he married Josephine Beauharnais, the granddaughter of the empress Josephine, by
whom he had five children, the eldest of whom, on account of his father's failing health,
was appointed regent, Sept. 25, 1857, and succeeded to the throne as Charles XV. on.
Qij Osborne.
P ' Osci.
the death of Oscar, July 8, 1859. Charles XV. died Sept. 18, 1872, and was succeeded
"by his brother as Oscar II.
OSCAR II., King of Sweden and Norway, b. 1829; married, in 1857, princess Sophia,
daughter of duke Wilhelm of Nassau, by whom he has four sons, of whom the eldest,
Gustaf, duke of Gothland, was b. in 1858. King Oscar held the rank of lieut.gen. in
the army when he ascended the throne in 1872, in succession to his brother, Charles XV.
He was crowned in the cathedral at Droutheim in 1873. He has followed the liberal
policy of his predecessor, enlarged the liberty of the press, and made many reforms. In
1878 he was elected a corresponding member of the Frankfort academy of sciences, on.
account of his Swedish translation of Goethe's Faust.
OSCEO LA (Seminole, As-se-Jw-lar\ a chief of the tribe of Seminole Indians in Florida,
United States, was b. about 1803. He was the son of an English trader, named Powell,
and the daughter of a Seminole chief. In 1835 the wife of Osceola, a chief's daughter,
was claimed and seized as a slave by the owner of her mother. The outraged husband
threatened revenge, and for his threats was imprisoned six days in irons by gen. Thomp-
son. Lying in wait, a few days afterwards he killed the general and four others. This-
was the beginning of the second Seminole war. Laying an ambush soon after, he killed
maj. Dale and a small detachment of soldiers; and, taking to the almost impenetrable
Everglades, with two or three hundred followers, he fought for a year with great
energy and skill the superior numbers sent against him. He was taken prisoner at last
by gen. Jessup, while holding a conference under a flag of truce, an act of inexcusable
treachery, though represented as one of retaliation, and confined in fort Moultrie until
his death in Jan., 1838.
OSCEOLA, a co. in n.w. Iowa, having the state line of Minnesota for its n. boundary;
432 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 2,219 — 1888 of American birth. It is drained by Little Sioux river,
Otter creek, and Rock river, an affluent of the Big Sioux, and is intersected by the
Sioux City and St. Paul railroad. Its surface is generally level, a large proportion fertile
prairie land, at present furnishing excellent pasturage, and containing unbounded agri-
cultural resources undeveloped. Co. seat, Sibley.
OSCEOLA, a co. in central Michigan, intersected by the Flint and Pere Marquette,
and the Grand Rapids and Indiana railroads, forming a junction in the s.w. section;
576 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 10,777 — 7,570 of American birth, 43 colored. It is drained by the
Muskegon and Pine rivers, and other affluents of the -Manistee river. Its surface is
hilly, a large proportion covered with a dense growth of timber, and trade in lumber is
active. Near the water-courses some. sections are swampy, but the soil is generally
fertile and adapted to grain, potatoes, and dairy products. Some attention is paid to
the raising of stock. The manufacture of lumber is the leading industry; other man-
ufactures are carriages and the product of iron-foundries and machine-shops. Co. seat,.
Hersey.
O'SCHERSLEBEN, or GROSS-OSCHERSLEBEN, a t. of Prussian Saxony, on the left bank
of the Bode, a branch of the Saale, 22 m. w.s.w. from Magdeburg. Pop. '75, 7,927.
OSCO'DA, a co. in n. Michigan, intersected centrally by the Au Sable river; 576
sq.m. ; pop. '80, 467 — 357 of American birth, 8 colored. Its surface is elevated table
land, uneven and largely covered with timber. It is visited in the season by large num-
bers of sportsmen, the Au Sable being famous for good fishing, containing the grayling,
a kind of salmon with a very small mouth, found in the streams of England, Sweden,.
Norway, and Lapland, considered delicious food. Its soil is fertile, easily cultivated,
and adapted to the production of grain and potatoes. Lumber is the chief article in
trade. Co. seat, Harmon.
OS'CI, originally Orsci (rendered by Mommsen "laborers," f rom opus, a work), in
Greek always OPIKOI, the name of an Italian people, who at an early period occupied
Campania, and were either closely allied to or the same race as the Ausones. Subse-
quently (about 423 B.C.) Samnites from the hilly districts to the north overran the country,
and amalgamated with the inhabitants whom they had subjugated. It is conjectured
that the conquerors were few in numbers, as (like the Normans in English history) they
adopted, in time, the language of" the conquered, but whether they modified the original
Oscan language, and, if so, to what extent, cannot now be ascertained. As it was these
Samnitic Oscans or Campanians who formed that Samnitic people with whom both the
Greeks of lower Italy and the Romans first came into contact, the names Osci and
Oscan languar/e were subsequently applied to all the other races and dialects whose origin
was nearly or wholly the same. The Oscan language was not substantially different
from the Latin, but only a ruder and more primitive form of the same central Italic
tongue. The territory where it was spoken comprised the countries of the Samnites,
Frentani, northern Apulians, Hirpini, Campani, Lucani, Bruttii, and Mamertini, whose
dialects only slightly differed from each other; besides the entire Samnitic races, whence
the language is sometimes called Samnitic or Safin ic. The races situated n. of the
Sllarus were purely Samnitic; tho«e s. of it, and even of the region round the gulf of
Naples, were Grreco-Samnitic. The use of the national Samnitic alphabet was confined
to the former. By the victories of the Romans over the Samnites, and the conferring of
the civitas on all the Italians (88 B.C.), an end was put to the official use of the Oscan
Osculation. QO
iXsiiuuler.
tongue; nevertheless, in the time of Yarro (1st c. B.C.) it was still used by the people,
iind as late us the destruction of Ilerculaneum and Pompeii was spoken by a few indi-
viduals. During its most flourishing period it \vas something more than a country
patois; it is even possible that the Osc.-ii'.s had a literature and art of their own, whic'h
may not have been without influence on the early Calahrian poets Ennius and P.'icuvius,
aufi tlie Campanian Lncilius. At any rate, we certainly know of a poetie creation
peculiar to the Campaniaus, a kind of unwritten, regular, ])robal)!y improvised faree,
with fixed parts and changing situations, which was transplanted to Koine about :>04
s.c., but was imitated there not in Oscan but in Latin. Sec ATIH.I.AN.K. Besides a
derable number of coins with Oscan legends, there are still extant a number of
inscriptions in the Oscan tongue, among which the most important for linguistic pur-
poses are: 1st, the Tabula Banliita, a bronze tablet found in the neighborhood of Bantia
(on the borders of Lucania and Apulia), referring to the municipal affairs of that town;
.2d, the Cippus Abellanus, or stone of Abclla (in Campania); and, :5d. a bronze tal)let found
near Agnone, in northern Samuium. Sec Mommseu's Oskixche S'i.i<li<-it (Berlin, 1845),
And Die U ntentalischen Dial-ekte (Leip. 1850); also Friedliinder's l)i<- U*l V.W« -n Milnzen
(Leip. 1850); Kirchhoff's Das Stadtrecht von Bantia (Berl n, 1353); and Donaldson's
yarronianus (pp. 104-138).
GSCTJLA'TION, and OS'CULATING CIRCLE (Lat. osculari, to kiss). One curve is said to
osculate another when several points are common to it with the other, and the degree of
osculation is said to be high or low according as the number of points in contact are
many or few. The number of possible points of contact is determined by the number of
constants contained in the equation to the tangent curve (supposing the number of con-
stants in the equation to the curve which is touched to be greater). The same is true of
si straight line and a curve. The equation to a straight line being of the form a.r-\-b,
contains two constants, a and b, hence a straight line can coincide with a curve in tiro
contiguous poifits, and the contact is said to be of the first order. This straight line is
the tangent at the point of contact. When a straight line, not a tangent, meets a curve,
there is no "contact" but '/section," as in that case only one point is common to the
straight line and the curve. The equation to a circle contains three constants, and
therefore a circle can have three consecutive points in common with a curve, and the
contact is then of the second order. This circle is known as the "circle of curvature,"
or the osculating circle, and has for its radius the radius of curvature of that portion
of the curve with which the circle is in contact. No other circle can have so high a
degree of contact with a curve at any point as the osculating circle at that point.
•O" SEL. See OESEL, ante.
OSGOOD, DAVID, D.D., 1747-1822; b. Mass. He worked until the age of 19 on his
father's farm; graduated at Harvard in 1771; studied theology with the rev. Mr.
Emerson of Hollis, and afterwards at Cambridge; was ordained in 1774; was settled as
Congregational pastor at Medford for 50 years, and became a distinguished preacher. lie
•was a zealous federalist, and in 1794 preached a sermon upon Genet's appeal to the people
against the government, which attracted much attention, and passed through several
editions. A volume of his Sermons was published in 1824.
OSGOOD, FRANCES SARGENT, 1811-50; b. Mass., and when but a girl contributed
several poems to the Juvenile Miscellany of Lydia Maria Child. In 1835 she married
Samuel Osgood, a portrait painter, and visited England, where she published a collection
of poems called A Wreath of Wild Flowers from New England (1839); two tragedies,
Elfrida and The Happy Release; or, the Triumphs of Love, and a number of contributions
to periodicals. In 1840 she returned to New York and edited several illustrated gift-
books, such as The Floral Offering. A Memorial, with an account of her life, by Dr. R
"W. Griswold, was printed in 1851; and a complete illustrated edition of her poems was
published in 1850.
OSGOOD, HELEN LOUISE (GiLSON), 1835-68; b. Mass. ; one of the original organizers
of the soldiers' aid societies in the war of the rebellion; educated carefully under the
supervision of F. B. Fay of Chelsea, her guardian after the loss of her parents in early
•childhood. In connection with her work for the soldiers, in field and hospital, she pro-
vided employment for their wives and daughters who were dependent on their own
-exertions. She went as nurse to the army of the Potomac in 1861 and served through
the war, becoming a favorite with the sick and disabled, winning their esteem and grati-
tude by her kind attentions, the sweetness of her manner, and her appreciation of their
needs. She established and conducted a hospital for colored soldiers, capable of accom-
modating 1000 cots. During the war she visited and comforted thousands of the sick,
•wounded, and dying. Her ceaseless labors undermined her health, and she died at her
home in Newton Center, Mass.
OSGOOD, SAMUSL, 1748-1813; b. Mass. ; graduated at Harvard college in 1770;
studied theology, but his health failing, became a merchant, and was active in public
affairs. In 1774 he was a delegate to the Essex co. convention; a member of the pro-
vincial congress, and on many important committees. In 1775 he was capt. at Lexing-
ton and Cambridge; aid to gen. Ward in 1776; member of the board of war, and in.
on Osculation.
Osiander.
1776 left the army with the rank of col. and assistant commissary. He was a member
•of the Massachusetts legislature; delegate to the old congress in 1780-84; first commis-
sioner of the U. S. treasury, 1785-89; postmaster-general, 1789-91. Afterward he
was a member of the New York legislature and speaker of the house; supervisor of
New York in 1801-03; and from 1803 naval officer of the port of New York until his
•death. He published several volumes on religious topics, and a work on chronology.
He had an extensive acquaintance with science and literature.
OSGOOD, SAMUEL, D.D., 1784-1863; b. Maine; graduated at Dartmouth college in
1805; was pastor of the first church (Congregational), Springfield, Mass., 1809-63. As
a preacher he was earnest and direct; he had great force of character, and his abilities
gained extensive recognition.
OSGOOD, SAMUEL, D.D., LL.D., 1812-80; b. Mass.; graduated at Harvard college in
1832, and at the Cambridge divinity school in 1835. In 1836-37 he edited the Western
Messenger at Louisville, Ky. In 1837 he became pastor of the Unitarian church at
Nashua, N. H., in 1841 of the Westminster church in Providence, R. I., and in 1849 of
the church of the Messiah in New York. In 1850-54 he was editor of the Christian
Inquirer in New York. In 1869, resigning his pastoral charge, he went to Europe for
health and rest. On his return in 1870 he entered the Protestant Episcopal church, but
took no pastoral charge. He received the degree of D.D. from Harvard college in 1857,
and of LL.D. in 1872 from Hobart college. For several years he was domestic corre-
sponding secretary of the New York historical society. He was the author of "Studies in
Christian Biograp'hy; Tke Hearthstone; God with Men; Mile-Stones in our Life-Journey;
/Student Life; American Leaves^ translations from Olshausen's The History of the Pas-
sion, and DeWette's Human Life. His printed sermons, speeches, and orations, are
numerous. He contributed largely to the Christian Examiner, and wrote also for the
Jforth American Review, Bibliotheca Sacra, and various monthly magazines.
OSGOOD, THADDEUS, 1775-1852; b. Mass. ; graduated at Dartmouth in 1803; studied
theology with Drs. Lothrop and Emmons; was ordained in 1806; was stated preacher
to the Congregational church in Southbury, Conn. He organized the first church of
Buffalo, now Presbyterian, and many others. He visited England several times, and
collected a large amount for educational purposes. He founded a society in Canada to
supply Bibles for seamen and emigrants, and was engaged for many years in organizing
Sunday schools.
OSHI'MA, a Japanese word meaning "big island," used in general to denote the
larger of two_ neighboring islands, the smaller being called Koshima; more especially
applied to Vries or Barneveld's island, situated near the entrance to the gulf of Yedo.
This Oshima is 8 m. long and 5 m. wide, has a good harbor, and is remarkable for an
: active volcano about 2,500 ft. high, the flames from which can be seen at a great
• distance by sailors in the night. There are a number of villages upon the -island.
OSH KOSH, a t. in Wisconsin, on both sides of the Fox river, at its entrance to lak«
Winnebago, 90 m. n.n.e. of Madison. It has a large lumber trade, saw-mills, planing-
mills, steamboats, etc. Pop. '70, 12,663.
OSH'KOSH (ante), co. seat of Winnebago co., on the Chicago and Northwestern, the
•Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul, and the Oshkosh and Mississippi railroads; pop. '80,
15,749. It is situated on both sides of the river, spanned by two bridges besides the
railroad bridges, and occupies an area of about 8 sq. miles. The streets are handsomely
laid out, and lined with shade trees. There are many fine business and private houses.
The principal public buildings are the court-house, northern state lunatic asylum, state
normal school, and high school. It contains about 20 churches, a number of private
schools, an opera house, several public halls and good hotels. There are six newspapers,
of which one is a daily, and one published in German. The city has a great trade
and valuable manufacturing industries. Large amounts of lumber are exported. There
are saw, planing, and grist mills, machine and boiler shops, ship yards, breweries, and
manufactories of furniture, agricultural tools, sashes and doors, matches, shingles, etc.
The city is lighted with gas. The government is vested in a' mayor and a board of 18
aldermen, 3 from each ward. A French Canadian trading post was set up here in 1820.
The first permanent settlement was begun in 1836, and the act of incorporation was
passed in 1853. A great fire in 1875 destroyed some 200 residences and 100 stores.
OSIANDER, ANDREAS, one of the most learned and zealous of the German reformers,
was born m 1498, at Gimzenhausen, near Nuremberg. His father was a blacksmith, called
Bosemann, out of which name his son, after the fashion of his time, manufactured the
classic-looking Osiander. Osiander was educated at Ingolstadt and Wittenberg, and
after completing his course of study, became a preacher at Nuremberg, where he was
conspicuously active in introducing the reformation (1522). He ardently advocated the
views of Luther in his controversy with the Swiss reformer Zwingli, on the question of
the Lord's-supper. He took part in the conference held at Marburg (1529), and was
present at the diet of Augsburg (1530). In 1548 he was deprived of his office as preacher
at Nuremberg, because he would not agree to the Augsburg interim; but was immediately
afterwards invited by Albrecht, duke of Prussia, to become the head of the theological
faculty in the newly established university of Konigsberg. He was hardly settled here
Osier. QA
Osiris.
when lie became entangled in a theological strife that imbittered his naturally imperious.
ami arrogant temper. In a treatise, Do Lege et Emnydio ("On the Law and the Gospel"),
Osiander asserted that the righteousness by which sinners are justified, is not to be con-
ceived as a mere justificatory or imputative act on the part of God, but as something •
inward and subjective, as the impartatiou of a real righteousne-s. springing in a inysii -al
way from the union of Christ with man. The most notable of his opponents was Martin
Chemnitz (q.v.). A seemingly amicable arrangement between the disputants was brought
about by duke Albrecht in 1551 ; but the strife was soon recommenced, by Osiauder
publishing some new writings in which he attacked Melanchthon; nor did his death in •
the following year put a stop to the war of words. It was continued by his followers,
called Osiandrixts, who were finally extinguished by the Corpu* L)<>c1rintr Prut*
(in 1567), which caused their banishment from all parts of Prussia. See" Wilken, Andr.
Osiander's Leben, Lehre und Schriften (Strals. 1844).
0 SIER (Fr. probably of Celtic origin), the popular name of those species of willow
(q.v.), which are chiefly used for basket-making and other wicker-work. They are of
low bushy growth, few of them ever becoming trees, their branches long and slender;
and they are the more valuable in proportion to the length, slenderness, suppl< uc<s, ana
toughness of their branches. Their leaves are iong and narrow, lanceolate, or nearly so,
obscurely notched on the margin, almost always smooth on the upper side, but generally
white and downy beneath. The COMMON OSIER (salix viminalis), a common native of
wet alluvial grounds in Britain and many parts of Europe, is one of those which sonic-
times become trees, although when cultivated for basket-making, it is not permitted to
do so. It has two distinct stamens in the flowers of the male catkins; and the stigmas of
the female catkins are long and slender. It is often planted to prevent the banks of rivers
from being washed away. Its branches are used for making hoops and coarse baskets.
There are several varieties in cultivation, not easily distinguished except by a very prac-
ticed eye, but much more useful than the original or wild kind, which is apt to 'break,
and therefore of little value. More suitable for the finer kinds of basket-making are
salti Forbyana, sometimes called the FINE BASKET OSIER, and S. rubra, known near
London as the GUEEX-LE.WED OSIER or ORNARD; 8. triandra, a triaudrous species,
known to English osier-cultivators and basket makers as the SPANIARD ROD ; whilst S.
mteUina,, a pentandrous species, sometimes becoming a tree, is the GOLDEN OSIER or
golden willow, remarkable for the bright-yellow color of its branches, as well as for
their pliancy and toughness. There are other species, not natives of Britain, which are
also valuable ; but the osiers chiefly cultivated belong to those which have been named,
or are very nearly allied to them.
Osiers are very extensively cultivated in Holland, Belgium, and France, on alluvial
soils, especially near the mouths of rivers; and from these countries great quantities of
" rods" are imported into Britain. They are cultivated also .to a considerable extent in
some parts of England, particularly on the banks of the Thames and the Severn, and in-
the level districts of Cambridgeshire, Huntingdonshire, etc. They are nowhere exten-
sively cultivated in Scotland. Islets in the Thames and other rivers, entirely planted
with osiers, are called Osier holts. Osiers grow particularly well on grounds flooded by
the tide. Much depends on the closeness of planting of osier grounds; as when space is
too abundant, the shoots of many of the kinds do not grow up so long, slender, and
unbranched as is desirable. The French cultivators, when they wish osiers for the finest
kinds of basket-work, cut branches into little bits with a bud or eye in each, and plant
these pretty close together, so as to obtain weak but fine shoots; but generally cutting
of 15 or 16 in. in length are used, and of tolerably thick branches; and these are placed
in rows, from 18 in. to 2 ft. apart, and at distances of 15 to 18 in. in the row. Osier
plantations in light soils continue productive for 15 or 20 years, and much longer in rich
alluvial soils. Osiers succeed best in rich soils, but not in clays. No cultivation ia
required after planting; but the shoots are cut once a year, at any time between the fall
of the leaf and the rising of the sap in spring. After cutting, they are sorted; and those
intended for brown baskets are carefully dried and stacked, care "being taken that they
do not heat, to which they are liable, like hay, and by which they would be rotted and
rendered worthless. The stacks must be carefully protected from rain. The osiers
intended for white baskets cannot at once be peeled; but after being sorted, they arc
placed upright in wide shallow trenches, in which there is water to the depth of about
4 in. or in rivulets, being kept secure in their upright position by posts and rails; and
thus they remain till they begin to bud and blossom in spring, which they do as if they
remained on the parent plant, sending forth small roots at the same time into the wai*-r.
They are then, in ordinary seasons, easily peeled by drawing them through an instru-
ment called a break, but in cold springs it is sometimes necessary to lay them for a while
tinder a quantity of litter. After being peeled, they are stacked, preparatory to sale.
It is impossible to form an estimate of the quantity produced in Great Britain, but our
imports 'amount annually to about 200,000 bundles; nearly one-half are from Holland,
and the remainder from the Hanse towns, Belgium, and France.
OSI'MO (the ancient Auximum), a t. in the province of Ancona, Italy: 8 m. from
Ancona on the road to Loretto; pop. about 7,000. It lias a cathedral, an episcopal
palace, a museum containing many statues and ancient inscriptions found near by, and
Q 1 Osier.
Osiris^
several churches containing noteworthy paintings. Auximum was made a Roman,
colony in B.C. 157, and in the wars of Pompey and Caesar was occupied by both parties
at different times.
OSI'EIS, according to others, Asiris, or Hysiris ("Many-eyed "), a celebrated Egyptian
deity, whose worship was universal throughout Egypt. This name appears in the hiero-
glyphic texts as early as the 4th dynasty, and is expressed by a throne and eye; at a
later period, that of the 19th, a palanquin is substituted for a throne; and under the
Romans, the pupil of the eye for the eye itself. Osiris does not indeed appear to ht,ve
been universally honored till the time of the llth and 12th dynasties, or about 1800 B.C.,
when Abydos, which was reputed to be his burial-place, rose into importance. In the
monuments of this age he is called great god, eternal ruler, dwelling in the west, and
lord of Abut or Abydos. Even at the most remote period, individuals after death were
supposed to become an Osiris; and all the prayers and ceremonies performed or addressed
to them were in this character, referring to their future life and resurrection. At the
time of the 18th dynasty, this title of Osiris was prefixed to their names, and continued
to be so till the time of the Romans and fall of paganism.
In the Ritual, and other inscriptions, Osiris is said to be the son of Seb or Saturn,
and born of Nu or Rhea; to be the father of Horus by Isis, of Anubis, and of the four
genii of the dead. Many mystic notions were connected with Osiris; he was sometimes
thought to be the son of Ra, the sun, or of Atum, the setting sun, and the Bennu or
Phenix; also to be uncreate, or self-engendered, and he is identified in some instances
with the Sun or the creator, and the Pluto or judge of Hades. Osiris was born on the
first of the Epagomense, or five additional days of the year. When born, Chronos or
Saturn is said to have given him in charge to Pamyles; having become king of Egypt,
he is stated to have civilized the Egyptians, and especially to have taught them agricul-
ture, the culture of the vine, and the art of making beer; he afterwards traveled over the
earth, and conquered the people everywhere by his persuasion. During his absence, his
kingdom was confided to Isis, who guarded it strictly, and Set or Typhon, the brother of
Osiris (who was born on the third of the Epagomenae), was unable to revolt against him.
Typhon had, however, persuaded 72 other persons, and Aso, the queen of Ethiopia, to
join him in a conspiracy ; and having taken the measure of Osiris, he had a chest made
of the same dimensions, richly ornamented and carved, and produced it at a banquet,
where he promised to give it to whomsoever it should fit; and when all had lain down
and tried it, and it suited none, Osiris at last laid himself down in it, and was imme-
diately covered over by the conspirators, who placed the lid upon it, and fastened it with
nails and molten lead. The chest was then hurled into the Nile, and floated down the
Tanaitic mouth into the sea. This happened on the 17th of the month Athyr, in the
•28th year of the reign or age of Osiris. Khem or Pan, and his attendant deities, dis-
covered the loss of the'god; Isis immediately cut off a lock of hair and went into
mourning, and proceeded in search of Anubis, the child of her sister Nephthys by Osiris,
and having found him, brought him up. The chest having floated to Byblos, had
lodged in a tamarisk, and became inclosed in the tree, which was cut down by the king,
and the trunk, containing the chest and the body of the god, converted into a pillar to
support the roof of the palace. The goddess proceeded to Byblos, and ingratiated her-
self with the queen's women by plaiting their hair and imparting to it an ambrosial
smell, so that the monarch, whose name was Melcarthus, and his wife, Saosis or Nenia-
noun, invited her to court to take care of the royal child. She endeavored to confer
immortality upon him by placing him on a fire, and changing herself into a swallow,
flew round the pillar and bemoaned her fate. The queen became alarmed at the danger
of her child; Isis revealed herself and asked for the pillar of tamarisk wood, which was
given her. She then cut it open, and took out the chest, making great lamentations, and
subsequently sailed for Egypt, with the eldest of the king's sons. The goddess, intend-
ing to visit Horus her son at Buto, deposited the chest in an unfrequented spot; but
Typhon discovered it by the light of the moon, tore it into 14 pieces, and distributed each
to a nome or district. Isis recovered all by passing the marshes in a boat of papyrus; all
except the phallus, which had been eaten by the lepidotus, the phagrus, and oxyrhyn-
chus fish. Subsequently, a battle took place between Horus and Typhon or Set, whick
lasted three days, and ended by Typhon having fetters placed upon him. Isis, however,
liberated Typhon, which so enraged Horus that he tore off her diadem, but Teti or Thoth
placed on her the head of a cow instead. Typhon finally accused Horus of illegitimacy;
but the question was decided between them by Teti or Thoth and the gods. From
Osiris, after his death, and Isis sprung Harpocrates. See HARPOCRATES. Osiris seems
to have been finally revived, and to have become the judge of the Karneter or Hades,
presiding at the final judgment of souls in the Hall of the two Truths, with the 42 demons
who presided over the capital sins, and awarding to the soul its final destiny. Thoth or
Hermes recorded the judgment, and justified the deceased against his accusers, as he had
formerly done for Osiris.
Considerable diversity of opinion existed amongst the ancients themselves as to the
meaning of the myth of Osiris. He represented, according to Plutarch, the inundation:,
of the Nile; Isis, the irrigated land; Horus, the vapors; Buto, the marshes; Nepl tiiys,
the edge of the desert; Anubis, the barren soil; Typhon, was the sea; the conspii ators,
•Oskaloosa. ti.,
Osiiabruck. "A
the drought; the chest, the river's banks. The Tanaitic branch was the one which over-
flowed un profitably; the 28 years, the number of cubits which the Nile rose at Elephan-
tine; Harpocrates, we first shootings of the Cdrn. Such are the naturalistic interpret;1-
tions of Plutarch; but there appears in it the dualislic principle of good and e\il,
represented by Osiris and Set or Typhon, or again paralleled by the contest of Ra or the
sun, and Apophis or darkness. The difficulty of interpreiation increa.sed from the form
of Osiris having become blended or identified with that of other deities, especially Ptah-
Socharis. the pigmy of Mempliis, and the bull Hapis or Apis, the avatar of Ptah. Osiris
was the head of a tetrad of deities, whose local worship was at Abydos, but who were
the last repetition of the gods of the other nomes of Egypt, and who had assumed an
heroic or mortal type. In form, Osiris is always represented swathed or mummied in
allusion to his embalmment; a net-work, suggestive of the net by which his remains were
fished out of the Nile, covers this dress; on his head he wears the cap atf, having at each
•side the feather of truth, of which he was the lord. This is placed on the horn.- of a
goat, His hands hold the crook and whip, to indicate his governing and directing
power; and his feet are based on the cubit of truth; a panther's skin on a pole is often,
placed before him, and festoons of grapes hang over his shrine, connecting him with
Dionysos. As "the good being," or Onnophris the meek-hearted, the celestial or king
of heaven, he wears the white or upper crown Another and rarer type of him repre-
sents him as the Tat, or emblem of stability, wearing the crown of the two Truths upon
his head. His worship, at a later time, was extended over Asia Minor, Greece, and
Rome, and at an early age had penetrated into Phenicia, traces of it being found on the
<coins of Malta and other places. He became introduced along with the Isiac worship
into Rome, and had votaries under the Roman empire. But the attacks of the philoso-
phers, and the rise of Christianity, overthrew these exotic deities, who were never popu-
lar with the more cultivated portion of the Roman world.
Herodotus, ii. 40-42; Plutarch, De Inide; Tibullus, i. 7; Diodorus, i. 25; Prichard,
Mythology, p. 208; Wilkinson, Man. and Gust., iv. 314; Bunscu, Eyyi>t's P/itce, i. 414.
OSKALOO'SA, a city, county seat of Mahaska co., in s.c. Iowa, at the junction of the
•Central railroad of Iowa, the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific, and the Keokuk and
Des Moines railroads; pop. '80, 4,600. It is pleasantly situated in the divide between
the Des Moines and South Skunk rivers, 140 ft. above the level of the river. Il is 62 m.
e. of Des Moines city, 24 m. n.w. of Ottumvva, and 24 m. n.e. of Albia. It is the seat
of Oskaloosa college (Christian), having an extensive edifice of brick, and of' Penn col-
lege, organized 1873, under the management of the society of Friends. The city is
lighted by gas, is well drained, has 4 banks (1 national), and 2 weekly newspapers; a No
2 monthly magazines. It is the place for the yearly meetings of the society of Friends
of the state of Iowa. In the vicinity are inexhaustible deposits of coal and iron, exten-
sively mined; other mineral products are fire-clay and lirrfestone. It has 3 churches.
excellent public schools, an artesian well 900 ft. deep, a grain elevator, 4 hotels, 2
woolen factories, a well-organized fire department, 3 foundries with machine shops, ami
a mattress factory. Other manufactures are flour and lumber, and it is the center of an
active trade, being surrounded by a fertile agricultural district.
OSMAN. See OTHMAN, ante.
OSMAZOME. a name given by Thenard to the spirit-extract of flesh, on which, as he
.supposed, its agreeable taste, when cooked, depended. The term is now abandoned by
chemists.
OSMIUM (symb. Os; old equiv. 100; new eq. 200; spec. grav. 10) is one of the ncble
metals which occurs in association with platinum in the form of an alloy with iridium.
It may be obtained in the metallic condition by several processes which yield it cither in
thin, dark -gray glistening scales, or as a dense iron-black mass. It is the least fusible of
all the metals; the oxyhydrogen jet volatilizing but not fusing it.
Five oxides of osmium are known — viz., the protoxide (OsO), which is of a dark-green
color, and forms green salts when dissolved in acids; the setsguumde (OsyOt), which has
not been isolated; the binoxide (OsO2), which is black; the teronde (OsO3), which pos-
sesses the character of a weak acid, but has not been isolated; and osmic acid (Os()4),
which occurs in colorless, glistening, acicular crystals, freeljT soluble in water, and very
volatile. At about 220°, this compound gives off an extremely irritating and irn-spirable
vapor; and hence the name of the metal (from the Greek-word onmi>, odor). It produces
a permanent black stain upon the skin, and gives a blue precipitate with tincture of
galls. Osmium also forms four chlorides, which correspond in composition to the first
four oxides This metal was discovered by Tennant in 1803.
OSMOSE ; DIALYSIS. The earlier discoveries of Dut rochet and Graham have been
"briefly described in the article on Diffusion (q.v.). The subject has, however, been
much extended recently, principally by the investigations of Graham; and as the whole
phenomena are exceedingly interesting and important, since secretion, absorption, and
various other organic processes are to a great extent dependent on them, some further
•detail, especially of these later facts, may here be given.
When two different liquids are separated by a bladder or other membrane, or a piece
of calico coated with coagulated albumen, there is always a more or less rapid transfer-
Q •> Oskaloostu
Osnal>ruck»
ence of the two liquids in opposite directions through the diaphragm. In certain cases,
the explanation given in the article referred to is complete, but in others it appears to
be insufficient. Graham has made an extensive series of experiments upon osmose,
where distilled water was on one side of the diaphragm, and various liquids and solu-
tions on the other, and has arrived at many general results, of which the following are:
the more important. The osmose is considered as positive when more of the water passes
through the diaphragm than of the other liquid. Such substances as gum, gelatine, etc.,
produce scarcely any effect. Solutions of neutral salts, such as common salt, Epsom
salts, etc., follow the ordinary law of diffusion, as if no diaphragm had been interposed.
Acid salts in solution, and dilute acids, pass rapidly into the water — or the osmose is
negative; while alkaline solutions give, in general, a strong positive effect.
In all the cases in which an osmotic action occurs which cannot be explained by
capillary forces, there is chemical action on the diaphragm; and conversely, such osmose
cannot be produced if the material of the diaphragm be not acted on by the liquids in.
contact with it.
But the most remarkable results of Graham's later investigations are those relating to
dialysis — i.e., to the separation of the constituents of mixtures, and even the decomposi-
tion of chemical compounds, by osmose. The results of his earlier investigations, above-
given, show a remarkable difference between two classes of bodies; gum, gelatine, etc.,
which form viscous solutions, on the one hand; and salts, acids, and alkalies, on the
other. The first class he has called colloids; the second, crystalloids. The former are
extremely sluggish, the latter comparatively rapid in their action. Thus, of common
salt and albumen, under precisely similar circumstances, there pass through the dia-
phragm in a given time quantities which are as 25 to 1 by weight. Hence, if a solution
containing bota classes of substances be opposed to pure water, the crystalloids will pas*
rapidly through the diaphragm, and the colloids slowly. This process promises to be
of very great value in medical jurisprudence, as, without introducing any new substance
(except the diaphragm and distilled water), we have the means of separating from the
generally colloidal contents of animal viscera such poisonous crystalloids as white
arsenic, vegetable alkalo'ds, etc., which by the old methods was in general attended
with great difficulty, and often uncertainty. These methods are still in their infancy,
but enough is already known to show how valuable they must soon become to the chem-
ist and- the toxicologist. One economical application has been proposed, and shown to-
be practicable. When a bladder is filled with the brine of salt beef, and suspended in
fresh water, the salt after a time nearly all disappears, and there remains in the bladder
a rich extract of meat fit for making soup.
For a brief notice of the speculations which Graham's researches have led him to
form as to the nature of matter, we refer to the article on that subject.
OSMTTN'DA, a genus of ferns, distinguished by spore-cases in branched, stalked
masses. The OSMUND-ROYAL, ROYAL, or FLOWERING FERN (0. regalis), is the noblest
and most striking of British ferns. It is very frequent in the districts of Scotland and
Ireland most remarkable for the moisture of their climate, growing in boggy places and
the wet margins of woods. It has bipinnate fronds, and panicled spore-cases upon
altered fronds, which appe'.r as stalks distinct from the fronds, and assimilate the gen-
eral appearance to that of a phanerogamous plant. It sometimes rises to 11 ft. in
height. It is found in many parts of Europe, and in North America. It possesses tonic
and styptic properties, and its root-stocks were formerly employed in scrofula. Th&
root-stocks abound in a mucilaginous substance, which, being extracted by boiling them
in water, is used in the n. of Europe instead of starch.
OSNABRTJCK. or OSNABURG, a territory occupying the western portion of the Prus-
sian province of Hanover, and embracing the principality of Osnabrilck, the countships-
of Lingen and of Bentheim, and the duchy of Arensberg-Meppen and the lordship of
Papcnburg. Area, 2,408 sq.m.; pop. '75, about 280,000.
OSNABRTTCK, the chief t. of the territory, lies in the midst of the extended and fruit-
ful valley of the Hase, 80 m. w.s.w. of Hanover by railway. It still ranks as one of
the principal commercial cities of Hanover, although it cannot boast of the pre-eminence
which it enjoyed before the establishment of the Zollverein, Pop. '75, 29,850. Osna-
brilck has thriving manufactories of cigars and tobacco, paper-hangings, and cotton and
woolen goods, and extensive works for the preparation of mineral dyes and cement,
besides iron, machinery, and carriage manufactories. According to the opinion of
antiquarians. Osnabrilck stands on the site of the ancient Wittekindsburg, which was
raised to a bishopric in 783 by Charlemagne, some relics of whom, together with the
pretended bones of the martyr< C'rispinus and Crispininnus, are preserved in the cathe-
dral— a fine specimen of the Byzantine stvle of architecture of the 12th century. The
church of St. Mary, a noble Gothic build ng, was erected by the burghers of Osnabrilck
in the 14th c. during their contentions with their haughty ecclesiastical rulers, and con-
tains the srrave of Moser, in whose honor a statue was placed in the square of the cathe-
dral in 1836. The signing of the peace of Westphalia in 1648, in an apartment of th&
town-hall, is commemorated by the preservation of the portraits of all the ambassadors
who took part in the treaty. It was decreed in this treaty that the ancient bishopric of
Osnabrilck should thenceforth be occupied alternately by a Roman Catholic prelate and
•Osorio. Ql
Ossification.
$. Protestant secular prince of the house of Branswick-Luneburg; and after having been
last held by Frederick, duke of York, the district of Osuabriick was ceded to Hanover
in 1803, and the chapter finally dissolved.
OSORIO, HIKUONYMO, 1506-80; b. Lisbon; studied languages, philosophy, and the-
ology, at Salamanca, Paris, and Bologna respectively. On his return to Portugal he was
appointed to various offices by the royal patronage, and liually became bishop of S;
He published, besides a number of biblical commentaries, treatises De Nobilitate ('/
-de Nobilitate Christiana; De Justitia Calesti; De Kegis In»tit(ilum<>, etc. His most noted
works are DeRebus Emmanueliy Jtegis Lusitanve, Virtuteet Auspicio Gesti* J.ibri XII.. and
liis treatise De Gloria, written with so much elegance that D'Alembert asserted it was a
work of Cicero of which Osorio claimed the credit. Many of his works have been trans-
lated into English, French, and Portuguese.
OSPHROMENUS, a genus of fishes, natives of southern and eastern Asia, of which
the celebrated gourami, so highly prized for food, is the chief representative. They have
recently been erected into a family, but their genera are not yet made out. See ANABAS-
ante.
OSPEEY, Pandio-n, a genus of falconidce, of which only one species is known (P.
haluietus), also called the FISHING HAWK or FISHING EAGLE, and sometimes the BALD
BUZZARD. It is singular among the falconidas in preying i.rdn^ii; J// on fii-h ; and to this its
•whole structure and habits are adapted. Its whdr length is about 22 in. ; it is of a dark-
brown color, variegated with black, gray; and white. The under parts are white, except
a light-brown band across the chest. The bill is short, strong, rounded, and broad. The
tail is rather long, the wings are very long, extending beyond the tail; the under surface
of the toes remarkably rough, covered with small pointed scales, suited for the securing
of slippery prey; the claws not grooved beneath, as in most of tbefakonida. The feathers
are destitute of the supplementary plume, which is considerably developed in ino>t of
the faleonidce. The intestine differs from that of the other falcontda in being very slender
and of great length.
The osprey is chiefly to be seen near the sea, lakes, and large rivers. No bird is
more widely diffused; it is found in all quarters of the world; its geographical range
including Europe, Asia, Africa, North and South America, and Australia, and both very
warm and very cold climates. It is everywhere a bird of passage, retiring from high
northern latitudes on the appearance of frost. It occurs on many parts of the British
coasts, and is sometimes found in inland districts, but is nowhere abundant in Britain.
In some places in Scotland it still breeds year after year, on the highest summit of a
ruined building, or the top of an old tree. It is very plentiful in some parts of North
America; and its return in the beginning of spring is hailed with joy by fishermen, as
indicative of the appearance of fish. The nest is a huge structure of rotten sticks, in
the outer interstices of which smaller birds sometimes make their nests; for the ospn-y
never preys on birds, and is not dreaded by them. It is, indeed, of a pacific and tim-
orous disposition, and readily abandons its prey to the white-headed eagle (or erne,
«[.v.). In the days of falconry, the osprey, being very docile, was sometimes trained
and used for catching fish. ,
OSSA, the ancient name of a mountain on the e. side of Thessaly, near Pelion, and
separated from Olympus by the vale of Tempe. It is now called Kissavo. The con-
ical summit is covered with snow during the greater part of the year. The ancients
placed the seat of the centaurs and giants in the neighborhood of Pelion and O^-i.
OSSEIN. This term is applied by chemists to the substance in the tissue of the bones
which yields gluten. It is obtained by the 'prolonged action of dilute hydrochloric acid
on bone, which dissolves all the earthy matter. The material thus procured retains the
form of the bone without its hardness, and must be repeatedly washed with water, and
treated with alcohol and ether to remove traces of salt, fat, etc. It is insoluble in water,
but is converted into gluten (one of the forms of gelatine) by the action of boiling water
— a transformation which is much facilitated if a little acid be present. The ossrin
yielded by different kinds of animals requires different times for its conversion into
gluten; and that of young animals changes more rapidly than that of adults of the same
species. It appears to exist in the bones in a state of freedom — that is to say, not in
combination with any of the salts of lime. Fremy's analyses show that the amount of .
gluten is precisely the same as that of the ossein which yields it, and that the two sub-
stances are isomeric.
OSSIAN, POEMS OP. Ossian, or Oisin (a word which is interpreted the "little fawn'1),
a Celtic warrior-poet, is said to have lived in the 3d c. , and to have been the son of
Fingal or Fin MacCumhaill. The poems which are ascribed to him in manuscripts of
any antiquity are few and short, and of no remarkable merit. But in 1760-63, a High-
land school -master, James Macpherson (q.v.), published two epics, Fingal and lemora,
and several smaller pieces and fragments, which he affirmed to be translations into Eng-
lish prose of Gaelic poems written by Ossian and preserved by oral tradition in the
Scottish Highlands. Their success was wonderful. They were received with admira-
tion in almost every country of Europe, and were translated not only into French and
Italian, but into Danish and Polish. But then- authenticity was challenged almost as
QK Osorio,
«7O Ossification'.
soon as they saw the light, and a long and angry controversy followed. That they
were what they claimed to be was maintained by Dr. Blair, lord Kames, the poet Gray,
and sir John Sinclair. That they were more or less the fabrication of Macpherson him-
self was maintained by Dr. Johnson, David Hume, Malcolm Laiug, and John Pinker-
ton. While this controversy still raged, another sprang up scarcely less angry or -pro-
tracted. Macpherson made Ossian a Scotch Highlander, but the Irish claimed him as
an Irishman. The fact is he was both: for in those early times the n.e. of Ireland and
the w. coast of Scotland were practically one country; the people spoke one language,
they were of one blood; and the narrow strip of sea that divided them served not as a
wall of separation, but rather as an easy passage of communication by means of boats.
As to the real authorship of the poems, as the original manuscripts which Macpherson
used have never been produced, there will always remain doubts; one thing only we
know, that he did use materials of the same nature as the Ossianic traditions that
may be picked up from the mouth of the people in many parts of Ireland and ti.e High-
lands at the present day; but how far under Macpherson's hands they were remodeled
remains a secret. The recent contribution to this question made by J. F. Campbell in
his Leabhav na Feinne — a digest of all the Ossiauic ballads either published by others or
collected by Mr. Campbell himself — has not tended much to clear up tlie matter. No
trace of Macpherson's two large poems has been recovered. On one point all Gaelic
scholars seem agreed— that Macpherson did not, and could not have written the Gaelic.
Poems ascribed to Ossian, committed to writing in the Highlands in the first half of
the 16th c., are printed in the D&m of Lismore's Book (Edin 1862), with translations
into English and into modern Gaelic. The poems ascribed to Ossian, preserved in Ire-
land, were published by the Ossianic society in 6 volumes (Dublin, 1854-61). Students
of the Ossianic poems will find much assistance from consulting the edition of thj
Gaelic with a new translation by Dr. Clark of Kilmallie (Edin. 1870). In 1876 tiia
Ossian controversy was again agitated, but came to nothing.
OSSIFICATION, or the formation of bone, is a process to which phvsiologists have
paid much attention, but regarding which there is still considerable difference of opi-i-
ion. On one point, however, there is a general agreement — viz., that the bones are not
in any instance a primary formation, but always result from the transformation and
earthy impregnation of some pre-existing tissue, which is most commonly either carti-
lage or a membrane containing cell-nuclei.. At a very early period of embryonic life, as
soon, indeed, as any structural differences can be detected, the material from which the
bones are to be formed becomes mapped out as 'a soft gelatinous substance, which m ly
be distinguished from the other tissues by being rather less transparent, and soon beco n-
ing decidedly opaque. From this beginning the bones are formed in two ways; either
the tissue just described becomes converted into cartilage, which is afterwards repl icel
~by bone, or a germinal membrane is formed, in which the ossifying process takes place.
The latter is the most simple and rapid mode of forming bone. When ossification co n-
mences, the membrane becomes more opaque, and exhibits a decided fibrous character,
the fibers being arranged more or less in a reticulated manner. These fibers becoms
more distinct and granular from impregnation with lime salts, and are converted in.o
incipient bone, while the cells which are scattered among them shoot out into the b<m-}
corpuscles, from which the canaliculi are extended probably by resorption. The facial
and cranial bones, with the exception of those at the base of the skull, are thus formed
without the intervention of any cartilage.
The process of ossification in cartilage (q.v.) is too complex and difficult to follow in
these pages. Some physiologists hold that when ossification is carried on in cartilage a
complete molecular replacement of one substance by the other takes place; while others
believe that more or less of the cartilaginous matrix remains, and becomes impregnated
with earthly matter at the same time that gluten is substituted for chondrine (chondrine
being the variety of gelatine that is yielded by ossein or bone-cartilage before ossification,
while gluten is yielded after that process is established). All the bones of the body,
excepting those of the head and face already mentioned, are at first formed, in part at all
events, from cartilage.
The time at which ossification commences does not at all follow the order in which
the primordial cartilage is laid down. Thus the cartilage of the vertebras appears before
there is any trace of that of the clavicle; yet at birth the ossification of the latter is
almost complete, while that of the former is very imperfect for many years. We will
briefly trace the process of ossification as it occurs in the human femur or thigh-bone.
Ossification commences in the interior of the cartilage at determinate points, which are
hence termed points or centers of ossification. From these points the process advances into
the surrounding substance. In the second month of foetal life, one of these centers shows
itself about the middle of the shaft, and from this point ossification rapidly extends
upwards and downwards along the whole length of the shaft. The upper and lower
ends remain cartilaginous, and it is not till the last month of foetal life that a second cen-
ter appears at the lower end. The third center, from which the upper end of the bone is
ossified, does not appear till about a year after birth. The bone now consists of two
extremities, or epiphyses, with an intermediate shaft or diaphysi*; and the superior epip-
hysis is not ossified to the shaft until about the 18th, and the inferior until after the 20th.
Osterhaus.
year. At about the 5th year a fourth ossific center is developed in the cartilage of the-
greater troehauter, and a fifth center appears in the lesser trodumtcr at about the 14th
year. These osseous processes, thus developed from special ossitic centers, are termed
apophyscs. Most of the long bones are developed in a corresponding way. It is a curi-
ous fikct (which is of such general occurrence that it may be regarded as a law) that in
the skeletons, both of man and of the lower animals, the union of the various apophys s
to the epiphyses, and of the epiphyses to the diaphysis or shaft, takes place in the iuver.-e
order to that in which their ossification began. The advantages derived from this .Mib-
division of ,the long bones into segments, with interposed cartilaginous plates, are obvi-
ous. Besides the greater facilities for growth thus afforded, the flexibility of the bony
frame-work is thereby greatly increased, and its escape from injury during the many falls
incidental to this period of life is in no small degree attributable to this cause. See
Humphry On the Human Skeleton, pp. 33 to 45.
True ossification sometimes occurs as a morbid process; but in many cases, the term
is incorrectly used (especially in the case of blood-vessels) to designate a hard calcareous
deposit, in which the characteristic microscopic appearances of true bone are altogether
absent.
In one sense, the osseous tissue that is formed in regeneration of destroyed or frac-
tured bones may be regarded as due to a morbid, although a restorative action. Hyper-
trophy of bone is by no means rare, being sometimes local, forming a protuberance on.
the external surface, in which case it is termed an exoatosis; and BOineti men extending
over the whole bone or over several bones, giving rise to the condition known as
hyperostosis. Again, true osseous tissue occasionally occurs in parts in which, in the
normal condition, no bone existed, as in the duramuter, in the so-called permanent
cartilages (as those of the larynx, ribs, etc.), in the tendons of certain muscles, and in
certain tumors. The peculiar causes of the osseous formations which are unconnected
with bone are not known.
Calcareous deposits or concretions not exhibiting the microscopical character of bone,
but often falsely termed ossifications, are of no unfrequent occurrence. Analyses of
such concretions occurring in pus, in the valves of the heart, in the muscles, and in the
lungs, are given by Vogel in his Pathological Anatomy of the Human Body; and in some
of these concretions the phosphate and carbonate of lime occur in nearly the same per-
centages as those in which they are found in bone. The diseased condition usually but
incorrectly called ossification of the arteries, is of sufficient importance tc require a brief
notice, fn consequence of the deposition of earthy or calcareous matter in the middle.
coat of the artery, the vessel loses all its elasticity, and becomes a rigid, unyielding tube.
All parts of the arterial system are liable to this change; but it is more frequently met
with in the ascending portion and arch of the aorta, than in any other part of that vessel,
and is more common in the lower extremities than the upper. The affection is usually
partial, but occasionally it appears to be almost universal. Thus, Dr. Adam
recorded a case, in the Dublin hospital reports, in which no pulsation could be felt in any
part of the body, and even the heart offered no other sign of action than a slight undu-
lating sound. Old age strongly predisposes to this diseased condition, and probably few
rery aged persons are altogether exempt from it. There is also reason to believe that
gout and rheumatism favor these calcareous deposits. This condition of the arteries may
jrive rise to aneurism, to gangrene of the extremities in aged persons, and to atrophy, and
consequent feebleness of the brain and heart. (The coronary arteries, which supply the
heart with the arterial blood necessary for its own nutrition, are very often, although not
always, ossified in angina pectoris). Moreover, this condition of the vessels very mate-
rially increases the risk from severe accidents and surgical operations.
OSSOLI, MARGARET, Marchioness. See FULLER, ante.
OSSORY, THOMAS BUTLER, Earl of, 1634-80; b. Ireland: son of James, duke of
Ormond. He fought on the royalist side in the English civil war, and after being-
imprisoned in the Tower for eight months, went to Holland. He came back with Charles
II. at the restoration, and was appointed lieut.gcn. of the Irish army. In 1666 lie
was made lord-butler of Moore park. The same year he participated in the naval
fight with the Dutch. In 1673 he was raised to the rank of admiral; in 1677 he led the
English contingent in the army of the prince of Orange; and in 1678 he had a brilliant
part in the defeat of marshal Luxembourg at Mons.
OSTADE, ADRIAN VAN, a celebrated painter and engraver of the Dutch school, was
born at Li'ibeck, in u. Germany, in 1610, His teachers were Franz Hals and Rembrandt.
He followed his art at Haarlem, till the French army of Louis XIV. threatened Holland,
when he removed to Amsterdam, where he spent the remainder of his life. He died in
1685. Country -dancing greens, farm-yards, stables, the interiors of rustic hovels and beer-
shops, are the places which he loved to paint; and his persons are, for the most part,
coarse peasant carls, drunken tobacco-smokers, or peasant women employed in country
work. In everything he did there is a bright and vivid naturalness. Not equal to Tcm-
ers in originality and quiet humor, he surpasses him in the force and fineness of hi
cution, though he is not free from trivially and repetitions, and inaccuracies in drawing.
He was a prolific painter, and his works are to be found irfall the museums and collec-
tions of the Netherlands, Germany, France, and England, They have been well
0*7 Ossoli.
Osteili;n;s
engraved by Vischer, Suyderoef, and himself. — ISAAC VAT? OSTADE, brother of Adrian.
also a painter, was born at Lubeck in 1012, and died at Amsterdam in 1671. He did not
equal his brother, whose style he labored to imitate.
OSTASHKOFF, a manufacturing district t, of Great Russia, in the government of
Tver, stands on the s.e. shore of lake Seligucr; hit. 57' 10' n., long. 33° 6' east. The first
settlements on this site are said to have taken place in 1230. Pop. '67, 9,233. Skin-
dressing, boot-making, and fishing in the neighboring lakes are the principal employ-
ments of the inhabitants. The woods in the vicinity furnish bark for tanning purposes,
and charcoal for the blacksmiths' shops. There are in Ostashkoff 37 tan-yards, in which
skins are dressed, and Russian leather prepared to the amount of £90,000 annually. The
leather prepared at Savine's lanyard is known in England, Austria, Italy, and North
America. Two hundred and eighty thousand pairs of boots are made annually, and 400
men and 1000 women are engaged in the manufacture. Manufactures of hatchets and
scythes are also carried on. The commerce of Ostashkoff is small, however, owing to its
remote distance from important lines of communication.
OSTENB , a strongly fortified t. of the Belgian province of w. Flanders, on the Ger-
man ocean, at the opening of the Ostend and Bruges canal, and on the state railway.
Pop. '76, 16,823. Notwitstauding its proximity to the sea, the shallowness of the harbor
prevents large ships from entering the port except at high tide. It ranks, however, as
the second sea-port of the kingdom, Antwerp being the first, and is fortified with walls
and bread ditches. It has some good manufactories for linens, sail-cloths, and tobacco,
and several sugar, salt, arid candle-works. FHMH its position as a station for the steam-
ers plying daily between London, Dover, and. thd continent, and as the terminus of vari-
ous branches of railway in connection witli the great French and German lines, it is a
lively and active place of transport traffic, and is resorted to in the summer as a bathing-
pl<;ce by 12,OUO persons from ali parts of the continent. It is, moreover, an important
htation for oyster, .cod, and herring tishing; has a good naval school, some ship-yards, an
efficient staff of pilots, and is the seat of a commercial tribunal, and a chamber of cus-
toms. Its imports in 1873 amounted to 16,000,000 francs; its exports to 15,000,000
francs The harbor is furnished with a light-house, and is provided with an admirably-
constructed stone promenade for the accommodation of the public. Ostende is memora-
ble I'm- the protracted siege which it underwent from 1601 to 1604, terminating in the
surrender of the Dutch and Flemish garrison to the Spanish commander, Spinola.
OSTEOCO LA, a kind of size or glue made by removing the mineral matter from bones,
and dissolving the gelatine. Its common name is bone glue.
OSTEOGLOS'SIIX'E, a frmily of fresh water teleost fishes, characterized by the
peculiar form of the head. The body is covered with mosaic-like hard scales; gill aper-
tures large; branchiostegal rays numerous; pectoral fins low on each side: vertebra;
from 60 to 80. The family is divided into two sub-families, ostcoglossinae, represented in
the Philippine islands and Australia; and hctcrolince. having one genus Tteterotit, peculiar
to w. Africa, and stnotiier arapcvtrna, particularly inhabiting the Rio Negro, a brand) of
the Amazon. See ARAPAIMA mite.
OSTEOLE PIS (Gr. bone-scale), a genus of fossil gar/oid fish peculiar to the Old Red
Sandstone. It is separated from its allies by having the two anal and two dorsal fins
alternating- with each other. Seven species have been described.
OETEOL CGY (Gr. oxtea, the bones) is that department of anatomy which treats of the
chemical and physical properties of the osseous tissue, and of the shape, development,
and growth, articulations, etc., of the various bones of which the skeleton is composed.
See BONE, OSSIFICATION, SKELETON, etc.
OSTEO-MYELI'TIS, an inflammation of the medullary or lining membrane of the
bony cavities. It usually occurs as a consequence of injuries which expose the medul-
lary canal to the air as well as to mechanical injury. It therefore sometimes fol-
lows compound fracture and ill-performed amputations, or operations on bad subjects.
Its presence may be suspected when, after an injury to. or an operation on a bone, the
limb swells and becomes very tender, with formation of abscess and profuse suppuration
of a dark and fetid character. It is ft very dangerous disease, indeed usually proving
fatal, parsing into osteo-phlebitis, and then into pyemia (q.v.). It is of an erysipeioid
character, and is generally septic, which adds to the fatality of severe injuries and the
larger amputations. There is death of bone, and therefore a natural tendency to its
separation from the living parts. If nature succeeds the sequestrum, or separated dead
bone, may be removed, which is usually not a difficult operation, because the parts are
generally exposed and easily reached with a pair of forceps. Sometimes portions may
be wedged in between sound parts of bone, when a small portion of the latter may be
removed with a pair of cutting forceps, or a small saw. The constitutional treatment
consists in supporting the patient's strength with nourishing food, such as strong beef-
tea, beef-steak, chops, eggs, milk-punch, wine, cinchona, etc., and perhaps the adminis-
tration in some cases, of a ferruginous tonic. Great attention must be paid to cleanliness
and careful ventilation.
OSTERHAUS, PETER .T.. b. Prussia; having served as an officer in the Prussian
army came to the Unued States, settled in St. Louis, and entered the U. S^ volunteer
U. K. XI.— 7
Osteroile. QO
Ostrich.
army in the first year of the rebellion as mn|. nf the 2d Missouri regiment. lie partici-
pate';! in the battle of Wilson's creek, Au^. 10, 1H(>1. uiuler gen. Ly<>n who \\ as killed,
retiring under command of col. Sigel. lie was promoted to the colonelcy of the IJJtfc
Missouri, and commanded a brigade under gen. Fremont, and al.-o in the cxpcui-
tion conducted by S. R. Curtis. niaj.gen. commanding tlie army operating in s.\v.
Missouri, resulting in the battle of Pea Ridge or Elk Horn, March (M), 1MJJ. between
the confederates under gen. Van Dorn. and the Union forces under LVD. < ur is, the lat-
ter gaining the victory. In this action he commanded a division, .him- St. !M>.'. he re-
' er wa
: h's "onr.nNsioi) as brir.^en.. and in the following December was placed hi command
of a division of the Itfih corp^at Helena. Ark., with which he assisted in the capture of
Arkansas post, under gen. MeClernand and admiral Porter, Jan. 11, 18(xJ: a!--o in ihe
Vi'-ksburg campaign, resulting in the surrender on July 4, 1~'(J3. He commanded ti <•• Kt
division, loth corps at Chattanooga under gens. Rosecrans and Thomas, ami a! tiie baltie
of Missionary Ridge, the heights on the e. overlooking Chattanooga (Lookout mountain
being on the w.), under gen. Sherman, Nov. :?5-'.2(5, ending in the defeat of '<!:•
federates. In its results this was one of the mo>t important of the war. On J:.
h* was m ide maj.gea., and followed Sherman from Chattanooga to the occup •
Atlanta, Sept.. 1, 1861, commanding the 15th corps " from Atlanta to the sea." !!;• was
chief of sliilT to Gen. Canby at the surrender ot the confederate gen. Richard Taylor,
May 4, 1865, and was mustered out Feb.. 1866.
OSTEEO'DE, a small t, of Hanover, in the principality of Grubcnhagcn, situated at the
wc-'.crn l)ase of the Harz mountains, on the So.se, an affluent of the Leine, 20 m. n.e. ot'
Gottingeu. It contains large grain stores, from which the miners of the n< ',
and their families are supplied with grain at a low and fixed rate. Cotton, woollen, and
linen fabrics and hosiery are extensively manufactured, also lead and copper. Pop. '};>,
5,658.
OSTIA, a city of Latium, at the mouth of the Tiber, about 16 in. from Rome It is
sai'l to have been founded by Aneus Martin-:, and was regarded as the old '>t Roman
colony. It 'first acquired importance from its salt-works, the establishment of which is
attributed to Ancus Martins, and afterwards as the port" where the Sicilian, Sardinia:),
and African corn shipped for Rome was landed; yet. its name iirst occurs dun;
second Punic war. It was long, too, the principal station of the Roman navy; but its
harbor was exceedingly bad. and gradually the entrance became silted up with alluvial
deposits, so that vessels could no longer approach it, but were compelled io ride at
anchor in the open roadstead, and to disembark their cargoes there. At iemr;h the
Emperor Claudius dug a' new harbor or basin two m. n. of Ostia, and connected it with
the Tiber by a canal. It was named the Portus Auguxti, and a round it soon sprung up :i
new town called Portus Oxtieims, Portiis Ci-bis, PvrtH* Jhime, and often simply /
Yet it was not till nearly the close of the Roman empire that the prosperity of i)-:i
city began to decline. Its decay, however, was rapid, and in the 8th c. it was a mere
ruin. During the middle ages a village— the modern Ostia — was built about half a mib
above the ancient one; but it has not more than 100 permanent inhabitant--, who still
cany on the manufacture of salt, established in the pre-historic times of ancient Rome.
\he ruins of Oalia extend for a mile and a half along the banks of the Tiber, and are
nearly a mile in breadth. See Nibby's Dintornidi Romn (vol. ii).
OSTRA'CION, a genus, and OSTHACIOXID.K, a family of fishes of the order Pli'dnnnatlii.
They are remarkably distinguished by having the whole body covered with an inflexible
tuberculated coat of mail, formed of six-sided bony scales or plates combined in B
lated quincuncial manner, the fleshy lips the fins, and the tail protruding througb
in ihe armor. The gill-opening appears in the armor as a mere slit, bordered with a
skinny edge, but there is a true gill-cover within. There are no ventral tins. The ver-
teime are generally coalescent. There is little muscular substance, ami in some S]
it is reputed poisonous; but the liver is large, and yields much oil. Some of the S]
are known by the names of TKUNK-FISII and COFFEU-FISH. They are mostly found in
the Indian and American seas. None are British.
OSTRACISM, a right exercised by the people of Athens of banishing for a time any
poison whose services, rank, or wealth appeared to. be dangerous to The liberty of his
fellow-citizens, or inconsistent with their political equality. Ii was not a punishment
for any particular crime, but rather, as has been observed, a precautionary measure to
remove such leaders as were obviously exercising a dangerous ascendency in the state.
Ostracism was introduced by Cleisthenes about the beginning of the 6th c r..c.. after
the expulsion of the Peisistratidre. The people were annually asked by the Prytanes
if they wished to exercise this right, and if they did, a public assembly was held, and
each citizen had opportunity of depositing, in a place appointed for the purpose, a pot-
sherd (nxtrakon) or small. earthen tablet, on which was written the name of the person for
whose banishment he voted. Six thousand votes were nee. -s-ary for the banishment of
any person; but the greatest men of Athens — Miltiades, Thcmi-ioch-s, Cimnn, Alcil>iad«-s,
etc.— were subjected to this treatment. The banishment was at first for ten years, but
the period was afterward restricted to five. Property and civil rights or honors remained
unaffected by it. Alcibiades succeeded in obtaining the final abolition of ostracism,
QQ Osterode.
Ostrich.
of -which, hcm-ever, Plutarch and Aristotle speak as a necessary political expedient, and
its utility has been very ably defended in modern times by Mr. Grote (History of Greece,
vol. iv. pp. 200 et seq.).
OSTK^E'ID^-E, a family of lamellibranchiate mollusks of which the common oyster
(»rlr<:ti) is the type. It is sometimes made to include another group, the pectinidae, com-
prising the scallops, and is sometimes named pectinidae, instead of ostncidae. The
following are the chief characteristics of the ostroeidce: Shell inequivalve, slightly iue-
qMhateral, free or attached to 'the bottom or some object; hinge usually toothless, liga-
inent internal; lobes of the mantle entirely separated; foot small or wanting; a single
adductor muscle. In the genus ostrea the shell is irregular and attached by the left valve,
whU-h is convex, and has a well-marked beak. The upper valve is usually concave or
fiat, and is the smaller. The hinge is toothless, having a single ligaments! pit. The
lower valve is more plaited than the upper, and both valves are in some species thus
ornamented, as in wlrca Marshii of the oolitic formation. In the genus grypheea the
lower valve is much the longer and very much curved, so that it points inwards, and at
right angles to the plane of the upper valve, the whole animal having a general resem-
blance iu profile to an ammonite, although belonging to an entirely different class of
mollusks. They existed during the triassic and cretaceous epochs. In the geuus exogyra,
which existed in the later oolitic and cretaceous epochs, the beaks are reversed, or turned
toward the posterior side of the shell. The genus ostrea commences in the carboniferous
seas, abounds in the secondary and tertiary periods, and is very plentiful at the present
day. A genus, pernostra, has been founded for Jurassic oysters, which differ from ostrea
proper in having the ligament contained in from four to eight transverse grooves or
pi;s. In a second section or sub-family, anomiadce, of ostreeida; there are various forms
of which anomia may be taken as the type. This latter genus comprises bivalves having
a very thin, translucent shell, which is attached to some body by a plug which passes
through a hole or notch in the right valve. It appears to have commenced its existence
in the cretaceous period, but limanomia of Devonian, anomianella of the carboniferous,
and /I'licttnvpxis of the Jurassic are older forms of the same type. The genus plucana,
commencing in the tertiary, is allied in many respects to anomia, hut the shell is unat-
tached. For the group pectinidaG see PECTEN, ante. A fourth group of ostraeidae, some-
ti !!!<•* regarded as a distinct family (limada:), is represented by the typical genus lima, the
shell of which is equivalve and unattached, and the beaks separated from one another
and eared. The surface is usually partially covered with radiating ribs or ridges, and
there is a median cartilage pit and a triangular hinge area. The genus appears to have
commenced in the carboniferous, was abundant in the triassic, Jurassic, cretaceous, and
tertiary formations, and has representatives at the present day in smaller numbers. The
U)ii'>tilern of the Devonian is perhaps an early representative. A fifth group of ostraeidae,
which is sometimes ranked as a separate family (spondylidfp) is represented by what are
known as the thorny oysters, and forms the genus spondylus. It has an inequivaive
shell, and is attached by the right valve to some other body. The beaks are separated
from each oilier, and the shell is covered with spines or thorns, inclined in a direction
from the beak. The genus commenced in the Jurassic, was plentiful in the cretaceous,
and has present representatives. The plicatulcK resemble 8pondylu8.l>y having an inequi-
valve shell which is attached by the right valve, and by having two hinge teeth -in each
valve. But the shell is seldom eared, the hinge area is obscure, and the valves are not
armed with spines. They extend in time from the trias to the present epoch, and were
exceedingly abundant in the lower greeusand. The anatomy of the oyster is given in the
article under that title.
OSTRICH, MrtitJiio, a genus of birds of the order grallntores, and tribe brevipennex
(q.v.), in Cuvier's system — the order curaores (or runners) of some ornithologists. In
this genus the bill is of moderate length, broad, flattened, rounded at the tip. the mandi-
bles flexible; the head small; the neck long; the legs long (both tibia and tarsus) and
very robust, the lower part of the tibia, as well as the tarsus, naked; the feet have only
two toes, of which the inner is the largest, and has a short claw, the outer has no claw;
the wings arc too short to be used for flight, but are useful to aid in running; the plum-
age is lax and flexible; the wings and tail have long soft drooping plumes. Only one
species is known (S. cmm-litu), a native of the sandy deserts of Africa and Arabia: ihe
South American ostriches, or nandus (q.v.), constituting a distinct genus. The ostrich
is the largest of all birds now existing, being from 6 to 8 ft. in height to the top of its
head, and an adult male weighing from 200 to 300 pounds. The male is rather larger
than the female. The head and upper part of the neck are scantily covered with a thin
down, through which the skin is visible. The young have the head and neck clothed
with feathers. The general plumage is glossy black in the adult mixle, dark grey in the
female and young, with a slight sprinkling of white feathers; the long plumes of the
wings and tail are white, occasionally marked with black. On each wing are two
p'.umeless shafts, not unlike porcupine's quills. The inner toe is very large, about 7
in. long, and its claw hoof-like. Whilst the sternum is destitute of 'a keel, and the
muscles which move the wings are comparatively weak, those which move the legs are
of prodigious strength, so that the ostricYi is not only capable of running with great
speed, but of striking such a blow with its foot as to" make it too formidable for the
Ostrich. -I An
OMtroleiika.
leopard and other large bensts of prey to assail it. It has been often known to rip open
;i dog by ;i single stroke, and a man is recorded to Lave suffered the same fate. Tin-
eves of the ostrich arc large, and the lids are furnished with lashes. Its sight is keen, so
'. ;i:;t it descries objects at a great distance in the open desert.
The ostrich shuns the presence of ma:;, but is often to be seen in near proximity to
herds of zebras, quagga-. giraffes, antelopes, and other quadrupeds. It is gregarious.
ill though the flocks of ostriches are not generally very large. It is polygamous, one male
usually appropriating to himself, when he can, from two to seven females, which seem
to make their nest in common, scooping a mere hole in the" sand for this purpose. Each
female is supposed to lay about ten eggs. The eggs are all placed on end in the nest,
which often contains a largo number, whilst around it eggs arc; generally to be found
scattered on the sand. Concerning these, it has been supposed thai they are intended
for the food of the young birds before they sire able to go in quest of other food; an
improbable notion, 'not supported by evidence. It seems ;it least as likely that these
scattered eggs are laid by females waiting whilst the nest is occupied by another, and
that they are lost to the ostriches and no more regarded. Contrary to a very generally
received opinion, the ostrich does not leave her eggs to be hatched entirely by the heat
of the sun; or, if this be the case in the warmest regions, it is otherwise in the more
northern and southern countries in which this bird is found; and by a remarkable instinct,
the ostrich sits upon the egg.- by night, when the cold would be too great for them, and
leaves them to the sun's heat during the day.
The ostrich feeds exclusively on vegetable substances, its food consisting in great
part of grasses and their seeds; so that its visits are much dreaded by the cultivators of
ihe soil in the vicinity of its haunts, a flock of ostriches soon making terrible de\
tion of a field of corn. The ostrich has a very large crop, a strong gizzard, and a pretty
large prove ntn'eulufi between the crop and the gi/zard; the intestine^ are voluminous, and
the coeca long, with a remarkable spiral valve. There is a receptacle in which the urine
accumulates, as in a bladder, a thing very uncommon in birds.
The ostrich swallows large Atones, as small birds swallow grains of sand, to aid the
gizzard in the trituralion of the food; and in confinement has oi'lei: been known to swal-
low very indiscriminately whatever came in the way, pieces of iron, bricks. gla>s, old
shoes, copper coins, etc. Its instincts do not suffice to prevent it from swallowing
very unsuitable things; copper coins were fatal in one instance, and a piece of a parasol
in another.
The ostrich is very patient of thirst, or is capable of subsisting for a long time with-
out water. It often supplies the want of water by eating the gourds or melons of the
desert, to which even the lion is said to resort on the same account.
The speed of the ostrich,- when it first sets out, is supposed to be not less than 60 ra.
an hour; but it does not seem to be capable of keeping up this speed for a long time. It
is successfully hunted bjr men on horseback, who take advantage of its habit of running
in a curve, instead of a straight line, so that the hunter knows how to proceed in order
to meet it and get within shot. It is often killed in South Africa hymen who envelop
themselves in ostrich skins, and admirably imitating the manners of the ostrich, approach
it near enough for their purpose, without exciting its alarm, and sometimes kill one after
another with their poisoned arrows.
The strength of the ostrich is such that it can easily earn- two men on its back.
The voice of the ostrich is deep and hollow, not easily distinguished, except by a
practiced ear, from the roar of the lion. It also more frequently makes a kind of
cackling; and when enraged and striking violently at an adversary. hi-H •- very loudly.
The flesh of the ostrich is not unpalatable when it is young, but rank and tough when
! old. It is generally believed to have been prohibited as unclean to the Jews (Lev. xi. 16),
j although the name is translated owl in the English Bible. There are frequent references
; to it in the Old Testament.
The eggs of the ostrich are much esteemed as an article of food by the rude natives
of Africa, and are acceptable even to European travelers and colonists. Each egg weighs
about three pounds, and is thus equal to about two dozen ordinary hen's eggs. Tl :•
is usually dressed by being set upright on a fire, and stirred about with a forked stick.
inserted through a hole in the upper end. The thick and strong shell is applied to many
uses, but particularly is much employed by the s. African tribes for water-vessels. The
leader will probably recollect the interesting plate in Livingstone's 7'm,; '.-. of women
filling ostrich shells with water. In taking ostrich eggs from the nest the s. African is
careful not to touch any with the hand, but uses a long stick to draw them out, that the
birds may not detect the smell of the intruder, in which case they would forsake the
nest; whilst otherwise, they will return and lay more eggs.
The long plumes of the ostrich have been highly valued for ornamental pur;
from very early times, and continue to be a considerable article of commerce, for the
sake of which the ostrich is pursued in its native wilds. See OSTRICH-FATOIIM..
The ostrich is often to be seen in Britain in confinement, and readily becomes qviite
tame and familiar, although still apt to be violent towards strangers. Great numbers
were exhibited in the public spectacles by some of the Roman emperors; and the brains
of many ostriches were sometimes presented in a single dish, as at the table of Helio-
gabtdus.
m Ostrich.
Ostroleiika.
OSTRICH-FARMING. Attempts are being made to 'increase the supply of ostrich
feathers, or to facilitate the procuring of them by establishing farms — iiiclosures where
the birds can grow and breed in lameness, lu 1S59 the bulletin of the societe d'acclima-
tation contained a note from Dr. Yavasseur discussing the question whether the ostrich
of South America, the uuudu (q. v.) or rliea, can be acclimatized in France. When caught
they are easily tamed ; and this is the circumstance which has suggested the idea of nat-
uralization. They must not be placed in cages, but must have free range to walk about,
secured simply by a leg-guard. Dr. Vavasseur expressed an opinion "that the South
American ostrich could live without difficulty in the u. of France; that there is no diffi-
culty in domesticating it; and that it will feed on almost anything that is given to it,
however coarse."
At a meeting of the cape agricultural society of Cape Town, in 1864, Mr. L. von
Maltitz gave an account of his experience in ostrich-farming at Colesberg. Towards
the end of 1863 he purchased 17 young ostriches of three or four mouths old, and placed
them in an inclosure of 3UO acres, over which they had free run. They subsisted wholly
on the herbage of the inclosure, save a little grain given to them now and then. The
opinion lie formed from many months' observation was that 35 ostriches might find
sullicient sustenance upon 300 acres of good graziug-grouiid. In April, 1864, he had
the wings of the birds cut at the point where the well-known ostrich feathers grow; and
they were fit again to cut six mouths later. The birds were so tame that they allowed
themselves to be handled, and their plumage minutely examined. Having caused the
birds and the feathers to be examined by. experienced dealers, he found that the largest
feathers, of which there are 24 on the wing of each male bird, were worth £25 per Ib. ;
and that one plucking of his 17 birds would yield £10 each on an average. The birds
cost him about £5 each. Since this experiment of Mr. von Maltitz, ostrich-farming has
become a recognized form of industry at the cape. The price of a healthy bird a week
old is £10; at six monihs, £30. The feathers may be plucked when the bird is a year
old, and each crop is worth about £7 a bird. The price of the feathers ranges, accord-
ing to quality, from a few shillings per Ib. to £40 or £50. In 1875 there were 32,247
domesticated ostriches in Cape Cdlouy. It is found that 600 acres of grass are required
to feed 80 birds; and when the grass is poor the ostriches are fed on supplies of shrubs
and occasionally on Indian corn! The adult birds require to be kept in separate pad-
docks', which are generally surrounded by wire-fencing. The egg of the ostrich, though
coarse, is reasonably goou food; but the naturalization of the bird derives most of its
prospective importance from the feathers, for which there is at all times a large demand
in the chief European countries.
OSTRICH FEATHERS are occasionally borne as a heraldic charge, and always repre-
sented drooping. Three white ostrich feathers are the well-known badge of the prince
of Wales. According to common tradition they were assumed in consequence of Edward
the black prince having plucked a plume of ostrich feathers from the casque of John of
Luxemburg, king of Bohemia, who fell by his hand at Crecy. There is, however, no
doubt that ostrich feathers were previous to that time a cognizance of the Plantagenets.
Prince Henry, eldest son of James L, first established the present arrangement of the
three ostrich feathers within a prince's coronet.
OSTRICH FERX, Struthiopteris, a genus of ferns whose fertile fronds have some-
what the appearance of an ostrich plume. There is but one species (S. Qermanica)
known in America, which is also a native of Europe. There is probably another species
in Japan. The American species thrives best in northern latitudes in alluvial soil. The
sterile fronds are often 5 ft. and more in height, pinnate, the pinnae pinuatifid, all grow-
ing in a close, circular tuft from the thick and scaly matted rootstocks, forming a beau-
tiful vase-like cluster. Within the circlet of rootstocks arise the fertile fronds, about
two-thirds the length of the sterile ones, having the margins of their pinnae rolled back-
wards so as to form a somewhat necklace-shaped or continuous hollow cylinder inclosing
the fruit. There are from three to five pinnate free veinlets from each primary vein,
each bearing on its middle a fruit dot. Sporangia borne on an elevated receptacle,
which is half encircled at its base by a delicate semicircular indusium.
OSTROG , a small district t. of w. Russia, in the government of Volhynia, 100 m. w.
of Jitomir. Here, in the reign of Constantino of Ostrog, a school and typography were
established, and the first Slavonic Bible printed in 1558. Pop. '67, 8,314.
OSTROGOTHS. See GOTHS.
OSTROK', the name of a convent in Montenegro, near Herzegovina, noted from its
occupying a large cave in the side of a precipice 400 ft. in height. In the various Mon-
rin insurrections or wars it has often been made use of as a fortress or store-house
for powder and ammunition.
OSTROLEN'KA, a t. in the Polish government of Lomza, 60 m. n.e. of Warsaw,
and on the Xarew river. It is noted as having been the scene of two battles, the first in
1807, when the Russian gen. Essen was defeated by the French under Savary, and the
second in 1831, when the Polish insurgents under the lead of Skrzynecki were over-
whelmed by the Russians. The present pop. of the town is about 3,500.
Ostrowsky. 1 AO
Otugo.
OSTROWS'KY MOUNTAINS, a central range of the Carpathian mountains, of
volcanic formation. Situa is the highest peak, 8,488 it. high. The risers Eipel, bajo,
and Gran How at the base of its slopes and separate it from other portions of the main
range.
OSTTJ NI, a city of s. Italy, in the province of Lecce, 22 in. w.n.w. from Brindisi,
on the railway between Ancoua and iirindisi. It stands on a steep hill. A considerable
trade is carried on, chiefly in the produce of the neighborhood, and the city is a flourish-
ing one. Pop. 71, 14,422.
OSUNA, a t. of Spain in the province of Seville, 48 m. e.s.e. of the city of that name,
stands in a fertile plain, and on a triangular hill crowned by a castle and the collegiate
church. It stands in the midst of a highly fertile plain, productive in grain, olives,
almonds, etc. An extensive panoramic view is obtained from the castle. The collegiate
church, in the mixed Gothic and cinque-cento style, was built in 1534. It was pillaged
by Soult of 5 cwt. of ancient church plate, and N\ as converted by him into a citadel and
magazine. Pop. 15,500, wiio are engaged in agriculture and m the manufacture of lineu
goods, and iron and earthenware.
OSU'NA, PEDRO TELLEZ Y GIRON, Duke of, 1579-1624; b. Spain; married in 1598
a daughter of the duke of Alcala, and took the title of duke of Osuua. He was several
times expelled from court, but finally regained favor, and was appointed viceroy of Sicily
in 1611 and of Naples in 1616. He opposed the establishment of the inquisition at Naples;
resisted the attempts of Venice to control the commerce of the Mediterranean; and was
recalled in 1620 on suspicion of usurping for himself the government of s. Italy. He v/as
confined in Almedas castle, and died by poison.
OSWALD, SAINT, 605-642; king of Norlhumbria, son of king Ethelfrid. He spent
some years an exile in Scotland, during which time he was converted to Christianity.
He recovered his kingdom and ascended the throne in 634, having defeated in battle,
and killed, Cadwallu, king of Wales. He married Cyneburg, a daughter of Cynegil, a
West-Saxon king, and with her assistance introduced the Christian religion among the
Anglo-Saxons. He was killed at Masertield by the king of Mercia, Penda, a heathen,
and was canonized by the Roman church. There are numerous legends concerning
him, which at one time were very popular in Germany, and were published in hook form
in 1856 by Ziugerle, entitled Die Usicaldlegeiide and Hire Beriehuny zur deutschen J/yt/t-
ologie.
OSWALD, EI,EAZKR, 1755-95; b. England; related to Richard Oswald of Auchen-
cruive; he became interested in the American colonies, emigrated to America in 1770;
and served as capt. under Arnold at Ticonderoga, also at Quebec in 1775. where he
assumed command and distinguished himself. Arnold having been wounded. He was
Arnold's secretary, and in 1777 was promoted to be lieut.col. in Lamb's artillery regiment,
and was commended by gens. Lee and Knox for his brave conduct at Monmouth. He
became a printer and publisher at Philadelphia; also public printer. In all political
questions he was a bitter opponent of Hamilton and challenged him to fight a duel in
1789, but the affair was settled by friends without fighting. He commanded a regiment
of artillery in the French army at the battle of Jamappes. Died of yellow-fever in New
York.
OSWALD, RICHARD, 1705-84; b. Scotland; a London merchant, a representative of
England at the signing of articles of peace at the close of the revolutionary war. He
gave bail in the enormous sum of £50,000 for Henry Laurens. His wife, Mary Ramsey,
was celebrated by Robert Burns in his songs.
OSWE'GO, a co. in n. central New York, bounded n. and e. by lake Ontario, s.w.
by lake Oueida, and drained by the Oswego, Oueida, and Salmon rivers; intersected by
the New York and Oswego Midland, the Oswego and Svracuse, and the Rome, Water-
town and Ogdensburg railroads; 970 sq.m.; pop. '80, 77,915 — 66.739 of American birth.
The surface is nearly level and adapted to grazing. Hay, oats, lumber, maple sugar,;
potatoes, and dairy products are the staples. There are several large flouring mills, j
Sandstone suitable for building purposes is found. Oswego and Pulaski are the semi-
capitals. There are about forty towns and villages.
OSWE'GO, a city and port of entry in New York, is situated at the mouth of Oswego
river, on lake Ontario, at the extremity of the Oswego canal, a branch of the Erie, and
is a station on several railways. It is a handsome city, with streets 100 ft. wide, cross-
in? at right angles, with costly government buildings, custom-house, court-house, po>t-
office, city halt hospital, orphan asylum, library, 16 churches, 2 daily and 2 weekly
newspapers, excellent schools, etc. It has a large trade with the lake country and
Canada, and exports about $12,000,000 per ar.num. On the river are 14 flour-mills,
making 600,000 barrels of flour a day, with 11 elevators for unloading vessels for 45,000
bushels an hour. Among the manufactures is that of 13,000,000 Ibs. of what is known
as Oswecro flour, made from Indian corn The lumber received m 1874 measured
210,814,573 ft., besides 47,605.053 shingles. 2,654,126 pieces of heading, etc. There vre a
fort and a navy-yard, and an excellent harbor recently constructed. Pop. '70, 20,910. _
1 AQ Ostrowsky.
Otago.
OSWEGO (ante), the capital of Oswego co., on the Delaware' Lackawanna and West-
ern, the New York and Oswego Midland, the Rome, Watertown and Ogdeusburg rail-
roads; pop. '80, 21,117. It is connected by daily steamers with Montreal and the west.
The river has a fall of 34 ft., distributed by 6 dams. Large shipments of lumber from
and coal to Canada are made. The harbor is surrounded by breakwaters and jetties, has
a width of 30U ft. at the entrance, and a depth of from 9 to 13 ft. at low water. There
are machine shops, ship yards, iron foundries, etc. Oswego was incorporated as a
village in 18:28 and a city in 1848. A trading post was established there in 1720.
OSWEGO TEA, a name given to several species of ntonardn, particularly M. purpiirea,
3f. r/'ttyma, and M. kalinin/ni, natives of North America, because of the occasional use of
an infusion of the dried leaves as a beverage. They belong to the natural order lubia'M,
somewhat resemble mints in appearance, and have ail agreeable odor. The infusion is
said to be useful in intermitteuts, and as a stomachic. Some other species of monanlti
ate used in the same way.
OSWESTRY, a thriving market t. and municipal borough of England in the county cf
Salop, 18 ui. u.w. of Shrewsbury. The stone pillars of its ancient gateways still stand
in the streets. There are also scanty remains of a castle, said to have been the ancestral
seat of Walter Fitzalan, progenitor of the royal house of Stuart, who, during the troubles
of the reign of king Stephen, fled hence to Scotland, and became steward to David I.,
king of Scotland. Oswestry is the center of an extensive agricultural district; it has
extensive market-places, and its weekly market for agricultural produce and cattle is very
largely attended. There are corn mills and coal-mines in the vicinity. Oswestry con-
tains the offices and works of the Cambrian company, and is favorably situated as "a rail-
way center. Pop. '71, of municipal bcrough, 7,306. Oswestry is said to derive its name
from Oswald, king of Northumbria, slain here in 642. Near the town is Oswald's well,
a fine spring of water; and "Old Oswestra," an ancient encampment.
OSYMAN-DYAS, the name of a great king of Egypt, mentioned by Diodorus and
Strai.o, who reigned, according to these authors, as the 27th successor of Sesoslris. He
distinguished himself, according to these authors, by his victories, and invaded Asia
wilh an army of 400,000 men and 20, (X 0 cavalry, and "conquered the Bactrians, who had
been rendered tributary to Egypt by Sesoslris" In honor of this exploit, he is said by
Hecatfeus to have erected a monument which was at once a palace and a tomb, and
which, under the name of Osymandeion , was rcnowed for its size and splendor in later
times. It was said to be situated in the necropolis of Thebes, or at Gournah, and close
to the sepulchres of the concubines of the god Amen Ea. The Osymandeion is gener-
ally believed to be represented by the extant ruins of the palace of Rameses III. at
Medinet Haboo, though great difficulty has been felt in reconciling the descriptions of
its magnificence in ancient writeis with the dimensions of the modern relic; and
Lctronne, in his Toml>«tn d'O#ymand&as(Par. 1881), has even ventured to suppose that it
was an imaginary edifice invented by the Greeks from their acquaintance with the great
palaces of Thebes, but this skepticism is considered extreme. The name of Osymandyas
is difficult to recognixe ar.iongst the Egyptian kings, the nearest approach to it being one
cf the Setis, either the 1st or 2d. called after death, Asiri-Meneptah. Others consider
Osymandy: s the Ismendes of Strabo, or the Mendes of Herodotus. The name of
Amenophis may also lie concealed in his name, so much ambiguity pervades the subject.
Diodorus. i* 46-50; Strabo, xvii. p. 8, 11-16; Juvenal, xv. 38; Letronne, Mtm. de
Vli-fxt. ix. p. 321; Champollion, Letlres Ecrites, p. 260, 303; Champollion-Figeac, L'Eyypte,
69, 291, 313-315.
OTA GO, one of the most recent settlements, but, at the same time, the most prosper-
ous, populous, and likely to become the most influential province of New Zealand (q.v.).
Since the re-incorporation of Southland— a portion of its territory which, in 1861. was
parted from Otago and raised into a small separate province, an experiment which
failed in a short time — it is now the most southern province of South island (see NEW
ZEALAND). Otago is bounded on the n. by the province of Canterbury, and on the w.,
e., and s. by the Pacific ocean; is in length 200 m., 160 in. in breadth, and possesses an
invaluable line of coast which measures "400 miles. The entire area is about 15,500,0^0
acres— over 24.000 sq. miles. Pop. in 1871, 69,500; in 1877, estimated at 115,680. The
chief rivers are the Waitaki. theClutha, and the Mai aura, all of which flow s.s.e., and
are navigable to a greater or less extent. The western regions of Otago remain unsur-
veyed, but are known to be covered with high, and in many cases snow-capped moun-
tains, stretching along the whole line of coast, and extending inland for upwards of 60
miles. East and n.e.'from the Matura river to the shore the surface is well known, and
consists of mountain-ranges alternating with valleys, and extending parallel to the sea and
to each other as far inland as the valley of the M'aniihcrikia. one of the first affluents of
theClutha. The climate of Otago is exceedingly healthy and invigorating; frost and snow
are unknown except in the higher ranges, and rain, though sufficiently abundant to
answer the demands of agriculture, does rot interfere with outdoor occupations. All the
English fruits and flowers, with some trifling exceptions, are grown here to perfection.
Tho northern and interior districts of the province are eminently adapted, as regards both
soil and climate, for agriculture as well as cattle breeding. The western districts arc mggi d,
and covered with forests; but in the eastern regions arc many fertile and well-watered
Otahcite.
1 f)1
tracts, admirably suited for the- production of corn, and the rearing of cattle and sl
lu mineral wealth the province ot Oumo is remarkably rich. Coal. iron, cupper. .-live;-,
lead, etc., have been found, and useful earths and clays are abundant. Gold !;as been
found in small quantities in other provinces of New Zealand, asin Auckland a::d Nelson
province; but by far the most important gold-liclds of the colony are in the province of
Otago. Gold was first discovered here by Mr. Gabriel Read in June, 1S61, in a gully,
since called Gabriel's gully, on the Tuapeka. an ailment of the Clulha, in a direct line
37 m. w. of Dunedin. Head placed his discovery in the hands of government. and was
presented by the provincial council with £500 as a reward. In less tliau two months
from the discovery of gold 3,000 people were at work in the Tuapeka vail: y. and were
obtaining 6.000 oz. a week. From this lime gold-mining became a staple employment.
A "rush" was made from Australia; Dunedin, formerly the village-capital of the prov-
ince, now rapidly increased in si/.e and trade, new lields were discovered, and the immi-
gration-lists were immensely swelled. From June, 1861, to June, 186o. 700.000 oz.,
worth nearly £3,000,000, were obtained. The most productive gold-field hitherto dis-
covered is the Arrow river district, in the vicinity of lake AVakatik. This district was
made known in Nov., 1862, and from that time to the end of Oct., 18r:J. 2:.V7,r>.">5 oz. —
value £955,620 — were forwarded to Dunedin by escort. The value of thrirold e.\p >rtcd
from Otago up to the end of 1876 was £13,602,266; in 1876 it was £487,632. In ls74the
imports amounted in value to £2,835,334; the exports to £2,004,322. Gold, wool, tim-
ber, and agricultural produce are the principal articles of export. lu agriculture, the
chief growths are wheat, oats, barley, potatoes, and hay. In 1875 the extent of land
under cultivation, and the amount of these products of the farm, were reported to be as
follows: wheat, 28,116 acres, supplying 980,128 Im.-hels; oats, SO. 7*8 acre- 8.018.148
bushels; barley, 5,055 acres, 168,437 bushels; potatoes, 3,342 acres, 18.4'.'0 tons; hay,
7.592 acres, 11,899 tons. The tirst band of settlers reached the shores of Oiauo in the
spring of 1848. The capital is Dunedin (q.v.). The population of this city and
urbs, Roslyn and Caversham, was, in 1871. 21,511. Otago was originally a <
connected with the free church of Scotland; but the influx of immigrants consequent on
the discovery of gold has obliterated its distinctive character.
OTAHEI TE. See TAHITI.
OTAL GIA (Gr. ot, the ear, and algos, pain) is neuralgia of the ear. It occurs in fits
of excruciating pain, shooting over the head and face, but it is not accompanied by
fever, nor usually by any sensation of throbbing. Its causes and treatment arc tl
neuralgia generally, but it is particularly caused by caries of the teeth, which should
always be carefully examined by a dentist in these cases. When patients complain of
earaclie, the pain is far more commonly due to otitis, or inflammation of the ty;
portion of the ear, a much more serious affection.
O'TAEY, Otaria, a genus of the seal family (Phoeitle), distinguished from the ro^t of
the family by a projecting auricle or auditory conch (often popularly called '•ext'-nml
ear"), and by a very remarkable character, a double cutting edge in the four middle
upper incisors. The membrane which unites the toes of the hind-feet is prolonged into
a flap beyond each toe. The fore-legs, as if intended exclusively for swimmimr. are
placed further back in the body than in the true seals, giving the otaries I he appearance
of having a longer neck. The hind-legs are more like the fore-legs than in the irue
seals. — The SEA-LION (0. jubnta or 0. Stellcri) of the northern seas'is about 15 ft. in
length, and weighs about 16 cwt. It inhabits the eastern shores of Kamichatka. the
Kurile islands, etc., and is in some places extremely abundant. It is partially miuiaiory,
removing from its most northern quarters on the approach of winter. It is to be found
chiefly on rocky coasts and islet rocks, on the ledges of which it climbs, and iis roaring
is sometimes useful in warning sailors of danger. It is much addicted to roaring, which,
as much as the mane of the old males, has obtained for it the name of sea lion. The
head of this animal is large; the eyes very large; the eyebrows bushy: the hide thick;
the hair coarse, and reddish; a heavy mass of stiff, curly, crisp hair on the neck and
shoulders. The old males have a fierce aspect, yet they flee in great precipitation i'rom
man; but if driven to extremities, they light furiously. Sea lions are capable oi being
tamed, and become very familiar with man. They are polygamous, but a male rencr-
ally appropriates to himself only two or three females. They feed on fish and the
smaller seals.— The sea-lion of the southern seas, om-e supposed to be the same, is now
generally believed to be a distinct species, and, indeed, more than one specie- are i-up-
posed to inhabit the southern seas. — The URSINE SEAL, URSINE OTAKY, or S;
itrsiiia), is an inhabitant of the northern Pacific. It is scarcely 8 ft. long. The hinder
limbs being better developed than in most of the seals, it can stand and walk almost like
a land quadruped. The muzzle is prominent, the mouth small, the lips tumid, the
whiskers long; the tip of the tongue is bifurcated, the eyes are large, the skin is thick.
the hair long, erect, and thick, with a soft umlerclothing'of wool. The food consists of
sea-otters, small seals, and fish. The ursine seal is polygamous, a strong male ap|>r<.n ia
ting to himself from eight to fifty females. It swims with great swiftm-—. !' is tierce
and courageous. Its skin is much prized for clothing in the regions in which it abounds.
As in the case of the sea-lion, it is doubtful if the geographical range of the sea-bear
extends to the southern seas, or if it is represented there by a similar species. Several
1 AX Otalieite.
Otlimuu.
other species of otary are inhabitants of the Pacific and Souchern oceans. The FUR
SEAL (O.falklandica) is one of these. It is found on the Falkland islands, South Shet-
land, etc. It is of along and slender form, with broad head, and clothed with a soft,
compact, grayish-brown hair, amongst which is a very soft, brownish fur. It is grega-
rious and polygamous. When South Shetland was first visited, its seals had no apprehen-
sion of danger, and unsuspectingly remained whilst their fellows were slain and skinned;
but they have since learned to be upon their guard. The skin of the fur seal is in great
demand, chiefly for ladies' mantles, and was much used for making a kind of soft fur
cap, which was very common thirty or forty years ago,
OTCHAKOV, a small t. and sea-port of South Russia, in the government of Kherson,
surrounded on all sides by a barren steppe, stands at the western extremity, and on the
n. shore, of the estuary of the Dnieper, 40 in. e.n.e. of Odessa. It traces its founda-
tion to the very earliest times, and is supposed by some to be the spot where stood the
Grecian colony Olbia; by others, to be Tom'i, the scene of Ovid's banishment. At the
end of the loth c., the khan of the Crimea built here a strong fortress. Its present name
occurs for the first time in 1557. During the Russian wars with Turkey in the 18th c.,
Otchakov was alternately the property of each, until it was taken by Potemkin in 1788,
and definitively annexed to the Russian dominions. The vicinity of Odessa is fatal to
the development of foreign commerce at its port. Pop. '67, 5,140, the greater part of
whom are Jews, and are employed in salting fish for transport to Little Russia.
OTEY, JAMES HKKVEY, D.D., 1800-63; b. Va, ; a graduate of the university of North
Carolina, Chapel Hill, class of 1820; ordained minister in the Protestant Episcopal
church 1825. and the first minister of that faith settled in Tennessee. In 1834 he became
bishop of Tennessee, and labored in Mississippi, Louisiana, and Alabama, with great
success, among the white population and natives. Through the s. and s.w. he bore the
title of "the good bishop." At the outset of the war of the rebellion he wrote a letter of
remonstrance to the U. S. secretary of state concerning coercive measures on the part of
the federal government, which he disapproved, and received a reply that materially
changed his views, so that subsequently he acted with the north. He 'published a num-
ber of charges, sermons, speeches, and addresses; The Unity of the Church; T he Ministry ;
The Apoatvlical Succession; and* Three Discourses.
OTFRIED, a German poet, who was b. in the 9th century. He was a Frank by
birth; studied at Fulda till 848; then lived many years in St. Gall, and finally became a
monk in a Benedictine monastery at Weisseulmrg, Alsace. While there he wrote his
Liber etangetiorum, a poetical paraphrase of the gospels, in four-lined rhymed stanzas.
The aim of this poem was to replace the heathenish ballads of the newly converted
Germans. It is the first rhymed poem we possess of the 9th c., and is chiefly valuable
as a stud}' of the German languag • of that time. The poem, which was probably
written before 868, was first published by M. Flacius (Basle, 1571). A translation into
modern German, by Kelle, appeared in '1870. For a historical sketch of this poem, and
the poetry of his time, see (Jtfried's Evanyelienbuch und die ubi-ige Althochdeutsche Poesit
Krolinrjixcher Zcit, by Rechenberg (1862).
OTHMAN, OTKOMAN, or OSMAX I., surnamed Al-g7iasi (" the conqueror") the founder
of the Turkish power, was b. in Bithynia in 1259. His father, Orthogrul, the chief of a
small tribe of Ogiizian Turks, had entered the service of Alla-ed-din Kaikobad, the
Seljuk sultan of Iconium, and had rendered important services to that monarch and his
successors in their wars with the Byzantines and Mongols. Orthogral dying in 1289,
after a rule of more than half a century, his tribe chose his son Osmau (i.e., the "young
bustard,") as his successor. Othman trod in his father's footsteps; and on the destruc-
tion of the sultanate of Iconium in 1299 by the Mongols, succeeded in obtaining posses-
sion of a portion of Bithynia. He had previously subjugated many of the neighboring
Ogu/ian chiefs, and this new accession of territory rendered him powerful enough to
attack the Byzantines with success. In July, 1299, he forced the passes of Olympus, and
took possession of the whole territory of Isicaea, writh the sole exception of the town of
that name, which resisted his efforts for five years longer. In 1301 he defeated the
emperor Andronicus II. at Baphaeon; in 1307 he incorporated the province of Marmara
in his dominions; and continued till his death, in 1326, steadily to pursue his plans of
conquest. " Othman," says Knollcs, "was wise, politic, valiant, and fortunate, but full of
dissimulation, and ambitious above measure; not rash in his attempts, and .yet very reso-
lute; to all men he was bountiful and liberal, especially to his men of war and to the poor.
Of a poor lordship, he left a great kingdom (Phrygia, Bythnia, and the neighboring
districts), having subdued a great part of Asia Minor, and is worthily accounted the
first founder of the Turks' great kingdom and empire." Othman assumed the title of
sultan (thouirh this is denied by many historians) on the extinction of the Iconian sul-
tanate in 1299, held his court at Kara-llissar, and struck money in his own name.
From him are derived the terms Ottomans, Othomans, and Osmanli or Osmaulu, which
are employed as synonymous with Turks. See OTTOMAN EMPIKE.
OTHMAN IBN AFFAN, third caliph of the Moslems, was b. about 574. He belonged
to the family of the prophet, and was cousin-german of Abu Sofian. One of the early
converts to Islam, he was one of its most zealous supporters, and linked himself still
Otlio.
106
more strongly to Mohammed by becoming his son-in-law and private secretary. ITc was
! to succeed Omar i;i the caliphate in Dec. 644, and a ir.o.-i unvorthy successor he
proved to be. The Moslem empire, however, continue d to extend itself on all side* lill
the insaneMiepotiMn of Odiman gave its progress a Midelcn clieck. The able and ener-
getic leaders who iiad been appointed by Omar were superseded by members of his own
family, ami of that of Abu Sofian ; and the consequences were what might have been
expected. Egypt revolted, and the caliph was compelled to reinstate Ainiu in the govern-
ment of that country, and several other rebellions were only quelled by a similar resioia-
tion of the previous governors. Zealous Moslems deeply deplored the folly of their
chief, and were indignant at .-veing the chair of the p.ophet occupied by Othmar, \\hiie
Abu-bekr, and even Omar, were accustomed to seat themselves two" steps In-low it.
Emboldened by the knowledge of his vacillating and cowardly disposition, they show-
ered upon 1dm reproaches and menaces; but the bearer of their remonstrances having
been bastinadoed by Othman's order, a general revolt ensued. Othnian averted the
crisis by unconditional submission; but having soon after attempted to put to death
Mohammed, the son of the caliph Abu-bekr, the latter made his appearance at Medina at
the head of a troop of malcontents, and forcing his way to the presence of Othnian,
stabbed him to the heart. Othman was of a mild and pacific disposition, but lie was at
the same time most ambitious of power, though after his accession to supreme authority,
he showed himself to be, either from age or natural imbecility, deplorably deficient in
those energetic virtues, without which the control of a warlike people and the manage-
ment of a mighty empire such as that of the Moslems, were utterly impossible. Othmaii
was the first to cause an authentic copy of the Koran to be composed.
OTHO, MARCUS SALVIUS, Roman emperor, was descended of an ancient Etruscan
family, and was b. 32 A.D. He was a favorite companion of Nero, who appointed him
governor of Lusitania, in which office he acquitted himfcelf creditably. On the revolt of
Galba against Nero, Otho joined himself to the former; but being disappointed in his
hope of being proclaimed Galba's successor, he marched at the head of a MI. all band of
soldiers to the forum, where he was proclaimed emperor, and Galba was slain, (51) A.D.
Otho was recognized ;;s emperor overall the Roman possessions, with the exception o!
Germany, where a large army was stationed under Vilellius. The first few weeks of his
reign were marked by an indulgence towards his personal enemies, and a devotion to
business, which, though at total variance with his usual habits, excited in the minds of
his subjects the most favorable hopes. But the tide of rebellion raised in Germany by
Valens and Csecina during the reign of Galba had by this time gathered strength. 'and
these commanders having prevailed upon Yitellius, who had become a mere goc.d-
humored glutton, to join his forces to theirs, the combined army poured into Italy.
Otho fortunately possessed several able generals, who repeatedly deleated the rebels; but
the prudence of some among them in restraining the enthusiasm of their troops, who
wished further to follow up their victories, was unfortunately considered as cowardice
or treason, and produced dissensions in Otho's camp. This state of matters becoming
known to the generals of Vitellius, encouraged them to unite their armies, and fall upon
the forces of Otho. An obstinate engagement took place near the junction of the Adda
and the Po, in which the army of Otho was completely routed, and the relics of it went
over on the following day to the side of the victor. Otho. though by no means reduced
to extremity, resolved to make no further resistance; settled his affairs with the utmost
deliberation; and then stabbed himself, April 15, 69 A.D.
OTHO I., second son of Ludwig, king of Bavaria, was b. at Sal/burg, June 1. 1815,
and on the erection of Greece into a kingdom in 1832, A\as appointed by the protecting
powers king of Greece. Till he attained" his majority, the government was intrusted to
a regency, which was unable to suppress intern::! disorder, or counteract the diplomatic
intrigues of foreign powers. On assuming the government in lSi!5 Otho transferred the
court from Nauplia to Athens, and passed into law several important measures, -which
afforded the most lively satisfaction to his subjects. During a visit to Geimany in ls:{fi,
he married the princess Amalie of Oldenburg. A monetary crisis, pnnokcd partly by
false administrative measures, and partly by too prompt demands for repayment on the
part of the protecting powers, threw the affairs of Greece into confusion, and materially
weakened the king's popularity. A national reaction against the Germanizing tenden-
cies of the court followed, ami resulted in 1843 in a military rf\ohnion. which was sup-
pressed. Otho now attempted to soothe the general discontent by taking the oath to the
new constitution of Mar. 30, 1844, but his efforts were only partially successful. Though
the Bavarian ministers were dismissed, the king and his Greek advisers showed the aiOSl
reactionary tendencies, and attempted in various ways to curtail the privileges which
the new constitution had conferred on the people. The equivocal position in which he
was placed, in 1853, between the allied powers on the one hand, and his subjects, whose
sympathies were strongly in favor of Russia, on the other, greatly increased the difficul-
ties of his situation. The occupation of the Piraeus by Anglo-French troops enabled
him to restrain the enthusiasm of his subjects; but after their withdrawal in IS-"/;, he
was obliged to adopt severe measures against the frontier brigands. His council, too,
was composed of men unable or unwilling to support him. and his position became \ ei;r
by year more and more difficult. The strong pro-Russiauism of the queen rendered her
107
Otho.
for some time a favorite; but the belief that Otho's absolute measures were due tc her
instigation, turned the tide of popular hatred so strongly agaiust her, that attempts were
made on her life. The general discontent *tt last found vent in insurrections at Nauplia
and Syra in 18G2, which were soon suppressed. A more formidable insurrection in the
districts of Missolonghi, Acarnania, Elis, and Me.ssenia, having for its object the expul-
sion of the reigning dynasty, broke out in October of the same year, and in a few days
extended «to the whole of Greece. .Otho and his queen fled io Sahunis, from which
place he issued a proclamation declaring that he quitted Greece to avoid the effusion of
of blood, and a provincial government was then established. This government, in Feb.,
1863, resigned irs executive power to the national assembly, which confirmed its acts,
and decreed that prince Alfred of England had been duly elected king of Greece. On
the refusal of this prince to accept the throne, their choice fell on prince William of
Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Gliicksbiirg. the second son of Christian IX., king of
Denmark, who under the title of George 1., king of the Hellenes, in Sept., 1863, assumed
the functions of royalty. Otho died July 26, 18(57.
OTHO I., or the great, son of the emperor Henry I. of Germany, was b. in 913, and
after having been early recognized as his successor, was, on the death of his father in
930, formally crowned king of the Germans. His reign was one succession of eventful
and generally tiiumphant wars, in the course of which he brought many turbulent tribes
under subjection, acquired and maintained almost supreme power in Italy, where he
imposed laws with equal success on the kuigs of Lombardy and the popes at Home, con-
solidated the disjointed power of the German emperors, and established Christianity at
many different points in the Scandinavian and Slavonic lands, which lay beyond the
circuit of his own jurisdiction. His earliest achievement was a successful war against
the Bohemian duke Boleslas, whom he reduced to subjection, and forcibly converted to
Christianity; next, the dukes of Bavaria and Frauconia were compelled to succumb to
liis power; the former paying the penalty of his opposition to Otho by defeat and
death in buttle, and the latter by the confiscation of his territories, which, together with
the other lapsed and recovered fiefs of the empire, were bestowed on near and devoied
relatives of the conqueror. After subduing the Slavi of the Order and Spree, for who>e
Christian regeneration he founded the bishoprics of Havel burg and Brandenburg, driving
the Danes beyond the Eyder, compelling their defeated king to return to the Christian
faith and do homage to himself; and after founding, at the suggestion of his mother's
former chaplain, Adeldag, the bishoprics of Aarhuus, Ribe, and Sleswick, which he de-
creed were forever to be free from all burdens and imposts, he turned his attention to the
affairs of Italy. Here he presented himself as the champion of the beautiful Adelheid,
the widow of the murdered king Lothaire; and having defeated her importunate suitor,
Berengar II. (q.v.), married her, and assumed supreme power over the north of Itaby in
951. The v.'ars to which this measure gave rise obliged Otho frequently to cross the
Alps; but at length after a great victory gained over the Huns in 955, and the defeat
and capture of Berengar, Olho was acknowledged king of Italy by a diet held at
Milan; and after being crowned with the iron crown of Lombardy, was, in 962, reeog-
ni/.i'd by pope John XII. as the successor of Charlemagne, and crowned emperor of the
west at Rome. Otho lost no time in asserting his imperial prerogatives; and having
called a council, effected the deposition of John, whose licentiousness had become a
burden to Italy and a scandal to Christendom and caused Leo VIII. to be elected in his
place. Fresh wars were the result of this step. Popes and antipopes distracted the
peace of Rome; but through all these disorders Olho maintained the supremacy
which he claimed as emperor of the west in regard to the election of popes and the
temporal concerns of the Roman territories. His later years were disturbed by domestic
differences', for his elder son, Ludolph, and his son-in-law, Konrad of Lorraine, having
risen in rebellion against him, through jealousy of his younger son and intended suc-
cessor. Otho. the empire was distracted by civil war. Although the war terminated in
the defeat of the rebels, and the recognition of young Otho as king of the Germans, and
Uis coronation at Rome, in 967, as joint emperor with his father, Otho's favorite scheme
of uniting the richly-dowried Greek princess, Theophania, with the young prince met
with such contempt from the Greek emperor that his outraged pride soon again plunged
him into war. His inroads into Apulia and Calabria, however, proved convincing argu-
ments in favor of the marriage, and Theophania became the wife of young Otho, with
Calabria and Apulia for her dowry. Otho died at Minsleben, in Thuringia, in 973, and
was buried at Magdeburg, leaving the character of a great and just ruler, who had
extended the limits of the empire, and restored the prestige of the imperial power more
nearly to the stand which it occupied under Charlemagne than any other emperor. He
created the duchy of Carinthia, and the mark-grafdoms of cast and north Saxony;
appointed counts-palatine; founded cities and bishoprics; and did good service to the
empire, in reorganizing the shaken foundations of its power in Europe. See Vehse's
Leben Kaiaev Otno's de# Grossen (Dresd. 1837).
OTHO II., surnamed Rufns, "the red," son of Otho I., was b. in 955, and succeeded
his father in 973. For a time Otho was content to rule under the regency of his mother,
the empress Adelheid: but differences bavins arisen between them, through the head-
strong and ambitious inclinations of the young monarch, his mother withdrew from all
Otho. 1 AQ
Otis.
share in the administration, and left him to the exercise of his own will, which
brought him into collision with the great vassals of the crown. Civil war broke out i::n;cr
the leadersliip of Henry II. of Havana, who formed a secret alliance a^ain.-t the \
emperor with Harold, king of Denmark, and Micislav of Poland, and for a time fortune
inclined to the side of the rebels; but Otlio's astuteness circumvented their tii
and after defeating Henry, and depriving him of his duchy, he marched again.-t :he
Danish king, who had been making successful iueurMntis iulo Saxony. ()ili.i'> lir-t
attack on the Dannevirke having proved of no avail, he retired, vowing that he would
return before another year and force every Dane to forswear pagani-m. Otho kept
his promise, returning to the attack the following year, when, according to the old
chroniclers, acting by the advice of his' all}', Olaf Tryg\e<en of Norway, he (
la :•;.••'' quantities of trees, brush-wood, and stubble to be piled up against the Dannevirke,
and set on fire, and this drove away the defenders, and destroyed their i'ortilieaiions.
The defeated Harold was soon overpowered by the superior numbers of the Germans, and
compelled to receive baptism, as the badge of his defeat. The next scene of war was
Lorraine, which the French king, Lothaire, had seized as a former appanage of Ids
crown; but here, after a partial defeat, Otho succeeded in reasserting his power; and
not content with this advantage, devastated Champagne, pursued and captured Lothaire
and advanced upon Paris, one of the suburbs of which lie burned. Scare* ly was this war
ended when the disturbed condition of Italy called Otho across the Alps. II is pres-
ence put a stop to the insurrection at Milan and Koine, where here-established order;
and having advanced into lower Italy, he defeated the Saracens, drove back the Greeks,
and having re established his supremacy in Apulia and Calabria, which he claimed in
right of his wife, Theophania, made himself master of Naples and Salerno, and linally
of Tarentum, in 982. The Greek emperor, alarmed at the successful ambition of Otho.
called the Saracens again into Italy, who gave him battle with overwhelming num-
bers. The result was the total defeat of the emperor, who only escaped from the hands
of the victors by plunging with his horse into the sea. and swimming, at the risk of his
life, to a ship. Unluckily it was a Greek ship, and Otho was virtually a prisoner;
but as the vessel neared Rossano, a friendly port, he contrived to escape by a cunning
stratagem. Otho now hastened to Verona, where a diet was held, which was numer-
ously attended by the princes of Germany and Italv, and at which his iiii'ant sou. O;ho,
was recognized as his successor. This diet is chiefly memorable for the confirmation by
Otho of the franchises and privileges of the republic of Venice, and the ena>
of many new laws, which were added to the celebrated Lougobard code. ( <
death at Rome, at the close of the same year, 983, arrested the execution of the vast prep-
arations against the Greeks and Saracens, which had been planned at the d
Verona, and left the empire embroiled in wars and internal disturbances.
hrecht's Jahrbucher des Deutschen Reichs unter der Il&rrschaft, Kaiser Otho's II. (Jjcrl.
1840).
OTHO III., who was only three years old at his father's death, was at once crowned
king of the Germans at Aix-la-Chapelle in 983, from which period till 9%. when he
received the imperial crown at Rome, the government was adminislcred with extraordi-
nary skill and discretion by three female relatives of the boy-king — viz., his mother,
Theophania; his grandmother, Adelheid; and his aunt. Matilda, abbess of Quedling-
burg, who, in conjunction with the learned Willegis, archbishop of Main/,, directed his
education. The princes of the imperial family disputed the right of these royal ladies
to the custody of the young king; and Henry of Bavaria, the nearest agnate, having
seized the person of 6tho, tried to usurp the supreme power; but opposed by the
majority of the other princes of the empire, he was compelled to release him, in consid-
eration of receiving back his forfeited duchy. Otho early showed that he had
inherited the great qualities of his forefathers, and when scarcely 15 years of age, at the
head of his army, defeated the troops of the patrician Crescentius, the self-styled consul
of Rome, and thus restored order in the Roman territories. In 996 he was crowmd
emperor by his relative Gregory V.; and having settled the affairs of Italy returned to
Germany, where he defeated the Slaves, who had long carried on war against the empire;
and having forced Micislav, duke of Poland, tc do him homage, he subsequently raised
the Polish territories to the rank of a kingdom, in favor of Micislav's successor, Bo'
The renewed rebellion of Crescentius, who drove Gregory from the papal throne, com-
pelled Otho. to return to Italy, where success, as usual," attended his measures. Cre-
scentius, who had thrown himself into St. Angelo, was seized and beheaded, together
with twelve of his chief adherents; the antipope, John XVI., imprisoned; Gregory
restored; and on the speedy death of the latter, Otho's old tutor, Gherbcrt, arch-
bishop of Ravenna, raised to the papacy under the title of Sylvester II. Otho elated
with his success, took up his residence in Rome, where he organized the govern-
ment, erected new buildings, and showed every disposition, notwithstanding the ill-con-
cealed dissatisfaction of the Romans, to convert their city into the capital of the western
empire. The near approach of the year 1000, to which so many alarming prophecies
were then believed to point as the end of the world, induced Otho to undertake a
pilgrimage to the Holy Land, where he founded an archbishopric. On his return, after
visiting Charlemagne's grave at Aix-!a-Chapelle, and removing the consecrated cross,
Otho.
Otis.
from the emperor's neck, he again repaired to Rome, te consolidate his
of establishing a Roman empire. The insurrection of the Romans frustrated
his plans, and escaping from Rome at the risk of his life, he withdrew to Ravenna, to
await the arrival of powerful re-enforcements from Germany: hut before they had crossed
the Alps, Otho died in 1003, at the age of 22, apparently from poison, which was
said to have been administered to him by the widow of Cresceutius, who, it is said, had
deliberately set herself to win his affections that she might have an opportunity of
avenging the death of her husband; and with him the male branch of the Saxon imperial
house became extinct. See Wilmau's Jahrbucher des Deutxcheti Iteichs unter Kaiser Otto
III. (fieri. 1840).
OTHO IV., 1174-1218; b. Germany; son of Henry the lion, duke of Bavaria, and
Matilda, sister of Richard Coeur-de-Lion. He was duke of Saxony in 1197, when the
emperor Henry VI. died, leaving an infant heir, Frederick II. Olho was supported by
the Guelphs as a candidate for tiie throne, while the Ghibellines supported Philip duke of
S\vabia. A civil war of eight years resulted, which ended by Otho's flight to England,
where he took refuge with his uncle, king John of England. Philip remained on the
throne till 1207, when he was assassinated, and Otho returned; his claims were recognized
by Innocent III., who crowned him at Rome in 1209. Innocent had refused to perform
the act of coronation, till Otho swore to give up to the church the right to the nomina-
tion to certain benefices. The emperor broke his oath, and was excommunicated by the
pope. About the same time tne German princes deposed Otho, in favor of the lawful
heir, Frederick II., king of Sicily and Naples. After an unsuccessful struggle Otho with-
drew to his estates in Brunswick, where he passed the last part of his life in penitential
exercises.
OTIC GANGLION, one of the four cephalic sympathetic ganglia, the other three
being Meckcl's, the ophthalmic and the submaxillary (q.v.). The otic, or Arnold's
ganglion, is a small oval, flattened mass of reddish-gray color situated immediately below
the foramen ovale. See SKULL, ante. It is connected with the inferior maxillary nerve,
by which it obtains its motor root, and with the auriculo-tcmporal nerve, from which
it derives its sensory root. Its communication with the sympathetic is by a filament from
a plexus which surrounds the middle meningeal artery. This ganglion also communi-
cates with the glosso-pharyngeal and facial nerves. It distributes brandies to the
tensor muscle of the tympanum, and to the tensor muscle of the palate.
OTID5D, a group of birds, usually classed as a family, but in this work as a genus,
otis, comprising the bustards (q.v.).
OTIS, GEORGE ALEXANDER, b. Mass., 1830; studied at Princeton, and at the uni-
versity of Pennsylvania, after which he went to Paris and London to study surgery,
remaining two years. In 1853 he published the Virginia Medical Journal, and in 1861
became a surgeon in the army: in 1864 he served under the surgeon-gen, at Washington.
In 1867 he published an article on Amputation of the Hip Joint, and in 1869, Excisions of
the Head of the Femur for Injury. In 1871 he collated a Report of Surgical Cases Treated
in the Army of the U. S. from 1867 to 1871, and later was appointed curator of the army
medical museum, ifis collections and reports have great-value.
OTIS, HARRISON GRAY, 1765-1848; b. Boston; nephew of James. He was educated
at Harvard college, admitted to the bar in 1786, and 10 years later represented Boston in
the Massachusetts house of representatives. He entered congress in 1797 as tlie successor
of Fisher Ames, and remained for two terms a recognized leader of the federal party. In
1801 he became U. S. district attorney fcr Massachusetts from 1803 to 1805; he was
speaker of the state house of representatives, and president of the state senate 1805-11.
In 1814, as chairman of a committee of the legislature, he made a report advising a gene-
ral convention of the New England states, to devise some method of relief for the dis-
aster brought upon them by the war with Great Britian. See HARTFORD CONVENTION.
He took an active part in the proceedings of that convention, at its sessions in Hartford,
and was one of the commissioners sent to Washington by Massachusetts to lay the case
of the New England slates before the federal authorities. In 1814 he became an
associate justice of the state court of common pleas, resigning in 1818 to enter the U. S.
senate. He was elected mayor of Boston in 1829. In the senate he opposed the further
extension of slavery, distinguishing himself in the discussion of the Missouri compromise.
He was as strongly opposed to abolition, and the antislavery agitation, as to the exten-
sion of siavery. He published, in 1824, Letters in Defense of 'the Hartford Convention.
He left public life in 1832.
OTIS, JAMES, 1702-78; b. Mass.; son of judge John. He did not receive a college
education, but studying law, rose to a high rank in his profession. He was prominent
in the disputes between the colonies and the crown, and a warm advocate of the rights
of the former. He was elected to the legislature in 1758, and was its speaker for the
sessions of 1760 and 1761, when Bernard the royal governor, interposed his negative.
Otis asked Bernard for the place of associate justice, on the death of chief -justice
Sewall in 1760, but was refused. In 1763 Otis was made probate judge of Barustable
Co., and the next year chief-justice of the common pleas; about the same time he was
chosen a member of the council, and speaker of the house. Bernard refused to ratify
Otis. I 1 A
Ot i an to.
his election, and Otis was re-elected and negatived every year till 1770. Ilulchinson,
then lieut.gov., sanctioned the election in that year. During the first years of the revolu-
tionary war Otis was senior member and president of the council.
OTIS, JAMKS, 1725-83; b. Great Mar.-hes. now West r.arnstablc, Mas-. : graduated
nt ilirvard college in 174o; studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 171s. He at
firs!, practiced at Plymouth, but settled in Boston in 1748. In 17151. when he was advo-
cate general, the point came up for argument, whether persons engaged in carrying out
the acts of trade were entitled to receive assistance from the executive departments
ot' the colony. Otis was convinced of the illegality of the writs of assistance, ai;d
rearmed rather than argue in their defense. He was immediately engaged to argue
agiinst them, which he did in an argument of great force and eloquence.: the judges
reserved their decision, but no more writs were enforced, thouirh >ome were i
The resignation, of Otis, and his plea in behalf of the popular .-ide of the writs of-as.-i-t-
anc" controversy, gave him a high reputation for ability and eloquence, which he more
than maintained in the legislature, to which he was elected next year. lie s .,ou came to
beregmled the ablest leader of the popular party in Massachusetts, .lum; 0, ]"
made a motion which was carried, that a congress of representatives from the various
colonies should be convened, In pursuance of this measure a circular letter was .-cut,
inviting the colonies to join in a congress, and the stamp act congress, which met in
New York, in the: fall of 1765, was the result. Otis took part in the proceedings of this
body, and served on the committee which framed an address to the house of commons.
He was chosen speaker of the legislature in 1767, but the governor interposed his nega-
tive. In 1768, after the passage through parliament of Charles Townshend's bill for the
taxation of the colonies, the Massachusetts house of representatives sent a .second circu-
lar letter to the other colonies, calling on them to join in some common plan for protect ion.
It was in answer to the message of Bernard, the royal governor, demanding that the
circular be recalled, that Otis made a notable speech, condemned by the pariisans of the
crown, as "the most violent, insolent, abusive, and treasonable declaration that- perhaps
was ever delivered." Only 17 members voted to recall the, circular. In 1769th
toms commissioners accused him in England, of treason. This coming to the notice of
Oiis, in the summer of 1769, ho publicly denounced the commissioners, in the Boston
'/ i '•'<;. Meeting Robinson, one of the commissioners, in a coffee-room the next night,
became involved in a dispute with him. An affray was' the result, in which Otis was
severely handled, and received a cut on the head, which is supposed to have been the
cause of his subsequent insanity. He sued Robinson, and recovered i'i.OOO'dan-.
He relinquished this sum. however, in consideration of a written apology from Robin-
son. After a short residence in the count.y for the benefit of his health, he returned ~n
the legislature in 1771. He was insane for the greater p-.rt of his life subsequently, with
the exception of a short interval, when he went back to Boston and resumed the practice
of his profession. The last two years of his life were spent at Andover, and there lie was
killed by lightning, while standing at the door of his house. He published in 17fi'i. a.
treatise on flie Rudiments of Latin Prosody, A Vindication of the <
of Representatives, 1762; The Rights of the British Colonies Asserted, 1704; an:l C</i>
ations on Behalf of the Golnniite; 1765.
OTIS, JOHX, 1657-1727; b. Mass. ; represented the t. of Barnstable in the legislature for
20 years. He was chief justice of the common pleas, the first judge of p-ohaie for IJ.irn-
stable co., and commander of the co. militia. He sat in the council from 1706 till his
death.
OTI TIS, or inflammation of the tympanic cavity of the ear, may be either acute or
chronic, and it may come on during the course of certain febrile affections, especially
scarlatina, or in consequence of a scrofulous, rheumatic, or gouty constitution; or it may
be excited by direct causes, as exposure to currents of cold air, violent syiinging or
probing, etc. The symptoms of the acute form are sudden and intense pain in tl.
increased by couglung. sneezing, or swallowing, tinnitus annum, or singing or bux/.ing
noises heard by the patient, and more or less deafness. If the disease goes on unchecked,
suppuration takes place, and the membrane of the tympanum ulcerates, and allo
the discharge of pus, or inflammation of the dura mater, and accesses in the brai..
be established. In less severe cases there is usually a considerable amount of per
damage, and an obstinate discharge of matter (otorrhed) is a frequent sequence of the
disease.
The treatment of so serious an affection must be left solely in the hands of the medical
practitioner.
The symptoms of the chronic and less acute varieties of otit is are unfortunately --o
slight, that they nrc often neglected, until the patient finds the sense of hearing in one
or both cars almost completely gone. In these milder forms of otitis, the general indica-
tions of treatment are to combat the diathesis on which they frequently depend, and to
improve the general health. Very small doses of mercury continued fur a considerable
time (such as one grain of gray powder night and morning), and small blisters occasion-
ally applied to the nape of the neck or to the ma>toid process, are often of service in
very chronic cases. If there is any discharge, the ear should be gently syringed once or
twice a day with warm water, after which a tepid solution of sulphate of zinc (one grain
I 1 1 Otis.
OtraatO.
to an ounce of water) may be dropped into the meatus, and allowed to remain there two
«r three minutes.
OT LEY, a small market t. of England, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, on the right
bank of the Whart'e, 29 m. w.s.w. of York. Its parish church was built in 1507. Exten-
sive cattle and grain markets are held here. Worsted spinning and weaving, machine-
makin<r, and the manufacture of malt, bricks, and leather, are the main occupations.
Pop. '71 5,855.
O TOE, a co. in s.e. Nebraska, adjoining Iowa, bounded on the e. by the Missouri
river, watered by the Little Nemaha river and its branches, and traversed by the
Nebraska railroad; about 650 sq. m., pop. '80, 15,760-^12,846 of American birth. The
surface is diversified, and heavily timbered. The soil is fertile. The principal produc-
tions are corn, wheat, oats, hay, and barley. Co. seat, Nebraska City.
OTOES, or OTTOES, one of the eight tribes of southern Sioux Indians, known first by
the French, who called them Otontanta. They live upon the land watered by the Mis-
souri river, and claim to have gone there with the Wiuuebagoes. Fora long time they
lived in the region of the Platle river, in a village of earth-covered huts. They made
treaties with tlie whites in 1817 and 1825. They were originally a part of the Missouris,
and for some years past they have been joined to them, both tribes living in the same
village. The total number in the two tribes was less than 500 in 1873. The Otoes
adhere to their original customs and dress, and the efforts of Christian missionaries have
produced no special results, i
OTO LITHUS, a genus of fishes of the family Scmnid<B(q.v.), having a perch-like form,
a convex head, with cellular bones, feeble anal spines, no barbels, long curved teeth or
cai< I nes among the other teeth. A valuable species of this genus is the WEAK-FISH, or
SQUKTEAGTJE (0. regalis), which is common on the eastern coasts of North America, from
the gulf of Mexico to the gulf of St. Lawrence, and attains a length of 2 feet. It
coasts only in the warmer part of the year. It swims in shoals near the surface, takes
bait greedily, and may be readily taken by any soft bait. It enters the mouths of rivers
wht.Tt.- the water is brackish. The flesh is pleasant, but soon gets soft. Excellent ising-
glass is made of the air-bladder. — A number of species of Otolithus are- found in the East
Indian seas, some of which are valuable for the isinglass which is made from their air-
bladder, and some are much used its food, both fresh and dried.
OTOMIS, or OTHOMIS, the most widely scattered and oldest known of all Mexican
t:i!i"s, inhabiting the states of Queretaro, Guanaxuato, and Hidalgo, small bands of them
also being found in Puebla, Vera Cruz, San Luis Potosi, and Michoagan. They occu-
pied the valley of Mexico until the time of the incursion of the Toltecs, who vanq\::
them and forced them to the mountains; years later they recovered their possessions.
They were afterwards driven out by the Aztecs, who were not able, however, to hold the
territory acquired. Gen. Zarazo was sent to conquer them in 1686, but was defeated and
killed in the Sierra Gorda. Ardela reduced them to submission in 1715. They were a
rude people, but learned something of civilization from their conquerors; and Conni,
one of their chiefs and the founder of Queretaro, became a concert to Christianity. Tliey
have usually submitted to Spanish rule, and many of them are now numbered among
the Mexican citizens and speak the Spanish language as well as their own, which is con-
si; lered Hie harshest and most guttural of Indian dialects, and has been thought by many
to be a kindred language to the Chinese.
OTOKRHEA signifies a purulent or muco-purulent discharge from the external ear.
It may be due to various causes, of which the most frequent is catarrhal inflammation
of the lining membrane of the meatus, and the next in frequency is otitis (q.v.) in its
various forms. If the discharge is very fetid, a weak solution of chloride of lime, or of
Condy's disinfectant fluid, may be used in place of the solution of sulphate of zinc
•.mended in article OTITIS; and in obstinate cases of catarrhal inflammation of the
lining mr-mbrano, the discharge may often be checked by penciling the whole interior
of tlie meatus with a solution of five grains of nitrate of silver in an ounce of water.
OTRANTO (the ancient Hyclruntum), a small town on the s.e. coast of the province of
MIC name, 24 m. s.e. of Lecce. During the latter period of the Roman empire, and
ail through the middle ages, it was the chiff port of Italy on the Adriatic, whence pas-
s"nuvr.s took ship for Greece — having in this respect supplanted the famous Brundusium
of earlier times. In 1480 it was taken by the Turks, and at that time it was a flourish-
ing city of 20,000 inhabitants; but it has long been in a decaying condition, principally
on account of malaria. Otranto possesses a castle and a cathedral. Its harbor is unsafe.
In clear weather the coast of Albania is visible from Otranto. Pop. about 2,000.
OTRANTO, DUKE OF. See FOUCHE, ante.
OTRA'NTO, TERRA m, now called LECCE, the extreme south-eastern province of
Italy, forming the heel of the Italian boot, is bounded on the n.w. by the provinces of
Bari and Basilicata, and surrounded on all other sides by the sea. 'Area, 3,293 sq.m. ;
pjp. '71, 493,263. It occupies the ancient lapygian or Messapian peninsula, and is 102
m. in length, and from 25 to 35 m. in breadth. Three parts of its surface are covered
with hills, offsets from the Apennines of Basilicata. All the rivers are short, many of
Oitemlorfer.
-119
*44'
them being tost in the marshes of the interior; but abundant springs and heavy dc\vs
render the soil surprisingly fertile. Good pasture-lands and dense forests occur. The
climate is pleasant and healthy, except along the shores, both on the e. and \v. <•
and in the vicinity of the marshes, which in summer generate malaria. An abundance
of best wine, with corn and olive-oil, are produced; tobacco (the best irn>\\n in Italy),
cotton, and rigs, almonds oranges, etc., are also produced. The capital is Lccce (q.v.).
OTSEGO, a co. in the n. part of the s. peninsula of Michigan; drained by the Che-
boygan and An Sable rivers, both of which rise in small lakes of the co. ; traversed by
tin- .Jackson, Lansing and Saginaw railroad; 540 sq. miles. The surface is rolling and
fairly fertile, but not well developed. Co. seat, Otsego.
OTSEGO, a co. in s.e. central New York; drained by the Unndilla river, its n.
boundary, the Susquehanna, which takes its rise in lake Otsego, and several le.--s impor-
tant streams; traversed by the Cooperstown and Susquehanna, and Albany and S'usque-
hanna railroads; 960 sq.m.; pop. '80, 51,398 — 48,753 of American birth. The surface i>
uneven. Large forests of oak, beech, elm, sugar-maple, and other trees cover about one-
fourth of its extent. Hops, oats, potatoes, and dairy products are the staples. The
Onoudaca building limestone is found in abundance. Co. seat, Cooperstown.
OTSEGO LAKE, in Otsego co., N. Y., abounding in fish, 74- m. long, 1| m. wide;
1193 ft. above the level of the sea. High hills surround the greater portion of the lake;
the waters are clear, and the scenery is picturesque. It empties into a fork of the Sus-
quehanna river, which rises near. Cooperstown is at the s. end of the lake near its
outlet.
OTTAWA, one of the largest rivers of British North America, rises in lat. 48° CO' n.,
long. 75° w., in the watershed on the opposite side of which rise the St. Maurice and
Snguenay. After a course of above 600 in., it falls into the St. Lawrence by two mouths,
which form the island of Montreal; and the entire region drained by it and iis tributaries
measures about 80,000 sq.m. (Gcol. Hep. for 1845-46, p. 13). During its course, it widens
into numerous lakes of considerable size, and is fed by many important tributaries, such
as the Mattawa, Mississippi, Madawasca, and Kideau on the right, the Galincau and the
rivieres du Moine and du Lievre on the left side. These, with the Ottawa itself. Form
the means of transit for perhaps the largest lumber-trade in the world, while the < Icar
ances of the lumber have opened the country for several thriving agricultural selth nn nts.
The navigation has been greatly improved, especially for timber, by the construction of
dams and slides, t< facilitate its passage over falls and rapids. The Ottawa is already
connected with lal- j Ontario at Kingston by the Rideau canal; and there is every pro<-
pcct of its becornir g, before many years, the izreat highway from the north western
to- the ocean" by being connected with the Georgian bay in Like Huron through the
French river, lake Nipissing. and tlie Mattawa. This gnat engineering achi'-vf im i:t,
for which capital will undoubtedly be soon forthcoming, would place the western lake
ports by water 760 m. nearer to Liverpool by Montreal than by New York through the.
Erie canal, and would save nearly a week in time, while it would lessen considerably
insurance and freight charges. — The Ottowa possesses one of the few literary associations
of Canada. At St. Ann's, a few miles above its mouth, the house is pointed out where
Moore wrote the Canadian boat-song.
OTTAWA, a co. in n. central Kansas, drained bv tlie Solomon and Saline rivers
720 sq.m.; pop. '80, 10,388—9,202 of American birth. The surface is rolling, and t!<J
soil' fertile. The principal productions are corn, potatoes, wheat, oats, and hay. Cu
scat, Minneapolis.
OTTAWA, a co. in w. Michigan, adjoining lake Michigan, watered by Gr.'nd. Black.
and Pigeon rivers, on the Chicago .and West Michigan, Detroit, Grand Haven and Mil-
waukee, and Lake Shore railroads; 550 sq.m.; popT '70, 26,515. The surface is rolling
and well wooded, and the soil fertile. The principal productions are corn, wheat.
potatoes, maple sugar, and wool. There are flour and saw mills, and manufactories ( f
carriages, leather, etc. Co. seat. Grand Haven.
OTTAWA, a co. in n.w. Ohio, bordering on lake Erie and Sandusky bay, traversed
by the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern railroad, and drained by the Portauv river;
350 sq.m. ; pop. '70, 13,364. The soil is fertile and the surface slightly billy, with exten-
sive forests of hickory, beech, ash, elm. and oak trees. Several of the islands in lake
Erie are included in the county, and produce large quantities of grapes used in wine manu-
facture. Wheat, corn, wool, wine, and lumber are leading products; raising cattle and
butter-making are among the business interests. Silurian limestone is found here ai.d
exported. There are carnage and harness manufactories, flour mills, and 22 saw mills.
Co. seat. Port Clinton.
OTTAWA, a co. in n.w. Quebec, having the Ottawa river for its s. boundary, sep-
arating it from Ontario; 5,705 sq.m.; pop. 37,892. It is drained by Grand and White
Fish Jakes, other smaller lakes, and the Petit Nation, Lievre, Gatincau, and numerous
smaller rivers. It is intersected by the Northern Colonization railway. The rivers fur-
nish extensive water-power, which is utilized to some extent, and trade is rapidly increas-
ing. It contains iron mines, and mines of graphite are worked in the vicinity of Buck-
mOtsego.
Otteiidorfer.
ing-ham. The Ottawa river at Hull h spanned by a suspension bridge over Chaudiere
falls, connecting it with the city o; Ottawa, and steamers running on the upper Ottawa
start from Ay liner. It has axe faciories, carding and woolen mills, and manufactures of
lumber, matches, pails, and wooden-ware. Co. seat, Hull.
OTTAWA, a city and co. seat of La Salie co., 111., near the junction of the Illinois
and Fox rivers, 84 m. s.w. of Chicago; on lue Chicago and Rock Island, and the Chi-
cago, Burlington and Quincy railroads: pop. '70, 7,736. Water-power is furnished by
the Fox river, and there are 4 flouring mills and manufactories of agricultural tools,
glass, and starch; also several large grain elevators. The shipping facilities are excellent,
and grain to the value of several millions leaves this port yearly. Coal is found hi the
vicinity.
OTTAWA, a city and co. seat of Franklin co., Kan., on the Osage river and 53 m.
s.w. of Kansas City, on the Leavemvorth, Lawrence and Galvcston railroad; pop. '70,
12,59,1 The river is crossed at the city by a railroad bridge and a suspension bridge.
The principal public buildings are a court-house, the Ottawa university, a high sdi.ool,
and two banks. There are two large flouring mills, machine shops, manufactories of
soap and castor oil, carriages and furniture. Coal is found in the vicinity.
OTTAWA, the capital of the dominion of Canada, is situated 87 m. above the conflu-
ence of the river Ottawa with the St. Lawrence, l£6 rn. from Montreal, 95 from Kings-
ton, and 450 from New York. Originally called Bytown, after col. By, who in 1827 was
commissioned to construct the Rideau canal; it was incorporated as a city, and received
the name which it now bears in 1854. At the w. end of the city, the Ottawa rushes over
the magnificent cataract known as the Chaudiere falls; and at the n.e. end there are
two other cataracts, over which the Rideau tumbles into the Ottawa. The scenery
around Ottawa also is scarcely surpassed by any in Canada. The immense water-power
at the city is made use of in several saw-mills, which give Ottawa its principal trade,
and issue almost incalculable quantities of sawed timber. A suspension bridge hangs
over the Chaudiere falls, connecting upper and lower Canada. The city is in communi-
cation by steamer on tha Ottawa with Montreal; on the Rideau canal with lake Ontario
at Kingston; and with the principal points of the province by means of the St. Lawrence
and O.ia\va and the Canada Central lines. In the year ending June 30, 1874, the
imports amounted to £300.000, and the exports to £333,600. In 1858 the queen selected
Ottawa as the seat of government, of the then province of Canada; and in i860 was com-
menced the erection of magnificent parliamentary offices, of which the prince of Wales
laid the foundation in September the same year. They are among the finest architec-
tural structures on the American continent. Pop. '71, 21,545. Ottawa returns two
members to the house of commons, and one to the provincial parliament.
OTTAWAS, an Algonquin tribe who, when first visited by the French explorers,
lived in n.w. Michigan, and on the Manitouliu islands. The tribe then consisted of the
K'.inouches, Kiskakona, and Sinagos. They were worshipers of the wn;er-god Mira-
bichi, and of the creator Michabou, " the great hare." On the fall of the Hurons in 1649,
that portion of the Ottawas living in the Jlanitoulin islands, and at Sag'tnaw, crossed the
Mississippi, and reached the Sioux territory, from which they soon withdrew, after a
war with the Sioux, to Mackinaw. Soon after the foundation of Detroit, a part of the
tribe h)ok up lands near that point, while the Mackinaw Ottawas went to Arbre Croche.
The tribe had always been friendly to the French, and, at the close of the last French
war, the Detroit Ottawas joined the conspiracy against the English, which was planned
by their chief Pontiac. The whole tribe then counted 1500 persons. They adhered to
the English in the revolutionary war, after the .close of which they were parties to the
treaties of fort Macintosh in 1785, and fort Harrnar in 1789. After allying themselves
with the Miarnis in a short war against the Americans, they made a final treaty of peace
in 1795. They soon united with the Ojibways and the Potlawattamies, and rn succes-
sive treaties ceded large tracts of land to the United States, reserving for themselves a
tract on the Miami, with an area of about 1200 sq. miles. A treaty of 1833 ceded the
Michigan lands to the United Slates in exchange for a tract s. of the Missouri river. In
1836, the O'tawas at Maumee, Ohio, ceded 49.000 acres of their Ohio lands. The same
year the Michigan Ottawas gave up all their lands out r-ide of the reservations. Part of
the Maumee Ottawas settled in 1836 upon a tract of 34,000 acres s. of the Osage river.
There they founded a prosperous farming community, and had schools and a Baptist
mission, "in 186 i each family was allotted 160 acres, and 20.000 acres were reserved for
schools; and in 1867 they 'were made citizens of the United States. In 1870 they
removed to a reservation of nearly 25,000 acres in the Indian territory, n. of the Shaw-
n.'es. They number about 130. The Michigan Ottawas live among the Cbippewas
along the shores of lake Superior. The number of both tribes is between 4,000 and
5,000. There is another branch of the Oltawasin Canada.
OT'TEXDORFER, OSWALD, b. Zwittau, Moravia, 1826; law student at Prague and
Vienna: became a resident of New York in 1850, and an -editor of the New Yorker
f&aate-Zeitung until the death of Mr. Uhl, the proprietor, when he became manager,
under his supervision this paper has become the leading German-American daily: it
wns for some years an advocate of the democratic party, but since 1871 has been inde-
U. K. XL— 8
Otter. -i -l A
Otto.
pendent in politics. Mr. Ottendorfer, as president of the German reform association,
labored zealously in exposing the corruption then existing in the city government. He
served as alderman, 1872-74, when he was nominated as independent candidate for
mayor, and defeated.
OTTER, Lutra, a genus of quadrupeds of the weasel family (muxtdidi?}, differing
widely from the rest of the family in their aquatic habits, and in a conformation adapted
to these habits, and in some respects approaching to that of seals. The body, which is
long and flexible, as in the other inm;tclu!(e, is considerably flattened; the head is broad
and flat; the eyes arc small, and furnished with a nu-liialii,'/ n<< u<i>rinit ; the ears ;,re very
small; the legs are short and powerful; the feet, which have each live toes, are com-
pletely webbed : the claws are not retractile; the tail is stout and muscular at its base,
Jong, tapering, and horizontally flattened; the dentition is very similar to that of weasels;
six incisors and two c mine teeth in each jaw, with rive molars on each side in the upper,
and tive or six in the lower jaw; the teeth are very strong, and the tubercles of the molars
very pointed, an evident adaptation for sei/ing and holding slippery prey. The tungm;
is rough, but not so much so as in the weasels. The fur is very smooth, and con-:
two kinds of hair — an inner fur very dense and soft, intermixed with longer, coaiser,
and glossy hair. The species are numerous, and are found both in warm and cold cli-
mates. The COMMON OTTER (/,. riilyai-ix) is a well-known British animal, rarer than it
once was in most districts, but still found in almost every part of the British islands, and
common also throughout the continent of Europe, and in some parts of Asia. It often
attains a weight of 20 to 24 Ibs. Its length is fully 2 ft., exclusive of the tail, which is
about 16 in. long. The «M>r is a bright rich brown on the upper parts and the outside
of the legs, being the color of the tips of the long hairs, which are gray at the base; the
tips of the hairs in the soft innei^fur are also brown, the base whitish-gray; the throat,
cheeks, breast, belly, and inner parts of the legs are brownish-gray, sometimes whiiish,
and individuals sometimes, but rarely, occur with whiiish spots over the whole body;
the whiskers are very thick and strong; the eyes are black. The utter frequents rivers
and lakes, inhabiting some hole in their kinks, generally choosing one which already
exists, and seldom, if ever, burrowing for itself. It also inhabits the sea-shore in many
places, and swims to a considerable distance from the shore in pursuit of prey. Its
movements in the water arc extremely graceful ; it swims with great rapidity in a nearly-
horizontal position, and turns and dives with wonderful agility. Its prey consists chiefly
offish, and, \\ket\\eot\ieTmusteltdce, it seems to take pleasure in pursuing and killing
far more than it can eat; and in this case it daintily feeds on the choicest part, beginning
behind the head of the fish, and leaving the head and often much of the tail part. The
otter, however, when fish cannot readily be obtained, satisfies the cravings of hunger
with other food, even snails and worms, and attacks small animals of any kind,
times making depredations in places far from any considerable stream. The oiter pro-
duces from two to five young ones at a birth. The flesh of the otter has a rank fishy
taste, on which account, perhaps, it is sometimes used in the Roman Catholic church, as
Jink, by those whose rules forbid them the use of flesh. — Otter hunting has long been
practiced in Britain, although now chiefly confined to Wales and Scotland. Hounds of
a particular breed — otter hounds — are preferred for it. The o:ter defends itself with
great vigor against assailants. The otter can be easily domesticated, and trained to caich
fish for its master. In India, In me otters — probably, however, of another species to be
afterwards noticed — are not unfrequeinly used both for catching lish. which they bring
ashore in their teeth, and for driving shotils of fish into nets. — The fur of the otter is in
some request, but more on the continent of Europe than in Britain. — The AM:
OTTKU or CANADA OTTKR(L. Canademfix) is very like the common otter, but considerably
larger. The tail is also shorter, and the fur of the belly is almost of the same shining
brown color with that of the back. The species is plentiful in the northern pni
North America. Its skin is a considerable article of commerce, and, after being imported
into England, is often exported again to the continent of Europe. It is usually taken
by a steel-trap, placed at the mouth of its burrow. Its habits are very similar to those
of the otter of Europe. — The INDIAN OTTKU (L. J\'fu'r) has a deep chestnut-colored fnr,
and yellowish-white spots above the eyes — The BRAZILIAN OTTER (/«. />/•./ -; idto
be gregarious. — Somewhat different from the true otter is the SKA OTTEI: or KAI.A.N (L.
murinii, or enki/dra Ititi-is), an animal twice the size of the common otter, u nail
Ben ring's straits and tiie neighboring regions, frequenting sea-washed rocks. The •
at least in the adult, only four incisors in the lower jaw, and the ears are set lower in the
head than in the true otters, below, not above, the eyes. The tail is al.-o much shorter.
The under teeth are broad, and well adapted for breaking the shells of mollusks and
crustaceans The hind-feet have a membrane skirting the outside of the exterior
The sea otter is much valued for iis fur, the general hue of which is a rich black, tinged
with brown above, and passing into lighter colors below. The head is sometimes almost
white.. The skins of sea otters were formerly in very great request in China, so that a
price of from £35 to £50 could be obtained "for each: but the attention of European
traders and hunters having been directed to them — inconsequence chiefly of ;.
GW,-'* Voyages — they were carried to China in such numbers us greatly to reduce the
price.
m Otter.
Otto.
OTTERBEIN, PHILIP WILLIAM, 1726-1813 ; b. in German}-; studied theology, and
Was ordained in the Reformed church at Herl;orn, 1749. He was sent to the United
States as a missionary in 17-">2 by the Holland synod, and settled at Lancaster, Penn.,
and after acting as pastor in several other places went to Baltimore in 1774. Here he
remained until his death, and the church which he founded was the first of the denomi-
nation known as the United Brethren in Christ, which now numbers about 100,000 mem-
bers. Mr. Otterbein was a man of great learning, and very liberal in his associations
with Christians of other sects than his own, frequently co-operating with the Methodists
in open-air meetings and itinerant tours.
OT TERBURN, BATTLE OF. See CHEVY CHASE.
OTTER TAIL, a co. in w. central Minnesota, drained by the Red River of the
North and Leaf and Pelican rivers, and containing several lakes, the largest. Otter Tail
lake, beimr about 12 m. lonir; others are Pelican, Pine, Battle, and Rush lakes; traversed
by the Northern Pacific railroad; 2,010 sq.ni.; pop. '80, 18.675—11,246 of American
birth. The surface part prairie and part woodland. Oats, wheat, hay, and potatoes are
the staples. Co. seat, Fergus Falls.
OTTO. Loris WILLIAM, 17o4-1817; Count of-Mosloy;b. in Baden, Germany: edu-
cated at Strasbourg; entered diplomatic service, and was an attache of the chevalier
Luzerne in the French mission to tl e United States in 1779, first as secretary, and after-
ward as rl«iri/c il'nijiiirex until 179.,: married a daughter of the Livingston family; was
employed by the committee of pul •!.!<• safety in Paris in 1783 as a friend of the Girond-
ists, and when they fell was in pri-oiu (1 until released by the overthrow of Robespierre;
was afterward in diplomatic positions at Berlin. London, and Vienna, and negotiated
the marriage of Napoleon I. with Maria Louisa in 1809. He died in Paris.
OTTO (or ATTAU) OF ROSES is the volatile oil or otto (see PERFUMERY) of the petals
of some species of rose, obtained by distillation, a. a highly prized as a perfume. It is
a nearly colorless or light yellow crystalline solid at temperatures below 80° F., lique-
fying 'i little above that temperature.. It is imported from the e., where in Syria,
Persia, India, and Turkey, roses are cultivated to a considerable extent for its sake. It
is probable that the oriental otlo is the produce of more than one species of rose; and it
is uncertain what species is cultivated in some' of the localities most celebrated for it -. but
•rwa DUIIHIWIKI is known to be so employed in the n. of India, and a kind of otto is some-
times obtained by the makers of rose-water from wo, cenlifolia in England. See ROSE.
Gha/ipore. near Benares, is celebrated for its rose gardens, which surround the town, and
arc in reality fields occupied by rows of low rose-bushes, which in the flowering season arc
red with blossoms in the morning, but the blossoms are all gathered before midday.
Cashmere is noted for its extensive manufacture of otto, as are also the neighborhoods
of Shiraz and Damascus. To procure the otto, the rose petals are usually distilled with
about twice their weight of water, and the produce exposed to the cool night-air in open
vessels, from which the thin film of otto is skimmed with a feather in the morning.
Twenty thousand flowers are required to yield otto equal to the weight of one. rupee,
which even in India is worth about 100 rupees, or £10 sterling. Otto is sr.id to have
been first procured by what may be called an accidental distillation of rose-petals exposed
with water to the beat of the sun, and to have been found floating on the surface of the
water; and it is still sometimes obtained in India by such a process. It is said to be
also obtained by dry distillation of rose-petals at a low temperature. During the distil-
lation of rose-petals, a small quantity of a -olid volatile oil comes over (solid oil of ro: es,
see below), which crystallizes and floats on the water in the receiver, <iiid which is
sometimes called AW'/*/' oil of ro»es. Otto of roses is not unfrequently adulterated with
sandal-wood oil. oil of rhodium, etc. It is much used for making Lair-oil, a drop of it
})"!;!g enough to impart a pleasant odor to a considerable quantity. It is also used
in making lavender-water and other perfumes. The odor of otto itself is too power-
ful ;<> be .-d'oir'^her pleasant. Another method of obtaining the. >ccn1 of roses is described
in the article PKUFCMKIIY. Olio of roses is a mixture of two volatile or essential oils;
the one solid at ordinary temperatures, and the other liquid. The solid oil of ro'es
••amphor. stearoptene of oil of roses) exists separately in crystalline plaits, melts
or fuses at £03 .: F., and boils at about 592°. It possesses of itself very little odor, is
ins' 'bible in alcohol, but soluble in ether. It is composed of carl on and In drogrn.
The liquid oil of roses (eleoptene of oil of roses) is a very fragrant liquid, to which the
otto of roses is indebted for its delicious perfume, and appears to consist of carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen; though its composition and properties have not bce'ii attentively
d. The otto of roses may be regarded as a solution of one part of the solid oil in
two p'irt-; of I lie liquid. To "separate these oils, the otto is fro/en at a temperature
SO' F., and the1 congealed mass pressed between folels of blotting-paper, which
's the liquiel e>il of roses, and leaves the solid. Another process" which maybe
;1 to is to trea' the fro/en otto with alcohol, 'which dissolves the liquiel oil. and
leaves behind the solid. The otto of roses has a specific gravity of 832, water being
1000; it is combustib'e; and when its vapor is difmse'd through oxygen, and set fire to,
a violent explosion takes place: 1000 parts of alcohol d^solve- 7 parts of the otto in the
colel, and 33 parts when slightly heated. The principal use to which otto of roses is put
' a perfume. Milk of roses and lavender-water owe their fra^iunce to the presence
Ottocar. 1 1 A
Ottoman.
of the otto. A good receipt for oil for the hair is olive oil, colored by alkanet, and
scented by a few drops of otto, ;uid this is very •.•:• aerally sold under the name of o;,<>
of rows. Medicines arc occ i>i<>nally perfumed liy otto of roses, and it is soir.
added to unguents and spirit-washes.
OTTOCAR II., King of Bohemia, 1230-78: son of AVenceslas I., against whom,
•when a yonng nun, he led u revolt of the Bohemian nobilily; hut his fathi rd
and imprisoned him. He was soon released, and at the age of '-•'! mat r.- a Mai
the widowed duchess of Austria, aged 46, who brought him Austria aii.i Siyria as her
dower. He came to the Bohemian throne on the de;.th of his father, ami the IK .\
organized a crusade against the heathen Prus-iaiis, whom he defeated; and he f(, ;
'Koaigsberg iu their territory. In 1200 lie gaiin d a victory over the Hungarians on the
Warchneld, and annexed some of their dominions lie pr, K-ured a divorce 1'iom
garet, and married princess Cunigunda of Hungary in I'^.-l. Tlie d a<-
and (,'ariuthia fell to him in 12(51), and his kin :dom tlien comprised tlie territory b
tlie Baltic and the Adriatic, and between the Inn and tlie llaab. I pon the d: ;M h of 1;
of Cornwall, he became a candidate for th;; imperial throne in 1^7:i; KIH both he and
Alfonso of Castile, who had also offered himself for the vacancy, were parsed over in
favor of Rudolph of Hapsburg. Oitacar refined to recognize the latter, ana ia i
that ensued was defeated; and Rudolph, before the walls of Vienna, I', . ;r<mi
him the renunciation of Carniola. Carinthia. Austria. Siyria, and tlie A\
Boon afterward Oltocar, again attacking Rudolph,, was killed at ih" batile, of .i
peng. He founded schools, promoted comnrjrce and agriculture, and M>;;giit to Wi
the power of the feudal nobilily.
OTTOMAN EMPIEE, or "Eni])ire of the Osmanlis," comprehends all the
which are more1 or less under the authority of tiie Turkish sultan, and includes, i
Turkey in Asia, and that part of Turkey in Europe which is under hi- imin:dh'i
•ereignty, the vassal principalities of Moldavia and \Vallaciiia (i.e., Roumani.i). >
and Montenegro, iu Europe; Egypt with Nubi*>, Tripoli, and Tunis, in Africa; and a
part of Arabia, including the lioly cities of .Mecca and M'.-dina, in Asia. The
description, topography, history, etc.. of these countries. will be found under their
Leads, and this article will consist solely of a brief sketch of the origin, grown
present state of the Ottoman empire.
The Ottomans, or Osmanlis, to whom the generic epithet of T-
Bsaire now confined, are the descendants of the Oga/Jan Turl-.s. a tribe oi' (he
Turkish nation, which in the loth c. inhabited the steppes e. of the (
tide of Mongol invasion which was then setting in from the n.e.. swept the O^u/es :
it, and they, to th-j number of 50.000, under their chief, Saliman, lied wc-.pva-d to tne
.mountainous region of Armenia After the chiefs death, tin1 nvijority o.
tecame scattered over Mesopotamia; but a few thousands under O/i'no vaH. !i
•on, marched westward to aid the Seljak sultan of Koai'-h a'jr.-in t the Kliaur-
Mo igf>ls, and received from the grateful monarch a arrant of land in Plr
OTIIMAN (qv.) (1089-1308), laid the foundation of the independent power of the'
and Othman's son and successor, OI;X;IAN (1:50:5 -.")•)), coniinufd th,' s-uiie
policy, and gained a footing in Europ • by the taki i, and
other fortresses on the coast. The Greeks, with the us\tal contempt of civiliz iti<
barbarism, made light of these losses, sayiiig that tlie Turks had only taken from th -m a
" hogs' sty " an 1 a "pottle of wine," in allusion to the m:\gazini--? and
Justinian. at CalMpo'i; but, as the historian Knolles quaintl ing of
such hog-slys and pottles of wine, the Turks had gone -.;> far into Thra?ia llnit Ana
a few years lator, placed his royal scat at Adr.anoj.l;'." Sult.in Orkhai
advantage of possessing a force trained exclusively for war, or
known as Ja"izarics (q. v ), and to these his successor added the S;.ahis (cj v.) a;
Z'inis. — AMUHATII I. (13.19-90), the successor of Orkhan, rapidly r.ilinvd the T.y/
empire within the limits of Constantinople and L'liborin^ districts in ,
Bulgaria. A formidable confederacy of the Slavonian tribes
formed against him, and, supported by multitudes of warriors from Ha ii ;lv.
they advanced into Servia to give him battle; but their army, amount'
600.000 men, was defeated with dreadful slaughter at Kossovi (!:;:>;)); and :
i'.ilian was assassinated on the eve of the battle, his son, BAJ.V.I.T 1. (q.v.) (1390-1
followed up this victory by ravaging Servia md "\V:;11: •« liia. Mold.avi-.
run, and a second crusading army, under the king of Hungary, totally roated at
polis(!:]95); but the defeat and capture of the sultan by Tiimir (•
nonle a respite for half a century, by raiding up nu'nerous clai::
throne; and it^was not till 1413* tha't Bajaz t's youngest, son, Mo
established his 'claim to the scepter. A war which broke out with the Venetian republic
at this time produced the most disastrous consequence-; to the mercantile and maritime
'interests of the Turks, and internal disorder* prevented a;iv .• neigh-
bors.— AMTKATH II. (1422-50). a prince of considerable ability, complcf
ef the Greek empire by reducing Macedonia and d.eece proper; and finding that the
Hungarians had concluded a secret, treaty of offense and d :i the Ti:r'-;ish Vulfan
of Caramania rigr.im-t him, lie tit-lacked the former, but v . I by Hunyady Oi.v.),
Ottocar. '
Ottoman!
and compelled to retreat. Disheartened at his ill success, he resigned the throne; but oa
receiving news of a formidable invasion by tiie army of the papal crusade, resumed the
direction of affairs, and totally defeated the invaders, with whom were Huuyady (q.v.)
and Scauderbeg (<i.v.). at Varna (1444). — MOHAMMED II (q v.) (1450-81), the sworn foe of
Christianity, greatly enlarged the Turkish territories. It was he who stormed Constanti-
nople in 1453, and destroyed the last relic: of the unpire of the Caesars. — His son, BAJAZET
II. (1481-1512), extended his dominions to the present limits of the Turkish empire in
Asia and Europe, including1, however, also the country to the n. of the Black sea, as far
e. as the mouth of the Don, portions of Dalmatia, and Oiranto in Italy. Bajazet was the
first to feel the evil effects of the military organization of sultan Orkhan, but all his
attempts to get rid of his formidable soldiery were unsuccessful. He attempted the
invasion of Egypt, but was totally defeated by the Mameluke sultan at Arbela (149o). —
His successors, SELIM I. (q.v.) (1512-20) and &OLYMAN 1. (q.v.) (1520-Go), raised the Oito-
nian empire to the height of its power and splendor. During their reigns no ship belong-
ing to a nation hostile to the Turks dared then navigate the Mediterranean, so completely
did their fleets command that sea. — SKLIM II (1566-74), a pacific prince, put an end to a
WM- with Austria, which had been commenced in the previous reign, by a peace in which
it was stipulated that the Emperor Maximilian II. should pay a tribute of 80,000 ducats
annually for the possession of Hungary, and that each nation should retain its conquests.
During his reign occurred the lirst collision of the Turks with the Russians. It had
occurred to Selun that the connection of the Don and Volga by a canal would, by allow-
ing the passage of ships from the Black sea into the Caspian, be a valuable aid to both
military and commercial enterprise, and accordingly he sent 5.000 workmen to cut the
canal, and an army of 80,000 men to aid and protect them. But, unluckily, the pos>e*-
sion of Astrakhan formed part of the programme, and tiie attack of this town brought
down on the Turks the vengeance of the Russians, a people till then unknown in southern
Europe, and the projected canal-scheme was nipped ,11 the bud. The rest of this sultan's
reign was occupied in petty wars with Venice, Spa n, and his rebellious feudatory of
Moldavia. — His son, AMI:KATH III. (1574-95), such was then the prestige of the Turks,
dictated to the Poles that they should cnoose as their king Stephen Bathory,Woiwode of
Transylvania: and received the first .English embassy to Turkey in 1589, the objeci of
the embassy being to conclude an alliance against Philip II. of t'pain. To this the sultan
agreed: but the destruction of the Spanish armada soon after rendered his interference
unnecessary.
A Her an exhausting, though successful, war with Persia, succeeded a long contest
with Austria, in which the Turks at first obtained the most brilliant success, penetrating
to within 40 in. of Vienna, but afterward suffered such terrible reverses that they were
compelled to evacuate all Hungary and Transylvania (hitherto a feudatory),. and were
only saved from dvsiruot ion by the Poles, who entered Moldavia, and drove out the
Transylvania us and Hungarians, thus affording the Turks an opportunity of rallying,
an 1 even rec.n-ering some of their looses. Tho latter part of this war happened during
the vign of MOIIAMMKD III. (1530-1604). and afforded unmistakable symptoms of tha
decline of Turkish prowess; and a rebellion of the pasha of Caramani.i, in xVsia, which
was quelled not as a Mohammed II. or a Bajazet I. would have 'quelled it, but by yield-
ing to the pasha's demands, afforded an equally convincing proof of the growing weak-
ness of the central administration, and set an example to all ambitious subjects in future.
During the reigns of ACIIMET I. (1004-17), MUSTAFA (1617-17. 162SMJ8). OTFTMAN II.
(1617-2.3), and AMtrnJA.TH IV. (1623-40), Turkey was convulsed by internal dissensions,
nevertheless, a successful war was waged with Austria for the possession of Hungary;
but this success was more than counterbalanced in the e., where shah Abbas the great
conquered Mesopotamia, Kurdistan, and Armenia: and in the n., where the Poles took
po>x..<sion of some of the frontier fortresses. While Amurath was recovering his
lost provinces in the e.. the khan of the Crimea, countenanced by the Poles, and Rus-
sians, threw off his allegiance. Mustafa, the grand vizier, a man of great ability and
integrity, continued to direct, the helm of government under IKRATTIM (1640-48); took
from the Poles their conquests; and in a war with the Venethms (1645) obtained Candia
and almost ail the Venetian strongholds in the ^Egean sea, though with the loss of some
towns in Dalmatin. — MOHAMMED IV. (1648-87) commenced his reign under the most
unfavorable auspices; he was only seven years of age, and the whole power was vested
in the janizaries and their partisans, who used it to accomplish their own ends; but luck-
ily for Turkey, an individual of obscure birth, named Mohammed Koprili, supposed to
be of French descent, was, when over 70 years of age, appointed vizier: and the extra-
ordinary talents of this man proved to be the salvation of Turkey at this critical junc-
ture, lie was sueeeeded (1661) in office by his son Achmet, a man of equal ability, and
under his guidance the central administration recovered its control over even the most
distant provinces; a formidable war with Germany, though unsuccessfully carried on
(166:1). was concluded by a peace advantageous to the Turks; Crete was wholly subdued,
and Podolia wrested from the Poles: though, shortly afterwards, much of this last acqui-
sition was reconquered by John Sobieski (q.v.). Achmet's successor overran the Aus-
trian territories, and laid siege to Vienna; but the siege was raised, and his army defeated
by a combined army under the duke Charles of Lorraine, and John Sobieski, king of
Poland. The Austrians followed up this victory by repossessing themselves of Hungary,
Ottumwa. -I -i Q
Otw»y.
inflicting upon the Turks a bloody defeat at Me>hacz (10^7); but the fortunate appoint-
ment of a third KOprili as grand vizier by SOLY.MAN II. (lli>?~'Ji) was the means of
restoring gle>ry and fortune to the Turkish arms. — The reigns of ACIIMKT II. (Hi'J!-95),
ami MI/STAFA II. (1093-170:3), were occupied with wars against Austria; but wilh the
death of KOprili (10!)1) fortune elescrteel tin- Turks, and the peace of Carlou i:/. (1<;(.)JI) for-
ever put an end to Turkish domination in lIuiiL-arv. — ACHMKT 111. (1702-30) was ft reed
by the intrigues of Charles Xll. (q.v.) of S\\e<rn. while residing al Bender, into a war
with Russia; a step which wa- immediately 1'ollov. < d by an ir.va.-ion oi Mol<!a\ ia by the
cz-.;r Peter. The czar, imprudently rely ing on the aid of the \voi\vode of Moldavia, loiind
himself iu great straits, from which he was rescued by the genius of his queen, after-
ward Catharine I. The recovery of the Morea from the Venetians, and the loss of
Belgrade and parts of Servia and WaHachia. which were, however, recovered during the
subsequent reigii of MAHMUD I. (1730-54), and the commencement of a long war with
Persia (see NADIR SHAH), were the other prominent occurrence's of Aehmet's re-kn. In
1736 the career of Russian aggression commenced with the >ei/.ing of A/of. Oc/akof,
and other important fortresses; but a scheme for the partition of Turkey between Aus-
tria and Russia was foiled by the continued series of disgraceful defeats inflicted upoa
the Austrian armies by the Turks: the Russians, on the other hand, were uniformb
successful; but the czarina, becoming very desirous of peace, n signed her conquests ia
Moldavia, and concluded a treaty at Belgrade. Among the benefits conferred by suitau
Mahmuel on his subjects, not the least was the introduction of the art of printing. — l!ii>
successor, OTHMAN III. (1754-57), soon gave place to MUSTAFA III. (1757-74), urnicr
•whom the empire enjoyed profound tranquillity: but at'Ur his death, the Ru.-sians. In
violation of the treaty of Belgrade, invaded Moldavia. — The war with Ru>sia continued
during the succeeding reign of ABDUL-HAMID (1774-69); the fortresses on the Danube
fell; and the main army of the Turks was totally defeated at Shumla. The campaign
•was ended July 10, 1774, by the celebrated treaty of Kul.-houk-Kainaidji. In deli: ne*
of ils provisions, the czarina took possession of the Crime a anel the whole country < ast
•ward to the Caspian. The sultan was compelled, by his indignant subjects, to take up
arma in 1787. In 1788 Austria made another foolish attempt to arrange with Russia a
partition of Turke>y; but, as befe>rc. the Austrian. forces were comjilete ly rouleel. '1 1 e
Russians, however, with their usual success, had overrun the northern province's, taken
all the principal fortresses, and captured or destroyed the Turkish licet.— The ae •< < s it n
Of* SEUM III. (q.v.) (1789-1807) was inaugurated by renewed vigor in the prose-cntinn oi
the war; but the Austrians had again joined the Russians. Belgrade surrendered \v
the Austrians, while the Russians took Bucharest, Bender, A kerman, and Innj.i',
SITVOROF); but the critical as-pect of affairs in we stern Europe made it advisable fe>r
Russia to terminate the war, anel a treaty of j,c::e-e was accordingly si; ntd at Jar-sy. Jan.
8, 1792. By this treaty the provisions of that of Kainardji were; confirmed; the- I>ni( ti r
•was made the boundary-line, the cession of the Crimea and the Kuban was e-e>nlirmed,
and Belgrade was restored to the sultan.
Numberless reforms were now projected for the better administration of the empire.
The people were, however, hardly prepared for so many change's, and the sultan V | ioi-
ects cost him his throne anel life. The occupation of Egypt by the French brought
on a war between them and the Turks, in which the latier. by the aid of the Eriti.-h,
were successful in regaining their le>st territe.ncs. In revenge fe>r the elefeat of his
Egyptian expedition. Napoleon contrived to entrap the sultan into a war with Rus>ia and
Britain, which was confined to a struggle in Egypt, in which the British we-re weirMed. —
After the ephemeral reign of MUSTAFA IV. (1807-8). the able and ene-rgetie- Mahmud II.
(q.v.) (1808-39) ascende'd the throne; and though his dominions we're curtaile-d by the
loss of Greece, which established its independe nee, anel of the country between the
Dniester and the Pruth, which, by the; treaty of Bucharest in ISl'J. w;:s sum ne'.e reel to
Russia, the reformation he effected in all departments of the' administration checked the
decline of the Ottoman empire. Egypt, during his reign, attempted unsuccessfully 'o
throw off the authority of the sultan (see MEHEMET Ai.i. IV.RAHIM PASHA).- lli> .on.
A BDUL-MEP.TID (1839-61), continued the reforms commenced in the previews reign; but
the c/.ar, thinking that the dissolution of the Ottoman empire \\as j.t h;.nd. •
tried to wring from the sultan some acknowledgment of a rght or interim n nee- with
the internal affairs of the country. It was an attempt of this sort te> obtain the c: elu-
sive protectorate of the members of the Greek church in Turkey that hiorght em the
"Crimean war" of 1853-55, in which the Turks \\ere; effectively supported h\
France, and Sardinia. The treaty of Paris (1S56) resle>rcd to Trrkey tlie' e-ommarel e>f
both sieles of the lower Danube, excluded the czar from his assumed j^rotectoiate over
tJie Danubian principalities, and closed the- Black sea against all ships e>f war. The
porte, apparently adopted into the family of European nations, made proclamation of
equal civil rights to all the races and creeels of the Turkish elominions. But a mas-
sacre of Christians in Lebanon and at Damascus provoked we-ste-rn intervention in 1860.
Abdul Medjiel. whose last years were disgrae-ed by irrational prof useneas of expenditure,
was succeeeled by his brother Aunui.-A.ziz in 1S(U. Meanv.hile the nominally subject
peoples of Moldavia and Wallachia ventured to unite tLcni.-elves into the one state of
Kou mania; and in 1866 the empire, IN coinim: more and more onfre'bled through its cor-
rupt administration, had to look oa while the Roumanians expelled their ruler, and, in
mOttuniTv».
Otway.
the hope of securing western support, chose prince Charles of Hohenzollern to be hered-
itary prince (domnu) of the united principalities. The rebellion of Crete in 1866
•Jireateued a severe blow to the integrity of the empire, but was ultimately suppressed
in 1868 — in spite of active help from Greece. Servia. ahxnuty autonomous within, her
own frontiers, demanded the removal of the Turkish garrisons still maintained in cer-
tain Servian fortresses; and in 1867 Turkey saw herself compelled to make this conces-
sion. In the same year the sultan distinguished the vali of Egypt by granting to him
the unique title of khedive (q.v.). The vassal king drew down the wrath of his suzerain
in 1870 by negotiating directly with foreign courts, and was compelled to give- formal
tokens of vassalage. But later concessions have made the khedive virtually an inde-
pendent sovereign. The Russian government took the opportunity of war between Ger-
many and France to declare, in 1871, that it felt itself no longer bound by that provision
of the Paris treaty which forbade Russia to have a fleet in the Black sea; and a London
conference sanctioned this stroke of Russian diplomacy. Between 1854 and 1871 the
Turkish debt had increased by more than £'116.000,000; and in 1875 the porte was driven
to partial repudiation of its debts. An insurrection in Herzegovina in the latter part of
1874 marked the beginning of a very eventful and critical period in the history of the
Ottoman empire. The insurrection smoldered on through 1875 and part of 1876, and
excited all the neighboring Slavonic peoples. A threatened revolt in Bulgaria in May,
1875. was repressed with much bloodshed; and the merciless cruelty displayed by the
bashi-bazouks or Turkish irregulars alienated foreign sympathy from the government.
In May Abdul- Aziz was deposed; and his nephew, MUKAD V., son of Abdul-Medjid, who
succeeded him, was destined in turn to make way for his brother. ABDUL-HAMID II., in
August of the same year. In June Servia declared war, and Montenegro followed her
example. Before the end of the year the Servians were utterly defeated, in spite of
the help of many Russian volunteers; but the state of affairs in" the Turkish provinces
seemed to call for a conference of the great powers at Constantinople. The proposals
then made for the better government of the Christian subjects of Turkey were rejected
by the Turkish authorities, who had, during the conference, taken the extraordinary
step of bestowing a parliamentary constitution on the Ottoman empire. Russia took
upon, herself to enforce on Turkey the suggestions of the conference, and on April 24,
1*77, declared war. Both in Armenia and Bulgaria the opening of the campaign was
favorable to Russian arms, but later the Turks rallied and seriously checked the hitherto
triumphant progress of the invaders. Even after the Russian forces had been greatly
augmented, the Turks resisted energetically. Kars, besieged for several months, resisted
till the middle of November; Erzeroum did not surrender until after the armistice had
been concluded. Osman Pasha, who established himself in Plevna early in July, repelled
with brilliant success repeated and determined assaults from a besieging army of Rus-
sians and Roumanians; and he had so strengthened the fortifications as to be able to hold
out until Dec. 10, when he surrendered. Desperate fighting in theShipka pass had failed
to expel the Russians from their position in the Balkans; and within a month of the
fall of Plevna the Russians captured the whole Turkish army that was guarding the
Shipka pass, and then easily overran Roinnelia. The victorious Muscovites occupied
Adrianople in Jan., 1878; on the last day of that month an armistice was concluded;
and in March the "preliminary treaty" of San Stefano was signed. After grave diplo-
matic dirh'cnlties, owing chiefly to the apparent incompatibility of English and Russian
interests, a congress of the powers met at Berlin, and ultimately agreed to that solution
of the "eastern question," discussed under the article TUUKEY, which has so seriously
affected the area and standing of the Ottoman empire.
OT'TUMWA, a city and co. seat of Wapello co., Iowa; situated on the Des Moines
river, 86 m. s.e. of Des Moines; it is a station of 4 railroads: the Burlington and Mis-
souri river; the Central Iowa; the St. Louis, Kansas City and Northern, and the Keokuk
and Des Moines; pop. '70, 5,214. Ample ^ater-power is furnished by the river, which
is crossed by a bridge at the city, and there are factories making carriages, tools, furni-
ture, and woolen goods. The city is the center of a large trade with the surrounding
country. There is a daily paper, several weeklies, two banks, a high school, and 8 or 10
churches.
OTWAY, THOMAS, an English dramatist, w^as b. Mar. 3, 1651, at Trotton, near Med-
Imrst, Sussex. He left. Oxford without taking a degree, and went to London in search
of fortune in 1671. He appeared on the stage, but made a signal failure; and next he
applied himself to drama! ic composition. In 1675 Alcibiades, his first tragedy, was
printed; and in the following year he produced Don. Carlos, a play which was extremely
popular, and "got more money than any preceding modern tragedy." His first comedy,
Fi-ienchhip in Fashion, appeared in 1678, and, being sufficiently immoral to please the
taste of the age, met with general appreciaaon. In 1 >77 Otway received a cornet's
commission in a regiment, which, however, was disbanded in 1678, and Otway, resum-
ing his former occupation, produced the tragedy of Cains Marius in 1680. In the same
year The Orphan met with an extraordinary, and. in some respects, a deserved measure
of success. In 1681 The Soldier <>f I^n-in ne, and in the following year the finest of all
his plays, Venice Preserved, were produced. From this time till his death, the poet had
much to endure from poverty and neglect. Debts accumulating upon him, he retired to
Onncliita.
». ..:n;«U.
an obscure public-house on Tower-hill, for the purpose of avoiding his creditors. :md
IKTC, at the premature age of 34, he died, April 14, 1685. Although Oiway achieved a
brilliant reputation during his lifetime, although he is described by Drydt-u as ]•<,-
ing a power of moving the passions which he himself did not possess, and ia.er by
sir' Walter Seott as being Shakespeare's equal, if not his superior, in depicting th"e
power of affection ; yet his plots ure urtitici.il, and his language is without fancy, in.
or polish.
OUACHITA', a cp. in s. Arkansas; drained by the Ouchita river and by the Little Mis-
souri, which bounds it on the 11. ; 7oO sq in. ; pop. '80, 11,757 — 11,675 of American birth,
0,354 colored. The surface is in great part covered with forests of while, red, and Span-
ish oaks; pine, beech, and hickory. Indian corn, cotton, and pork are the chief p.od
ucts. Co. seat, Camdeu
OUACHITA', a parish in n. Louisiana, intersected by the Ouaehita river and drained
by the bavou D'Arbonne; traversed by the North Louisiana and Texas railroad; about
6i)0 sq.m."; pop. 14,723—14,480 of American birth, 10,270 colored. The surface is hilly,
and there is much woodland. The soil is rich; cotton, Indian corn, and pork are the
staples. Chief town, Monroe.
OTTDE, or ACDH, a province of British India, separated on the n. from Xepanl by
the; lower ranges of the Himalaya, whence it gradually slopes to the Ganges, which
forms its boundary on the s. and s.w. Extreme length from n.w. to s.e.. .1') m.;
breadth, 160; area, 23,992 sq.miles. Pop. '69, 11, 220,232. or 468 to the sq. mile. Oude
is one great plain, the slope of which from n.w. to s.e. indicates also the direction of the
principal rivers. These are the Gumti, the Ghagra (Giiogra), and the Ra;>;i, which
swarm with alligators. The northern part, on the edge of the Himalaya, is nut very well
known. It forms a portion of the Terai, avast unhealthy tract stretching along the
borders of Nepaul, and covered with impassable forests. The climate of Oude i- cool
and pleasant from November to March; during the next four months it is hot ::ud sultry,
after which follows the long rainy season, but in genera! it is considered the IHM
along the whole valley of the Ganges. The soil is light, and except small nodules of
chalk and oolite called kankars, there is hardly a loose stone to be seen. Oude was for-
merly more copiously watered than it is now, the clearing of the jungles having greatly
decreased the moisture of the land. The chief crops are wheat, barley, gram. n.
mustard, rice (of the finest quality), millet, maize, joar, bajra, various kinds of pulse and
oil-seeds, sugar-cane, tobacco, indigo, hemp, and cotton. The manufacturing industry
of Oude is not important; soda, saltpeter, and salt are the only articles of which more is
produced than is requisite for home consumption. Gunpowder, and all kimls of military
>veapon«, guns, swords, spears, shields, and bows of bamboo, or Lucknow Me.vl, are,
however, also made, besides some woolen goods, papers, etc. Bridges are few, if any.
and the roads in general bad. The principal is the famous military road from Cawnpore
to Lucknow, which runs in a north-easterly direction.
The people are of a decidedly warlike disposition. The bulk of the inhabitants arc
Hindus, though t lie dominant race for centuries has been Mohammedan. The luahmans
are the most numerous class, but there are 29 different Rajput tribes. It is these two
classes that mainly supplied the famous (or infamous) sepoys of the Bengal army. Tin;
language spoken is Hindustani.
The most characteristic feature in the social economy of Oude is its /v7^/7<-,\//.-.A in. for
a description of which see INDIA. Theryo/x, or cultivators of the soil, cling to the land
which their fathers have tilled for ages with extraordinary affection, and thoroughly
believe that they have a right of property in it; and, in general, we believe tii
•unity the owners of their farms, but in many c.ases they have been dispossessed by .
of tax-gatherers (resembling the Roman piihl.icani) called f(t!nkd<ir.\ who farmed from the
M;>gul, and afterwards from the 'king of Oude, the revenues of a collection of villages
called a talnkuh, and by their extortions so impoverished the ryots or p< a.^uii-proprie-
to: s, that the latter were often forced to execute deeds transferring their property to the
talukdars. Many of the more spirited would not submit to become f< mint*, ami taking
to the jungles waged war on the new occupants of their ancestral lands, until gradually
they sank into flncoit*, or professional robbers. The extortions of the talukdars continued
till the annexation of the country in 1856, and the country suffered severely from the
retalirtory raids of the dispossessed ryots. The East India company reinstated ilic ryots
in their property, where the talukdars could not show undisputed possession for 12 years
— a proceeding which gave great offense to the latter, who, in consequence, assumed a
coldly hostile attitude to the British during the great mutiny of the following year.
The principal towns are Luckuow (q.v.), Fyxabad, Oude, or Ayodha, Roy Bureily,
and Shahabad.
Oude is believed by Sanskrit scholars to be the ancient Knunla, the oldest seat of civ
ilization in India. The country was conquered by a Mohammedan army in 11 9o. and
made a province of the Mogul empire. In 1753 the vi/.ier of Oude. Saffdar .lunir.
rebelled against his imperial master, Ahmed Shah, and forced the latter to 'make the
governorship hereditary in his family. His son, Sujah-ud-Dowlah, became entirely inde-
pendent, and founded a dynasty which ruled the country, generally in a me>st deplorable
uiuuner, until, in the interests of the wretched inhabitants, the East India company was
I O1 Ouachita.
•L-'* Ouiiiiiot.
forced to adopt the extreme measure of annexation, Feb. 7, 1856. The necessity for this
high-handed but most beneficent act will be better understood if we read the statistics of
crime iu Oude during the last years of its independence, one item will suffice — from 1848
to 1834 there were, on an average, no fewer than 78 villages burned and plundered every
year, while murders, robberies, abduclions, and extortions were cvery-day occurrences.
A feeble king, a blackguard soldiery, and a lawless peasantry had brought about a most
helpless and ruinous anarchy. When the mutiny of 1857 broke out, Oude became one
of me great centers of rebellion. Upon this, the confiscation of ail the estates of the
talukuars was proclaimed by lord Canning; but when the country was subdued by force
of British arms, the estates of all such as laid down their arms and swore fealty to the
British government were restored. The forts of the petty chiefs, however, were dis-
mantled, and the inhabitants disarmed. The province is now administered by a chief
commissioner. The chief feature of the present condition of affairs in Oude is the pre-
servation hi their integrity of the estates of the talukdars. The amount of government
revenue paid by the talukdars is about £1,000,000.
OTJDE, or AWADII, one of the principal towns of the province Oude (q.v.), stands amid
ruins on a hilly site on the right, bank of the Sarayii or Goggra river, 80 m. e. of Luck-
now. It is also called Hanumangd'dJii, on account of a temple erected there in honor of
Hanumat (q.v.), the fabled monkey-ally of Rama, an incarnation of the god Vish'nu.
The name Oude is a corruption of the. Sanskrit Ayodliyd (from a, not, and yodhya, con
querable, hence "the invincible" city); but the ancient city of that name was situate (i
opposite the modern Oude, where its ruins may still be seen. Ayodhya. was one of the
oldest teats of civilization in India; it was the residence of the solar dynasty, or one oi
the two oldest dynasties of India, deriving its descent from the sun, but it obtained
special renown through Kama, the son of Das'aratha, a king of that dynasty. Its great
beauty and immense size are dwelt upon in several of the Puranas and modern poems,
but n. ore especially in the Udntdyan'a (q.v.), the first and last books of which contain a
dcM.Tip;ion of it. According to some Puranas (q.v.). Aycdhya was one of the i-even
sacred cities, the living at which was supposed to free a man from all sin, and the dying
at which, to secure eternal bliss. It was also called Saketa, Kos'ala, and Uttara-kosala.
See Goldslueker's Sanskrit Dictionary, under AYODHYA.
OUDENAR DE, a t. in the province of east Flanders, Belgium, is situated chiefly on
the e. bank of the Scheldt, 16 m. s. by e. from Ghent. It has a pop. of 8,0( 0. and pos-
sesses a fine Gothic council-house, important manufactures of linen and cotton fabrics,
and many extensive tanneries. The town was taken by the French, aided by an English
force in 1058; it was again besieged in 1674, by the stadtholder, William (III. of Eng-
land) 01" Orange; and in 1706 it was taken by Marlboro ugh. An attempt made by tl.e
French to retake it brought on the famous battle of Oudenarde, one of Marlborough's
most celebrated victories, which was gained on July 11, 1708, with the aid of prince
Eugene, over a French army under the duke of Burgundy and marshal Villars. After
this t';i!t!e the French king made offers of peace, which were not accepted.
0TJDIHOT, CHARLES NICOLAS, Duke of Reggio, and Marshal of France, was b. at
Bar-le Due, in the department of Meuse, France, April 25. 1767. At the age of 17, he
entered) he army but returned home after three years' service. Having distinguished
himself in 1790 by suppressing a popular insurrection in his native district, he w.-is, after
Fo;ne volunteer service, Nov. 17'J3, raised to the rank of chief of brigade, in the fourth
regiment of the line, and distinguished himself in various actions with the Prussians and
Austrians. He was wounded and taken prisoner before Mannheim, by the Austrians,
but was soon exchanged and served in the armies of the Rhine under Moreau, and in
that of Switzerland under Massena. He was promoted to be general of division (April
12, 1799), and for a daring capture of a battery at Pozzola, was presented by the first
consul with a saber of honor and the cannon which he had taken. In 1805 he received
til-- grand cross of the Legion of Honor, and about the same time received the command
of ten battalions of the reserve, afterwards 'known as the "grenadiers Oudinot." At tke
head of this corps he did good service in the Austrian campaign. He was present at
Austerlitz and Jena, and gained the battle of Ostrolinka (Feb. 16, 1807). for which he
was rewarded with the title of count, and a large sum of money. He greatly contrib-
uted to the success of the French at Friedland, and was presented by Napoleon to the
Czar Alexander as the "Bayard of the French army, the knight sans peur et sans
reprmhe." He sustained his now brilliant reputation in the second Austrian campaign
of 1809, and on July 12 was created marshal of France, and on Aug. 15, duke of Reggio
In 1810 he was charged with the occupation of Holland, and by his unswerving probity
and attractive personal qualities, drew the esteem of all classes. He was engaged in the
disastrous Russian campaign, and subsequently took part in the various battles of 1813
between the French and the Russians and Austrians. He was one of the last to abandon
Napoleon, but he did so forever, and spent the period known as the "hundred days" on
his own estates. At the second restoration he became a minister of state, commander-
in-chief of the royal guard and of the national guard, and was created a peer of France,
grand cross or St. Louis, etc. In 182o he commanded the first division of the army of
Spain, and was for some time governor of Madrid. After the revolution of July 1830,
Oudinot retired to his estates, and only at rare intervals presented himself in the cham-
Ougree. 109
Outlawry.
ber of peers. He became grand chancellor of the Legion of Honor in May, 1S39, suc-
ceeded marshal Moncey as governor of the Invalides in Oct. 184:2. and died at Paris
Sept. 13, 1847. A statue was erected in his honor at Bar, Sept. 29, 1850. — His :-on,
CHARLES NICOLAS- VICTOR OCDINOT, duke of Regirio (horn Nov. 3, 1791), was a general
in the French army. He tirst distinguished himself in Algeria, and in the revolution of
1848 — having previously distinguished himself as a deputy (1843-46) by his admirable
talent for d.-aling with questions affecting the comfort and discipline of the soldiery — he
was chosen commander-in-chief of the army of the Alps. In April IN!', lie •was
appointed general of the French expedition against Rome, and forced the city to surren-
der unconditionally on July 1, in spite of the heroic resistance of the republican trium-
virs— Garibaldi, Mazzini, and Satti. He was, however, not a Napolconist. and at the
coup d'vfiit, Dec. 2, 1851, shared the fate of every eminent general who would i;<>t violate
his oath to obey the constitution — i. e., he was arrested and imprisoned. He w<i-
set at liberty and lived in retirement until his death in 1863. Oudiuot wrote several
books on military matters.
OUGREE, a t. of Belgium, in the province of Liege, 3 ra. s.s.w. from Liege, on the
right bank of the Meuse. It has iron-works, a cannon-foundry, and oil and Hour mills.
The neighborhood produces coal. Pop '70, 6,200.
OTJISTITI. See MARMOSET.
OULACHAN. See CANDLE-FISH, ante.
OUNCE. The Latin uncia (derived by Varro from unu*) was the name of the twelfth
part of the as or libra (pound), and also was applied to the twelfth part of any magni-
tude, whether of length, surface, or capacity. Hence inch, the twelfth part of a foot.
The modern ounce is a division of the pound- weight. See POUND.
OUNCE, Fe'ls Uncia or Leopardu* Uncia, a large feline animal, nearly resembling the
leopard, but having much rougher and louirer hair, a longer and much more bushy tall;
the general color is also paler, the rosette-like spots are less sharply defined and there is
a black spot behind the ears. Little is known of the ounce; it is described by Buifon,
but naturalists were for some time generally inclined to regard it as identical with the
leopard, and its name lias been transferred in South America to the jaguar. It is a
native of Asia, and probably of mountainous districts.
OU RAfcl. See CURAR*.
OUiiEBI. Scopoplioriis Ourebi, ae antelope found in great numbers in s. Africa, on
the open plains. It is called the pale buck (bleek boc) by the Dutch from its light brown
or yellow color. It is much hunted and flees with immense rapidity.
OU RO PRE TO (black gold), a city of Brazil, capital of the province of Minas Geraes,
stands among barren mountains, 4,000 ft. above sea-level, and 200 m. n n.w. of Rio
Janeiro. It contains the governor's residence and a college, and consists mainly of nar-
row and irregular streets. Although the neighboring mountains are very auriferous, and
although the mines were once the richest in the kingdom, the mining is now reduced to
comparatively unprofitable washings. A good trade in coffee, etc., is carried on with
Rio Janeiro, but is retarded by the want of good roads. The journey from Ouro Preto
to the capital of the empire is performed by horses and mules only, and ordinarily
requires 15 days. Pop. about 4,000.
OUSE, called also, for the sake of distinction, the NORTHERN or YORKSHIRE OTSE. a
river of England, is formed by the union of the Swale and the Ure in the immediate
vicinity of the village of Boroughbridge, and flows s.e. past York. Selby, and Goole.
About eight m. below the last town, it joins the Trent, and forms the estuary of the
Humber. The length of its course from Boroughbridge is 60 in., for the last 45 of which
(from the city of York) it is navigable for large vessels. Its principal affluents are the
Wharf and the Aire from thew., ami the Derwent from the n.e. The basin of the Ouse,
or the Vale of York, commences from the northern boundary of the county, near the river
Tecs, from whose basin it is separated by a low ridge of hills, and extends southward,
including almost the whole of the county. See YORKSHIRE.
OUSE, GRISAT, a river of England, rises close to the town of Bracklev, in the s. of
Northamptonshire, and flows n.e. through the counties of Buckingham. Bedford,
Huntingdon, Cambridge, and Norfolk, and falls into the Wash 2i m. below King'- Lynn.
It is 160 m. in entire length, and is navigable for about 50 miles. It receives from the
e. and s. the Ivel, Cam, Lark, and Little Ouse.
OUSEL. See OUZEL, ante.
OUSELEY, Sir FREDERICK ARTHUR GORE, b. London, 1825; educated at Oxford.
Taking holy orders he became a curate in London, was made precentor of Hereford
cathedral, in 1855, and incumbent of St. Michael's, Tenbury, in 1856. He was one of the
founders, and is now warden of St. Michael's college, Tenbury, an institution for the
instruction of boys in classics and choral singing. He took the degree of doctor of
music at Oxford, in 1854; and the next year, became professor of music there. He has
published a number of musical collections, A Treatiat. on Harmony, 1869; and A Treatise
on Counterpoint and Fugue. 1869. He is also the author of a number of anthems, and
has edited, with Dr. Monk, Anydican Paalter CLints, 1872.
Ou^ree.
Outlawry.
OUSELEY, GIDEON, 1762-1839; b. Ireland; of a family distinguished in English his-
tory. He was designed for the government service, and received a liberal education.
In his youth lie was reckless, but in 1789 became religious under the influence of some
Wesleyan soldiers stationed at Dunmore, his native place. He soon became an
evangelist, exciting the wonder of the people by his fervor and boldness, preaching in
the streets and churchyards, fairs and markets and at the wake-houses. Without dis-
mounting from his horse he preached from three to five times a day. After preaching
thus for 7 years he was received into the Wesleyan conference, and in 1799 appointed
a missionary to Ireland. He was often roughly treated by the Irish, but being a master of
the Irish language, and thoroughly acquainted with the Irish character he succeeded in
converting thousands. At the age of 74, after 50 years of devoted labor, he was still as
active as ever on the high-ways and in the market-places, preaching fourteen, sixteen,
and sometimes twenty, sermons a week. "Gideon Ouseley," says Stevens, "will be for-
ever recognized as the Protestant apostle of Ireland." He was the author of several
polemical publications, of which the most important is Old Christianity and Papal Novel-
ties. So conclusive were his arguments that many Roman Catholic laymen, school-
masters, and candidates for the priesthood, were converted, some of the latter becoming
preachers of the \Vesleyau body or of the established church.
OUSELEY, Sir WILLIAM, LL.D., 1771-1842; appointed cornet of dragoons in 1788, but
left the army in 1794, and began the study of the oriental languages at the university
of Leyden. He was secretary to his brother sir Gore, ambassador to Persia, 1810-12.
He gave an account of his residence in Persia, under the title of Travels in Persia, 1819-
23. Among his works are Persian Miscellan'cs, 1795; Oriental Collections, 1797; Obsena-
tions on some Medals and Gems bearing Inscriptions in tlie Pahltwi or Ancient Persian
Character, 1801; and Anecdotes from Oriental Bibliography, 1827.
OUSELEY. Sir WILLIAM GORE, D.C.L., 1797-1866, b. London; entered the diplo-
matic service. He was attached to the British legation at Stockholm in 1817, and at
Washington in 1825 He held various diplomatic positions at Rio Janeiro, Buenoa
Ayres, Montevideo and Asuncion, 1832-51. He was afterward employed on special mis-
sions, to Central America and the United States. Among his works are Remarks on the
> n i.-dic.i and Political Institutions of tJie United States, 1-882; Notes on Hie Slave Trade,
18dO; and Views of South America, 1852.
OUSTER, in law. See EJECTMENT, ACTION OP, ante.
OUTAGAMIE', a co. in e. central Wisconsin, drained by the Fox, Wolf, and
Etnbarras rivers; traversed by the Chicago and Northwestern, and Green Bay and Min-
nesota railroads; 625 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 28,716 — 19,649 of American birth. The surface is
level and in great part woodland. The soil is moderately fertile- wheat, oats, hay,
lumber and dairy products are the staples. Co. seat, Appleton.
OUTAGAMIES. See SACS AND FOXES.
OUTCROP, a term applied in geology to the edge of an inclined bed at the place where
it rises lo the surface. The line of the outcrop is called the strike, which is always at
right angles to the dip.
OUTER HOUSE. See COURT OF SESSION.
OUTFIT ALLOWANCE, in the British army, is a sum of £150 for the cavalry, and
£100 for the infantry, granted to non-commissioned officers promoted to commissions, to
enable them to meet the heavy charges for uniform and equipments. The larger sum
is given in the cavalry because the newly commissioned officer has to purchase his
charger.
OUTLAWRY, in English law, means putting one out of the protection of the law, for
contempt in willfully avoiding execution of legal process. Formerly, in the common
law courts, if the defender would not enter an appearance, certain proceedings were
taken to outlaw him, so as to allow the action to go on without his appearance. These
proceedings, however, are now abolished, and, in the majority of cases, it is immaterial
as regards the action whether the defendant appear or not, provided he was properly
served with the original writ of summons. After judgment he may still be outlawed, as
a. preliminary to seizing and selling his property. In criminal proceedings, outlawry still
exists as p-irt of the ordinary practice to compel a person against whom a bill of indict-
ment for felony or misdemeanor has been found, but who will not come forward to take
his trial, and who has not been arrested. In such a case, process of outlawry against
him is awarded, which is a kinfl of temporary judgment; and while this process exists
lie is out of the protection of the law, and forfeits all his property. The courts will not
listen to any complaint or attend to his suit till he reverse the outlawry, which is gener-
ally dome as a matter of course. — In Scotland outlawry or fugiiation is a similar process,
and the defender must first be reponed against the sentence of outlawry before his trial
can take place.
OUTLAWRY (ante). In the United States the process of outlawry in civil cases
does not exist; never having been practiced in most of the states, and having long
since been abolished in the others. It is possible that it may have been used here in
criminal cases, but the instances, if any exist, were of very rare occurrence.
Ontposts. -| 4)J.
O.a.upo*.
OUTPOSTS are bodies, commonly small, of troops stationed at a greater or less dis-
ta:ice beyond the limits of a camp or main army, for the purpose of preventing an <
approaching without notice, and also to oiler opposition to his pio.mvss, while tl.c ;
force prepares tor resistance. Outguarels march oil' to their position siicntiy, ;,i.d pay uu
Compliments of any kind to officers or others. As soon as tiie ollicer 1-011.111. i.u i;g an
ojtpost arrives on his ground, he proceeds to carefully examine the e nviron>. noting :.H
heights within ritle-range. roads and paths by which an c-ncmy may ;.| ;• one . < c. lie
also takes such impromptu means of strengthening his po.-iiion as occur to h.m — klling
a tree here, cutting brushwood there, blocking a path in anotiier p'.acc, aiul ;<
any expeelient whicli may sene to delay tne foe at. point-blank range — an el je< t ol im-
portance, as a stoppage at such a point is known to act as a great di.-e oui;.i;\ m
advancing troops.
OTJTBAM, Sir JAMES, Lieut. Gen., G.C.B.,' Indian soldier trtul statc^i'm. \va b.
at Butterlcy hall, Derbyshire, the residence of his father, Mr. J?ci;j;.i'..:n ()rti.-.m a e ivil-
engineer of note. His mother, the daughter of James Anders Ai.. ivicu-
shire, was descended from sir W. Seton, lord Pitmedden. Outram was e-elucaud at
Udny, Aberdcenshire, under the rev. Dr. Bisset, and afterwards went to .Va:isch;.l col-
lege, Aberdeen. He was sent to India as a cadet in 1MD, and was m::de lier.t. a..d adju-
tant of the 23d Bombay native infantry. He then took command of ;.nd di.-ci] \.\.
wild Bheels of Candeish, and successfully led them against the Daung tribes. !•';< i.
to 1838 he was engaged in re-establishing order in the Main Kant a. He we r,t with the inva-
ding army under lord Keane into Afghanistan as aid de-camp- and his ride fiem Kin hit,
through the dangers of the Bolau pass, will long be famous in Indian ; nn.-:!s. lie b
political agent at Guzerat.and commissioner in Sinde, where he mai.e :i bn'd ; mi <
defense of the ameers against the aggressive policy of gen. sir Charles Jtimcs Napier.
He was afterwards resident at Sattara and Baroda. and upon the ;HUH xr.tioi:
was made resident and commissioner \jy lord Dalhousie. His health laill.ig. he r( .
to England in 1856; but when the war with Persia broke out. ami it 1 ec
send an expedition to the Persian gulf, Outram accompanied the forces, with dipi
powers as commissioner. He c< nduckd several brilliant and successful operations; the
campaign was short and decisive; and the objects of the expedition having been liir.ni-
phantly attained, he returned to India. Landing at Bombay in July, 1S.">7. he M
Calcutta to receive lord Cannings instructions, and was commii-siotied to talo
the forces advancing to the relief of Lucknow. He chivalrous]}' waived the t cn.n.: i d
in favor of his old lieut., Havelock (q.v.V who had foiuhl 8 victorious ha.tio \vi.h the
rebels, and, taking up only his civil appointment, as chief-commissioner of Oudi
his military services to Havelock as a volunteer. Lucknow was relieved, snd Outran
took the command, hut only to be in turn besieged. He held the Alr.n.hagli a
almost overwhelming forces, until lord Clyde advanced to his relief, lie then 1
skillful movement, up the left bank of the Gumti, wliich led to a (in; 1 and complete vle--
tory over the-insurgents. He was made chief-commissioner of Oude; a-id though h
strongly opposed its annexation, he was the man who elid mo>t to resiore BiitiMi
and attach tlie people to it. For his eminent services he w;;s r.ppointed to the i; r.k i f
licut.gen. in 1858, and received the thanks eif parliament in 18GO. lie took I;;-
member of the supreme council of Iiklia, in Calcutta, but i-ank une.er the cliihai
returned to England in 1860, already stricken by the hand e>f death. The e-ominr.n'v
India voted him a statue at Calcutta, founded an institution to his honor, and pre&cr.U d
him with commemorative gifts. A banquet was given te> h!m and his chief a:.d
panion-in-arms, lord Clyde, by the city of London. His Eng ish admirers d; t( -i mil. eel to
erect a statue to his honor in London, and ga.ve him a vj.lualle de-sei t-se-rvice in .-ilver.
He spent the winter of 1861-62 in Egypt; and after a short residence in the s. of IV
expired at Paris, Mar. 11, 1863. Outram was styled by sir Charles Napier tl..
of India." Than his, there is no more gallant name in the- whole list of dislinj:i.
Indian soldiers. His services in the east as a soldier and a diplcniati.-t cx',( nde d ove r the
period of 40 years. He was ever the generous protector of the dark-skinned race-s among
whom his lot was thrown, and set a bright example to all future administrate. rs el mod-
eration, conciliation, humanity, and practical Christianity in all his dealings wuh the
natives of India.
OUT BIGGER, in its proper sense, is a beam or spar fastened horizontally to the e
trees or otherwise, fe>r the purpose of extending further from the n.ast or topmost, the
backstay or other rope by which that mast or topmast is supported. The power of the
stay is thus increased. The term is also used improperly — because no " rig-ing" is in
question — to denote the apparatus for increasing the leverage of an oar, by re n.eiving the
resistance, as represented by the side of the boat (see OAK), furl her from the pov,
resented by the rower's hand. This is effected by fixing an iron bracket to the
side, the row-lock being at the bracket's extremity. The necessary leverage Is thus
obtained without adding to the width of the boat itself.
OUTW03.KS, in fortification, are minor defenses constructed beyond the main body e)f
a work, for the purpose of keeping the enemy at a distai.ee, or commanding certain
salient points which it is undesirable that he should occupy. Such works are rave dins,
lunettes, hornworks, crownworks, demi-lunes, teuailles, etc. They occur iu certain
Outposts.
Ovuaipos.
necessary oider, as a ravelin before the curtain and tenaille, a hornwork before a ravelin,
and so on.
OUV RATIO, GABRIEL JULIEX, 1770-1S46. On leaving college he was placed in a
provision house, of which he soon became head, when the revolution of 1789 began.
Perceiving that the freedom of the press would cause a rise in paper he made contracts
with the principal manufacturers for all their products for two years, which enabled him
quickly to realize 300,000 francs on the enforced advance. Entering into larger specula-
tions which were enormously profitable, in 1703 he was denounced by Carrier to the
committee of public safety as a monopolizer, and would probably have felt the guillotine
had he not entered the army in a manner that suspended arrest, and enabled him to
return to Paris the bearer of flags taken from the enemy. While there lie successfully
interceded for 132 imprisoned citizens of Nantes, and after the fall of Robespierre made
fri'-iids with the new government, 'secured immense contracts, and in 1797 ma 1;;
15 ') >0.000 francs out of one contract with the Spanish government. In 1798 he loaned
l*i.n »,OOJ francs to the French directory, and submitted a plan for the r< organization
of the treasury department. The directory accepted 'the money but not the plan. In
1701) Bonaparte desired to borrow 12,000,000 more, but Quvrard objected, and the former
found excuse to arrest and imprison him in 1800. Ouvrard did not cede the loan, and
Bonaparte, after failing to find evidence of dishonest practices, was obliged to give him
tr -c 1 >:n, when his commercial speculations then assumed still larger proportions. In
18')2 lie loaned the state 20,000.000 francs, and when the camp at Boulogne for the Eng-
lish invasion was preparing, his advances rose to 68,000,000 francs. Bonaparte, pleased
to ;hmk he had drawn so much out of him, instructed his finance minister to pay b.vck
no'hing. But Ouvrard's resources were greater than imagined, and in 1804 he advanced
2o i ') !).'» K) more, and agreed to provide the st:ite with all the money needed for Bona-
inti,- operations. In 1806 Bonaparte again endeavored to embarrass him. on
the supposition that he was exhausted, and by a decree made him responsible for a debt
of ,-v,nin. In ISO!) another decree ordered his arrest and the sequestration of his estates.
r\\i\* stretch of unbridled po-.ver was su-pnided over him rather than executed. About
i • wa-; in communication with Fouche, when the fall of that police minister broaght
arrest and incarceration in the Abbaye, the donjon of Viucennes, and Sainte-Pelagie
h ••• renviined until the fall of Napoleon in 1813. On the return of the Bourbons,
O'lvv-inl agiin presented his plan of national finance to the chambers. It was not
ad >;> -il. On the return of Napoleon from Elba, overlooking his brutal treatment,
•') i . T.ird lent his aid in the sum of 2,000,000 a rl-iy to the cost of the hundred days' cam-
paign. Louis X\rlll. refused to permit the acknowledgement of the debt; but it was
ly so distributed among third parties that a pirt only was finally repudiated. In
) 'ivrard's plan for the reorganization of the French treasury an'd its loan system
•d, and proved a great and permanent advantage to France. In 1820 he
ad lre-:s -d a memoir to the government demanding that cases pending between citizens
and tiie state should be tried in ordinary courts like other cases, and not by special
ntees of the cro.vn. Accused in 1824 of dishonesty in connection with supplies for
th : Fivii'-h army in Spain, he was tried, and fully acquitted; but was subsequently con-
' no improper procedure in the Bourse, and sentenced to a punishment, whi- li
wa> avoided by going to England, where he thenceforward lived an inconspicuous
life.
OTTZEL, or OUSEL (Old Fr. oisel, bird), an old name of the blackbird, as is evident
from the descriptive lines of Bottom's song in Midsummer Night's Dream;
The ousel cock, so black of hue,
With orange tawny bill.
It is also applied to other birds, chiefly of the thrush family. Thus, one Briti>h thrush
is called the ring ouzel. The dipper (q v.) is very generally known as the water ouzel;
and the rose-colored pastor is also called the rose-colored ouzel.
OVAL, the name given to the figure presented by a longitudinal section of an egg
through its center. The oval has a general resemblance to the ellipse; unlike the latter,
however, it is not symmetrical, but is thicker at one end than the other, and at the thin
ond narrows almost to a point. The term " oval" is also used indiscriminately with
"nodus," "loop, "to denote the figure formed by a curve which either returns upon
itself, as the lemniscata, etc., or the loops of the cubical and semi-cubical parabolas and
other curves. In scientific language it is specially distinguished from the term "ellipti-
cal," with which, in common parlance, it is usually confounded.
OTAM POS AXD OVAMPOLAND. The Ovampps or Otjiherero are a tribe, seemingly
a connecting link between the Kaffir and Xegro races, who inhabit the region n. of
Greal Xamaqualand, in South Africa, extending n. to the Cuanene river, and s. to the
lie! of 23 J s. latitude. The Ova-nyo tribes are described by Andersson as of a very
d.irk complexion, tall and robust, but remarkably ugly. He found them, however, lion
idustrious. and hospitable. They are not entirely pastoral, but cultivate much
corn. Living in the same country are the Cuttle Damaras. with still more of the negro
typ ', a stout, athletic people, very dirty in their habits, and generally armed with the
Ovar.
Uverbeck.
bow and arrow. They live in a state of constant warfare with the Ghondannup, or Hill
Damaras, a nearly pure negro race, on the one hand, and the Namaqua Hottentots, who
live s. of them, on the other.
• Ovampolaud is a more fertile region than Nnmaqualand, from which it is separated
by a wide belt of densely- hushed country. It has but few rivers, aii.l these not of it
perennial nature. About 50 in. from the coast the country rises to a table --Liid about
6.000 ft. above the sea-level, and then declines to the s. and e. into the deserts of the
Kulihari and the region of lake Is garni. 3Iany strong indications of c<-pp< r ere are
found iu various places. The principal rivers, or rather wuter-cour.-cs, are the Swakop,
Kusip, and their branches, which enter the Atlantic a few miles n. oi \Valli>h hay. The
other rivers in the interior seem to lose themselves in the sands. The climale is healthy
except near the coast, where fever iu some seasons prevails. It seldom rai.isin the cna>i
region, which is a very desolate one, and almost devoid of water. Thunder storms are
very violent in the summer season. Ail the large mammalia are found, more oi
plentiful, according as water may be found at the different drinking-places. Elephants,
rhinoceroses, elands, and other large animals driven from the s. by the march of civi.i-
zation, take refuge in the desert region lying e. of Ovampoiand, where sportsmen like
Green and Andersson have been known to kill as many as 12 elephants in a day. The
country was first described by sir J. Alexander, who visited its s border. ]\Ir. <;
afterward penetrated much further north; and Mr. C. .1. Anders>on ha- since fully
explored it nearly ay far n. as the Cuanene. Large numbers of horned cattle are annually
collected by traders from the cape in these regions, and whales abound on the coast.
The trade iu ostrich feathers and ivory is of increasing importance, and several trading
stations are established for the collection of native products. Some elementary works
have been printed iu the Otjiherero dialect by the German missionaries; two appear in
sir G. Grey's catalogue.
0 VAE, a t. of Portugal, in the province of Beira, 17 m. n. from Aveiro, at the mouth
of the small river Ovar, and at the head of one of the branches of the curious lagoon or
bay called Ria d' Aveiro. bee AVEIHO. It is' a prosperous and rapidly increasing town,
and carries on an extensive fishery and a considerable trade. Pop. '64, 10. ';7 1.
OVARIES are organs peculiar to the female,- and are analogous to the n-sies in the
male. They are two oblong flattened bodies (about an inch and a half in lengih. three-
quarters of an inch in width, and nearly half an inch thick in the hr.man sul.jecu, situ-
ated on cither side of the uterus, to which they are connected by ligaments and by the
Fallopian tube. On milking sections of an ovary, numerous vesicle* are seen. Tin
the ovK-ics of the future ova or germs, and are termed the Graafnin reticle*.
impregnation they vary in number from 10 to 20, and from the size of a pin's head to
that of a pea; but microscopic examination reveals the presence of young vesicles in
large numbers. At each monthly period a ripe Graafian ve-icle bursts, ;,:ul the ovum
contained in it makes its way by ciliary motion along the Fallopian tube to the uterus,
where, if it is not impregnated, it is disintegrated and absorbed.
Solid tumors or cysts, containing hair nnd teeth, are developed in these organs, brt
their principal disease is that to which the name of ornrian tumor is applied. This
tumor may \x* described as consisting of an enormous cn"-irg< inent of oie more of the
Graatian vesicles into a mass which may weigh 80 or 100 ibs., or cv; n more; nnd ;
be either simple (that is to say, composed of natural structures much hypertrophied) or
cancerous. The wrdls of the cysts (or enlarged Graafian vesicles) may lie thin and !!• xi-
ble. or thick and cartilaginous;" and the fluid they contain may be clear and limpid, or
thick and ropy, or grumous and opaque. The only disease with which it can be con-
founded is ordinary abdominal dropsy, or axc/fr*, and- \\hen its nature is He "rlv de-
termined, three modes of treatment are open for adoption: these are (M '
various surgical and medical means of producing atrophy of the tumor, and
tio-i of the organ, or ovariotomy.
1. Tapping is the simplest mode of relieving the patient; but the cyst soon refills, and
the operation must be often repeated. "Cases are extant in OIK- of • , hich ilie patient
lived to be tapped 66 times at intervals of about a month, and in another, 128 ti1
intervals of six weeks; but. tnken as a general rule, it may be aflirnud that few p
survive more than four years after the first tapping, a period pa: sed in the gre;,
and suffering." — bruet's Sure/con's Vn^e-M^t'i-'im, p. 498.
2. Under this head are included both numerous op, orations for causing the tumor to
\ras1e, and its internal walls to adhere, and the internal administration of absorbent
medicines, with the view of producing atrophy and absorption of the tumor. Th<-
tion of tincture of iodine into the previously emptied cyst, is sometimes foV
good results, as in the case of hydrooele (q.v).
3. Ovariotomy, or total extirpation of the morbid mass, is an operation regarding
•whk-h there has of late years been much discussion. Its opponent surge (I) the di!Vcully
of diagnosis; (2) the frequency of adhesion of the tumor to adjacent parts — a point which
can often not be ascertained till the abdomen has been opened ; and (3) the great rrorlality
i'mt follows it: while in favor of the operation it is urged (1) that the mortality is not
•:;•«'.! tor than from some other surgical operations which are regarded as justifiable; (2)
ihat no other plan of treatment can effect a radical cure; (3) that if the surgeon, in order
1 9*7 Ovar.
-1 ^ ' Overbeck.
to complete liis diagnosis, first makes a small incision to enable him to ascertain the
existence of adhesions, and closes it again with suture, if he finds this to be the case, no
great barm 'is likely to result; and (4) that considering the miserable lives these patients
lead during a course of tapping, etc., it is the most merciful course to adopt in patients
who are young and otherwise healthy. For a description of the mode of performing the
operation, and of the cautions to be observed, we may refer to a series of papers on
ovariotomy by Mr. Spencer Wells in The Medical Times and Gazette for 1858 and 1859.
OVAEY, in botany. See GERMEN.
OVA'TION. See TRIUMPH.
OVEN, FIELD OK BARRACK, is a necessary apparatus in military economy to preserve
the health of troops, by enabling them, at a comparatively small expenditure of fuel, to
cook many rations together. In the British army little attention was paid to such sub-
jects, until, in 1858, the inquiries of Mr. Sidney Herbert (afterwards lord Herbert)
brought to light the excessive mortality among soldiers, which was partly — and, as the
event has shown, justly — attributed to the bad cookery of their food. Capt. Grant has
bestowed much attention to army cookery, and has invented oven?, for barrack use and for
the field. While great improvements on the system — or want of system — which preceded
them, these ovens are still admitted to be far from perfect in their arrrangements. For
boiling meat, etc., in the field, he employs detached cylinders, which, when empty, he
proposes to join and floor over for use as pontoons; wjicn in use they are united cross-
wise, one in the middle serving for a chimney. One or more empty barrels can be
attached for steaming potatoes, and the roasting of coffee is performed, though not
altogether successfully, in another cylinder made to revolve over the chimney. Up to
the present time other systems have been partially resorted to; but none has as yet
been definitively adopted to the exclusion of others.
OVEN-BIRD, Funifirii/x, a genus of birds of the family Certhiadm (q.v.), natives of.
the southern parts of South America, interesting on. account of the remarkable nests
which they construct. They are small birds, with short wings and feeble power of
tiiuLt. One species. F. fiVjrr/itUu'ix, or F. ntfus, is found near Buenos Ay res; another
J'. f-uli(iin<i:<n:<, inhabits the Malouine islands. It is a fearless little bird, regarding the
presence of man so little that it may be easily struck down with a switch. Both sexes
take part in the construction of the nest, which is generally in an exposed situation,
remarkably large, and of ihe shape of a dome, with a small entrance on one side, so as
to have mi. eh resemblance to a rude oven. It is made of clay, grass, etc., well plastcrejd
together, ami becomes quite firm as the clay dries in the sun. Internally, it is divided
into two chambers by a partition reaching nearly to the roof, the eggs being placed in
the inner chamber on a bed of soft grass and feathers. The outer chamber seems to be
intended for the male.
OVER DAS WEN is a very flourishing t. of Lancashire, situated amid moorland hills,
3| m. s. of Blackburn, and 19J in. n.w. of Manchester, with which towns it is connected
by the Lancashire and Yorkshire railway. It has risen into wealth principally by a trade
wi!h India and China in calicoes. At present, there are about 250,000 spindles and
15,000 looms, contained in upward of 40 mills and manufactories, at work in it. The
" India mill," erected to contain 100.000 spindles, is in every respect one of the finest in
the country. It is a first-class stone building in the Italian style, with engine-house;
chimney etc., high]}' ornamented, is 100 ft. high, and covers an area of 81.000 sq.
feet. The town also contains the most extensive paper-staining works in England, 5
paper manufactories, 1 calico-printing establishment, as well as works for the maiuil'ac.
ture of lire-bricks, tiles, and sanitary tubes, iron and brass founding, bleaching; machine
and reed making. Coal-mines and .-lone quarries also find employment for a consider-
able number of ihe inhabitants. The places of worship are — 4 churches, 3 independent
elwnels; a Baptist, Wesleyan. Primitive, Methodist free church, and Roman Catholic-
el. There are large and commodious schools for elementary education. The town
possesses a covered maikct, public baths, and a valuable free library. The central rtores
of the industrial co-operative society, erected in 1887, at a cost of £10,000, contain a
public hall to accommodate 1500 people. This society, which soon had over 2.000 mem-
1 (-is. lii's several thriving branches It maintains science classes, and possesses an exten-
sive library, and well supplied news-rooms, free to members and their families. Fop.
'51. 11,702; '61, 16,492; '71, 21,278; and at the close of '75, the estimate was given
at above 25.000.
OVERBECK, FKIKD::ICTT, b. at Lubeck; July 3, 17S9, a distinguished painter, to whom
i* justly awarded a large share of the merit of the movement in the early part of this c.,
from which arose the modern German school of art. He commenced his studies ns au
nr;:--t at Yi.'iina in ls03; but having adopted, and continued to persist in carrying out
certain notions on art, and ihe mode of studying it, essentially different from those incul-
cated in the academy, he w.-s expelled along with certain other students who entertained
the same, views, and in 1 09 set out for Rome. Here he was soon afterward joined by
Cornelius and Schudow; and these three, animated with similar ideas, and mutually
Orrrbury. 1 ")S
Overseers. J.—O
encouraging one another, laid the foundation of a school that now holds a high rank,
and li;is in no small degree inliuenced ilic ta te for art in Kurope at the present time. A
picture 6f the Madonna, which Ovcrbeck painted at Koine iu IM1, brought liim into
marked notice. He wa> next employed along wi;h Coniciius ::;i,l otUere, !iy '
consul, gen. Bartholdi, to execute certain frescoes illustrating the liistory of .lo-eph, the
"Selling of Joseph" and the " Seven Lean Years" being (;i -him.
After completing these, he ptiintcd in frvsco, in the villa of the laarcln- i, five
large compositions from Tas-o's Ji'mxn'cm Delivered. In ]N14. along wiih some of his
nrtistic brethren, he abjured Lutheranisin, and embraced the Roman Catholic re!
Overbeck's chief work is a fresco at Assisi, " The Miracle of Ro>es of St. Francis." Hi-
oil pictures are inferior to his frescoes, being dry and weak in color. I! lure,
" The Influence of Religion on Art," preserved iu the Stadel institute at i. and
well known from the engraving, is an admirable composition, and is indeed th"
favorable specimen of his powers as a painter in oil colors, lie executed a great many
drawings remarkable for high feeling, most of which have l/e--n engravul. One of hi*
last undertakings, a series of designs from the Kvj.ng lists, dclicau -ly engraud in the
line manner, is a work of high excellence. Overbeck adhered clo.-< !y to
art which he started with — namely, entire devotion to the styl • of the Italian .-.
prior to the period of the renaissance, ^particularly Fra Angelico (b. i:W7— d. I-!,").")), and
a strong impression that form or drawing iu the style of G.v/k or classic art i
sible in works embodying religious subjects; although many of his compatri..
lius, for instance — have modified, or perhaps enlarged these ideas, and stud}' the
of Michael An gel o and those of Raphael's later style executed under the i
•art. Overbeck resided in Rome from the time he went theri /l.-nt. lie
died November 1869.
OVERBTJBY, Sir THOMAS, an English author and 'courtier, whose mystenou-
has given a peculiar interest to his history, was the son of Nicholas Overbury, a (Ii-
tershire squire, and was b. at Comptou Scorfen, Warwickshire, the r of his
maternal grandfather in 1581. At the age of 14 he entered (Queen's * 'ford,
where he highly distinguished himself in logic and philosophy, and where he took the
degree of B.A. in 151)8. He then joined the middle temple, but soon after set. nit for
the continent, from which lie returned with the reputation of being a tini-he ! g":itl
While on a visit to Scotland in 1001, he met for the first time with his future mur
Robert OUT (properly Ivor), then a pag: in the service of inn carl of Dunbar. An inti-
macy unfortunately sprung up between the two, ami OUT — a hands >me ig.i'>:
siiiil and unprincipled — followed his scholarly fri "iid to London. On the ace -ion of
Jam?s to the English throne (1603), Carr rose rapidly into royal favor, and v.
viscount Rochester. Through his influence, Overbury was knighted in Hi'
father appointed a judgs for Wales. In return, Overbury g-ive his patron th
his wit and judgment, both of which were singularly (>.;:• • •]! • nt ; and. acco:-di;r.r to ;-
it was owing to Overbury that OUT enjoyed for a time the highest favor of the p
without being hated by the people. The circumstances that led to a rupture; of
intimacy, and turned the earl int y Overbury's s >c;-et and remiss enemy, form one of the
most flagrant scandals in the history of the English court. A brief outline ot
cumstanccs is all that can be given here.
At the age of 13, Frances Howard, daughter of the carl of Suffolk, was married C1fi')3)
to tiie earl of Essex, himself only a year older. On account of their youth, i
reckoned advisable by their friends that they should not live together for 3
Th • boy-husband went away on his travels, and th • wedded girl to her mot
the lapse of nearly f» years, Essex came home, and found his wife, now a splendid 1
of 18. the idol of fill the court gallants. But there was not a touch of virtue or go.
in her whole soul. She had the disposition of a Mcssalina (q.v.) or a T'r .[ v.).
F_»r her husband she showed the greatest aversion, and only c'vi-ented to live in his
house at the command of the king. It was well known th U she had had in!'
more than one lover, but in particular with Rochester, for whom she now cheri
fierce passion. Overbury had been instrumental in bringing about tlieir gui'.'y ;nvr-
cours'1, a:id was now to reap the reward due to a pander. Rochester having to'd him
that he purpose;! to get lady Essex divorced from her husband, and then 1o marry her,
Overbury strongly deprecated the idea, and declared that it would be disgraceful to form
a union with so depraved a creature — she rri;rht do for a mistress, but not for a
The carl told lady Essex what Overbury ivi i said of l,':r; she became furious f.
and o.Tercd sir David Wood (between whom a id Ovorhury there was a standing q'
£1000 to assassinate him, which that canny Scot decline:; to do. Roche
now persuaded by his mistress to join privately in a plot against Overbury. M!O on a
most trivial and illegal pretext w;;s i;;rown into the Tower, April 21, 16K5. It v;a-
timc befc re he could bring himself to believe that his frie-id and patron was the ca
his imprisonment; but when he had assured himself of Rochester's treachery, ho threat-
ened to divulge certain secrets in his possession, whereupon it was determined by the
earl and his mislress that he should be poisoned. This, after several tri.-
fnlly accomplished, and Overbnry expired on Sept. 15th. Rochester (now created ^arl
of Somerset), and his paramour were married on Dec. 26th with great pomp, the brazen-
r I 90 OTerbury.
•*--'£' Overseers.
fac^d beauty wearing her hair "as a A-irgin," and the whole affair was soon to appear-
ance forgot :en; but after George Yilliers had supplanted the earl in the royal favor, an
inquiry was instituted; Somerset and his wife were tried and found guilty of poisoning,
but were, by an amazing and infamous stretch of tne royal prerogative, pardoned. The
motive for James's extraordinary clemency Las never been ascertained; but the prevail-
ing opinion is, that it was to prevent the disclosure of some discreditable, if not criminal,
incidents in the private life of that monarch.
Overlnuy wrote several works, all of which were posthumously published. The
principal are, The Wife (1014), a didactic poem; ammeters (1614), the wit, ingenuity,
precision, and force of which have long been admitted; Ci'umms Fallen from King
'.•>• Table. (171o). The latest edition of Overburv's works is that by E. F. Kimbaull
with Hfe (18,j6).
O'VERLAND ROUTE to India, the route generally chosen by those to whom time is a
more important consideration than expense. The management of the route is in the
hands of the peninsular and oriental steam company, who present the traveler with a
choice of lines of route to Alexandria in Egypt. He may sail from Southampton via
Gibraltar and Malta, reaching Alexandria in 13 days, a very convenient route for those
who have much luggage, as no shifting is required till Alexandria is reached; or he may
travel'overlaud by railway and steamer to either of the ports of Marseille or Trieste.
The shortest route from London to the former is via Dover, Calais, and Paris, Alexan-
dria being reached in 11 days (including the necessary stoppages at different points on
the route); and lo the latte'-, via Dover. Calais, Paris, Turin, and Venice. The shortest
route to India at present, after reaching Paris, is via Lyon, the mount Ceuis tunnel,
Modena, to Brindisi; from that Adriatic port by steamer to Port Said, thence through
the Sue/, e; nal and the Red sea to Bombay, etc. Passengers may still be conveyed from
Alexandria by rail to Suez, where they again embark on board the peninsular and ori-
ental company'.-; steamers, and are conveyed to Bombay, Madras, etc, The time occu
pied in traveling from Alexandria to Bombay is 18 days, to Madras 24 days, and to'
Calcutta 21) days. Thus a traveler can reach Calcutta from London in 40 days; at an
expense, however, of more than £100 The long sea-route round by the cape of Good
Hope cannot be accomplished by steamer in less than 94 days, and by sailing vessels ii
takes more than 4 mouths, but the cost is much less.
OVERSEER, ASSISTANT. An assistant overseer is a paid officer, whose services have
generally been found necessary in the larger parishes, in order to relieve the annual
overseers of their burdensome office to some extent. Accordingly, the ratepayers, in
vestry assembled, appoint a person as assistant overseer with a salary, who performs
mosl of the same duties as the overseers. In many cases, however, a collector of poor-
rates has be< n ; pMointed, who is also pakl by salary, and in such a case lie discharges
like duties. Both the assistant overseer and the collector of poor-rates are bound to
find security for the faithful discharge of their duties, and for duly accounting for
moneys in their hands.
OVERSEERS are officers appointed annually in all the parishes in England and Wales,
whose primary duty it is to rate the inhabitants to the poor-rate, collect the same, and
apply it towards giving relief to the poor. These officers -occupy an important position
in all English p-irishes. They were first ordered to be appointed in each parish by the
statute of 43 Eli/, c. 2. the leading poor law act. which directed four, three, or two
substantial householders in the parish to be nominated yearly, and a later statute fixed
the time of nomination to be March 25, or a fortnight thereafter. The courts have held
that not more; than four, nor less than two, can be appointed, the object being, probably,
that so much responsibility should not be thrown on any one individual, Though it is
usual for the vestry of the parish to nominate two persons to be overseers, still those
who really appoint them are the justices of the peace, who are not bound to regard the
wishes of the vestry in this respect. It is only householders in the parish who are quali-
fied for the office, and though it is not necessary that they should actually reside in the
parish, still they must occupy or rent a house (here. Several classes of persons are
exempt from serving the office, such as peers, members of parliament, clergymen, dis-
senting ministers, barristers, attorneys, doctors, officers of the army and navy', etc. But
all who are not specially exempted by some statute are liable to serve the office, and
even women may be appointed, though they scarcely ever are so in practice. The office
is compulsory, and entirely gratuitous; <r,.id so necessary is it that someone shall fill
the office, that it is an indictable misdemeanor to refuse, without cause, to serve when
duly appointed. Though overseers are the proper managers of the poor for each parish,
yet some parishes', especially in large overgrown towns, have been regulated by local
acts, and guardians of the poor provided; and other parishes are under what is called
a_ select vestry. In such cases the overseers, though still appointed, arc only allowed to
give relief to paupers in certain urgent and exceptional cases, the ordinary regulation of
poor-law affairs being confided to the guardians or the select vestry. The primary duty
of the overseers consists in making, collecting, and applying the poor-rate for the relief
of the poor of the parish, but, as will be seen, advantage has been taken by the legis-
lature of the existence of these officers always representing the parish, to throw upon
U. K. XL— 9
Overstone.
-| OA
them various miscellaneous duties which are not directly connected with poor-tow
affairs.
1. Of the duties connected with the management of the poor : The overseers,
along with the churchwardens, are to make a r:ite once or twice a year; i.e., n
list of all the occupiers of lands and houses in the. parish, specifying their names
and the property occupied by each, and the ratable value and amount due
toy each. The next thing to be done is to go before two justices of the
mid get the rate allowed — i.e., signed by them— ami then it is published on the church
door on the following Sunday. The overseers must collect the rate also: but in all
large parishes there is a collector of poor-rates who is specially appoints! ;:!,'! paid for
the purpose of collecting it. If a party refuses to pay the rate, the OM r-eeis must take
proceedings before justices to compel payment, which is done by distraining the goods
of the party, or, if there are no sufficient goods, by getting a v arrant to imprison him.
The party may, however, appeal against the rate to the court of quar:< r ses.-ions. \A leu
the money is collected, the overseers have to apply it towards the relief of the poor. a;,d
many other purposes of a kindred nature. Relief must be given to all the poor in the
parish who are in a destitute state; but it is the duty of the overseers, whdi the pauper
has not a settlement in the parish, to obtain an order of removal, i.e.; to IM t an
of justices, under which the pauper is taken by force and sent to the parish where he
Las a settlement. See REMOVAL OP THE Poou. Relief is given, in general, only in the
workhouse, and according to certain rules and conditions. AVherc the parish is included
in a poor-law union, as is now generally the case, then the duty of ovcr-< < T- in giving
relief is entirely confined to certain urgent cases; for the guardians of the union admin-
ister the ordinary business of the workhouse, and of relief generally. Another duty
incident to overseers of a parish in a anion is the duty of making out valuatu •!
— i.e., a new valuation of the property in the parish — which list is ordered by the
guardians with a view to produce some uniformity in assessing the burdens on the
various occupiers. Formerly the mode of valuing property for the purpo.-c- of the
poor-rate was not subject to any uniform rule, and in some parishes the valuers made
a larger deduction from the actual value than in others; but in 18(52 a statute pi-
culled the union assessment act, the object of which was to enable new valuations to
be made on a uniform plan, till the occupiers in all the parishes are treated alike. At
the end of the year of office, the accounts of the overseeis of parishes in unions are
audited by a poor-law auditor, who is a paid officer, and who examines the vouchers,
and sees that no illegal payments have been made.
2. The miscellaneous duties now imposed by statute on overseers, over and above
their original duty of relieving the poor, are numerous. The most prominent, perhaps,
is that of making out the list of voters for members of parliament. This duly is done
in obedience to certain precepts issued by the.clcrk of the peace each ye; r w ho give- the
overseers full instructions how to make out the lists, and what claims and rejections to
receive, and how to deal with them. The overseers must also attend the court of the
revising barrister, when he revises the lists, and disposes of legal objections. Another
duty of the overseers is to make out the list of persons in the parish qualified to serve
as jurors. So they must make out the burgess lists win n the \ arish is situated within a
borough. They must also make out the list of persons qualified to serve as parish con-
stables. They are also bound to appoint persons to enf< rcc the vaccination acts; they
must give notice to justices of all lunatics within the parish, sind pauper lunatics aie
removed to the county asylum. They must also collect and enforce payments of the
rates levied to pay the expenses of school-boards. The overseers must also perform < er-
tain duties as to the election of guardians for the union. They must also bury ti.e d< ad
bodies of persons cast on shore, and of all paupers who die in the parish. They also
are the proper parties to protect village greens from nuisances; and in general, where
there is no local board of health, the overseers arc the parties bound to act in carrying
out the nuisances removal acts (see NUISANCE) within the parish, which of itself is an
onerous duty. In general, whenever overseers are bound to do miscellaneous duties of
this kind, they are authorized to pay the necessary expenses and disbursements out of
the poor-rate: but, as already stated, their services are gratuitous. The duties which in
England are performed by overseers, devolve, in Scotland, upon the parochial board,
the sheriff-clerk of the county, session-clerk, and others.
OVERSTONE, SAMUEL JONES LOTD, Lord, one of the most skillful political econo-
mists, and the ablest writer on banking and. financial subjects that this country has pro-
duced. He was born in 1796, beinsr the only son of }>r. Lewis Loyd. descended from a
respectable Welsh family, and a leading partner in the eminent banking hcuse of Jones,
Loyd & Co. of London and Manchester. Having gone through a regular course of
instruction at Eton, young Loyd was sent to Triniiy college, Cambridge, Avhvre 1;< had
Dr. ttlomfield, late bishop of London, for tutor, and where he acquired a very extensive
acquaintance with classical literature, and with the history and literature of his own
country and of Europe generally. On leaving Cambridge, Loyd entered the banking-
house as a partner along with his father, and on the retirement of the lat'T, he became
its head. He distinguished himself highly in his capacity of banker. lie had a pro-
found knowledge of the principles of banking, and these he applied on all occasions in
m Overstone.
Overweg.
conducting the business in which he was engaged. Far-sighted and sagacious, he was
seldom deceived by appearances or pretensions, however specious. Perhaps, if any-
thing, he was too cautious: but he was neither timid nor irresolute. He was eminently
successful in the employment of the very large deposits at his command, jind while lie
eschewed hazardous transactions, he did not shrink from engaging in very extensive
operations when he believed they could be undertaken with a due regard to that safety
which should always be the first consideration in the estimation of a banker.
Loyd entered parliament in 1819 as member for Hythe, which he continued to repre-
sent till 1826. He made several good speeches in the house; and was one of a small
minority that voted for the proposal to make bankers issuing notes give security for
their payment. Though opposed to all changes of a dangerous or revolutionary charac-
ter, Loyd has been always a consistent liberal. Having either withdrawn, or being on
the eve of withdrawing from business, Loyd was raised to the peerage in 1850, by the
title of baron Overstone and Fotheriughay, county Northampton; and if great wealth,
consummate intelligence in regard to matters of great public importance, and the highest
degree of integrity and independence, be qualified for a seat in the lords, few peers have
had a better title to be enrolled in that august assembly.
The first of lord Ovcrstone's famous tracts on the management of the bank of Eng-
land and the ;. cute of the currency was published in 1837, and was followed by others
between that period and 1857. The proposal for making a complete separation betweea
the banking and issue departments of the bank of England, introduced by sir Robert
Peel into the act of 1844, was first brought forward in these tracts, and its adoption has
been the greatest improvement hitherto effected in our banking system. Having been
collected, these tracts were published in 1857, with extracts from evidence given by lord
Overstone before committees of the lords and commons. And it would -not be easy to
exaggerate the value of this volume. Lord Overstone has also reprinted, at his own
expense, four volumes of scarce and valuable tracts on metallic and paper money, com-
merce, the funding system, etc., which he has extensively distributed.
An inquiry took place before a committee of the house of commons in 1857 into the
practical working of the act of 1844, and lord Overstone was the principal witness who
came forward in defense of the act; but several leading members of the committee beinsj
hostile to it, exerted themselves to overthrow his lordship's theories and opinions, ana
subjected him to a severe cross-examinau'on ; which gave lord Overstone the opportunity
of successfully vindicating the principles and practical working of the act. This evi-
dence was published in a separate volume in 1857.
Lord Overstone does not often speak in the house of lords. His speech on the com-
mercial treaty with France is probably the best of his parliamentary appearances. He
has also been a zealous opponent of the principle of limited liability. He was a leading
member of the commission appointed to inquire into the proposal for the introduction of
a decimal system of arithmetic, and powerfully advocated the opinion that it would be
injurious rather than beneficial.
of the most
adherence to
^ ised con-
tempt for twaddle and pretensions of all sorts, have made him be generally looked upon
as austere and without sympathy. Such, however, is not the fact. When proper cases
for the display of sympathetic and generous feelings are brought before him. none
evince them more strongly. We may add that his Conversational talents are of the
highest order.
OVERTOX, a co. in n. central Tennessee, bordering on Kentucky; drained by
Ovie's river and the West fork; 470 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 12,153—12,146 of American birth,
341 colored. The surface is broken, but the soil fertile. The chief products are maize,
wheat, oats, cattle, and pork. There are extensive forests of ash, oak, hickory, tulip,
and maple. Coal is found. Co. seat, Livingston.
O'VERTUEE (from Fr. outertvre, opening), a musical composition for a full instru-
mental band, introductory to an opera, oratorio, cantata, or ballet. It originated in France,
and received its settled form at the hands of Lulli. Being of the nature of a prologue, it
ought to be in keeping with the piece which it ushers in, so as to prepare the audience
for the sort of emotions which the author wishes to excite. Such is to a great extent
the character of the beautiful overtures by Mozart to Zduberfldte and Don Giovanni, by
Weber to Freisehatz, and by Mendelssohn "to his Midsummer Night's Dream, which are
enriched by snatches of the more prominent airs in these operas. In the end of last cen-
tury overtures were written by Haydn, Pleyel, and other composers, as independent
pieces to be played in the concert room ; this sort of overture being, in fact, the early
form of what was afterwards developed into the symphony (q.v.). The overture, as
well as the symphony, is designated by the name sinfonia in Italian.
OVERWEG, ADOLF, 1822-52; b. Hamburg. He studied geology at the universities
of Bonn and Berlin, and in 1850 joined Berth and Richardson in their explorations of
centra! Africa. He reached Lake Tchad with a boat which had been brought overland
from Tripoli; and devoted five weeks to exploring that lake, being the first European,
who had ever sailed upon its waters. He then tried to penetrate the Fellatak kingdom
Overy»sel. 1 Of)
Oviparous.
of Yakoba, n.w. of tlie Bcnoowc, but his health was shattered ami he retuined to
Kuka, near which place he died Sept. 27, 18.V.J. He made a number ol di -•. . \e n-s,
among which was the fact that the desert of Sahara is an elevated plateau, aim
depressed plain. H-is reporis appean-d in Vol. V1I1. and IX. of JJvn<ttslerici'<.-
Ki'i(iJ'tf/lr Erilkunde; and Vol. I. of Petcnniinn's 7. :t>-i-li.-!r't fiir AU<.j< ,i>< <m Ki.ll-nnde.
OVEEYS SEL, a province of the Netherlands, is bounded on the n. by I'll -land and
Drenthe; e. by Hanover and Westphalia; s and s.\v. by (Jelderland; and \v. ny the
Zuyder Zee. It has an area of 1274 .sq.m.; and (1874) a pop. of 2<>.j,008. The
sandy, with clay lands by the Yssel, rich pastures along the Xuyder /.ec and ri\ers, in.cts
of peat-land in various parts, and extensive heaths which are gradually being brought
into culti\atioa. From south to north the pr;>\i:i<-.- is in ; an i:;,li.
of sand-hills. The chief cities are Zwolle, Devt-mcr, and Kan.p.-n; impor.;.nt in;.:
luring towns of less note being Almelo, Aveivcsi, DaliM-n, liaa'^b: rg. n. Harm
fiellendorn, Lonneker, Losser, Raalte, Sta] iteeuwykerswold, 'iui . _en.
selo, \Vierden, Zwollerkerspi'l, etc. The principal emp'oyinei,;.- are: agriculture, mauu-
factures of various kinds. Ji.-hing, making peat, .shipping, and men haih.i-c . in L-
128,70'J.V acres under cultivation, 63,520 were in r\e, ~4. -].">.> in pot,.- ',7 in buck-
wheat, 7,6oO.V in oats, 4,4oU in bailey; wheat, colza, beans, flax, carrots, etc., o ci.
smaller breadths. The stock consisted of 10,5fc2 horses, 117,007 horned cattle, oO,l!52
sheep, 22.318 swine, and 8.26o goats.
At Zwolle, Deventer, Kamneii, Almelo, and Steenwyk, besides the ground pro
Were sold 3,008,000 Ibs. of butter, of 17£ oz. avt.iidupois per ib. In Ovcr\>.-< 1, 881,000
acres are still waste, 203,000 in pasture, and 7,400 in wood.
Carpets are manufactured at Deventer and Kainpen. leather at Blokzyl, eaiieoes and
other cotton fabrics at Kanipen, Almelo. Dalisen, Omir.cn. ana many ether towns.
There are extensive brick-works at R\>seu, Z\volleK;er.-i ei. Markelo, and Diepenveen.
producing a yearly aggregate of 43,760,000. Ship-building is carried onat'Zwar.
Yollenhove, Steeuwykerswold, A veriest, etc. 'lucre arc "A Duteh Keformed clergymen,
98 Roman Catholic priesis, and a few churches belonging to smaller Protest an i
The attendance at .school is about 1 to 9 of the population. In ]S,;-^ ihe biiths amounted
to 7,318, of which 206 were illegitimate, or about 1 to 35i; the deaths were 5,07^.
to the 1000 of the population.
The principal rivers are the Ysscl, into which the ?chipbcck runs, and the Ov
seise he V edit, which falls inio the Black V»'atcr. Oilier important water-ways are i'he
Dedems Vaart and the Willems-Vaart canals. There were, in 1873, 101) m. oY railways
in the province. The island of Schokhind, in the Zuyder Zee, belongs to Ovei
1 OVIEOS. See Musu-Ox, ante.
OVID CPiT5MT:a O^Dirs NASO" tlu> ([< srondant of pn old equestrian family, wash, on
Mas. 20. 4-> I5.C., at Sulnio, in the country of the Pclicrni. He Avas educat.-d for the bar.
and under his masters, Arelliu--; Fuscus ;ind Porcins Latro. he liccnme highly pre!
In the art of declamation. Hi* genius, however, was essentially that of the poet, and
the writing of verses began to absorb the tins'' tl.at *N-.;ilcl have been spent in the study
of jurisprudence. His father, having but a scnnty p-iiriniony to divide between tv.o
eons, discouraged tin's tendency in the youncrer. but in vain. By the death of his elder
brother, Ovid inherited all bis father's property, and went, for the completion of his
education, to Athens, where he acquired a perfect mastery of the Greek language. He
afterwards made a tour in Asia and Sicily along with the pott Macer. It i-
whelher, on his return t() Rome, he ever practiced as advocate. Although by birth
entitled to aspire to the dignity, he never enlcrul the senate; his weakness of bo<
indolence of habit prevented him from ever rising higher than from the position of
triumvir capitalis to that of a decemvir, wlo convened and presided over the court of ;'ie
centumviri. While his public life was unimportant, his private was that, of a gay and
licentious man of letters. The restrain! of the m itrimoni.-il tie was alw;;vs r.i-i;,st. ful to
him; twice married in early life, lie soon divorced each of his wives: while he carried on
an intrigue with n ladv whom he celebrated as Corinna. and who is believed toha\>
no other than Julia, the accomplished daughter of Augustus. Before his thirtieth
he married a third time, and became the father of Perilla, of whom he was tenderly fond.
Up till his fiftieth year, he resided chieflv at Rome, in a house near the capitol. and
occasionally visited his Pelignan estate. His society was much courted, and his large
circle of distinguished friends included Augustus and the imperial family. By a:.
of the emperor, however, he was. in 9 A.D. . commanded to leave Rome for To:ni. a town
near the delta of the Danube, and on the very limit of the empire. The sentence di'1. not
condemn him to an frrili'im, but to a relcr.atin — or, in other words he did not losr \-t\^
citizenship, nor was he cut off from all hope of return. The cause of this sudden banish-
ment has long divided the opinion of scholars, since the one mentioned in the edict — the
publication of his Ar* Amntnrw — was a mere p-ef xt, the poem having been H circula-
tion for ten years before. His intrigue with. Julia, or with Julia's dau-.-hter. and the con-
sequent displeasure of Augustus or of Livia. have been adduced with yrrious decrees of
plausibility, as the cause of a sentence to which Ovid himself oni isly refers.
The misery of his life on the inhospitable and barbarous shore of I'M" Euxinc is com-
memorated by the poems in the composition of which he found his solace. He became
-] OO Overjssel.
Oviparous.
a favorite with the Tomitse, whose language he learned, and before whom he publicly
recited some poems in honor of Augustus. But his devotion t--> the emperor, aud the
entreaties addressed to the imperial court by himself and his friends, failed to shorten
the term, or to change the scene of his banishment; so he died, an honored citi/.eu of
Tomi, 18 A. D., in his sixtieth year. His works which have come down to us, either in
whole or in part, appeared in the following order: 1. Ainorum, Libri 111., a revised and
abridged eduion oi an earl}" series. 2. Twenty-one A'pistoli? llcroidam. 3. The Art
A'tritiHjria. 4. Remtdia Amor is. 5. JV«.r, the remonstrance of a nut-tree against the ill-
treafment it receives from the wayfarer, and even from its owner. 6. MetajftorpJtO&oiL
Libri XV. This is deservedly Ovid's best-known work. It seems to have been written
between the poet's fortieth aud fiftieth years, and consists of a41 the transformations
recorded in legend from the creation down to the time of Julius Ctesar, whose change into
a star forms the last of the series. 7. !•< into nun Libri Xll., the first six of which are all
that remain. The poem is a Roman calendar versitud, and describes the appropriate
festivals and mythic legends from materials supplied by the old annalists. 8. Tru-num
l.Hiri V., written in elegiac meter, during the lirst four years of the poet's banishment.
They are mainly- descriptive of his miseiabie fate, and are full of appeals to the clemency
of Augustus. D. fcjj'iJsitAtiriiin ex Pouto Libri IV., also written in elegiac meter, and
similar in substance to the Trixtia,. 10. lbi.f, a short satire against some traducer of the
poet's. 11. Cvua(,iaiio ad Licium Auguxtam, held spurious by some critics. 12. Ncdi-
cuinina 1-uciei and Halieiitimn, dubiously genuine, and of which we possess but fragments,
Several of his works are entirely lost, the one best known to antiquity being j^edca, a
tragedy.
'1 he poetical genius of Ovid has always been admired. A masterly facility of com-
position, a fancy vigorous and rarely at lault, a fine eye for color, and a versification
very musical in its liow, are the merits which have made him a favorite of peels from
Milton downwards, in spite of his occasional slovenliness and f.flsity of thought. The
best editions of Ovid's in tire woiks are Burmann's (Amsterdam, 1727), and the recent
one of SJerkel ; while excellent commentaries on one or other of his poems have been
published by Haupt, 1-iamsay, and Pa ley. A good translation of his jfcktamorphotes is
that edited by Garth, wiih the assistance of Bryden, Acldi. on, Congreve, and others;
while special passages of the same poem have been admirably rendered by Mr. D'Arcy
Thompson.
OVIE EO, a pleasant and healthy city of Spain, capital of the modern province of the
srme name (the ancient Asturias, q.v.). stands on a plain between the rivers "Nalou and
N(,ra, 61 m. n.n.w. of Leon, and 22 m. s.s.w. of Gijon, on the hay of Lisray. In the
ci r.tcr of the city is a handsome square, from which four principal streets terminating in
alamedas or promenades, branch off toward the n., s., e., and w., respectively. These
main sinds tire ci nneoted by others, and all are clean and well-pavid. Pure water
is abrndartly supplied by means of a long aqueduct, and is delivered in the city
by eleven public fountains. The cathedral, a beautiful cruciform ppccimeii of Gothic,
the ornamentation of which is as rich as it is elegant, cor. lain s (in the chapel of the
YirL-in) the r< mains of many of the early kings and princes of Aaturias, and has a fine
old library. Some curiwis, Vut cmincntiy questionable relics, are to be found in the
church of Mm Mifrf. which is the second oldest Christian building after the Moorish
invasion. In the immediate vicinity of the city there are other churches in the early
Saxon style, which are among the oldest chun lies in the peninsula. The convent of Ban
Vincente". founded in 1281, has been secularized, and is now occupied by government
offices, etc. Linens, woolens, hats, and fire-arms are nanufactured. Pop. 25,460.
Oviedo was known during the middle ages as Ci vitas Episcoporum, because many of
the Sp; nisi) prelr.tes who hail been dispossessed of their sees by the Moors, took refuge
here. This city, which is the see of a bishop, was twice plundered of its ecclesiastical
and other treasures during the war of indeperdence; first by Soult., and subsequently by
Bonnet.
OVIEDO Y VAIDES, GoNZAi-o FER. i"3. a Spanish chronicler, h. at Madrid in 1478,
was sent bv Ferdinand to St. Domicgo, in the West Indies, in 1514, as iritendant and
inspect or-<rcneral of the trade of the new world. During his long residence in St.
Domingo, he spent his leisure in acquiring an extensive knowledge of the West Indies;
nnd after his return fo Spain p-iblished at Toledo, in 1526. a Summario tie la Bistort*
General ?/ Natm-nt lie, fax Indias Occidentals*, which he dedicated to Charles V. _He after-
wards made some additions to the work, which was rcpuhlished at Seville in 1535, in 21
vols., under the title of La Hixtoria General y Natural de lax Indias Occiddilales. He
left other 29 books in manuscript. A complete edition is now being prepared at Madrid.
Oviedo died at Valladolid in 1557. Besides his History of the Wt*t Indies, he wrote Lot
Qiiiiiqiftf/enast, a valuable, gossiping, and anecdotical account of nil the principal person-
Hires, of Spain in his time, which still remains in MS. in the royal library at Madrid; and
chronicles of Ferdinand, Isabella, and Charles V. A life of cardinal Ximcnes is also
attributed to him.
OVTP'AHOTJS, a term applied to animals in which reproduction takes place by egg»
{ova). Except the mammalia, all animals are either oviparous or ovoviviparous (q.v.);
the latter mode — which is not essentially different from the former — being comparatively
Ovolo. 1 QJ
©ueii.
rare. Even those invertebrate animals -which multiply by gemmation and division have
alsc^a true reproduction by oca. See EGG and REPRODUCTION.
0 VOLO, :i convex moulding much used in classic architecture. See Mon.i-iXG. In
Roman architecture, tlie ovolo is an exact quarter of a circle; in Greek architecture, the
curve is sharper at the top and quirked. It is sometimes used in decorated Gothic.
OVOVIVIP AB.OUS, a term applied to animals of which the egg is hatched within the
body of the mother, so that the young is excluded alive, a. though the fetus has been
inclosed in an egg almost to the time of parturition. It is probable that the egg is often
broken in parturition itself. Some fishes are ovoviviparous, and some reptile--; also tho
ntonotremata. The common lizard and the viviparous lizard, both natives of Britain,
are illustrations of tlie near resemblance which may subsist between oviparous and
ovoviviparous animals. The distinction is much less important than might he suppo.-ed.
OVULE (Lat. a little egg), in botany, the rudimentary seed. The germen (q.v.) or
ovary sometimes contains only one ovule, sometimes a small (hjinitc number, sometimes
a large indefinite number. Ovules are to be regarded as metamorphosed buds. "Th«
single ovule contained in the ovaries of composite and grasses may be called a terminal
bud, surrounded by a whorl of adhering leaves or carpels, in the axil of one of which it
is produced." — Balfour, Manual of Botany. The ovule is not always contained in an
ovary. In gymaogens (q.v.) it is wanting, and the ovide is naked; but the plants pos-
sessing this character are comparatively few. The ovule is attached to the /Am uta (q.v.),
and by it to the carpel (q.v.), from which it is developed. The attachment to the
placenta is either immediate, when the ovule is said to be xexxile, or by means o! an
umbilical cord (fanicalus), which sometimes elongates very much after fecundation.
The ovule is, in general, essentially formed of a cellular nucleus inclo-ed by two mem-
branes, the outer of which is called the priminc. and the inner the seen . At one
end of the nucleus there is an opening of both membranes— the /wmww/i — through which
the access of the pollen in fecundation (q.v.) takes place. The chalazn (q.v.) unites th«
nucleus and these membranes at the base. When the ovule is so developed that the
chalaza is at the base, and the foramen at the apex, it is said to be ortlt'>ti'opal((ir. »rt/n<.i,
straight, tropttn, a mode). When the ovule is bent, so that the foramen is brought near
to the base, it is called ccimpylotropal (Gr, kanipy'ini, curved). When by increasing on
one side more rapidly than on the other, the ovule has its foramen close to the base, tlie
chaliza being carried round to the opposite extremity, the ovn\e \s anatropal (Gr.
trepo, to turn upside down). Anatropal ovules are very common. When the ovule is
attached to the placenta, so that the foramen and chalaza are at opposite ends, tie
being in the middle, it is called amphitropal (Gr. timiilii, around). — When the ovule
from the base of the germen, it is said to be erect; when it hansrs from the apex of the
cavity of the gennen, it is pendulom; when it arises from the side of the germen above
the base, it is ascending; when it hangs from the side of the germen below the apex, it is
suspended. When two or more ovules are found, not only in the same ovary, but in the
same cell, they generally exhibit different modes of attachment. See CHALAZA, EMBUYO,
FECUNDATION, GEHMEN, PLACENTA, SEED.
OWARI, a province in central Japan, bordering on a bav of the same name, into
•which the Kiso river, noted for its lumber booms, empties. The chief city is Nagoya.
Oivari contains the oldest potteries in Jamn, and the famous Owari blue and painted
ware is exported in large quantities. The " se!.o " ware or common blue-and white
crockery of Japan was first made at Seto village in Owari in 1237, by Kato Shirozaye-
mon, who learned the art in China. Owari-ware in its decoration follows closely that of
Kioto faience. Owari is the seat of much literary activity, and was long noted for its
collections of books on natural history.
OWASCO LAKE, in s.e. central Cayuga co., N. Y., 11 m. long, and from ^m. to 1^
m. in width; 7o8 ft. above the sea level. It lies in the midst of pictuivs.|iie scenery and
the neighborhood is a favorite summer resort. Its waters are discharged by an outlet
leading into Seneca river.
OWASSO, a city in Shiawassee co., Mich., on the Bhiawassee river, 27 in. n.e. of
Lansing, on the Detroit and Milwaukee, and the Jackson. Lan-inv, and Satrinaw rail
roads; pop. '70, of township, 3,123; of city, 2,065. The city lies on both side- of the
river, which furnishes excellent -water power, and there are flouring, planing, placer,
an:l woolen mills, machine shops, brewery, tannery, and a marble mill. There are 2
weekly papers, 2 banks, 7 hotels, 7 churches, and 5 schools,
OWEGO, a t. and village, the co. seat of Tioga co. , X. Y. , on the Busquehnnna
river at the junction of Owcgo creek; 240 m. from New York city, on the New York
ami Erie railroad; pop. '70. township, 9,442; village. 4,750. There are flouring, plan-
ing, plaster, and woolen mills, foundries and machine shops: lumber is the chief ar'iclft
of export. The public buildings are a country court- house, lib.-.iry. academy, 3 banks,
several hotels 6 churches, and 4 schools. The village is beautifully laid out and is u
popular summer resort.
OWEN, a co. in w. central Indiana; drained by White river. Mill creek, and Eel
river, and intersected by the Indianapolis and Vincenncs railroad; 400 sq. m. ; pop. 'SO,
lj,U01 — 13,593 of American birth. The burface is rolling, and there are extensive fores1*
1 OK Ovolo.
Owen.
Indian corn, wheat, oats, pork, and maple sugar are the chief products. Block coal, a
variety of bituminous coal, abounds. Co. seat, Spencer.
OWEN, a co. in n.w. Kentucky, drained by the Kentucky riv^r, •which forms the n.
boundary, and by Eagle creek; 300 sq. m. ; pop. '80, 17,401 — 17,285 of American birth,
1,501 colored. The soil is rich and produces tobacco, Indian corn, wheat, and oats. Of
tobacco nearly 1,000,000 Ibs. are raised annually. Co. seat, Owentown.
OWEN, DAVID DALE, 1307-60; b. in Scotland, and the second son of Robert Owen;
educated at North Lanark and in Switzerland. He came to this country in 1825, took
a degree from the Ohio medical college and for some years studied his profession and
scientific branches in Europe. la 1833 he returned to the United States, and was soon
appointed state geologist of Indiana. Under the direction of the legislature he made a
geological survey of the state, and in 1839 was employed by the U. S. government to
make a survey ef the mineral lands of Iowa, and in 1848 made similar surveys in Min-
nesota and adjoining territories. The results of his work were published by order of
congress at an expense of $40,000 in an elegant quarto, volume with many illustrations.
He was employed in surveys of the same nature in Kentucky, 1852-57, and in 1857 was
appointed state surveyor of Arkansas. Reports of the results of his work >n both states
were printed.
OWEN, Dr. JOHN, an eminent nonconformist divine, descended from an ancient
Welsh family, was the son of the rev. Henry Owen, vicar of Stadham, in Oxfordshire,
and was born at the vicarage in 1616. In his 12th year he was entered of Queens' col-
lege, Oxford, where he worked with amazing diligence; for years taking no more than
four hours sleep a night. In 1635 he "commenced" M. A. At this period (if his own
statement does not exaggerate) his great ambition was to acquire celebrity either in
church or state, he didn't particularly care which; and he affirms the irreligiousness and
worldliuess of his motives with entire frankness. Yet he appears, for all that, to have
been agi.ated, even during his student-life, by the qucestiones vexatteof ecclesiastical poli-
tics, and made himself soconspicuous by his anti-Laudianism that lie was forced to leave
Oxford. In fact, his Puritanism had become so decided that most of his former friends
had abandoned his society. The next five or six years of his life were spent, speaking
generally, in a state of anxious and melancholy introspection. When the civil war finally
broke out, Owen was living as chaplain with lord Lovelace of Hurley, in Berkshire.
His lordship was a royalist, and went to join the king's army, whither Owen, who had
warmly espoused the cause of the parliament, could not accompany him. About the
same time his uncle, a gentleman of property in Wales, who, having no children of his
own, meant to have made Owen his heir, indignant at the zealous Puritanism of his
nephew, settled his estate upon another, and died without leaving him a farthing. Tho
almost friendless scholar now removed to London, where a casual sermon, preached by a
stranger in Calamy's church, had the effect of imparting to his soul the peace he so
ardently desired. In 1642 he published his Display of Anmmanism, a work that, proved
very acceptable to the Puritan party, and drew upon him the favorable regards of the
house of commons. Soon after, the. "committee for purging the church of scandalous
ministers" presented him with the living of Fordham, in Essex. His ministrations wcro
exceedingly popular, people coining from great distances to hear him preach. While
residing at Fordham he married a lady named Rooke, by whom he had several children.
Not long after he removed to Coggeshall, where his views of church government under-
went a modification. Up to this point he had been a Presbyterian, but he now became
a moderate independent or Congregational ist. It is almost superfluous to add that the
Presbyterian ministers — intolerant, dogmatical, and acrimonious to a degree that is
scarcely credible — fell upon him at onc.3 for his apostacy, but failed to perturb his sober
temper. At Coggeshall he wrote his Sahts Electornm, Sanguis Jem ("The Blood of
Jesus, the Salvation of the Elect"), a work the result of seven years study, and of which
ho himself said that "he did not believe he should live to see a solid answer given to it."
His fame still increasing, he was sent for in 1646 to preach before the parliament. Tc
his discourse, entitled A Vision of Free Mercy, he added an appendix, in which he p'?ads
for lilierty of conscience in ir.a"c-." of religion. He was again chosen to preach before
the house of commons the day al'kr the execution of king Charles I. (Jan. 31, 1649), but
discreetly avoided a vindication of the act. About this time Cromwell made his
acquaintance, and thought so highly both of his preaching and character tha the insisted
on Owen accompanying him to Ireland, where the latter remained about half a year. In
1650 he went with Cromwell to Scotland, and resided in Edinburgh for several mouths:
in 1651 the house of commons appointed him dean/of Christ church, Oxford; and in
1652, when only in his 38th year, he was admitted vice-chancellor of the university.
The manner in which he discharged his duties reflects the highest credit on the impar-
tiality of his disposition. Though himself an Independent, and owing his honors
directly to the Independent party, Owen never showed himself a partisan. Most of the
Vacant livings in his patronage were bestowed on Presbyterians; and Episcopalians
jvere allowed to celebrate divine worship in their own way, nor could the vice-chancellor
ever be induced to offer them the slightest molestation. While at Oxford, the "Atlas of
Independency," as Wood grandiloquently dubs Owen, wrote his Diatriba de DITIDII Jua-
J'f'a, his Doctrine of the Saint*'1 Perseverance, \\isVindicias Ecait-gelicce — against Biddle(q.v.)
Owen.
136
and the Soeinians — and his Mortification of Sin in BtJifn-rs. II" was one of the well
known "tryers" appointed to "purge'' the church of " scandalous" (i.e.. " min-
isters," and in thiscapacily signalize*! himself by his friendly offices on ' .en of
learning and merit, among whom may be mentioned the celebrated Dr. Kdwanl POKM ke,
professor of Arabic. A coldness now appears to have sprung up between him ..irl Crom-
well. Owen is said to have been opposed to what many people call llv •'• :,i,.\ .i.i'uiV
designs of the protector, and in 1(157 he was .succeeded as vice-chancellor of ihe univer-
sity by Dr. Conant. The year after Cromwell's death he was ejected irom h',- d< MH ry,
and retired to Stadhum, in Oxfordshire, where he had purchased an estaie. MM! v. l.i re he
formed a congregation, to winch he ministered until his removal to I.< ,\\< > after
the restoration. The writings belonging to this period of ictiremcnt. if we n,ay M> call
it, are, Communion with God; On tlw JJicine Grit/tint/. An'Jn ' l.i;,lit
and Power of t/ie Scriptures; Theoloyouineua, or DC JV'''"/v. Orlu, .
verce, Thcologta; and an uncritical irreflective, and unscholariy diatribe s
Po'yylott, in which the different readings of scripture were learnedly set forth. In 1CG2
he published Animadversions to Pint Lux, a treatise vrittcn by a i'n.nci>can fiiar in the
interest of Roman Catholicism. It was followed by works on Jmlir,i.. »n the
180th Psalm, and on "The Epistle to the lit brews, "'the last of which began
in 1668, and is usually reckoned Owen's Magnum Opiix. In 16G9 le p;. Mi-Led 'J'ruth
and Innocence Vindicated, a reply to Samuel (afterwards bishop) linker's J,
Ecclesiastical Policy, and in 1673 became pastor of a larsre congregation in Liadeiihall
street. His last publications of importance were a Jtixmitrxc. C<n,<-i ruin;/ tn< ,
(1674); Doctrine oj'Justijicution by Faith (1677), a treatise still much admired by many;
and (jhrintologia, or Gloriou;f Mystery of ilu 1>< ix<*n of C/tn'*t.
Owen in his later years was held in the highest esteem by many of the mosl influen-
tial personages in the laud, such as the earl of Orrery, the earl of.Angleeea, iord Wil-
loughby, lord Berkley, sir John Trevor. When drinking the waters at Ti nbi
the duke of York and Charles II. paid him particular attention, and h;;d leu.
lions with him on the subject of nonconformity. Owen died at Ealing. Aug. 24.
and was buried in Bunhill Fields. His funeral was attended by no less than sixty i.oble-
meu. Owen was the most voluminous, but by no means the most powerful writer
among the Puritan divines. His prolix and pas.-ionlcss disquisitions, his dull, udious,
and exhausting argumentations, his lack of subtile spiritual perception, his p!,nd, K.US
and lumbering style, make his writings the reverse of interesting; and one can a
pardon the irreverent criticism of Robert Hall, who is said to have p-oimunced tin in ". a
continent of mud." Yet Owen deserves respect for his learning and moderation. The
best edition -of his works was published at Edinburgh (1856, et seq.).
OWEN, JOHN JASON, D.D., L.L, D. ; 1803-69; b. Conn. In his youth amid unfavora-
ble circumstances he devoted himself with great earnest ness to study with thesp
to acquire the ancient languages. Without aid, he ov< rcame the greatest difficult:
indomitable perseverance. After a course of study with the Rev. Dr. Yale of K
borough, N. Y., he entered Middlebury college, graduating in lb2S, and at the An
theological seminary in 1831. The same year he was ordained a minister of the Prc.-hy-
terian church. Though not a settled pastor, he preached often in the churches of Mi w
York. Under his instruction, private and public, many young men were tilted for the
ministry of different denominations. In 18S6 lie was appointed principal of th>
institute in New York. While there he edited Xenophon's Aiiahum'* with Ei;j:li>h
the first Greek text-book thus prepared in the United States. This was followed by a
Header, Xenophon's Cyropcedia, the Odi'swy and III ad of Homer, and T/ti/c//(/ii,,--. i'l.oe
books were well received. He then published the Acts of the Aj »."i'it« with a
lexicon, and finally A Commentary, Crif.'cal, Kajofn'ff/i/. tu.d Pmctical on tin (•'>••. ••/</'* <>f
Matthew. Mark, and tlie Acta, 3 vols., as excellent a work for popular use as this country
has produced. In 1848 Dr. Owen became profe-sor of the Latin and Greek lair
and literature in the New York free academy, of which in 1853 he became vice-principal
In 18(!6. when the name of the institution was changed lo that of college of the city of
New York, he became vice-president. Dr. Owen's eminence as a scholar was reco '
by the learned men of England, Scotland, and America. He was an earnest preacher,
a faithful instructor, and a genial friend. t
OWEN, RICHARD, was b. at Lancaster, July 20. 1804. Having received his element-
ary education at the grammar-school of that town, he became, at the age of 20, ;; student
in the Edinburgh university. Under the guidance of the third Monro, Ali-on. Jameson,
and Hope in the university, and of Barclay in the outdoor school, his natural talents
early developed themselves. • He was an active student, and with others of kindred spirit,
formed the Hunterian society, of which he was chosen president in 1825. In 1826. he
removed to London, joimnir the medical school of St. Bartholomew's hospital; and to
the Medical society of this institution he communicated his earliest published paper: "An
Account of the Dissection of the Parts concerned in the Aneurism, for the Cure of which
Dr. Steven's tied the Internal Iliac Artery," which appeared in the M;:dir<-
Tranxdciianx for 1830. It was doubted whether so deep-seated an artery could have been
reached, but lie showed that the ligature had been applied to the internal iliac, and the
aneurism had in this way been obliterated.
137 Oweii.
It had been his intention to enter the navy: but when he finished his education,
mens of Natural History in Spirits " (1880). lie had, about this lime, the fortune to
obtain a sp cimen of nei1ftitu»pompiliu«, an animal almost unknown, and of great impor-
tance not oniy in itself, but also and chiefly because of its numerous fossil allies. The
results of his careful dissection of this specimen were published in an elaborate mem-
oir, which at once gave him a high position amongst naturalists, i'or the advanced views
on structure and affinities it comuined.
The continued examination of limner's extensive collections in the college of surgeons'
museum was his great work. This resulted in the enlargement and arrangement, of the
collec io;is, and in the publication of his Descriptive and Illustrated Catalogue »fthe- Phys-
>: 8( net of Comparative Anatomy, which was issued in sections during 1803-40; of
his Paleontologicdl C'<I'«.'I>;IIH', of which the Mammals and birds were publisiied in 1845,
and the Reptiles and Fishes in 1854; and of his C«t<tfaync <>f licccnt Osteology (1854), in
which he describes 5,903 specimens. The collections, which in 18:28 were contained iu
one small badly-lighted room, in 1853. when Owen's connection wilh them terminated,
tilled 10 times the original space — three large galleries having been specially erected to
contain them.
O \ven's position as curator of the Ilunterian museum, to which he succeeded on the
death of Clift, awakened in him a special interest in its famous founder. In 1837, he
published a new edition of Hunter's Animal Emnoniy, adding to it all the known pub-
lish"'! ;»ap -rs of its author; and giving in the preface, for the first time, a descriptive
narrative of Hunter's real discoveries. He afterward edited two volumes of E<saya and
• -• »n Xnti.u-til nixiury. Anatomy, etc., by John Hindu- (1861), which had been
saved from Home's unprincipled and barbarous destruction of Hunter's manuscripts, by
having been transcribed by Clift, .who was the last articled apprentice of Hunter. In the
preface to these volumes, Owen showed the advanced views which Hunter entertained
in geology and paleontology.
The first appointment of Owen as public lecturer was to the chair of comparative
anatomy in !?t. Bartholomew's hospital in 1834. Two years afterwards, he succeeded
sir riririi-s Bell as professor of anatomy and physiology in the college of surgeons, and
was in the same year appointed by the college as firstf" ilunterian professor." For 20
years he continued to illustrate the recent and fossil treasures of the museum, until, in
Iv'j '», he was appointed superintendent of the natural history department of the British.
museum, when his connection with the college of surgeons ceased.
We have not space to record even the principal of Owen's numerous published papers.
His earliest communications to the royal society were papers on the generation of the
ornithorhynchus and of the kangaroo. In numerous memoirs between 1835 and 1862,
he expounded the structure and affinities of the higher qnadrumana; and in these and
other papers, he proposed the use of the brain-structure, as an important element in classi-
fica 'ion. It has been objected, that the particular parts to which he referred in charac-
terizing iiis highest class, are found in i'je lower classes; but the objectors forget that he
does not use the existence of the parts as his characters, but only their remarkable devel-
opment. A similar objection may be urged against every system of classification, for no
decided line can be drawn around any group, the whole animal world being united by a
graduation of structure.
His exposition of the recent and fossil birds of New Zealand is well known. He first
published two elaborate papers on the anatomy of the apteryx, and then followed at
intervals 7 or 8 monographs on the gigantic struthious birds which once existed in these
distant islands. His descriptions and restorations of extinct animalsare perhaps the most
important of all his labors. He has published a monograph of the British fossil mammalia
and birds, and 6 parts of an elaborate systematic history of British fossil reptiles. In
describing the fragmentary fossil relics brought home by Darwin from South America,
he established many remarkable forms from very scanty materials, and showed that there
existed in America, during the Tertiary period, a mammalian fauna, the individuals of
which were, for the most part, of gigantic size, yet similar in type to the existing animals
of that continent. Subsequently, he clearly expounded the various genera of huge sloths
from the same region, whose remains were previously confounded or misunderstood. A
series of fossils from Australia revealed to him a remarkable group of gigantic marsu-
pials, resembling in type the present tenants of that island-continent. He was the first to
expound the structure and affinities of the singular long-tailed bird from Solenhofen.
See his well-known Paleontology (1861). Amongst his more recent works in this field are
The Fossil Reptilia of South . \f/-ir,i (1876); On the Foxxil Mammals of Australia, and on the
Extinct Marsupials of England (1877); and On the Extinct Winglens Birds of New Zealand
(1879).
His great work on the microscopic structure of the teeth must be named. The Odon-
tography, published in 1849-45, contains descriptions and exquisite drawings of the
minute structure of a very extensive series of the teeth of every class of animals, and
forms an immense store-house of information alike to the anatomist and the geologist.
He has published original papers on every branch of the animal kingdom, living and
Owen.
Owl.
fossil; and it has been justly said of him, that "from the sponge to man, he has
thrown light over every subject he has touehed." Some idea of the magnitude of liis
labors may be foimcd from the faet, that his published productions amount to more
than 300 different papers and works, many of them being of the most voluminous and
laborious character.
Owen, in 1835, married the only daughter of Clift, his colleague at the college of
surgeons. In 1838, lie resumed his position as Fullerian professor of physiology in the
royal institution of Britain, which, some ^U years before, lie had tilled tor two sessions;
and in the following year he \vas appointed Iteade lecturer by the university ol Cam-
bridge, but has now resigned these oltices. He is a fellow and active member of mo-t of
the metropolitan scientific societies, one of the 8 foreign associates of the institute of
France, and an honorary member of many foreign societies. From France 1,<
received the order of the legion of honor; from Prussia, the order pour le ,Meri;c; and
from Italy, the order of St. Maurice and St. La/are. He was made a companion of the
bath in 1873.
OWEN, ROBERT, a social theorist and schemer, was b. May 14, 1771, at Newton, in
Montgomeryshire. He does not appear to have had any more than a merely commercial
education to fit him for common business. The point from which his peculiar d>
in life may be said to have started, was his marriage in 1799 to the daughter of David
Dale, the owner of the celebrated cotton mills at New Lanark, on the Clyde. This estab-
lishment was very successful as a money speculation, and it is curious that Jeremy Bent-
ham made a small fortune by investing' in it. Mr. Dale was known to be a thorough
man of business, but whether Owen, by his peculiar faculties for organixalion, contrib-
uted to the prosperity of the establishment in its early stages, is a doubtful question. It
is certain that as his larger schemes developed themselves, he was felt to be a dangerous
pariuer in a good business, and he was gradually elbowed out of any voice in the man-
agement, and he finally disposed of his share in the property.
It should be remembered, however, of a man, whose life will go down to posterity :>s
one long absurdity, that in his connection with the New Lanark mills he did real prac-
tical good on a scale by no means limited. He was naturally active and interfering, and
being a humane man, it struck him that much degradation, vice, and suffering aro-e
from the disorganized manner in which the progressof machinery and manufactur-
huddling the manufacturing population together. He introduced into the New Lanark
community education, sanitary reform, and various civilizing agencies, which philanthro-
pists at the present day are but imperfectly accomplishing, in the great manufacturing
districts. The mills became a center of attraction. They were daily visited by every
illustrious traveler in Britain, from crowned heads downward, and it was delightful not
oidy to see the decency and order of everything, but to hear the bland persuasive elo-
quence of the garrulous and benevolent organizer.
A factory wa-, however, far too limited a sphere for his ambition. He wanted to
organize the world; and that there might be no want of an excuse for his intervention,
he set about proving that it was in all its institutions — the prevailing religion included —
in as wretched a condition as any dirty demoralized manufacturing village. Such was
the scheme with which he came out on the astonished world in 1816. in his .\> /r } .
Society, or Esmys on the Formation of the Human Character ; and he continued, in books,
pamphlets, lectures and other available forms, to keep up the stream of excitation till it
was stopped by his death. He had at least three grand opportunities of setting up lim-
ited communities on his own principles — one at Romney, in America; a second at Orbis-
ton, in Lanarkshire; the third at Harmony hall, in Hampshire, so lately as the year 1844.
They were, of course, all failures, and Owen attributed their failure to their not being
sufficiently perfected on his principles. His life was a remarkable phenomenon from
the preternatural sanguineness of temperament which, in the face of failures, and a
world ever growing more hostile, made him believe to the last that all his projects were
just on the eve of success. In the revolution of 1848 he went to Paris, with hoj
course on the highest stretch; but his voice was not loud enough lobe Leard in that great
turmoil. He appeared at the meet ing of the social science association at Liverpool in the
autumn of 18">8, with all his schemes as fresh as ever. He died a few weeks afterward,
on Nov. 17, 1858. A life of Owen by A. J. Booth appeared in 1869 (Triibncr).
OWEN, ROHEKT DALE, 1801r77; b. in Glasgow, Scotland; son of Robert Owen (q. v.);
educated at New Lanark and in Switzerland. He accompanied his father to the United
States, and after the failure of the New Harmony experiment, came to New York, and
in 1828 began the issue of the Free Inquirer, a continuation of the New Harmony 6'
the publication continuing until 1834. He then returned to New Harmony, and was for
three years (1835-38), a member of the Indiana legislature; in 1843 he was elected
member of congress as a democrat, served two terms, and was specially active in organiz-
ing the Smithsonian institute, of which he was made a regent. He was chairman of the
revision committee having charge of the amendment of the Indiana constitution, 1849-50,
and was active in securing the passage of laws giving independent property rights to
women. He represented our government as charge d'affaires and minister. 1853 ."is. at
Naples. During the rebellion, Mr. Owen published a manlier of papers expressing his
views in favor of freeing the slaves and maintaining the union. Some of his pamphlets
1 QQ Owen.
% Owl.
extensively circulated by the New York Union League club and other organiza-
tions. For the greater part of his life, Owen was a firm believer in the so called spiritual
phenomena, and on this subject were written The Debatable Land between thin World and
the JVkrr (1872), and Footfalls on the Boundary of Another World (1860). He wrote several
other books, among which were Beyond the Breakers (1870), a novel; Moral Physiology
(1831); and Threading my Way (1874), an autobiographical sketch.
OWEN, WILLIAM, 1769-1825; b. in Shropshire, Eng. ; son of a bookseller. He
received an ordinary education at Ludlow, and when about 17 years old began to study
art under tiie painter C'atton, and afterwards under Sir Joshua Reynolds. His first por-
trait was exhibited in 1792, and at once established his reputation. Among his most
noted sitters were William Pitt, Sir Walter Scott, the marquis of Stafford, and the
bishop of Durham. Owen aiso executed a number of fancy sketches of great merit, such
as " Peasants Resting by the Roadside," and "The Fortune Te.ller and the Lady." In
1806 he was made a member of the royal academy.
OWEN MEREDITH (pseud.). See BULWER-LYTTON, EDWARD ROBERT, BARON.
OWENS, JOHN E. ; b. England, 1823; made his first appearance on the stage at Phila-
delphia in 1846. Solon Shingle \& his best known part.
OWENSBOROUGH, a city and co. seat of Daviess co., Ky., 160 m. below Louis-
ville, on the s. bank of the Ohfo river; terminus of the Owensborough and Nashville
railroad; pop. '70, 3,437. The chief Industry is the stemming and manufacture of
tobacco, for which there are 18 factories; there are also furniture and chair manufac-
tories and machine-shops. Coal is found in the vicinity. Wheat, rye, tobacco, and
whisky, are the articles of export.
OWEN SOUND, a t., the co. seat of Grey co. Ontario, Canada, at the mouth of
Fyilenham river, on Owen sound; on a branch of the Toronto, Grey, and Bruce railroad;
jop. '70, 8,869. The harbor is the best in lake Huron, 12 m. long, and 5 m. wide at its
v. ides! point. The town -is built on a plain inclosed on 3 sides by heights. It has a
f (iurt-house, town-hall, churches, and 2 weekly newspapers. It is an exporting point for
lumber and grain, the largest vessels used on the lakes entering the harbor without diffi-
culty. There is abundant water-power. There are grain elevators, flour and sawmills,
and manufactories of woolen goods, leather, machinery, agricultural tools, engines, etc.
OWL, a numerous and extremely well-defined group of birds, constituting the Linnaean
genus Stri.r, now the family Btrimdas, the whole of the nocturruil section of birds of prey.
The aspect of the owls at once distinguishes them from all other birds, being rendered very
peculiar by the lar»e size of their heads, and by their great eyes, directed forwards, and
surrounded with more or less perfect disks of feathers radiating outwards, whilst the
s:nail hooked bill is half concealed by the feathers of these disks, and by bristly feathers
which grow at its base. The bill is curved almost from its base; the upper mandible not
notched, but much hooked at the tip. The claws are sharp and curved, but, like the
bill, less powerful than in the Falconidce-. The outer toe is generally reversible at plea-
sure, so that the toes can be opposed two and two, to give greater security of grasp. The
wings, although generally long, are less adf.pted for rapid and sustained flight than those
of the diurnal birds of prey, and the bony frame-work by which they are supported, and
the muscles which move them, are less powerful; the owls in general taking their prey,
not by pursuit, but by surprise, to which there is a beautiful adaptation in the softness
of their plumage, and their consequently noiseless flight; the feathers even of the wings
being downy, and not offering a firm resisting surface to the air, as in falcons. The soft
and loose plumage adds much to the apparent size of the body, and also of the head; but
the head owes its really large size to large cavities in the skull between its outer and inner
table* or bony layers, which cavities communicate with tiie ear, and are supposed to add
to the acutencss of the sense of hearing. This sense is certainly very acute, and the ear
is, in many of the snecies, very large. It is furnished with an external conch, which is
found in no other birels. It is, however, concealed by the feathers, being situated on
the outside of the disk which surrounds the eye; but the feathers immediately surround-
ing the ear are arranged in a kind of cone, serving a purpose like that of an ear-trumpet.
In some species the ear is furnished with a remarkable lid or operculum, which the bird
has the power of opening and shutting at pleasure. The disk which surrounds the eye
serves to collect rays of light and throw them on the pupil; and owls can see well in
twilight or moonlight, but are generally incapable of sustaining the glare of day, many
of them becoming quite bewildered when exposed to it, and evidently suffering pain,
which they instinctively seek to relieve by frequent motion of the third eyelid or nictita-
ting membrane of the eye. The legs and feet of owls are feathered to the toes, and in
many species even to the claws.
The digestive organs much resemble those of the falconidfe, but there is no crop, and
the stomach is more muscular. The gullet is very wide throughout, anel owls swallow
their prey either entire or in very large morsels. The largest species feed on hares, fawns,
the largest gallinaceous birds, etc. ; others on small mammalia, reptiles, birds, and some-
times fishes; some feed partly or chiefly on large insects.
The owl has from early times been deemed a bird of evil omen, and has been an ob-
ject of dislike and dread to the superstitious. This is perhaps partly to be ascribed to
Owlglass. 1 JA
Ox.
the manner with which it is often seen suddenly and unexpectedly to flit by when th0
twilight is deepening iiito niglit; partly to the fact that >< -me of tin: best-known sp, cies
frequeiit ruined buildings, while others haunt the deepest solinnirs of woods; hut, no
doubt, chiefly to the cry of some of the species, hollow and lugubrious, but loud and
start ling, heard during the hours of darkness, and often by the lonely svai.d rer. It is
evitlently from this cry that the name owl is derived, as well us many of its synonyms
in other languages, and of the names appropriated in different countries to particular
species, inmost of which the sound <><> or »ir is predominant, with great variety of accom-
panying consonants. Many of the owls have also another and very dill'ereni < TV. which
has gained for one of them the appellation screech owl, and to which, probably, the
Latin name strix and some other names are to be referred.
Some of the owls have the disks of the face im-vrfeci above the eyes, the whole aspect
Somewhat approaching to that of falcons; the conches of th» cars small, and the habits
less nocturnal than the rest of this family. These constitute one of the three generally
received divisions in which the species are arrange;!. Another divi<i.>;i, with more per-
fect disks around the eyes, is characterized by the presence of two feathery tuns on the
head, popularly called horns, or ears, aad sometimes egrets or aigrettes. Tne third divis-
ion is destitute of these tufts, the disks of the face are perfect, and the ears arc very
large. On these distinctions, and on the feathered or uufcatnered t"es. and oth;-r points
not of great importance, are founded the genera into which the Linnic'.m g n
been broken down by recent ornithologists. See, for examples theclmrac.crs of //
the article EAOLK OWL.
Owls are foun I in all parts of the world, aud in all climates. Ten species are reck-
oned as natives of the British islinds, some of which, however, are very rare, and about
fifteen are natives of Europe. Some of the species have a very wide geographical r
One of the most plentiful British species is the WHITE OWL, or BAUN OWL, o
OWL (Sfrie Jiainmna), one of those having perfect disks around the eyes, and noai-i
It is about 14 in. in its whole length. The tail is, as in most of the owls, raih'-r short
and rounded; the wings reach rather beyond the tail. The toes are not feathere.l. The
head anil upper parts are of a pale ormgo col >r, m:<rk:';l by a multitude of s n ill. scat-
tered chestnut-colored spots, and grayand brown zig-zag lines; the face and thro a while.
This owl very generally frequents old buildings and oat-houses. It destroys great mini-
bars of rats and mice-, and deserve-f tiie protection of the farmer. The vora.-ity of owls is
wonderful, and they kill, if possible, more then they need, storing it up for future
Tne b.irn owl is easily tamed if taken young. When irritated, it has, lik" some other; —
perhaps all— owls, a habit of hissing and snapping its mandi her. It a! uost
never leaves i's relreat,by day, unless driven o.it; an.l when this is the case, all the little
birds of the neighborhood congregate about it, as an enemy which mav then be -
annoyed, ami the grimaces of tli3 p:>:>ro.vl, blinded by the too s'r >ng IL'ht. are \vry
grotesque and amusing. This species has been said to be an inhabitant of aim
parts (if the world, but there is re is m to think that similar speei"3 hive b -en con-
founded. The TAWNY OWL, BROWN OWL, or IVY O\vr, (.sv/v>, or / or
alw) is another of the most common British o.vls, a species about the siz • of the barn
owl, or rather larger, with rather longer tail, and comparatively short wind's. the feet.
feathered to the claws; the up pur pans mostly ash-gray mottled with brown, the under
parts grayish-while and mottled. The LO\<;-KAK:;:> OWL (>?/•'„•• «///.•<. or O'//* vul)
and the SHOUT-EAKUD O»VL (S'. or 0. Itrncli >/<>'••>•), species with aigrettes, arc not nn-
frequent British bird-*. The EAGLE OWL (q.v.) occurs, but is rare. Of the sp"Hes with
imperfect disks around the eyes and more falcon-like aspect, the most interesting in the
British, fauna is the SNOWY OWL (.sYr/jr. or N.yr///W. /////• /'</), the Ilnrfniiff of the Swedes. s\
species occasionally seen in the Shetland islands, and very rarely in more southern
regions iu winter, but well known in all the very northern parts of the worl 1. It is from
23 to ^7 in. in length, feeds on every kind of animal food which it c 11 obtain, and has
white plumage spotted and barred with brown, the l"gs densely fcathere 1 to the claws.
Of owls not natives of Britain one of the most interesting is tb'- BuilHOWrNG OWL;
or Athene, cuiiicubiria), a North American species, which, when necessary, excavates a.
burrow for ilself, but prefers to take possession of those of the marmot, called (he prairie
dog (q.v.). It is not the only species of owl which inhabits holes in the ground. The
Boonooic or BOOKHOOK of Australia (.sY/'w;, or Xoctna, B'>obi»>k) is a species of owl, which
frequently repeats during the night the cry represented by its name, as if it were n
turaal cuckoo. Some of the species of owl are small birds; among the rarer British
species are one of 8i- in., and one scarcely more than 7 in. long. Some owls are at
least parl'ally birds of passage, of which, among British species, riie short-eared owl is
an example.
OWLGrLASS (Ger. Eulenspieje!), TYLL, the prototype of all the knavish "fools" of
later time, is said to have been b. in the village of Kn iitingen, in Brunswick. His father
was called Klaus Eulenspiegcl, and his mother Anna Wortbeck. In youth, we are told.
'he wandered out into the world and played all manner of tricks on the people whom ho
met with. His tomb is shown at Molln, about four leagues from Lubeck, where tradi-
tion mak"shi:!i die about 1030; but the inhabitants of Damme, in Belgium, also boast of
having his bones in their church-yard, aud place his death in 1301, so that several critics
mOwlglass.
Ox.
regard Eulenspiegel as an altogether imaginary person, a mere nominis irmbm affixed
to"a cycle of mediaeval tricks and adventures. The opinion, however, considered most
probable is that Eulenspiegel is not a myth, but that there were two historical individuals
of thai name, father and sou, of whom the former died at Damme, and the latter ut^loiln.
The stories tha^ circulate in Germany under Eulenspiegel's name were not co'.ieeied, as
the book containing them itself informs us, till after Eulenspiegel's death, and without
doubt were originally written in the low German tongue; from low German they were
translated into high German by the Franciscan Thorn. Murner, and this inmslaiioii was
followed in all the old high German editions of the work. At a later peiiod il underwent
considerable alterations at the hands of both Protestants and Catholics, who made it a
vehicle for the expression of their own likings and dislikings. The oldest known edition
is that printed at Strasburg in 1.319. The verdict of modern times has been unfavora-
ble, not o;ily to the aesthetic, but to the moral value of the book; yet although indecen-
cies may be found abundantly in it, they may perhaps in large measure bj attributed
to the age in which Eulenspiegel, or the author of Euleuspiegei lived. For centuries it
has been, a favorite people's book, not only in Germany, but in many o-her countries.
Translations of it exist iu Bohemian, Poiisn, Italian, English (as a Mimc'.v. Piuy), Dutch,
Danish, French, and Laliu; it has been frequently imitated, and reprinted times without
number down to the inu.-t recent years. Jiax .Miiller, in his Lecltireit on tin- :•'•-'..• of
Lnnfjuage, points out that Eulenspiegel is the origin of Uie French word enp-'cf/fe, waggi-h.
When the stories about Euleuspiegei were translated into French, he -was c.ilLd
Ulespiegie, ''which name contracted ai'terward into bbpi&gle, became a general name
for every wag."
OWL-PARROT, Strigops liabroptilns, a 5-pccies of cockatoo found in New Zealmv.l,
the f.-ft/.'Hj>» or night parrot of the natives. It is about two and a half ft. in length, and lias
a dirty green color with black transverse bands and brownish-yellow spots. It has the
nocturnal habits and noiseless flight of the owls, and lives in holes at the roots of trees.
It feeds on the roots of ferns a.id New Zealand flax. It breeds in February, laying two
or three eggs. In the winter these birds congregate in caves. Their flesh is white and
palatable.
OWNT2SSHIP is not a legal term, though it is used frequently in law to denote the
highest degree or kind of property which one can have iu anything. Owner is often
used in this sense as contradistinguished from an occupier, who has only a temporary
interest in the property. Thus a freeholder, or one who holds a freehold estate in land,
is an owner; though, in common parlance, it is not unusual also to describe as owivr any
one who has a long lease of the property. When a person is owner in fee of land, he has
certain right.-: more or less absolute as incidental thereto, for example, he may build on
his land as high as he pleases, subject only to doing no direct injury to his neighbor,
such as darkening his windows; and lie may dig as deep as he pleases, or. as it i-; said, to
the center of the earth. There are certain things which are said to he incapable of
ownership, such ;>.s the air, the sea. and the water of navigable rivers, as to each of which
every individual member of the public has the right merely of using it, hut no one has
the ownership — i.e., the exclusive right of property as well as possession thereof. Asio
things wild, such as birds, beasts, fishes, the rule is that he wno first catches the animal
becomes the owner thereof, and acquires such a property in it that any one who takes it
from him airainst his will commits larceny. But though the person who first catches a wild
animal is entitled to it, penalties are sometimes imposed upon the person catching it, as
to which see GAME, POACHING. In regard to lost property — i.e., property which had
once been appropriated and possessed by some one, but who has casually lost or
abandoned it — the rule is that he who finds it is entitled to keep it, proviik-d at the time
of finding it he had no means of ascertaining the owner. But the true owner, if he
discover and can identify the property, can always in general reclaim it from the finder.
Sec LOST PROPERTY.
OWOSSO, Michigan. See OWAS?O.
OWSLEY, a co. in e. Kentucky, drained by the s. fork of the Kentucky river and
many small creeks; 460 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 4.042—4,940 of American birth, 89 colored. The
surface is hilly, and but moderately productive. Indian corn, wheat, and pork are the
chief products. Iron and coal are found in considerable quantities. Co. seat, Boon-
ville.
OWY'HEE. a co. in extreme s.w. Idaho, bordering on Utah and Kevada to tli« s.
and Oregon to the w. ; drained by Snake river, which forms the n. boundary, and by the
Bruneau and other small streams; 18,GOOeq.m. ; pop. '80, 1420. The Owyh'ee mountains
traverse the surface, which is in most part timber land, and in the valleys is well adapted
to grazing cattle. Gold and silver abound. In 1870. 14 mines were in operation and the
product was reported at $852,835. Co. scat, Silver City.
OX, Hos taurm. a ruminant quadruped of the family bonflce (q.v.), the most useful
to man of all domesticated animals. The species is distinguished by a rkt forehead,
longer than broad; and by smooth and round tapering horns, rising from the extremities
of the frontal ridge. But nmonir the man v varieties. or breeds which exist, there are
great diversities in the length and curvature of the horns, and some are hornless. It is
Ox.
142
probable that the ox is a native of both Asia and of Europe, perhaps also of Africa; and
not improbable that it may have been domesticated at different times aiul i:i different
countries. It cannot be confidently asserted that it now exist< anywhere in a truly
wild state; wild oxen are nowhere so abundant as on the pampas or great grassy plain's
of South America, where it is certain that they arc not indigenous; and it i-- not IIIIJ.O-M-
ble that the wild oxen still existing in the parks of a few noblemen in Britain may be also
descended from domesticated animals. Whether or not the Urns, described by ancient
authors as an inhabitant of central Europe, was the original of the domestic ox \\ ill lie
considered in the article Unrs. The very early domestication of the ox is attested by the
mention made of it in the writings of Moses, and by the worship of it in Egypt, which
the Israelites imitated in making their golden caff at mount Sinai. Yet oxen do not
appear to have formed any part of the wealth of the patriarchs. The ox was pn.ba! ly
used as a beast of burden or draught before it was valued for its milk. Jt is mein
by Caesar as a principal part of the wealth of the Britons at the time of the Reman
invasion.
The ox is more frequently employed as a beast of burden and of draught in some
parts of the continent of Europe than in Britain. From the earliest historic tunes the
horse has been more generally thus employed in Britain, and has now almost entirely
superseded the ox. The gait of the ox is slow and plodding, but its strength en;.!
to perform a great amount of work, and it is not easily exhausted. It needs, kowcver,
intervals of rest inconvenient for the farmer; and it is not capable of exertion at all equal
to that of the horse on any occasion of emergency. The ox is chiefly valuable for its
flesh and its milk; but almost every part of the animal is useful — the fat* skin, hair, horns,
intestines.
The period of gestation of the ox is nine months, or 270 days. It rarely produces
more than one calf at a birth, it attains maturity in two or three years, becomes evidently
aged at ten, and seldom lives more than 14. Cows are seldom kept for the daily at! or
they are seven or eight years old, as after that age they yield less milk and of interior
quality. Modern husbandry has also found means to fatten cattle for the market at an
earlier age than was formerly usual; and although the beef is not quite so good in
quality, the profit is great, both to the farmer and to the community, through the
increased productiveness of the iand.
The ox is gregarious, and where circumstances permit, as in the South American
plains, associates in very large herds. Herds of oxen defend themselves with ijreat
vi-ror asraiust the large feline animals and other assailants, the younger and weaker animals
being placed in the middle, whilst the bulls in the outer rank confront the adversary
with their horns.
The varieties or breeds differ very much in size. Among those which occur in the
British islands, the Shetland breed is not much larger than a calf of some of the
others. Some of the breeds of the torrid zone are also very small; but the t: My
hump on the back may probably be regarded as indicating a connection with the Indian
ox or zebu
common ox,
parks, as at Chillingh
merly an inhabitant of many forest districts in Britain, particularly in the n. of England
and s. of Scotland. The Chillingham wild oxen are of a creamy white color, much
smaller than many of the domestic breeds, of a graceful form, with sharp horns, which
nre not very long, and not very much curved. The uniform white color is to he a»
to the care taken to destroy every calf which is not perfect in this respect. The habits
of these wild oxen are very similar to those of the domestic races.— The West
ic back may probably be regarded as indicating a connection wn-i me j
L (q.v.), which, although it'has been generally regarded as a variety of the
c, is perhaps a distinct species.— The " wild ox," now existing only in a few
t Chillingham and Hamilton, seems, whatever its origin, to have been for-
very
breed, or Kyl.ne-, differs very little from the Chillingham or Hamilton wild ox, except in
being generally black. It hns short muscular limbs, a wide and deep chest, well-arched
ribs, and a straight back; the horns are often somewhat long; the muzzle is short
but not broad; the skin is closely covered with shaggy hair. The milk is very rich, but
the quantity is so small that this breed is very unsuitable for dairy farming. The beef,
however, is of the finest quality; and great numbers of cattle, reared in the Highlands
and Hebrides, are annually conveyed to other parts of the country, to be fattened on
rich pastures. The breed is a very hardy one. and peculiarly suited to the regu.n in
which it prevails.— The Galloway breed is very like the preceding, but larger ami
tute of horns; and many cattle reared in the hilly parts of Galloway are fattened on
lish pastures for the London market, — The Pembroke and other Welsh breeds are not
unlike the West Highland; but the cows yield milk more abundantly. — The diminutive
Shetland breed is very hardy, and is celebrated for the fine quality of its beef.
Shetland ox is easily fattened, even on scanty pasturage. The milk which the cows yield
is also remarkably abundant in proportion to their small size.— The Ayrthin breed is
The horns are smaller than those of the West Highland breed, the hair much smoother,
and the color chiefly brownish-red, with large patches of white. — The Aldemey breed
much resembles the Ayrshire, but the milk is comparatively small in quantity, and
remarkable for the richness of the cream, on which account Alderney cows are often
143
Ox,
kept for the supply of private dairies. The milk of an Alderney cow, mixed with that
of a dozen other cows, will sensibly improve the quality of the butter. But this breed
is worthless for the purposes of the grazier. — The Suffolk D/in is a polled or hornless
breed, of clumsy form, and of little value to the grazier, but yielding a very large quan-
tity of milk, on which account Suffolk has long been celebrated for its dairy produce. — •
The North Devon is a pretty large breed, with rather short horns, very muscular and
powerful, and also very gentle and docile, so that it is particularly adapted for draught;
and much agricultural labor is still performed in Devonsiiire by teams of oxen of this
breed. The North Devon breed, however, is surpassed by others, both for the purposes ,
of the dairy farmer and of the grazier. — The Hereford breed, of stouter form than the1
Ayr-hire, but in some respects not unlike it, has long been in great repute both for its
beef and its milk; but in the districts where it once prevailed, it is cow giving place to
the S,'ir>rl-fi')rn breed, one of the new breeds which are the result of care and attention.
The short-horn breed, so called because the horns are shorter than in almost any other,
originated about the beginning of the 19th c. on the banks of the Tees, and has spread
very widely both in England and in Scotland, in the districts of richest pasturage. The
color varies from pure white to bright red; the head is short and very broad; the chest
is wide, deep, and projecting; the fore-legs are short, the back straight, and not very
long, the " barrel " full. The ease with which oxen of this breed are fattened is one of
its great recommendations. The beef is also of excellent quality. For dairy purposes
the short-horn is surpassed by some other breeds; but a cross between a short -horn bull
and an Ayrshire cow is found useful both for beef and milk. The short-horn breed is
now cherished in Britain with peculiar care; genealogies are registered, and prodigious
prices are given for first-rate animals. It is a»oo in great esteem in many parts of the
continent of Europe, and in America. — The Long-horn breed, long prevalent in the mid-
land counties of England, and still prevalent in Ireland, was brought to great perfection
by Bakewell, one of the first to show what could be done in the improvement of cattle;
but is rapidly giving place to the short-horn, by which it is much excelled. The length
of the horns in this breed is very remarkable.
Of foreign races of oxen, one of the most notable, on account of. its large size, is that
in possession of the Kalmuck Tartars; another is that prevalent in the Roman states,
generally of a bluish-ash color, wi'h remarkably large and spreading horns. A large
white breed was long kept in Egypt; and a similar breed, without the hump character-
istic of the Indian ox, is found in South Africa, where, however, it has become partially
intermixed with European breeds. Oxen are much employed by the Kaffers as beasts of
lv;rd'-n ; they were also formerly trained by the Hottentots to aid them in battle. Peter
Kolb :'n. in his account of the cape of Good Hope, written in 1705, gives an interesting
description of these trained fighting oxen, which, he says, are called Backdeyers. "In
the wars of the Hottentots with one another," he says, "these backeleyers make very
terrible impressions. They gore, and kick, and trample to death with incredible fury."
He ascribes to them also great docility, and states that they know every inhabitant of
fhe kraal, and are perfectly inoffensive towards them, but ready to run with fury at
strangers. The readiness with which the draught oxen of South Africa observe the
words of the driver, is said to be almost, if not quite, equal to that of the dog: In the
training of them, however, severe measures are often requisite, and particularly by a
hooked stick inserted through the cartilage which separates the nostrils, as bulls are
ringed when sent to exhibitions of cattle in Britain. Trained oxen are also employed in
the training of their younger fellows. In some parts of Africa the ox is used for riding
as well as for draught. The horns, which are very long, are split into ribbons, or
curved in various directions to prevent their points from coming in contact, by any
accident, with the person of the rider. The pace of the ox scarcely exceeds four or five
miles an hour.
A very remarkable conformation of skull occurs in some of the herds of South.
American oxen, the bones of the nose and the jaw-bones being very much shortened;
yet there is no question that this is a mere accidental variation, which has become per-
petuated as one of race. Importance has been attached to it in the discussions regard-
ing wecies.
The cow has been for ages tended by man on account of the agreeable nnd highly
nutritious fluid which is obtained from it. Milk is manufactured into cheese and but-
ter, which are capable of being preserved for a considerable time. The processes by
which these are obtained are described under the article DAIRY. Cows, under our mod-
ern systems of agriculture, are selected either for their properties of giving large quanti-
ties of milk, or for raising stock which are well suited for grazing and 'fattening. For
milking properties, the Ayrshire breed stands undoubtedly at the head of the list. In
comparison with some of the other breeds, the Ayrshire is rather deficient in size, with
the flesh spread thinly over its body. In the male animals these characteristics are all
the more prominent, and for this reason the breed is not much liked by graziers. It is
capable, however, of thriving on secondary or even inferior pastures. Wherever, there-
fore, it is found most profitable to follow dairy husbandry in Scotland, the Ayrshire cow
is preferred. A considerable variety of breeds are cultivated both for milking and graz-
ing in the western parts of England, the principal of which are the Herefords and
Devons. in the eastern counties, again, where arable culture and the rearing and feed-
O.xali»ieiB.
1 A A
ing of cattle are chiefly followed. the Ayrshire gives place to the Aberdeen, the Angus,
and the Teeswater. The cow is there self. -ted i'<>r its ma— ive ;nul square-built frame,
soft skin, and meat-producing qualities. For more than a century va^t care has Iven
be -towed on the improvement of the short-horns. In this breed tin of the she
and the dam are traced back for many generations, and purity of blond !•• qu:
in herds of any pretensions. The large sums which particular cows and bulls of this
breed realize, attest the value wliieh modern breeders set. upon animals which are con-
sidered to npproaeh perfection in their form and style. In no department of I'ritisb
agriculture are the resuiis of care and attention more strongly marked than in the noble
figure of the short-horned cow or bull.
The rearing and fattening of the ox is one of the most important brandies of a_vi -i< •:;!
ture. Since the prices of butcher-meat have become so much higher relatively t<
in this country, the breeding and feeding of cattle have rerehed a great impetus. Fifty
years ago, many of our old breeds of cattle were kept till they were f oh r or live years
old before they were sent fat to the butcher. The demand for meat was M> limited then
in the n., tint most of the entile were sent s. lean, to be fattened on t!
and turnips of the eastern counties of England. The introduction of steam-shipping,
followed by railways, has given the Scotch breeder and feeder great facilitie-
ing of fatted cattle, and now. there are no lean cattle sent to the south. Indeed, the
extension of green crops in Scotland has been so great thai large numbers of lean eatMe.
are imported from England, as well as Ireland, to be fed in the stalls and co
winter. This applies to the arable districts, where the land does not remain moi<
one year in grass. In Aberdeenshjre, where the land rests from three t > four yi
grass, more cattle are bred and turned out fat, which is by far the most profit:'.!.
tern, seeing the breeder often gets a larger share of the profits than the feeder. The
short-horned blood is in great request to cross with the native breeds, rendering the prog-
eny much easier fattened. as well as causing them to grow to a larger si/e. It i- n-.w
the most approved method to feed the calf from the time it is dropped till ;
the In, tcher. Oil-cake is generally considered the best and most healthy auxiliary food
for stock, whether old or young. "In the pastoral districts of England, w i
the land is cultivated, the rearing of cattle to be sent into the arable di.-iriets is carried
out. The young animals are fed with hay in winter instead of sir.. .;;in«.
Large numbers of cattle are fattened on turnips and mangold in winter in Norfolk and
eastern counties. Large allowances of cake and corn arc there given in addition to the
roots.
OXALATES. See OXALIC ACID, ante.
OXA'LIC ACID (C4Oc,2ITO -f- 4Aq) occurs in colorless, transparent, oblique, rhombic
prisms, which have an intensely sour taste, and are soluble in nine parts of cold
and much more freely in boiling water. When healed to 212^, the crystals lose their
four equivalents (or 28.5 per cent) of water, and the residue, consisting of the hydraied
acid (C4O8,2IIO), becomes opaque; these r-.\o equivalents of water contained in the
hydrated acid, cannot be expelled by mere heat, although they can be displaced by an
equivalent amount of a metallic oxide. When the crystallized acid is rapidly healed to
about 300°, it is decomposed into a final mixture of carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, and
water; formic acid being produced and again decomposed in the process.
Crystalled Oxalic Carbonic Water Formic Acid.
C4H3O8"+ 4HO = 2CO, + 4HO -f
w f Carbonic
" ater. Oxide.
and formic acid when heated yields 2IIO -j- SCO. When warmed with strong sulphuric
acid, it is decomposed into equal volumes of carbonic acid and carbonic oxide gases, aud
into water; according to the equation.
Hydrated Oxalic Carbonic- Carbonic
Acid. Acid. Oxide.
'C4H,Os = t^cTi + C^ + 2HO
This reaction affords one of the best means of obtaining carbonic oxide for use in the
laboratory. Oxidizing agents, such as binoxide of manganese, peroxide of lead, nitric
acid, etc., convert oxalic into carbonic acid, and on this property is based a •_: -od
method of determining the commercial value of the black oxide of maiiii.
Oxalic acid is one of the most powerful of the organic acids, and expels carbonic
and many other acids from their salts. The acid itself, and its soluble salts, are p<
ous. This acid is very widely diffused throughout the vegetable kingdom. Sometimes
it. occurs in a free state (as in Bnlttns sulplinreu*), but. much more frequently as a salt,
either of potash, as in the different species of (Wills (from which genus the acid was
originally obtained and derives its name), and of riimex; or of soda, as in various s;
of saUcornia and salsola; or of lime, as in rhubarb and many lichens. In the animal
kingdom, it never occurs except in minute quantity and in combination with lime.
1 A S
.
Oxalnte of lime is found in a crystalline shape, both in healthy and morbid urine. In
the latter, it constitutes the leading symptom of the affection termed oxaluria (q.v.).
while in the former it occurs after the use of wines and beer containing much carbonic
acid, of sorrel, rhubarb-stalks, etc., and after the administration of the alkaline bicar-
bonates. It is the constituent of the urinary calculus, known from its rougli exterior as
the mulberry calculus. Crystals of oxalate of lime have also been found in the mucus
of the gall-bladder, on the mucous membrane of the impregnated uterus, and in morbid
blood. They have likewise been detected in the biliary vessels and excrements of cater-
pillars. In the mineral kingdom these crystals Lave been detected in association with
crystals of calcareous spar.
Oxalic acid is produced by the action of either hydrate of potash or of nitric acid
upon most organic compounds of natural occurrence. Its most common mode of prepa
ration is by the oxidation of starch or sugar by nitric acid. The organic compound and
the nitric acid are heated in a flask till ail effervescence has ceased, after which the solu-
tion is evaporated, and the oxalic acid separates in crystals on cooling.
This acid forms three scries of salts, viz. : neutral, acid, and super-acid, which, if M
represents the metal entering into the salt, may be represented by the formulae:
Neutral Salt. Acid Salt. Super-acid Salt.
'SMOcIOei HO^Io","c767, and 3no,"MO,2C4O*
the last being a compound of the acid salt and the acid. Oxalate of lime (2CaO,C4O6 -f-
4Aq) and ordinary (neutral) oxalate of ammonia (2NH4O,C4O« -j- 2Aq) are examples of
the rirst; binoxalate of potash, or salt of sorrel (KO,HO,C4O6 -|- 2Aq). is an example of
the second; while the oak usually termed quadroxalate of potash (KO,3HO,2C4O6 -f-
4Aq) is an example of the third class. Of the numerous oxalates, the most important
are the oxalate of lime (in consequence of its physiological and pathological relations);
the neutral oxalate of ammonia, which is the best test for the detection of lime in solu-
tion (in consequence of the extreme insolubility of the. resulting oxalate of lime); and the
acid oxalate ot potash, which is contained in the juices of oxalic and rumex, and is em-
ployed in various manufacturing processes.
The best test for this acid is the production of a white precipitate (of oxalate of lime),
on the addition of any soluble salt of calcium. The precipitate is insoluble in water, in
solution of potash, and in acetic acid, but dissolves in the mineral acids. A solution of
nitrate of silver also gives a white precipitate of oxalate of silver, which explodes when
heated.
Inconsequence of its employment in cotton printing, bleaching straw, etc., oxalic
acid is more accessible to the general public than many other poisons, and on this
account instances of suicide from the swallowing of this acid are by no means uncom-
mon. Cases of accidental poisoning, moreover, sometimes occur b\T its being sold by
mistake for Epsom salrs. Large doses destroy life veiy rapidly. Dr. A. Taylor men-
tions a c;>se in which a man died in 20 minutes after taking 2 oz. of the acid. Dr.
Christ ison records a case in which an ounce killed a girl in 30 minutes, and another case
in which the same quantity destroyed life in ten minutes; and, as a general rule (liable
to exceptions), when the dose is half an ounce or upward, death commonly takes place
within the hour. The symptoms are a hot or burning acid taste, with a sense of con-
striction or suffocation; vomiting, great pain in the region of the stomach, convulsions,
«)ld perspirations and general collapse speedily follow; and respiration shortly before
death becomes slow and spasmodic. With the view of converting the free acid in the
stomach into an insoluble and inert salt, chalk, whiting, or lime-water, with full draughts
of milk, shoula be administered with the least possible delay. Salt of sorrel is almost as
poisonous as the pure acid.
OXALI DE.E, or OXALTDA'CE/E, a natural order of exogenous plants, allied to gernni-
arecp; including herbaceous plniits, shrubs, and trees; with generally compound alter-
nate leaves; calyx of rive equal persistent sepals; corolla of rive equal unguiculate petals,
spirally twisted in bud; ten stamens, usually more or less united by the filaments, in two
rows; the ovary usually 5-celled, with five styles; the fruit a capsule opening ly as
many or twice as many valves as it has cells, or more rarely a berry; the seeds lew,
attached to the axis. There are upwards of 300 known species, natives of warm and
temperate climates. They arc particularly abundant in North America and at the cape
of Good Hope. The flora of Britain includes only two small species of oxaliis. An acid
juice is very characteristic of this order. Some of the tropical species produce agreeable
acid fruits, as the carambola'(q.v.). — The genus oxaUs has a capsular fruit, and the seeds
have an elastic integument, which at last bursts open and projects the seed to a distance.
The species are mostly herbaceous plants wilh ternate or digitate — rarely simple or
pinnate — "leaves; a few are shrubs. The stems and leaves generally contain a notable
quantity of lii.no.m'ate of poUtxli, and have therefore a sour taste. — The COMMON WOOD-
SOHREL (0. ctcctosellti), very abundant in shady woods and groves in Britain and most
parts of Europe, a native also of North America, is a beautiful little plant, often cover-
ing the ground with its green leaves, amidst which the white or slightly roseate flowers
appear. Its leaves all grow from the root, a long leaf-stalk bearing three obovate leaf-
kits; the scape bears a single flowrer. There is"a subterranean scaly root-stock On
U. K. XL— 10
O calls.
O:ieu.,tierna.
account of their grateful acid tp.slc the leaves are used in salads and sauces. The plant
is extremely abundant in L.ipluiul, and is much used by the- Laplanders. Ii is anti-
scorbutic and refrigerant, and an infusion of it is a grateful drink in fevers. Binomlate
of potayh is obtained from the leaves by expressing the juice and crysUilliziiiL!'; and is
Hold not only under the name of salt of sorrel, but also of etsentfal »cut of lemons, and is
used for extracting Spots, and particularly iron-marks, from linen and for otln-r purposes.
Much of it is now, however, obtained from a very different source. See OXAU ACID. —
•t 0. corniculata, rare in Britain, and almost conlined to the south of England, but a plant
: of very extensive distribution, being found in Europe, North America, India. .Japan,
j and some- of the African islands, has a branched stem, with decumbent branches, leave*
very similar to those of the common wood-sorrel and yellow flowers. Its properties
agree with those of the commoj wood-sorrel. Many other species resemble, these in
their general appearance and properties. Some of the species exhibit an irritability like
that of the sensitive plant; generally, as in the two British species, in a Blight degree,
and notably only in hot sunshine, but 0. seiisilita, an East Indian species, wi'h pinnate.
leaves, possesses this property in a high degree. Some species of wvrY«, as O. <•< nuni, a.
native of South Africa, are remarkable for producing large bulbils in the axils of the
lower leaves. Several species have tuberous roots, and are cultivated on account of
their tubers; as 0. crcnata and 0. tuberosa, natives of Peru and Bolivia, where they are
much esteemed, and both receive the name OCA. The tubers when cooked become
mealy like potatoes. They have a slightly acid taste. O. crcnata, has been cultivated in
gardens in Britain for about oO years, but continues to be- almost exclusively an object
of curiosity, being too tender for the climate, and its produce very inconsiderable in
quantity. Its tubers are yellow, in size and shape like small potatoes. The succulent
stalks of the 'eaves abound in a pleasant acid juice, and make excellent tarts and pre-
serves. 0. tuberosa produces numerous small tubers. The Bolivians often expose them
for a long time to the sun, by which they lose acidity, become saccharine, and acquire
a taste and consistence like dried figs. O. Deppet is a Mexican species, with a root s.>:ue
what like a small parsnip, quite free of acidity. It is much cultivated in its native
country, and succeeds well in the southern parts of England. 0. tetraphylla and O.
crassicaulls, natives of Mexico, and 0. enneaphylln, a native of the Falkland ishnd-. also
have eatable roots. Many species of oxalis are much esteemed as ornaments of gardens
and green-houses.
OX'ALIS. See OXALIDE^E, ante.
OXAL'TJRIA, or THE OXAL'IC ACID DIATH'ESIS, is a morbid condition of the system,
in which one of the most prominent symptoms is the persistent occurrence of crystals
of oxalate of lime in the urine. These crystals most commonly occur as very minute
transparent octohedra, but sometimes in the form of dumb-bells; in order to d
them the urine, which usually in these cases presents a mucous cloud, should be allowed
to stand for some hours in a conical glass, and after the crystals have gradually s!ib
sided, the greater part of the fluid should be poured awav, and the drops remaining at
the bottom examined with a power of not less than 200 diameters. These cry*- aK
which are insoluble in acetic acid, may occur either in acid or in alkaline urine, per-
sons who secrete this form of urine are usually dyspeptic, hypochondriacs], and liable
to attacks of boils, cutaneous eruptions, and neuralgia. The oxalic acid in these ra^cs
is not introduced into the system with the food, but is a product of the disintegration of
the tissues, and is due to the imperfect oxidation of compounds, which should normally
have been converted into carbonic acid. (Anhydrous oxalic acid, C4Oa, obviously
requires 3 equivalents of oxygen to be converted into carbonic acid, C4O8, or 4COa.
Hence, if these two equivalents of oxygen are wanting in the system, in consequence of
imperfect oxygenation of the blood, oxalic acid, in combination with lime, appears as a
final excretion in place of carbonic acid.) The occurrence of oxalic acid as a persistent
sediment in the urine is not only an indication of an existing morbid condition of the
system, but may give rise to two perfectly distinct dangerous complications; (1) a con-
cretion of oxalate of lime (mulberry calculus) may be formed either in the kidney or the
bladder; and (2) bad consequences may arise from the poisonous action of the oxalic
acid on the digestive organs, on the he-irt, and on the nervous system.
The treatment is simple. Care must be taken that the patient should avoid articles
of diet containing oxalic acid (such as sorrel, rhubarb, tomatoes, etc.), or readily con-
verted into it (such as sugar), and all drinks containing much carbon ic acid ; while he
should take plenty of exercise in the open air without fatiguing himself; should use the
shower-bath, unless he feels chilled and depressed after ijts application, in which case
he should rub the body all over daily with a horse-hair glove; and should employ a^ a
tonic medicine either a little nitro-muriatic acid in a bitter infusion (20 minims of the acid
in an ounce and a half of infusion of chyretta), or five grains of citrate of iron and quinine
three times daily. Under this treatment the oxalatcs usually almost entirely disappear
from the urine in two or three iveeks.
OXENTBRIDGE, JOHN, 1M&-74; b. Daventry. Eng.; educated at Oxford and
Cambridge, taking hh degree at the latter university in 1631 : was tutor of Magdalen
hall, Oxford; but deprived of the position in 1634 for persuading the students to sub-
scribe certain religious articles prepared by himself: was ordained a minister of the
mOxalis.
Oxenstierna.
church of England, and spent the next few years as a missionary in the Bermuda
islands. In 1642 he was chosen fellow of Eton college, and in 1644 installed pastor of a
church in Beverly. He was afterwards settled at Berwick-on-Tweed, and in 1662 was
silenced for nonconformity by the Bartholomew act. He then went as a missionary to
Surinam, Guiana, where he labored for some time. In 1667 fie visited Barbadoes, and
in 166!) came to Boston, where he was installed in 1670 as colleague of the rev. James
Allen over the First church of that city, remaining there until his death. Though much
engaged in religious controversy lie was a popular and useful preacher. His publica-
tions are, A Double Watchword; Election Sermon; Seasonable Seeking of God; A Propo-
sition for Propagating the Gospel by Christian Colonies in the Continent of New Guiana.
OXENDEN, ASHTON, D.D. ; b. at Broome park, near Canterbury, Eng., 1808; edu-
cated at the University college, London ; for many years rector of Pluckly-with-Pevi:ig-
ton, in Kent. In 1864 he became honorary canon of Canterbury cathedral, and in 1869
was chosen bishop of .Montreal, and private and metropolitan of Canada. His jurisdic-
tion includes 8 bishoprics, viz.: Quebec, Toronto, Ontario, Huron, Is ova Scotia, Fred-
ericton, Newfoundland, and Rupert's Land. Among his numerous publications are,
Piain History of the Christian Church; Sarham Tracts; The Pastoral Office; Baptism and
the Lord's Supper simply explained; Decision; Lectures on the Gospels.
OXENSTIEENA, AXEL, Count, an illustrious Swedish statesman, was b. at Fano, in
Upland, June 16, 1583. He was originally educated for the church, and studied theol-
ogy as well as jurisprudence at Rostock, Jena, and Wittenberg, in the last of which
universities he took his degrees. Although he afterwards devoted himself to public
affairs, he continued all his life to take a deep personal interest in religious questions,
and labored zealously for the extension of the Protestant doctrines. After leaving the
university, he visited most of the German courts, but returned to Sweden in 1603, and
soon afterwards entered the service of Charles IX., who, in 1606, dispatched him as
ambassador to the court of Mecklenburg. He became a senator in 1608— a dignity
which had been enjoyed by thirteen of his predecessors in uninterrupted succession.
Having displayed great prudence and wisdom in the settlement of certain disputes
between the Lfvonian nobles and the town of Reval, he was appointed by Charles — now
infirm from age — guardian of the royal family, and head of the regency. On the acces-
sion of Gustavus Adolphus (q.v.), in 1611, Oxenstierna was made chancellor; and in
1613, acted as minister-plenipotentiary in the negotiations for peace between Sweden
and Denmark. In the following year he accompanied his sovereign to Poland, and by
the peace of Stolbova, in 1617, terminated hostilities between Sweden and Russia. His
political sagacity was not less conspicuously shown in his successful efforts to prevent
Gustavus from marrying Ebba Brahe, a Swedish beauty, and in bringing about a match
between his master and the princess Maria-Eleonora of Brandenburg. In 1621, on the
departure of the king for the Polish war, he was charged with the administration of
affairs at home, which he conducted with his invariable felicity; subsequently he was
appointed governor-general of the conquered districts; and in 1629 concluded peace
with the Poles on highly favorable conditions. For a while Oxenstierna strongly
opposed the desire of Gustavus to take part in the "thirty years' war;" his hope being
to see the latter arbiter of the n. of Europe; but when he found that the Protestant
sympathies of the king were irrepressible, he set about collecting money and troops for
the perilous enterprise, with all the quiet but wonderful activity and persistency that so
remarkably characterized him. After Gustavus had fairly entered on the bloody
struggle, Oxenstierna joined him, and conducted most of the extensive and complicated
diplomacy which the course of events entailed on Sweden. The death of Gustavus for
a moment paralyzed him, but he instantly recovered, and heroically resolved to continue
the contest with the imperialists, in spite of the visible disaffection of many of the Ger-
man Protestant princes, among others, of the elector of Saxony. The will of the dead
monarch was sent to Stockholm; according to its conditions, the government — during
the minority of Christina (q.v.) — was intrusted to five nobles, who empowered the chan-
cellor to prosecute the Avar. His difficulties were enormous, yet by indefatigable efforts
he managed partly to allay the discontents, jealousies, and rivalries of the Protestant
leaders. The disastrous defeat of the Swedes at Nordlingen in 1634, and the perplexi-
ties which followed it, would have stupified most men in the position of Oxenstierna,
but it only called out more energetically his splendid diplomatic genius. Transferring
the leadership of the Protestant forces to duke Bombard (q.v.) of Weimar, he proceeded,
in 1635, to France and Holland, and formed alliances with these countries. Returning
to Germany, he assisted in quelling a mutiny among the Swedish troops at Magdeburg;
put Pomerania in a state of defense, to resist the mediated attack of the elector~of Bran-
denburg; renewed the treaty with Poland; and leaving Baner in command of the
Swedes, returned to Stockholm in 1636, where he was received with the liveliest enthu-
siasm. He still continued, however, to direct ably the policy of the Protestants in
Germany, till the peace of Westphalia, in 1648, put an end to the war. Oxenstierna's
son was one of the Swedish envoys who signed the treaty, and it is in a letter to him
that the famous sentence of the statesman occurs, Nescis mi fili, qnanttlla prudentia
homines regantur — ("You do not yet know, my son, with how little wisdom men are
governed. ") Christina, who had been declared of age iu 1644, did not show a proper
Ox-eye. -» A O
Oxfordshire.
respect for the advice of Oxenstierna; and after she had — through mere feminine wil-
fulness — abdicated, in spite of all his protestations, he withdrew from public lii'e, and
died Aug. 28, 1G54, shortly after she had left Sweden, lie entertained a genuine
affection for the daughter of his noble master, and in his last moments her name was
upon his lips. Some treatises and historical fragments are attributed to him, and his
"journal" has been published in the Stockholm Mayazinc. Seo LunubhuTs /•
Plutarch (2 vols. Stock. 1824); Fryxell's History of Gustavus Adolphu*; andGcijer's ILix-
tory of Sweden.
OX-EYE. See CHRYSANTHEMUM. ; •
OXFORD, a co. in s.w. Maine, bordering on New Hampshire, drained by the Saco
and Audroscoggin rivers; containing several large lakes, among which are ]\io*echunke-
munk, Parmachena, and Mooselucmaguntic; traversed by the Portland ar.d Oxford, and
Grand Trunk railroads; 1.700 sq.m. ; pop. '80, o2,625 — 83,025 of American birth. The
surface is mountainous but in the valleys fairly fertile. The staples an whe:;t, buck-
wheat, corn, dairy products, maple sugar, and hay. There are over 80 factories of
various kinds in the county. Capital, Paris.
OXFORD, a co. of Canada in s.w. Ontario, drained by the Thames and smaller rivers,
and traversed by the Canada Southern and the Great Western railroads; ?uo sq.m.;
pop, '71, 48.237—18,796 of English and 12,874 of Scotch descent, the rest being of Irish
and German origin. Capital, Woodstock.
OXFOED, an ancient and famous city and seat of learning in England, the chief town
of the co. of Oxford, is situated on the n.e. bank of the Isis, a tributary of the Thames,
a little above the point where it is met by the Cherwell. Both streams are crossed by
numerous bridges, of which the finest are Folly bridge over the Isis, and ."Magdalen
bridge over the Cherwell. Lat. of the city, 51° 45' 55" n., long. 1° 15' 29" west. Dis-
tance from London, 55 m. w.u.w. Pop. '71, 34,482. Oxford Occupies an undulating
site, is surrounded by rich and wooded meadows, and presents to the eye of the
approaching visitor a scene of unequaled architectural magnificence — spires, and towers,
and domes rising as thickly as chimney-stalks in the manufacturing towns of Lancashire
or Yorkshire. The four main streets of Oxford meet at right angles near the center of
the town, at a place still called Carfax, a corruption of Quatre voics, and which appears
in Agas's map (temp. Elizabeth) as Cater ro&s. These are — Cornmarket street, leading
into St. Giles's, and running due n. ; Queen street, leading to the railway stations, and
running w. ; St. Aldate's street, leading to the Isis, and running due s. ; and High sin et,
which is the chief street of the city, gracefully curving in an easterly direction,' and
conducting to the river Cherwell, a smaller river joining the Isis soon alter it has passed
Oxford.
The western half of the town is the most uninteresting; and it is a misfortune that
the railway stations are placed here, as travelers, on arriving, are introduced to the
meanest parts of the cily first. The county courts and jail, and the remains of the
castle, from which the empress Maud escaped while it was besieged by king Stephen,
will be observed in passing. There is one good street in this part, viz. : Beaumont street,
built on the site of the ancient Beaumont palace, in which Richard I. was born. At the
end of this street is Worcester college. Passing to the u. from Carfax, along the Corn-
market, the old tower of St. Michael's church is seen, against which stood formerly the
n. gate of the city; next St. Mary Magdalen church; then the martyr's memorial, with
the Taylor buildings and Randolph Hold on the left, and part of Balliol college and Si.
John's 'college on the right. St. Giles's church is at the n. end of this street, which is
very wide, and has a row of elm trees on each side, forming a picturesque avenue like a
foreign boulevard. Beyond this, to the n., is the Radcliffe observatory and infirmary.
The High street is about 1000 yds. in length; it is reckoned one of the noblest stn
architecturally considered — in 'Europe, and contains, among other edif<cs. part of the
buildings of Magdalen college, Queen's college, All-Soul's college. University college,
and St. Mary's and All-Saints' churches. Parallel to it is Broad street, in which ore
situated Balliol, Trinity, and Exeter colleges, the Ashmolean museum, the Clarendon
rooms, the Sheldonian theater, and close by are the Academical schools, the Bod!< -ian
library, and the picture gallery. In St. Aldate's street, which forms the southern part
of the scries of streets already mentioned as forming one line, and running n. and s. is
Christ Church college (the entrance tower of which contains the great bell "Tomcf
Oxford," weighing upwards of 17,000 Ibs.) and St. Aldate's church. The other colleges
and important buildings connected with the university of Oxford lie back from the
principal streets. To attempt particularizing the architectural characteristics of each of
these edifices is impossible within our limits. It may suffice to sa}', that though there is
nothing extraordinarily fine about the architecture of the colleges, regarded individu-
ally, yet the vast number of the structures and variety of styles present a tout-ci*;
that is altogether sublime. The effect is wonderfully heightened by the interspersion of
gardens, meadows, and venerable trees — old as the buildings that tower above them.
Christ church is celebrated for its magnificent hall, picture gallery, and library, as well
as for its extensive grounds; its chapel, the cathedral church of Oxford, is Norman in
style, but is inferior, both in size and beauty, to most English cathedrals. Merlon col-
lege is situated a little to the s. of the High street, aud still retains the original chapel
1 JQ Ox-eye.
Oxfordshire.
and part of the other buildings erected by Walter de Morton in the 13th century. Mag-
daien college retains its celebrated cloister and tower of the loth c., and the buildings
here are the most complete of any college in. Oxford. Oriel college, a comparatively
modern structure, is very picturesque, but far from chaste in its design ; New college
ranks among the noblest buildings in the city — "the chapel, ihe hall, the cloisters, tho
groined gateways, and even some original doors and windows remain, in their exterior
at least, as they came from the hand of their master architect," William of Wykeham,
500 years ayo; Queen's college is built in the Grecian style of architecture, with a spa-
cious and handsome chapel and a tine library; so is Trinity college; University college
is a not unpleusing mixture of Gothic and Italian; Exeter college has a splendid front-
a.Mv on the w., and its chapel (built 1857-58), in the Gothic style, is the finest modern
building in the city; it has also an excellent hall, and a beautiful library; Balliol college
has a remarkably fine chapel, built only a few years ago. Among the other churches in
Oxford, besides the cathedral church and the college chapels, are — St. Mary's, which is
attended by the members of the university; St. Martin's, the church of the crrporation
of Oxford; St. Peter's-in-the-East, with a Norman crypt; St. Michael's, with a Saxon
tower; and St. Aldate's. The chief buildings connected with the university, besides the
Bodleian and the Aslimolean museum already mentioned, are the Radcliffe library, a
circular structure, adorned with Corinthian columns and surmounted by a dome; the
l!a:L'liffe observatory, crowned by an octagonal tower, in imitation of the temple of the
Winds at Athens; flie University printing-office, and the Taylor institution, founded
" for the teaching the- European languages" — an exceeding! 3' handsome and extensive
range of buildings. The botanic gardens are situated not far from the Cherwe.'l, and
nearly opposite Magdalen college. Other notable buildings, not connected with the uni-
VQrsity, are — the town hall, the Radcliffe infirmary, the co. jail, and one or two dissent-
ing places of worship, such as the Wesleyan chapel in New Inn Hall lane, and the
Independent chapel in George lane. — The city of Oxford is a mart for the disposal of
the agricultural produce of the neighboring country, but has little trade of its own, and
is dependent for its prosperity chiefly on the university. It is a municipal and parlia-
mentary borough, and governed by a mayor, nine aldermen, and thirty councilors,
whose jurisdiction, however, does not embrace the university. Both the city and the
university sen 1 two members to parliament.
Oxford, by the Saxons called Oxnaford, and in the Domesday Book, Oxeneford (proba-
bly from its having been originally a ford for the passage of oxen), is a place of great
antiquity. The date of its origin is unknown, but as early as the 8th c. there was a
nunnery established here; and in 803 an act of confirmation by pope Martin II.
describes it as an ancient seat of learning. It is said to have been a residence of king
Alfred, and also of Canute, who held several parliaments within its walls. The towns-
men closed their gates against William the conqueror, who stormed the town in 1067,
and gave it to one of his followers, Robert d'Oyley, who built a castle here to overawe
the disaffected Saxons, some ruins of which are still to be seen. The paction that
terminated the strife between Stephen and Henry II. was drawn up at Oxford. In the
reign of Edward III. the preaching of AVyckliffe excited great commotion among the
students, and threatened well-nigh the dissolution of the university. In the reign of
the "Bloody Mary" it witnessed the martyrdoms of Ridley, Latimer, and Cranmer:
and during the great civil war of the 17th c. it was for a while the head-quarters of the
royalist forces, and was conspicuous for its adherence to Charles I. Ever since that
period the city — or, at any rate, the university — has been in general characterized by an
extreme devotion to the "church" and the "king."
OXFORD, EARL OF. See HARLEY, ROBERT, ante.
OXFORD BLUES. See HORSE GUARDS, ROYAL.
OXFOED CLAY, the principal member of the middle oolite series, is a bed of stiff
dark-blue or blackish clay, sometimes reaching a thickness of 600 feet. There occur in
its lower portion in some places layers of tough calcareous sandstone, called Kelloway
rock, from a place in Wiltshire, where it is quarried. The Oxford clay lies beneath
the plain on which Oxford is built, and extends s.w. and n.e. from the shore at Wey-
mouth to the fen lands s. of the Wash, thence it may be traced through Lincoln into
Yorkshire, until it disappears vnder the sea at Scarborough. The close packing of
the fossils in the fine compact clay has caused them to be beautifu:,y preserved; the
shells frequently retain their iridescence, and even the softer parts of "the cephalopods
have sometimes left with tolerably clear definition their form in the clay. The fossils
are, however, often filled with iron pyrites, which, on exposure to the atmosphere,
readily decomposes and destroys all traces of the beautiful organism. The remains of
chambered shells of the genera belemnites and ammonites are very abundant, and with
them are associated other shells, interesting Crustacea, and the species of fishes and reptiles
which are characteristic of the oolite.
OXFORDSHIRE, an inland county of England, bounded on the s. bv the river
Thames, on the e. by Bucks, and on the w. by Gloucestershire. Area. 472,717 acres.
P-.-p. '71. 177,975. The surface, where it is not level, is undulating. In the n.w. the
hills rise in Broom hill to 836 ft, above sea k-vH. r>nd in the s.e. of the county are the
Chiltern hills (q.\;.), rising near Xutlieid to 820 fi. iu height. It is watered 'along its
Oxford.
150
southern border by the Thames, and the other chief rivers are the Windrush, Evenlode,
Cherwell, and Thamc. affluents of the Thames. 13y means of the Oxford canal, -winch
joins the Thames at Oxford, the towns and districts lower down the river (Ahingdon,
Wallingford, etc.) arc supplied with coal from the Leicestershire coal-lieids. The Boil
is fertile; the stale of agriculture is advanced, 414,663 acres being under crops, fallow,
or grass in 1876; and the county may be considered one of the most productive in the
country. Three members are returned to the house of commons for the county.
OXFORD TRACTS. See TKACTAUIANISM, ante.
OXFORD UNIVERSITY is said to have been founded by king Alfred. Without
claiming for it au origin quite so ancient, it is certain that from very early times
students resorted to Oxford in order to attend lectures there delivered by'learned men,
and that they lived in the houses of the towns-people. In some cases they combined
together, so as to secure the service of a common teacher, with whom they lived in a
large tenement called an inn, hostel, or hall. For a long time, however, the great
majority of the students lodged in rooms hired from the citizens; aucl as late as the year
1512, regulations were made for the governance of such students. As their numbers
increased, the halls were multiplied. Anthony Wood states that he could show the
names and places of more than a hundred. A great diminution in the numbers of the
students took place about the middle of the 15th century. This, among other causes,
led to the gradual disappearance of the halls, which were bought up by tlie wealthier
college-. Only five of the halls now exist, which differ from the colleges only in that
they are unincorporated, and have little or no endowments. Residence in private lodg-
ings had also fallen into disuse; and by the time of queen Elizabeth it had become a
compulsory rule that all undergraduates should reside in some college or hall, at least
for the first twelve terms of residence. Now, however, undergradatues may in most
colleges live in lodgings from the beginning of their course.
The colleges were founded at various periods from the end of the 13th c. to the
beginning of the 18th. Fourteen out of the 20 w. re founded before the reformation.
Their object originally was to support limited societies of students, who were to devote
their lives to study — by no means, as at present, to educate large classes of the commu-
nity. Students, other than those on the foundation, seem not to have been regarded by
the founders as an essenti.il part of the college. The colleges arose, a-; has been already
said, partly instead of the old halls, and were partly at first connected with the monas-
teries, it being by means of these institutions that benevolent persons were enabled to
give permanent support to poor secular scholars. University and Balliol, which now
rank as the oldest colleges, were in point of fact halls supported by endowments held in
trust for the maintenance of their students. The originator of the collegiate system, in
anything like its present form, was Walter de Morton, who, besides having founded
Merton college, is entitled to the honor of having mainly contributed to fix the uni-
versity in its present site. All those on the foundation of the colleges before the refor-
mation were called clerici. The great majority of the fellows were required to take
priest's orders within a certain period after their election. This requirement of course
involved celibacy, which, besides, was expressly imposed in some colleges; and practi-
cally, in old times as now, was enforced by the rule of life and the obligation of r.->i-
dence. Within the last few years in some of the colleges the restriction of celibacy has
been, under certain conditions, remitted in the case of fellows cngagec -n college work.
Under a statute passed in 1868 any person may now become a member of the uni-
versity without becoming a member of a college or hall, provided he satisfies certain
disciplinary requirements. For such purposes these unattached students are under the
control of a board of delegates; but no special provision is made for their instruction.
In 1871 the new foundation of Keble college, built in memory of John Keble. was
admitted to enjoy the same privileges (save as regards the academical status of its head)
as are possessed by the existing colleges and halls.
Previous to the statute 17 and 18 Viet. c. 81 the constitution of the university was as
follows: 1. The hebdomadal board, or weekly meeting, consisting of the heads of houses
and the two proctors, which body exercised the chief share of the administration of the
university, and possessed the exclusive power of initiating legislation: 2. Congregation,
consisting of certain university dignitaries, which met merely for the purpose of con-
ferring degrees; 3. Convocation, consisting of all masters of arts, a body whose consent
was necessary before any of the measures proposed by the hebdomadal board coul.l
become law, which elected the chancellor, the two representatives of the university in
parliament, several of the professors, and dispensed the ecclesiastical patronage of the
university. The statute referred to introduced important, changes. The hebdomadal
board has been changed into the hebdomadal council, consisting of the chancellor, the
vice-chancellor, the proctors, six heads of houses, six professors, and six members of
convocation of not less than five years' standing — such heads, professors, and members
of convocation being elected by congregation, and holding office for six y- -n •-•. ( 'ongre-
gation, again, now consists of all the great officers of the university, the professors, the
public examiners, and all resident masters: and on this body is now bestowed the power
of accepting or rejecting, and of amending any statute framed by the hebdomadal
council. The composition and powers of convocation remain unchanged. The students
151
Oxford.
not on the foundation are for the most part commoners. In "Worcester college and Hie
halls there is still a class of fellow-commoners, who pay large fees, and enjoy *ertain
privileges. They mainly consist of men above the ordinary age of undergraduates, who
wish to have the intellectual advantages of the university without being subjected to
the common routine of discipline. All other formal distinctions due to wealth or
poverty are almost entirely abolished, such as the special privileges of peers, and the
regard had to the poverty of candidates hi the case of certain scholarships. It is very
dim' cult to ascertain the actual number of students at any one time in Oxford, but now
it is probably seldom above 1600.
There are four terms in each year — viz., Michaelmas term, which begins on Oct. 10,
xud ends on Dec. 17; HiUuy term, which begins on Jan. 14, and ends the day before
Palm Sunday: Easter term, which begins on the Wednesday in Easter- week, and ends
on the Friday before Whitsunday; Trinity term, which begins on the Saturday before
Whitsunday and ends on the Saturday after the first Tuesday in July. Full term, as it
is called, does not begiu till the first day of the week, after the first congregation is held.
By undergraduates, Michaelmas and Hilary terms are kept by six weeks' residence, and
Easter and Trinity terms by three weeks each; but more than this is required by most
of the colleges. Twenty -six weeks may be taken as the ordinary length of the academic
year. Twelve terms of residence are required for the degree of B.A. from all. The
degree of M.A. is obtainable in the twenty-seventh term after matriculation. By a
statute passed in 1850, the following examinations were made necessary for a degree in
arts; but their nature has been considerably changed by the new statutes which came
into effect 1873-74: 1. Kesponsions, called " little go" or "smalls" in the familiar
language of undergraduates, are obligatory upon all. The university does not, as to this
or any other pass examination, fix a limit of time within which they must be passed;
but most colleges require their members to ] ; ss n sponsions, at least within their first
year of study Subjects: one Latin and one Greek author — or portions of them, as five
books of Homer, five of Virgil, two Greek plays, etc. — with a paper of grammatical
questions; a piece of English \.> be translated into Latin; two books of Euclid, or alge-
bra up to simple equations inclusive; and arithmetic. 2. The first public examination,
or moderations, is also obligatory upon all. Candidates must have entered upon their
fourth term. Subjects: the four gospels in Greek (except in the case of persons not
numbers of the church of England, when some one Greek author is to be substituted);
one Greek and one Latin author, not the same as those offered for rcsponsions, and one
must be a poet, the other an orator; a piece of English into Latin, and a paper of gram-
matical questio s; logic, or Euclid III. and IV., 1-9, and algebra. Honors are awarded
at this examination both in classics and pure mathematics. Candidates are recom-
mended to take up especially poets and orators. Verses, as well as Greek and Latin
prose-wrhino-, and a paper of grammatical and philological questions, are set. In the
mathematical school, which in this examination exists as a separate school for honors
only, candidates arc examined in pure mathematics up to the integral calculus and the
calculus of finite differences inclusive. 3. The second public examination held twice a
year, to be wixxed not earlier than the 12th term, and for honors not later than the 16th
term of standing; unless the candidate lu-.s been classed in some other school of the sec-
ond public examination, in which case he maybe admitted up to the 20th term inclusive.
This examination consists of three parts: (1.) an examination in the rudiments of faith
and religion, or in the case of those who (or whose guardians) object to such examina-
tion, certain substituted books or subjects; (2.) an examination of those who do not seek
honors; and (3.) an examination for those who elo seek honors. In this last there are,
in Oxford phraseology, six schools: literse luimaniorcs, mathematics, natural science
Jurisprudence, modern history, theology. Candidates are entitled to a degree of B.A.
who having passed the two previous examinations, also passed the examination appointed
for those who do not seek honors, or who obtain honors in anyone of the six honor
schools. But every candidate, except he has obtained honors in the theology school,
must have satisfied" in the rudiments of faith and religion or the substitute. By these
rudiments are understood the Old and New Testaments (gospels and acts of the apostles
in the original Greek): and the 39 articles. The pass examination embraces subjects
chosen from at least two out of the three following groups: (ft) Greek and Eomau his-
tory and philosophy; (b) English, modern languages, political economy and law; (c)
geometry, mechanics, chemistry, and physics. Out of these the candidates must select
three subjects, one of which ni'ist be either (1) ancient philosophy and history (in the
original Greek, or Greek and Latin); or (2) a modern language (French or German).
The classical books must be other than those offered for responsions and moderations.
Candidates for honors may select any one, or more than one of the six schools. The
most popular and influential of these is the school of litcrse humaniores. The examin-
ation in this school includes (1) the Greek and Latin languages; (2) the histories of
ancient Greece and Rome; (3) logic, and the outlines of moral and political philosophy.
Candidates may also offer certain special subj 'Cts in any of these three departments.
The republic of Plato and the ethics of Aristotle form the basis for philosophical
study, though they are every year more largely supplemented by modern philosophy.
Next in the numbers of its candidates is the school of modern history, which includes
(1) the continuous history of England*, (2) general history during some period, selected
Ox-pall.
Oxides.
by the candidate, from periods to be named from time to time by the board of studies:
(3) a special portion of history, or a special historical subject, carefully studied with
reference to original authorities. The school of jurisprudence includes (1) general juris-
prudence; (2) the history of English law; (3) some department of Roman, and it may be,
of English law; (4) international law, or a specified department of it. The school of
mathematics embraces pure and mixed mathematics (algebra, trigonometry, calculus,
mechanics, optics, astronomy). The school of natural science has a double < •>: •. munition
,*• f >r honors — a preliminary and a final. The preliminary examination, incumlu'ut upon
all. is restricted to the elementary parts of mechanics, phy.-ics, and chemistry. In ih«
linal examination, the candidate may offer himself for examination in one or more of the
three general subjects of physics, chemistry, and biology." The examination in the
honor school of theology includes the Holy Scriptures, dogmatic and symbolic theology,
ecclesiastical history and the fathers, the evidences of religion, liturgies, sacred criticism,
and the archaeology of the Old and New Testaments. A knowledge of llebnwwill
have weight in the distribution of honors. The organization of the-e schools is at pres-
ent the main function of the university, as distinct from the colleges. Professorial
teaching on its own account only exists to a very limited extent. In the main, the teach-
ing power of the colleges is devoted to preparing their undergraduate members for these
various examinations.
Examinations also take place for degrees in law, medicine, divinity, and music; but
these are in great measure formal. The examinations for degrees in arts are the proper
work of the university.
- Besides these honors, various distinctions are conferred by the university. There are
several university scholarships, more particularly the Yincrian law fellowships and
scholarships; the Eldon law scholarship; one Sanscrit and two Hebrew scholarship*
yearly; two mathematical scholarships; the Hertford scholarship, for the encouragement
of the study of Latin, and the. Ireland and Craven scholarships, for the encouragement
of the study of classics. There is also the Newdigate prize for the best composition in
English verse; and ihc three chancellor's prizes for the best compositions in Latin ver-c.
Latin prose, and English prose; the Gaisford prizes for Greek composition; and tho
Arnold, Stanhope, and marquis of Lothian's prizes for the best essays on an historical
subject. But the great prizes are the scholarships and the fellowships. By the commis-
sioners under 17 and 18 Viet. c. 81, these have been for the most part thrown open, and
are now awarded after examination without restriction as to kin or place of birth. At
All-Souls, and also at St. John's college, since the labors of the commissioners, an
attempt has been made to keep up the former exclusiveness. The scholarships, which
are so numerous as to be within the reach of any young man of ability, range from £60
to £80 a year, with rooms free, which would go a considerable way toward defraying
the expense of a university education. At the close of this education come the fellow-
ships; and it has been calculated that when the arrangements of the commis-i >:;: -rs are
complete, there will be between 20 and 30 fellowships, mostly about £300 per annum,
open yearly to competition.
Oxford is, of course, chiefly fed from the great English schools. A close connection
subsists, by the terms of the foundation, between Winchester and New college, b<
Westminster and Christ Church, and between Merchant Taylors' and St. John's. For
the nature of this connection, sec under these colleges. A student desirous of going to
Oxford, must apply to the head of the college to which he wishes to belong. .\'>;>liea-
tion in former times had to be made early, as all the good colleges were filled up for sev-
eral years in advance. But now that undergraduates are allowed by most colleges to
live in lodgings from the first, a candidate can have no difficulty in securing admission
even to a distinguished college at short notice. There is no •uniwr.vtij examination at
matriculation; but all the good colleges have such an examination before they receive
any one — the standard of the examination, of course, varying with the college. After
being received into the college, the undergraduate is sometimes assigned to a college
tutor, who exercises a special control over his reading; but he also attends the instruc-
tion of the other college tutors or lecturers, as the course of his studies may require.
The cost of tuition varies at different colleges, but an average of £G5 may be given a»
paid by the undergraduate during his whole career. This payment is at some colleges
distributed over three, at others over four years. Besides this, almost every undergradu-
ate finds it necessary, at some period before taking his degree, to read with a private
tutor, whom he chooses forhimself. Private tuition has grown to be quite an institution
in Oxford, though not formally recognized. Many of the ablest young men, alter taking
their degree, remain in Oxford for a year or two, taking private pupils. In this way an
undergraduate, even of a badly-taught college, could secure the advantages of in
tuition. But during the last few years, the lecturers in different colleges have more and
more combined and systematized their work; and thus to a slight extent obviated the
need of private tuition. Much discussion has taken place on the merits and faults of
this system; but, on the whole, it must be allowed to be useful for the tutor, as clearing
up and concentrating his knowledge, while, at least to undergraduates who read for
hoaors (with a few rare exceptions), it may be considered as absolutely necessary. Pri-
vace tutors usually charge £10 a term for three hours a week. Prcviors to 1852. the
professoriate of Oxford was strictly ornamental. * A groat -..Hurl was then made to stir
Ox-jjall.
Oxides.
it into life, which has been partially successful. Xew professorships were created, and
the endowments of old ones were increased by the commissioners, under 17 and 18 Viet,
c. 81. ' But the former of these measures, at least, whatever it may have done for the
interests of science, has produced but little effect on the undergraduates. They still
limit their range of studies by the requirements of the examinations of the- schools, and
it \vere hard to expect them to do otherwise. But professorial teaching has undoubt-
edly become more popular in the ordinary branches of study. Lectures by the profes-
i sors of law and modern history, of moral philosophy, logic, Greek, and Latin, are felt to
' be useful, and are therefore well attended. With regard to the expenses of Oxford, it
is diln'cult to say anything very definite. They vary at different colleges, not only indi-
rectly from tiie tone of the society, but even direclly from the charges made for neces-
saries. A man should be exceedingly comfortable at Oxford with £200 a year; on £150,
he can manage with economy. Many young men could not with prudence, be exposed
to the difficulties of living in Oxford on less than the latter sum. There have indeed
iK'eu instances of men passing creditably through the university course on £100 a, year.
The necedxary expenses do not exceed that sum; the habits of the young men themselves
cause a great part of the expenses. Returns procured by the delegates for unattached
students show that some students cover their board, lodging, and tuition for about £45
a year. Discipline inside the college is maintained by the head of the house and the
tutors; in the town and its neighborhood, by the proctors, who are university officers
with great authority. As a rule, this authority is well exercised. According to the
Viuremities Commission Report (1874), the revenue of the colleges and university in 1871
was £413,000.
The following is a list of the colleges and halls as they rank in the university; an
account of each will be found in its alphabetical place; University, Balliol, Mertou,
Exeter, Oriel, Queen's, New College, Lincoln, All-Souls, Magdalen, Braseuose, Corpus
Christi, Christ Church, Trinity, St. John's, Jesus, Wadham, Pembroke, Worcester,
Keble, St. Mary hull, Magdalen hall, New Inn hall, St. Alban hall, St. Edmund hall.
To these may be added Charsley's hall, being a private hall under the mastership of
"\\r. H. Cimrsley, in virtue of a statute passed in 1854, empowering any M.A. of a certain
standing to open a private hall on his obtaining a license from the vice-chancellor. The
unattached students now number upward of 100; but the present system of university
teaching is not very favorable either to their increase or progress.
Among the books which may be consulted with regard to Oxford are — Ayliffe's His-
tory of Oxford, Wood's Annals, the University Calendar, and above all, the Report of
tiie Royal CommiaSMiiersfor 1852.
OX-GALL, the bile of the ox, greenish-yellow in color. It has several uses in arts
and manufactures. It is reduced to the form of an extract for preservation, and when
used dissolved in alkaline water. The chief use is in mixing colors, the effect being to
give them tenacity and fluidity. It is also an ingredient in varnish, and is a substitute
for Indian ink, and is used in painting on ivory.
OX.IDA TION is the term applied to the union of any body with oxygen, the body
being then said to be oxidized, and the resulting compound being termed an oxide. Many
bodies po^soss the property of entering into several distinct combinations with oxygen.
For example, manganese (Mn) forms no less than six such compounds — viz., MnO,
Mn2O3, Mn3O4, MnO2, MnO3, Mn2O7, which represent different stages of oxidation.
OX'IDES, METALLIC, are the most important of all the compounds of the metals, and
in many cases occur naturally as abundant and valuable ores. They are divided by
chemists into three classes — viz., (1) basic oxides or bases, (2) saline or indifferent oxides,
and (3) acid oxides or metallic acids. The different oxides of the same metal usually
afford illustrations of twro, and not infrequently of all three of these classes. Thus (to
take the case of manganese referred to in the last article) the protoxide (MnO) is a
powerful base, the red oxide (Mn3O4) is a saline or indifferent oxide, showing little
tendency to combine either with acids or alkalies, while permanganic acid (Mn267) pre-
sents ail the properties of an acid. "As a general rule, the greater the number of atoms
of oxygen which an oxide contains, the less is it disposed to unite with the acids; on the
contrary, it frequently possesses acid properties, and then unites with bases to form
salts. Protoxides generally are strong salifiable bases; they require one equivalent of a
monobasic acid to form neutral salts. Sesquioxides are weaker bases; their salts are
usually unstable; they require three atoms or equivalents of a monobasic acid to form a
salt which is neutral in composition, though it may not be neutral to test-paper; and in
general, all oxides require as many equivalents of acid as they contain atoms of oxygen
in their composition. Some of the metallic acids, like the stannic and titanic, contain
two atoms of oxygen to one atom of metal, but most of them contain three atoms of
oxygen — such, for example, as the manganic, ferric, chromic, tungstic, molybdic, and
vanadic acids; whilst in a few cases, such as the arsenic, antimonic, and permanganic,
the proportion of oxygen is still higher." — Miller's Inorganic Chemistry, 2d edit. p. 314.
Of the basic oxides, which form by far ihe most important class, it may be observed
that they are devoid of all metallic appearance, Mid present the characters of earthy
matters, and that six only of them are soluble in water to any considerable extent — viz.,
the three alkalies and baryta, stroutia, and lime. All the oxides are solid at ordinary
Oxleya. 1 K A
Oxygen.
temperatures, and as a general rule, the addition of oxygen to a metal renders it much
less fusible and soluble; the protoxide of iron, the sesquioxide of chromium, and
molybdic acid being the only oxides that melt moie readily tlian the metal.
OXLEY A, a genus of trees of the natural order cedrelacece, of which one species. <).
xanihuxyln , the 1* EL LOW WOOD of Eastern Australia, is a very large tree, 100 I'eet high,
valuable for its timber.
OXLIP. See PRIMROSE, ante.
OXPECKER. See BEEF-EATER, ante.
OXTJS, the ancient name of a great river in Central Asia, which "is called by the
Turks and Persians JmflN, and AMU or AM£-DARIA by the natives of the country t hrough
which it Mows. The Oxus rises in lake Sari-kol, in the elevated plateau which separate*
Eastern and Western Turkestan. It flows through Buddakshan, Bokhara, and Khiva.
and empties itself by several mouths into the sea of Aral. In the first part of its course
its volume is increased by numerous affluents, but it receives no tributaries after entering
Khiva, from which point its course is wholly through a dry sandy desert. Its total
length is about 1150 miles. The value of the Oxus for the purpose of water communi-
cation, is said by recent Russian geographers to have been much overrated in Europe;
and they add that, in summer, vessels of even slight draught could only be got upon the
stream by shutting off the irrigation canals, and risking the desolation of the country
dependent on them for its crops. The true value of the Oxus lies in the means it will
supply of irrigating the sterile alluvial wastes through which it runs. Before the
Christian era, it is believed that the Oxus flowed into the Caspian, and that since GOO A.D.
it has twice changed its course (see ARAL). A great part of the old bed of the Oxus has
recently been explored by M. Stebnutzki (Bulletin de la Soc. de Gc<>;ir. </;• J'urix, April.
1871), who has ascertained that it has a fall towards the Caspian, from which he infers
that its course was not changed by an upheaval of the Turcoman desert, hui by the
simple accidents of fluvial action on an alluvial soil. In his address to the London
geographical society in May, 1872, sir Henry Rawlinson said the restoration of the
Oxus to its old bed was then under the serious consideration of the Russian government.
that it was a work of no engineering difficulty whatever, and would assuredly be accom-
plished as soon as the neutrality of Khiva was secured. — See A Joura,,/ t" //'/<• >/.///w of
the O.CUH, by John Wood, with Essay of the Geography of the Oxus Valley by coi.
Yale. 1873: also The Koud to Men, by sir H. Rawliuson, in the proceedings of the geog.
society, 1879.
OXYA CIDS. When Lavoisier, in 1789, gave the name of oxygen to the depKLogtttir
en ted nil- discovered, in 1774, by Priestley, he believed that the presence of that body
was essential to the existence of an acid, and this view was supported by the composi-
tion of the principal acids which were then known, such as sulphuric, nitric, carbonic.
and phosphoric acids. But, by degrees, acids were discovered into which no o>
entered, but •which always contained hydrogen, and hence acids were divided into two
great classes, tl^e oxyacids and the hydracidx; oxygen being supposed to be the acidifying
principle in the former, and hydrogen in the latter. At the present day scientific
chemists usually restrict the term acid to compounds into which hydrogen enter-
the acids are regarded as salts of the last-named element : thus, sulphuric ;-cid (JIO.SOj)
and nitric acid (HO,NOB) are the sulphate and nitrate of oxide of hydrogen ; hydro-
chloric acid (IIC'l) is chloride of hydrogen, etc.
OXYCHLO RIDES, chemical compounds containing both chlorine and oxygen in com-
bination witli some other element or radical. Chloride of lime (CaOClj, chloride of
potash (KOC1), oxychloridc of lead or Turner's yellow belong to this cl:
OXYGEN (symb. O. equiv. 8; new system. 16; sp. gr. 1.1056) is a colorless, inodorous,
tasteless gas, long regarded as a "permanent " gas, but liquefied by Pictet of Geneva
for the first time in 1877. Its chemical affinities for other elementary substances are
very powerful; with most of them it is found in combination, or may be made to com-
bine, in more thau one proportion; with several in 4, 5, or 6 proportions; and there is
only one element (fluorine) with which it does not enter into any combination.
Owing to the intensity with which many of these combinations take ph;;-e this gas I. as
the power of supporting combustion (q.v.) in an eminent degree. Of all known sub-
stances, it exerts the smallest refracting power on the rays of light. It po>M-s>( s weak
but decided magnetic properties, like those of iron, and like this substance, its
susceptibility to magnetization is diminished or even suspended by a certain elevation
of temperature. It is only slightly soluble in water; 100 cubic inches of that liquid
dissolving 4.11 c.-.ibic inches of gas at 32°, and only 2.99 inches at 59°.
Oxvgcn gas fa not only respirable, but is essential to the support of animal life; and
hence it was termed vital air by some of the older chemists. A small animal placed m
a bell-glass containing pure oxygen will not be suffocated so soon as if it were placed in
the same glass tilled with atmospheric air. For further details on this property of oxygen,
the reader is referred to the article RESPIRATION.
Oxygen is the most abundant and the most widely distributed of all the elements.
In its free state (mixed but not combined with nitrogen), it constitutes about a fifth of the
bulk, and considerably more thau a fifth of the weight, of the atmosphere. In eonibma-
-j r r; Oxleya.
Oxygen.
tion with hydrogen, it forms eight-ninths of all Ihc water on the globe; and in combina-
tion willi silicon, calcium, aluminium, etc., it enters largely into ail the solid constituents
of the earth's crust; silica in its various forms of sand, common quartz, flint, etc.—-
chalk, limestone, and marble — and all the varieties of clay, containing about half their
weight of oxygen. It is, moreover, found in the tissues and fluids of all forms of
animal and vegetable life, none of which can support existence independently of this
element.
There are various modes of obtaining ox '.'gen. the simplest of which consists in the
exposure of certain metallic oxides to a high temperature. It \vas originally obtained by
its discoverer, Dr. Priestley, from the red oxide of mercury, which, when heated to
about 750", resolves itself into metallic mercury and oxygen gas. It may be similarly
obtained from red oxide and peroxide of lead. Ihe resulting products in these cases
being protoxide of lead and oxygen. The following are the chief methods now employed:
(1.) Tiie black oxide* (or binoxide) of manganese (NnO2) is much employed as a source
of this gas. The mineral is reduced lo .small pieces of about the size of a pea, and intro-
duced into an iron bottle, with a pipe through which the gas rnay escape. When the
bottle is placed in a furnace, and attains u red heat, the mineral parts with one third of
its oxygen, and the red oxide of manganese (MnO,Mu2O3) remains behind; the reaction
being explained by the equation:
Black oxide of Manganese. Red oxide of Manganese. Oxygen.
3MnOa MnO.MnjO, -f- 2O
(2.) A very pure and abundant supply of oxygen may be obtained by heating chlorate of
potash (ETOjCIOj), which yields up all its oxygen (amounting to 89.16 per cent), and
leaves a residue of chloride of potassium. One ounce of this salt yields nearly two gal-
lons of oxygen gas. It is found by experiment, that if the chlorate of potash* is mixed
with about a fourth of its weight of black oxide of copper, or of binoxide of manganese,
the evolution of the gas is greatly facilitated, although the oxides do not seem to undergo
any change during the process. (3.) Oxygen is readily obtained by heating strong sul-
phuric acid with about half its weight of powdered black oxide of manganese, or
chlorate of potash, in a glass retort; the reaction in the former case being expressed by
the equal ion:
Black oxide of Manganese. Sulphuric acid. Sulphate of Manganese. Water. Oxygen.
MnO, + HO,SO3 = MuO,SO3 + HO + O
and in the latter case, being of a more complicated character. (4.) Various processes
have been proposed for obtaining the gas on a large scale, of which the following,
recommended by St. Claire Deville and Debray, is perhaps the best: The vapor of
hydra; ed sulphuric acid is passed over red-hot platinum, by which it is decomposed into
oxygen and sulphurous acid, the latter of which rnaj' easily be separated (and made
available for the formation of sulphites) by its solubility in water or alkaline solutions.
It has been calculated tii:it a cubic meter (85.375 cubic ft.) of oxygen costs 8s. 4d. when
obtained from chlorate of potash; nearly 4s. Id. when obtained from manganese; and
only lOd. when obtained from sulphuric acid.
Of the compounds of oxygen, it is unnecessary to speak here, as they are described
in the articles on the other chemical elements.
Oxygen was discovered almost simultaneously, in the year 1774, by Priestley and by
Scheele, the English chemist having the precedence by a few weeks. Priestley gave it
the name of depnlogiisticated <iir; Scneele termed it empyreal ail1; Condotcet shortly after-
ward suggested vital air, as its most appropriate designation; and in 1789, Lavoisier,
who, by a series of carefully conducted and very ingenious experiments, proved that
the combustion of bodies in the air consisted essentially in their chemical combination
with oxygen, and thus overthrew the phlogiston (q.v.) theory, gave it, the name which it
now retains, in consequence of his (erroneously) believing that it possessed a certain
property which is described in the article OXYACIDS.
OXYGEN, in medicine. Ever since the discovery of oxygen, its use in medicine
has been attempted, principally with the idea that it would be an invigorating purifier of
the blood. It has been used in consumption: in diabetes for assisting in the consump-
tion of sugar in the blood; and in hydrophobia: and although the use has been claimed
to b" sometimes beneficial, this cannot be said of most cases. Indeed, it has been pointed
out by Drs. A. H. Smith and B. W. Richardson that, as a general rule, only a certain
proportion of oxygen, such as exists in the atmosphere, can" be absorbed by the lungs.
Their opinions have been supported by the experiments of Bucheim, who concludes
'_' that henceforth we must abandon the notion that the course of diseases can be modi-
fied by increasing the amount of ogygen in the blood." It is believed, however, that in
oxygen has been the means of saving life. Cases of poisoning bv charcoal fumes have
been successfully treated. It should be administered in the same manner as laughing
O::yliyilrogen.
Ojster.
OXYHYDROGEN BLOW-PIPE, an instrument for the purpose of burning oxygen
and hydrogen gases in their equivalent proportions, so ;is i.» get the greatest heat from
the combination. Two volumes of hydrogen and one of oxygen form an exceedingly
powerful explosive mixture, in consequenee of their instanlan't ous union upon the appli-
cation of sullicient heat, as the electric spark or a taper, the r< suit bring the formation
of water. It was, therefore, curly known to be dangerous to experiment with the mixt-d
gases. Ill some instances, when the gases were contained in separate reservoirs and coii-
r iiected by tubes at their extremities, they have become mingled in one of the reservoirs in
1 consequence of a backward flow of the mixture, and serious accidents have resulted.
This led to the early use of concentric tubes for the delivery of the gases, Hie hydrogen
tip usually surrounding the one discharging the oxygen. By properly regulating the
pressure in the gas-holders the two gases may be mingled without danger, near the end of
the tubes, at the entrance of the burner. Hemming's safety jet is used for burning the
gases mixed in the same reservoir; but it is not thought safe to have this of me;al.
a membrane. The ordinary burner, which mingles the two gases for some indies before
their exit, is fill that is sufficient to produce thorough admixture previous to ignition, and
will furnish as "solid" a flame as may be de ired. The chief uses of the oxyh\
blow-pipe are to fuse metals, and to render lime incandescent in the Drummond light.
OXYHY DROGEN MICROSCOPE. See SOLAR MICROSCOPE.
OXYRHYN'CHUS, the name of a celebrated Egyptian fish, said to be reverenced
throughout Egypt, and sacred to the goddess Athor. Its name in Egyptian is /•//,/. and
the fish in the hieroglyphs was used for this syllable, and particularly expressed <he idea
of the body. In the ritual, the deceased particularly stated that he 'had not can-lit tins
fish. The name appears to have comprised the genus mormorus, distinguished I y iis
pointed nose and long dorsal fin. The fish was worshiped in one of the nomes, which
was called after it, and the inhabitants held it in such reverence that they would not
touch any fish captured by a hook. When the portions of the body of Osiris were 1hu:g
into the Nile, this fish alone ate one portion of his body. The oxyrhynclnis was not
eaten in Egypt, except by the natives of the Cynonopolites Nomos. Its modern name is
mizdeh, which seems retained in the Coptic Pemge, the name of the city of Oxyrhy nchus.
It is represented both in the sculptures and on the coins of the nome, and was anciently
embalmed. — The city of Oxyrhynchus is the modern Behneseh, lying on the w. bank of
the Nile, in lower Egypt, near the Bahr-el-Jusuf.
OXYTT'BIS VERMIC ULARIS is the name now assigned by most zoologists to the intes-
tinal worm described as ascaris (q.v.) vermicularis, yet it is the original and true asearis.
For the mode of recognizing the presence of this worm, and treating patients suffering
from its presence, the reader is referred to the articles VERMIFUGES and WOKMS.
O'YER (law French, a hearing, from Lat. audire, to hear). When a party to an
action supports his claim or defense by a deed, he is obliged to make profert of the de< d,
i.e., make averment in his plea that he produces in court the deed alleged. The other
party may then demand oyer of the deed, i.e., hear it read. Under the old s\ <:eni of
oral pleadings, the deed was actually brought into court and read by the parly 'pleading
it upon demand by the other party. Under the system of written pleadings the deed is
not actually brought into court, unless the other party serves a written notice that IK;
demands oyer. The party pleading the deed hmst then allow his opponent to see the
deed, or give him a copy. The formula for making profert was as follows: " One part
of which said indenture, etc., sealed with the seal of the said plaintiff [or defendant], liie
eaid plaintiff [or defendant] now brings into court." The object of oyer js to spread
the deed upon the record, and give the opposite party an opportunity of knowing its
contents, and availing of them in pleadings. Under the common-law rules of pleadinir.
the party setting forth a deed need not allege the whole of it, but only such parts as were
material to his defense or claim. It was often of great importance to the opposite party
to have oyer of an instrument whose terms he might be unable to learn in any other way.
If a party whose duty it is to make profert cannot bring in the deed, he must excuse his
failure to do so in his plea; but he must not make profert, for, if he do, oyer may be
demanded and judgment given against the party failing to make oyer. Oyer could be
granted only where profert was necessary; and if profert were unnecessarily made, or not
made when necessary, oyer would not be granted. Oyer is not necessary except in the
case of instruments under seal; though an executor or administrator, instituting a suit,
must make profert of his letters testamentary or of administration. Oyer was abolished
in England in 1852, and the production of instruments is obtained in most of the Ameri-
can states in other ways, as by an order of a judge to a party calling upon him to allow
the opposite party to inspect the instrument, etc.
OYER AND TER MINER (Fr. ov'ir, to hear; terminer, to determine). A commission
of oyer and terminer is granted by the crown to the judges and others to hear and deter-
mine all treasons, felonies, and trespasses; and it is by virtue of this commission that the
judges on circuit dispose of criminal cases in the various circuits. Sometimes a special
commission of the same kind is issued, authorizing the judges logo and try prisoners at
other than the ordinary times.
Oxyhydrogen.
Oyster.
OYER AND TEIOIINEPt (ante) is applied in England to courts trying criminal
causes by special commission; but, in this country, courts with that name try criminal
causes by authority of statute. In New York the court of over and termiuer is the high-
est criminal court of original'jurisdiction. In Pennsylvania it is also a court of criminal
jurisdiction, held at the same time with and generally by the same judges as the court of
quarter sessions.
OYSTER, Oati'ca, a genus of lamellibranchiate mollusks. of the section with a single
adductor muscle. See LAMELLIBRAXCHIATA. The shell consists of two unequal and some-
what irregularly shaped valves, of laminated and coarsely foliated structure; and the hinge
is without toolh or ridge, the valves being held together by a ligament lodged in a little
cavity in each. The animal is, in its organization, among the lowest and simplest of
lameflibrauchiate mollusks. It has no foot; and, except when very young, no power of
locomotion, or organ of any kind adapted to that purpose. Its food consists of animal-
cules, and also of minute vegetable particles, brought to it by the water, a continual cur-
rent of which is directed toward the mouth by the action of the gills. The gills are seen
in four rows when the valves of the shell are separated, a little within the fringed edge of
the mantle. In the most central part is the adductor muscle; toward the hinge is the
liver, which is large; and between the adductor muscle and the liver is the heart, which
may be recognized by the brown color of its auricle. The mouth — for, as in the other
lamellibranchiata, there is no head — is situated beneath a kind of hood, formed by the
union of the two edges of the mantle near the hinge. It is jawless and toothless. The .
ovaries are very large during the season of reproduction, which extends over certain
months in summer, when oysters are out of season for the table. Oysters are hermaph-
rodite. They produce vast numbers of young. Leeuwenhoek calculated that from
8,000 to 4,000 exist within an oyster at once when "sick," "milky," or full of spawn;
and, according to Poll, one oyster produces about 1,200,000 eggs. The eggs are hatched
within the shell and mantle of the parent, and the young are to be seen swimming slowly
in a whitish and mucous or creamy fluid surrounding the gills, which becomes darker
and of a muddy appearance when they are about to be expelled. Each young oyster is
then about T|w of an inch in length, and about two millions are capable of being closely
packed in the space of a cubic incii. When the parent oyster expels the young, and this
is done simultaneously by multitudes on an oyster-bank, the water becomes filled as with
a thick cloud, and the spawn — called xpat by fishermen — is wafted away by currents;
the greater part, of course, to be generally lost, by being driven to unsuitable situations,
as exposed rocks, muddy ground, or sand to which it cannot adhere, or to be devoured
by fishes and other marine animals, but some to find an object to which it can attach
itself for life. The young come forth furnished with a temporary organ for swimming,
ciliated, and provided with powerful muscles for extending it beyond the valves and
withdrawing it at pleasure; and when the oyster has become fixed in its permanent place
of abode, this organ, being no longer of any use, has been supposed to drop off. or grad-
ually to dwindle away and disappear. But Dr. F. Buckland has recently expressed the
opinion that the swimming organ of the young oyster is the "lungs," and remains as the
"lungs" in the mature oyster. -In very favorable situations, oysters grow rapidly, so
that the common oyster is ready for the table in a year and a half or two years; but in
other places, a longer time is required, often about five years.
The species of oyster are numerous, and are found in the seas of all warm and tern-
perate climates. None have been found in the c oldest parts of the world. The COMMON
OYSTER (0. edtilis) is the only British species. Like it. the other species are generally
found where the water is of no great depth; and some of them, also like it, are very
abundant in estuaries, where the water is not very salt, The mangrove swamps of warm
climates often abound in oysters of excellent flavor (0. parasitica, etc.), adhering to the
roots and brandies of the trees, within the reach of the tide. Some of the species differ
from the common oyster not a little in form, as the LONG-HINGED OYSTER (0. Cur.nden-
»is) of North America, which is very elongated; and some of them far exceed it in size.
Sir J. E. Tennent states that he measured the shell of an edible oyster in Ceylon, and
found it a little more than 11 in. in length by half r.s many in breadth; "thus unexpect-
edly attesting the correctness of one of the stories related by the historians of Alexander's
expedition, that in India they had found oysters' a foot long." Some species of ovster
have the valves plaited with strong longitudinal plaits.— For the illustrations here given
we are indebted to the kindness of the editor of. the Field.
Young oysters readily attach themselves to the shells of old ones, and thus, in favor-
able circumstances, oyster-banks increase rapidly, so as to fill up shallow parts of the sea,
and to form walls which effectually resist the waves and tide. This is very remarkably
the case on the alluvial shores of Georgia and some other parts of North America, where
these banks are called Racoon Banks, because the racoon, among other animals, visits
them to feed upon the oysters. Marshy land extends inwards from 12 to 18 m. from the
sea, with tidal rivers meandering through it, and these rivers are kept pretty constant to
their channels by the walls of living oysters on both sides. Large bunches of oysters
may even be found amon<r the long grass. It is not unusual for the inhabitants of the
neighborhood to light a fire and roast a bunch of oysters on the spot. So abundant are
the oysters in many places that a vessel of 100 tons might be loaded within three times
Oy.ter. 158
her own length. American oysters, which «iro of excellent flavor, are an important,
article of commerce in America, and have begun to he imported (alive) into .Britain.
Notwithstanding the prodigious fecundity of thc'oyMer. however, the beds or banks
which yield it for the markets of I'ritain and ether European countries are not stitli-
ciently productive to satisfy the demand, and it is not so much an .-.Hide of ordinary food
for all classes as a luxury of the wealthy. The usual mode of taking oysters by dredg-
ing is destructive, although, for oyster-beds, which are at all states of the tide covered
with a considerable depth of water, nothing better has been devised, and the anxiety of
fishermen to make the most of the present opportunity has caused many beds to be
almost ruined by over-dredging. But the artificial formation of oyster-beds has l.ecn
resorted to with great promise of success. It is indeed no novelty, having been pracii<vd
by the Romans. Pliny says that "the first person who formed artificial o\.-ici--beds \\as
Sergins Grata, who established them at Baiaj This was done by him, not for the
gratification of gluttony, hut for the sake of gain, as he contrived to make a large income-
by the exercise of his ingenuity." Sergius Orata lived in the time of Augustus Among
the vimria of later emperors and other wealthy Romans were <w/r</r/W. specially devoted
to oysters; and oyster-culture lias never ceased to be practiced in Italy, although to an
ioconsiderable extent, and particularly in lake Fusaro, the Acheron of Virgil, a muddy
salt-water pond, nowhere more than two yards deep. In Britain it has also long been
practiced to some extent, particularly on the coasts of Kent and Essex, for the .supply of
the London market.
In 1884 an act of parliament was passed giving exclusive rights to a company, called
the " Herne hay, Hampton, and Reculver oyster fishing company," over a certain portion
of the shore at Herne hay, extending about 6 in. in length by l£ in breadth. The oyster-
beds fished by the public had, till then, yielded a very small supply; and it was urged
that this supply could be largely increased by a well-managed company. In order that
the public should not be injured by this legislation it was declared by one of the clauses
of the act that "if the company fail to maintain and cultivate the beds, or to produce.
well-fed oysters fit for the public market in such quantities as to be of public advantage.
all the privileges conferred on the company'would be withdrawn, and the dredging of i lie
beds, as formerly, thrown open to the public to fish."
In 1869 the board of trade commissioned Mr. Pin well, inspector of oyster fisheries, to
visit the oyster-culture grounds of France, in order to ascertain whether we could gather
any useful hints therefrom. In his report he explained tint the English plan, as con-
ducted at Herne bay, Reculver, WTiitstable. Langston harbor, the Isle of Wight, and
other localities, depends on the provision of salt-water tanks or ponds, in which the
oysters are kept for a certain timo. In France the system is much more elaborate. He
found that the coast is parted off into divisions or districts, each of which is
placed under a maritime prefect. Each district is divided and subdivided into
smaller portions, managed by commissioners, inspectors, syndics, and watchmen.
The determination of "close-time," when oyster-fishing is totally prohibited, the
decision how much to fish up, and how much to reserve for restocking; the discrimi-
nation between public oyster-beds and those which are made over to individuals by
"concessions;" the control of the fore-shore; the maintenance of < yster-breeding farms;
the prevention of poaching by fishers not belonging to the respective districts — occupy
quite an army of officials. Mr. Pinwell recommended the adoption of some matters of
detail from the French system, but not an imitation of the elaborate official madiiii'-ry.
In 1872 the enhanced price of oysters in France attracted much public attention.
Close observers arrived at an opinion that it was due to three causes— the impoverish-
ment of some of the beds by injudicious dredging; a greatly increased demand for the
supply of Germany and Russia; and a private understanding between many of the
French companies, leading to something very like a monopoly. The /<>«//"////
drew a comparison between various dates, in regard to the number of oysters consumed
in Paris, and the price per 100. Considering price alone, we find that it was 1.20 francs
per 100 in 1840, 2.83 francs in 1856, 4.58 francs in 1SGO, 7.20 francs in 1868, and up leN
than 11.20 francs in 1872. Of course, the price charged to foreign consumers augmented
in somewhat the same proportions.
In 1874 the free fishers and the public of Herne bav complained that the oyster com-
pany in that locality, above adverted to, had not fulfilled the required condilions. The
company, on the other hand, declared that they had spent £100,000 in ten years, and
were fairly attending to their engagement. The board of trade thereupon sen! down
Mr. Spencer "Walpolc, an inspector of fisheries, to hold a court of inquiry at Ilerne !>;>y.
He decided on a compromise, by which a certain portion of the ground was to be
retransferred to the public or free fishers; the remainder being left in the possession of
the company, who would hold the exclusive right of fishing thereon as long as they con-
tinued to maintain and footer the beds. — It is gratifying to find that oyster-culture is
receiving much attention in Au-tralia. Oyster-farms were established both in Ne\v
South Wales and in Victoria in 1872.
Oysters live equally well in situation-, where they are constantly under water, and in
those which are left dry by the retiring tide. In the latter kind of situations they
instinctively keep their valves closed when the water deserts them. It is in such situa-
tions that oyster-culture can be most easily and profitably carried on. Our space will
1 aQ
Oyster.
not admit of details, which we would gladly give. Various methods are adopted of pre-
paring the artificial oyster-bed by providing suitable solid objects for the oysters to attach
themselves to. Stones are piled together, and in such a way that there are many open
spaces among them; stakes are driven into the mud or sand; bundles of small sticks are
fastened to stones or stakes; floors of planks are formed, at a little height above the
bottom, with alleys between them, the under surface of the planks being roughened by
the adze; and tiles are arranged in various ways, so as to turn to account the whole space
at the disposal of the oyster-cultivator as high as the ordinary tides reach. The method
must be varied in accordance with the situation and the probable violence of winds and
waves; but sheltered situations are best in all respects; and experience in France seems
to prove that tiles covered with cement are preferable to everything that has yet been
tried, as convenient for the cultivator, presenting a surface to which oysters readily
attach themselves, and from which they can easily be removed, whilst the larger sea-
weeds do not grow on it so readily as on stones or wood. By the use of tiles covered with
cement the cultivator is also able easily to remove young oysters from breeding-grounds
to feeding-grounds; the best breeding-grounds being by no means those in wnich the
oyster most rapidly attains its greatest size and that greenish tinge which Parisian epicures
no much desire to see, and which is owing to the abundant conferva? and green monads
of quiet muddy waters. — It has been long known that the oysters of particular localities
are liner than those produced elsewhere. Nowhere, perhaps, are finer oysters produced
limn on some parts of the British coasts. Those of Rulupicese, now Richborough, in
Kent, were highly esteemed by the Romans, whose epicurism in oysters exceeded that
of modern nations.
Of the culinary uses of oysters it is unnecessary to say anything. Raw oysters, how-
ever, are generally believed to be more nutritious and inc. re easily digested, as to many
they are more delicious, than oysters cooked in any way ; and it does not appear that any
such evil consequences ever ensue from eating them as are known to ensue from eating
other kinds of uncooked food. Probably no parasite capable oi developing into any form
injurious to the human being exists in the oyster.
The genus oistrea gives its name in some zoological systems to a family — ostreadce.
The fossil species are more numerous than the recent.
The nr.me oyster is popularly extended to many mollusks not included among the
oxtreadoe, as the pearl-oyster (q.v.).
Oysters raised in artificial beds nre called "natives," and are considered very superior
to those which are dredged from the natural beds; although to these last the name of
" native" would seem more appropriate than to the other. Some years ago it was esti-
mated that 500,000,000 oysters were consumed annually in London alone, at a, cost of
£100,000; but the supply has since lessened, and the price per 100 greatly increased. A
la nre trade in oysters has sprung up in the United States; that of New York alone being
estimated at $25,000,000 annually.
Fossil Oysters. — A single species occurs in the carboniferous limestone, and as we riso
in the crust of the earth the genus becomes more and more common, no less than 200
species have been recorded, many of them scarcely distinguishable from the living
species. The subgenus grypluea was a free shell, with a large thick left valve and small
concave right valve. Thirty species have been found in beds of the oolite and chalk
periods. In the same beds there occurs another form of ostrea wilh subspiral reversed
vmbones, to which the subgeneric name exogyra has been given. Forty species of this
form have been described.
OYSTER BAY, a favorite watering place on the n. coast of Long Island, "N". Y., on a
deep sheltered bay, opening into Long Island sound, 25 m. n.e. of New York city. It
abounds in handsome residences and fine scenery, and offers facilities for fishing, bathing,
etc. Pop. '70, 10.595.
OYSTER-CATCHER, Ilcematopiis, a genus of birds of the family cJiamdriad® (q.v.).
chiefly inhabiting sea-coasts, where they feed on mollusks. crustaceans, annelids and
other marine animals — sometimes even on small fishes. Their legs are of moderate
length, like those of the plovers, and, like them, they have no hind toe. The most
remarkable generic distinction is found in the bill, which is long, strong, straight, much
compressed and wedge-like towards the point. They are generally said to make use of
the bill for opening the shells of oysters and other mollusks; but' the late Mr. James
Wilson expresses a very reasonable doubt on this point. The habits of the British
species (//. oxtralefjus), so far as they have been accurately observed, agree with those of
the American. It is the only -European species, and is common on all parts of the
British coasts, on tho>e of continental Europe. Ihe n. of Africa, and of the n. of Asia.
Its whole length is nbout 16 inches. Its finely contrasted black and white colors have
gained it the name of SEA PIE. It is most abundant on the sea-coast, but often visits
inland regions, and sometimes breeds in them. It does not make a nest, but lays its eggs
— usually four — on the shingly beach or bire ground. On some of the sandy flat coasts
of Lincolnshire the oyster-catcher is so abundant that a bushel of the eggs have been
collected in a morning by a single fisherman. The American oyster-catcher is a bird of
passage, deserting the northern regions in winter. It is rather larger than the European
species, mid differs from it in colors, and in greater length and sleuderness of bill.
Oyster. -iff)
Ozoue.
OYSTER GREEN, marine alga; of the genus nlva, sometimes called son-lettuce.
The ulvas are chlorosperruous sea-weds, having green spores and generally
fronds. The most abundant on the shores of t lie Tinted Slates arc I', latitiima ami /".
bictHca, common on oyster beds, being also used by oystenncn to cover heaps of oysters.
The leaf is from 8 to 12 in. wide, and from 4 to 24 in. long. It is the most valuable of
the sea-weeds for a salt-water aquarium, because of its ability to thrive in Mill water.
The sea-lettuce is often eaten in Europe as "greens," under the impression that it is a
good blood purifier and antiscorbutic, and it probably has medicinal properties.
OYSTER PLANT. See SALSIFY, ante.
OYSTESS, LAW AS TO. The rule is that he who has the right of property in the soil
or sea-shore is entitled to catch or keep and breed oysters there. But the shore below
the medium line of the tides belongs to the crown, and not to any individual; and it is
only by virtue of some grant from the crown that an individual or a corporation can
establish an exclusive title to the sea-shore, and in such a case is exclusively entith d to
any oyster-beds there. It is thus always by virtue of a grant from the crown that o\>ler-
lisheries are claimed as the property of an individual or of a corporation. The ;'n -t ;!1
and 32 Viet. c. 45, however, now enables the board of trade to grant parts of ii
shore of Great Britain to individuals for breeding oysters and missels, and ha
new remedies for the protection of this property. T*he general law is as follows: Who-
ever steals oysters or oyster- brood from an oysttr-bed which is private property is guilty
of felony; and whoever unlawfully or willfully uses any dredge net or instrument within
the limits of a private oyster-bed, for the purpose of taking oysters, though r.ciie are
actually taken, is guilty of a misdemeanor, and is liable to be imprisoned for three
months. But persons are not prevented from lis-bing for floating fish within the limits
of an oyster-fishery, if they use nets adapted for floating fish. Certain statutes as old as
the time of Richard II. were passed to protect oyster-brood, but these were iccently
repealed by (lie sea fisheries act, 1868 (Paterson's fishery Laws of tJie Vnitn! Kingdom).
Under the convention between England and France, confirmed by the statute 31 ;;
Viet. c. 45, a close season is prescribed for oyster-fishing in the seas between England
nnd France, from June 15 to Sept. 1, during which time oyster-fishing boats may lie
boarded by officers of the coast-guard or navy; and oysters illegally caught may be M-i/< d
and destroyed, and the master is liable to a penalty. In 1877 an act was passed ;^pp< lin-
ing June 15 to Aug. 4 as a close time for fishing deep-sea oysters, and from May 14 to
Aug. 4 for other kinds in the British seas; it also grants power to prohibit the li>hing in
any locality for not more than a year. The law as to oysters in Scotland is sr.hsiai;; Sally
the s me as in England. As to Ireland, the Irish fishery acts give power to the Irish
fishery inspectors to grant a license to individuals, as is now done in England, to appro-
priate a certain tract of the shore for the purpose of forming oyster-beds, and thereupon
the beds become private property (Paterson's Fishery Laws, p. 257). There is also a
close season in Ireland for oysters, like what is established under the convention with
France.
OZA'KA. See OSAKA, ante.
OZANAM, ANTOINK FKEDERTC, 1813-53. At 18 Ozanam was a student of law in
Paris, where his religious mind drew him into close relations with the eminent men of
the Catholic church, and with Montalembert and Lacordaire. In 1833. with seven other
students, he aided to found the society of St. Vincent de Paul, which grew with !:re:it
rapidity. In 1836 he delivered a memorable essay on Catholic philosophy in the time of
Dante; in 18-19-40 was professor of commercial law at Lyons; and in 1641 bee; me pro-
fessor of foreign literature at Sorbonne. Ou the accession of pope Pius IX., in 1HO, he
hailed with joy the marriage of liberalism with Catholicism. After the revolution of
1848, studied medieval history to Ihe ruin of his health, and has left erudite contiilm-
tions to the history of the time of Dante and the influence of that poet: D<n/fr cf la Pli-
lonophie Cdtholique an XIII. Siecle and Ktitde* G<rmarnqt;cs pour Scrrir d I'lHxtoire dcs
Francs, are notable among the long list of his works, mostly religious.
OZARK'. a co. in s. Missouri, bordering on Arkansas; drained by branches of "White
river; 700 sq.m.: pop., '80, 5,618 — 5.602 of American birth. 14 colored. Thcsur!.
broken and in great part covered with forests of pine and other trees, but there is fertile
soil in the valleys; the staples arc Indian corn, tobacco, and wheat. Sheep breeding is
carried on to some extent. Co. seat, Gainesville.
OZARK MOUNTAINS, a range of mountains running from the Missouri river, in
Missouri, between the Osage and Gasconade rivers, s.w. through n.w. Arkansas ; i;d the
Indian territory, to the Red river. They are a succession of hills, not over 2.000 ft. in
height. The Black Hills and Washita range in Arkansas are offshoots of this range.
OZAU'KEE, a co. in s.e. Wisconsin, bordering on Lake Michigan; drained by Mil-
waukee river and its branches and intersected by the Milwaukee, Lake Shore and West-
ern railroad; 290 sq.m.: pop. '80, 15,462—10.063 of American birth. The surface is
undulating and there are extensive forests. The staples are oats, wheat, barley, corn,
potatoes, rye, wool, and hay. The amount of butter produced annually is more than
500.000 Ibs. Machinery and woolen goods are manufactured and there are 7 flour mills
and 6 breweries. Co. scat, Ozaukee.
1 (\ 1 Oyster.
Ozone.
OZE'NA (from the Gr. ozo, I smell) signifies a discharge of foetid, purulent, or
sanious matter from the nostrils. It is a symptom rather than a disease, and may arise
from ulceration of the membrane lining the nostrils, or from caries of the adjacent
bones, and may accompany syphilitic, scorbutic, scrofulous, or cancerous affections
of these or adjacent parts. * A slighter form of ozena sometime follows chronic
coryza or (cold in the head), malignant scarlatina, and erysipelas of the face. The
discliarge is seldom accompanied by acute pain, unless when caused by cancer;
sometimes, however an aching is complained of. The prognosis must depend upon
the nature of the disease, of which the discharge is a symptom. The treatment may
be divided into the general or constitutional, and the local. The general treatment
should consist of tonics combined with alteratives, as the preparations of bark with the
al-kalics, or with the mineral acids; a dry, bracing air, or a temporary removal to the
sea-side, is also usually of service. If the discharge arises from syphilis or scurvy, the
treatment suitable to those diseases should be prescribed. The local treatment consists in
the inhalation, once or twice a day, of the steam of boiling water, to which a little
creosote or carbolic acid has been added; and in more severe cases, in the thorough
syringing of the nostrils, so as to wash away all collections of matter with a copious
stream of warm water, to which a little chloride of zinc has been added (about 30 minims
of Burnett's solution to a half a pint of water).
OZIE'JH, a t. of the island of Sardinia, in the province of Sassari, 26 m. e.s.e. from
Pas<ari, amongst the mountains which occupy the center of the island. It stands in a
deep valley, open only to the n., and is therefore peculiarly exposed to cold winds. Pop.
'71, 7,9G5.
O'ZONE (Gr. ozo, I smell). It was remarked long ago that a peculiar odor was pro-
duced by the working of an electrical machine. Van-Marum. found that, when electric
sparks were passed through a tube containing oxygen, the gas became powerfully
impreimdted with this odor — which he therefore "called the "smell of electricty. "
Subsequent writers attributed the phenomenon to the formation of nitric acid due to a
trace of nitrogen mixed with the oxygen; especially r.s the gas was found to act ener-
getically upon mercury. Thus supposed to be explained, these curious results were soon
forgotten. But in 1840 Schonbein (q.v.), with remarkable acuteness, made a closer
investigation of the question, and arrived at many most curious results, all of which
have not even yet been satisfactorily accounted for. The problem remains, in fact, one
of the most perplexing, as well as interesting, questions imperfectly resolved in chemis
try.
The earlier results of Schonbein were as follows: (1.) When water is decomposed by
the voltaic current, the electrodes being of gold or platinum, the oxygen (which appears
at the positive pole) possesses in a high degree the smell and the oxidizing power devel-
oped by Van-Marum by means of friction-electricity. (2.) When the positive electrode
is formed of an oxidizable metal, these results are not observed, but the electrode is
rapidly oxidized. (3.) The oxygen collected" at a platinum electrode retains these pro-
perties for an indefinite period, if kept in a closed vessel; but loses them by heating, by
the contact of an oxidizable substance, and even by contact, with such bodies as charcoal
and oxide of manganese. To the substance, whatever it may be, which possesses such
powerful chemical affinities, Schonbein gave the name ozone, from its peculiar smell.
In 181~) he showed that the same substance can be produced by the action of phos-
phorus on moist air; and suggested that it might be a higher oxide of hydrogen.
De la Rive and Marignac shortly afterwards, repeating the experiments of Van-
Marum, showed that electric sparks produce ozone even in pure and drj/ oxygen; and
rame to the conclusion that ozone is ox}Tgen in an allotropic state, as diamond is a form
of coke or charcoal.
Baumert, in 1853, endeavored to show that there are two kinds of ozone — one formed
from pure oxygen by electric sparks, which he allowed to be aliotropic oxygen; the
other formed in the voltaic decomposition of water, which he endeavored to prove to be,
a tcroxide of hydrogen (HO3). But Andrews, in 1856, completely refuted this view, by
showing that no such oxide of hydrogen (at least in a gaseous form) is produced in the
electrolysis of water; and that ozone, from whatever source obtained, is the same body;
and is not a compound, but an allotropic form of oxygen.
In 1860 Andrews and Tail published the results of a series of volumetric experiments
on this subject, which led to some remarkable conclusions — among which are the fol-
lowing: When the electric discharge is passed through pure oxygen, it contract K. If
ozone be oxygen in an allotropic form, it must therefore be denser than oxygen. It was
found also that a much greater amount of contraction, and a correspondingly greater
quantity of ozone, were produced by a silent discharge of electricity between fine points
than by a brilliant series of sparks. The contraction due to the formation of the ozone
is entirely removed by the destruction of the ozone by heat; and this process can Le
repeated indefinitely on the same portion of oxygen.
In attempting to determine the density of ozone, they used various bodies to take up
'the ozone from the oxygen containing it; and met with many very curious results.
Thus, if mercury be introduced, it is immediately attacked and oxidized, and yet the
oxygen increases in volume. If iodine be employed, it is immediately oxidized, and no
U. K. XL— 11
Paca. 1 (\f)
PachuMiias.
of volume was observed, though the apparatus would have at once rendered
visible a change to the ainouut of 5,»ocrotu °^ t'ie bulk of tin- oxygen By measuring ihe
contraction produced by electricity in the oxygen, then th'j eileef of introduc,
solution of iodide of potassium, and determining the amount of oxygen taken up I'nun
the quantity of iodine set free, Andrews and Tail showed that, the density of ozone, if it
be allotropic oxygen, must be practically infinite — i.e., that ozone must have the density
of a liquid or a solid at least, although existing in tin ionn. This eonehi:-ion is,
they say. inevitable, unless we make the very improbable assumption, that when iodine,
etc., are exposed to ozone, one portion of the oxoue (of volume, ;is oxygen, equal to the
the volume of the whole ozone) combines with the iodine, and the other por'.ion i-
tored to the form of oxygen. The paper from whose statements we have quoted con-
cludes with the suggestion that it is po^lble that, in the formation of o/one. oxygen may
be decomposed. This is, of course, contrary to all the received noiions of chemistry —
but such a supposition would at once reconcile all the apparently contradictory facts
connected with this singular body. Soret and Yon Babo have recently repeated and
verified a few of these results, and the former, by using turpentine as an ah.-o;-hing sub-
stance, and also by measuring its diffusion rate, has endeavored to show that tin- (leir-iiy
of ozone is 50 per cent greater than that of oxygen — a result on the whole consistent
•with the recent experiments of Brodie. Andrews has lately shown that o/one is rapidly
d.stroycd when shaken up with dry fragments of i;lass. etc. lie has also proved 'luit
the effect which is (almost invariably, and rometin.'es in fine weather powerfully) pro-
duced by the air on what, are called ozone-test papers- -p;.p< rs steeped in iodide of potas-
sium (and generally spoiled by the addition of starch) which are rendered brown (or
blue) by the liberation of iodine — is really due to ozone. He did so by showing that it
acts upon mercury as ozone does, and that it is destroyed by heat at the same tem-
perature. This action is more strongly manifested in the air of the open country than
in that of towns; and its absence would seem ;o imply vitiation of the atmosphere.
I) THE sixteenth letter of the English alphabet, \vas in Hebrew called TV, i.e.,
• mouth, most probably from its original form. P is the thin letter of the labial
scries (p, b, f, v). and is interchangeable with the other letters of the series. P,
in Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin, is replaced by/ in the Teutonic tongues. See F. Words
ber/i»titnr/ with p in English, and its kindred Teutonic tongues, are almost all of foreign
origin (Slavic, Celtic, Latin), as pain (Fr. peinc, Lat. p.nm), plough (Pol. /-////.•), /-it (f,at.
puteus, a well). The Greek prep, apo (Sans, apa) became in Lat. ah; Gr. /•»/•", Lat.
sub ; Sans, upa, Lat. ob ; but before sharp letters, as t and s, the original ;> was retained
in pronunciation, as is shown by inscriptions (npsf'/h'f, optituii). There are remarkable
interchanges of p with the sharp guttural k or q. Thus, for Lat. qm'*. quod, qmmi. the
Oscan dialect had pis, pod, pam; Lat. eguus, coqiio. corresponded to Gr. ////'/».< (,-Kol.
Jukkos), pepo ; similarly, Gaelic mac (son), ceatliair (Lat. q>i<it>ior. four), roiii (Lat. qiihtque,
five), correspond to Welsh map, pedwar (Gr. petto n-^}. /i>.:i,//> (Gr. pcitfc or pcinpc). In
Gr. p is sometimes replaced by t, as tin, tenwrcs, for pis, p, tt»nx. In such words
as redemption, consumption, p has been introduced as an intermediary between the
incompatible sounds m and t. The initial p of Latin words has for the most part j
into French unaltered; in other positions, p has become r; thu-
deceroir, panrre, from Lat. episcopu*,, c<ipillii$, c/«v'/v.v. //,<
PA'CA, Coelogeny*. a genus of rodent quadrupeds, allied to the agoutis, envies, and
capybara, and inhabiting Brazil, Guiana, and some of the West India islands. The
dentition very nearly resembles that of the agoutis. The cheek-bones are prodigiously
developed, in a way of which no example exists in any other mammalian animal, so
that the zygomatic arches inclose a large hollow space, whilst the bone al -,<nie>cer.d ;o
an unusual depth from the arch, even below the lower jaw-bone. Within this str;i<
which gives an extraordinary breadth and peculiar a- peel to the face, is a sac. in each
cheek, opening in front, and lined with a fold of the skin of the face. The whole of
this seems to be intended to preserve the true cheek-pouches from external iio 'ks. The
cheek-pouches open from the mouth in the usual way, and are capable of
distention. The lip is cloven; the ears are small: the eyes are large and full: the neck is
short; the tail is a mere tubercle; the feet have each five to.-- . the icgs arc; thick; the back
is rounded. The form and gait are clumsy, yet the pa: t) is wry quick and
active. It lives in moist grounds, burrowing like the rabbit. Imi not so deeply, iis bur-
row, however, is always provided with three openings. !• feeds on vegetables;;!^!:
and often does great damage to plantations of sugar-cane. It is one of the I
rodents, being about two ft. long. It is generally of a dark brown color, with four rows
of white spots along the sides, the throat and belly while. A lighter-colon d speei.
been described, but is perhaps a mere variety. The flesh of the paea is much c -teemed,
and is very fat.
PACA. WIT/LTAM. 1740-99. b. Md. ; educated in Philadelphia, and after graduating,
1759, studied law and was admitted to practice in 1764. He opened an oilicc in Annap-
Paoa.
l'a« horniss.
ol-is, became a successful lawyer, and in 1771 was <n delegate to the provincial legislature.
From 1774 to 1777 inclusive he represented his state in the colonial and continental con-
gress. He was a state senator for two years, and in 1778 way made chief judge of the
superior court, and two years later became judge of the admiralty court of appeals. He
was elected governor of Maryland in 1782, and again in 1786, and in the latter year was
also a member of congress. For the ten years preceding his death he was a judge of the
U. S. district court for the state of Maryland.
PACAY, Prosopis dulcis, a tree of the natural order kguminosee, suborder mimosete;
a native of Peru, of rather large size, with a broad head; producing pods from 20 in.
to 2 ft. long, which contain black seeds imbedded in a sweet flaky substance as white as
snow. This flaky substance is used as an article of food and "much relished by the
Peruvians.
PACCHIONIAX BODIES, or GL.AJSDXIL/E PACCHIOXI, numerous small, whitish gran-
ular looking bodies, collected together in clusters of varying size, found upon the human
nieningus, or cerebral membranes, principally in the following localities: 1. Upon the <wte»
purface of the dura mater, in the superior longitudinal sinus, being received into little depres-
sions, called Parch Ionian depressions on the inner surface of the skull. 2. Upon the innei
surface of the dura mater. S. In the superior longitudinal sinus (a large venous canal, 01
vein, attached to the inner surface of the skull, running from before backward). 4. Upon
the pia mater, near the margin of the hemispheres. The Pacchionian bodies are not gland-
ular in structure, but are composed of a fibro- cellular matrix originally developed from the
pia mater. Their growth and consequent pressure produces absorption of the dura matei
through which they pass to the inner surface of the skull as well as into the superioi
longitudinal sinus. These bodies do not occur in infancy, and very seldom before the
third year; usually after the seventh, increasing after this as age advances. Sometime?
they are wanting. What purpose they may serve is not known.
PACE (Lat. pftKsux], in its modern acceptation, is the distance, when the legs are
extended in walking, between the heel of one foot and that of the other. Among dis-
ciplined men the pace becomes of constant length, and as such is of the utmost value in
determining military movements, the relative distances of corps and men being fixed by
the number of paces marched, and so on. The pace in the British army is 2^ ft. for
ordinary marching, and 3ft. for "double quick" or running time. — With the Romans,
the pace had a different signification, and it is important to bear the distinction in mind,
when reading of distances in Latin works; the single extension of the legs was not with
them a parr (; </.^.v.-), 1 ut a step (g radii a); their pace (pamrufi) being the interval between
the mark of a heel and the next mark of the samehcc], or a double step. This pace
was equivalent to 4.84 English ft. The pace was the Roman unit in itinerary measure;
the mile bring 1000 paces, or 5,000 Roman ft. equal to .917 of an English mile. See
Mn.F,. -Whether measurements were effected by actually counting the paces, or by the
time occupied is not clear; but either method would, with disciplined troops give a safe
result.
In the middle ages, writers confuse accounts of distances by allusion to a geometrical
pace, a measure which varied with different authors.
PA CIIA. See PASHA, ante.
PACITACAMAC, TJrrxs OF, the environment of a village of the same name, the
remain;-; of an ancient city in Peru, 18 m. s.e. of Lima, not far from the modern town oi
Lurin. It v. as dedicated to Pachacamac by the Yuncas whose capital was at Gron Chimu
near Trujillo in n. Peru. It contained a gorgeous temple, the walls of which were thickly
studded with corals, and precious stones. Francisco Pizano in his explorations and
depredations is said to have taken immense treasure from the temple, and to have giveu
its key*, valued at 4,000 tenarka, to his pilot Quintero. There was an oracle at Lima:
which was then called the City of Kings, 6 m. from the mouth of river Rimac.
PACITECO, FUAXCTSCO, 1.171-1654; b. Seville, Spain. His first lessons in painting
•were roceive'd from Luis Fernandez. Se>me stray prints of Raphael that he met he took
as mod K His first engagements were in decorative painting. In 1594-1000 he executed
work for convents, palaces, and monuments. In 1611 he visited Toledo, Madrid, and the
K-'-uri 1. where he made a thorough study of Titian and other great Italian and Spanish
painters, and. returning to Seville^ he opened a large academy of the arts, -where h- h;:d
rous pupils. In 1618 he was appointed to the office of inquisitor of art, and with
the duty of preventing the sale of pictures of nude figures. He received no\\ more com-
mis-ious than he could execute. In 1623 he accompanied his pupil and son-in-law,
Velasquez, to Madrid, where, for two years, he mingled wivh artists and men of letters.
On his return to Seville, his house was the resort of men of art and taste His master-
piece was " The Last Judgment," an immense altar-piece finished in 1612 for the nuns of
the convent, of St. Isabel. Other works are "The Archangel Michael expelling Satan
from Paradise," " Ignatius Loyola," and " The Baptism of Christ." In 1649 he published
a tr "'tiso on The Art of Pitliitinri, containing much curious information and received as
authority on the history of Spanish art.
PACHO'MIUS, an Egyptian monk of the 4th c., is held in high estimation by the
Roman Catholic church, 'as being the first to substitute for the free asceticism of th«
Pachydermata. -i f\4
Pacific.
solitary recluse, a regular cenobitic system, lie was born toward the close of the Rd c.,
was brought up as u pagan, but converted to Christianity by the kindness of certain
Christians whom he encountered at Thebes. About i540 A.n.. at Tabeimn, an island in
the Nile, he fotmded the first monastic institution. The member* a-iv-d to follow
certain rules of life and conduct drawn up by Pachomius, and to subject themselves to
his control and visitation. He also established the first convent for nuns, which was
under the presidency of his sister, and labored with so much diligence and zeal, that at
his death, according to Palladius, not fewer than 7.000 monks and nuns wen- under his
inspection. The various writings extant under tiie name of Paehomius are: ll<-t/>d<i'
Jfonaetfas (oi doubtful genuineness), Muuitu, ,s><'. PP. J'acfiomii et T,'« <></•//•/, Epistoto et
Verba Mystica (a farrago of unintelligible allegory), and Praxepta S. Pachumii. .Si
Sanctorum, vol. iii.
PACHYDER MATA (Gr. thick -skins), in the system of Cuvier, an order of mammalia,
including part of the bruta (rhinoceros, elephant), and all the />e!lt«t' (horse, hippopotamus,
tapir, hog, etc.) of Linnaeus, besides one gemis(hyrax or daman) of the Linna-an <i'n; *.
It has been often described as less natural than any other of Cuvier's mammalian orders,
as it consists of animals among which there are wide diversities, and the associating
characters are rather negative than positive; but it is now universally received by
naturalists as indicating a real, though not a close affinity; and when we extend our
view from existing to fossil species, numerous connecting links present them>c)ve-
''detined by Cuvier. the order consists of those hoofed mammalia (imtjulniit) which are not
ruminants; all of which possess, as a more positive character, a remarkable thickness of
skin. This order he divides into three sections: (1) Proboacitiea, having a prolonged
snout or proboscis, through which the nostrils pass as elongated tubes, a powerful
of prehension, and a delicate organ of touch, and having also ii\e toes on each I'l.oi,
inclosed in a very firm horny skin; (2) ordiittiriti, destitute of proboscis, although in
some (tapirs) there is such an elongation of the upper lip and nostrils as approximates to
it; and tlie nose is employed by hogs, etc., in seeking their food, not only as an organ of
smell, but as an instrument for turning up the ground, and as an organ of touch; the
number of toes varies, four, three, or Wo on each foot; those with an even number «.f
toes having in the cleft foot a resemblance to tho ruminant/a; and (IJ) .^/i-/iin:-ji'i't, in
which the foot lias but one apparent toe, inclosed in a hoof. Some naturalists h.ive
thought it better to separate the $'>litlun</nltt or equities (q.v.) from the pachydermata. as a
distinct order; whilst others have; enlarged instead of restricting the limits of the order,
by adding, as a fourth section, the herbiruroHs cetac<<i.
Those pachydermata which have a number of toes differ completely from the mam-
malia having claws (unguiculfita)in their inability to bend their toes in order to sci/.c any
object. Some of the edentata have very large hoof-like chiws, but this diiTerem
subsists. Tlie fore-limbs of the pachydennaia are also incapable of any rotatory motion,
Serving for support and locomotion only, not at all for prehension; the metatarsi! and
inetacarpal bones being consolidated as in the raini.nantia, and they have no clavi<-
The largest terrestrial mammalia belong to this order. Most of 'the pachydermata are
of large size, although the damans are a remarkable exception, and some of ll.
family are also comparatively small. Most of them have a clumsy form, with a
and awkward gait; but they are capable of activity beyond what might be suppo- ;!.
and sometimes move at a pretty rapid pace. Gracefulness and fleet ness are charai
tics of the otherwise exceptional xolidungula. The P. ordinm-in have generally
strength, and the larger ones push their way through the entangled thickets of tn
forests, bending or breaking the lianas, small trees, and branches which oppose their
progress, their thick hides resisting the spines and broken branches by which the skins
of other animals would be pierced. The horse and other K<>Iitlitii>/>i'ii are not inhabitants
of forests and jungles, but generally of grassy plains, and their hides are much less thick
and hard than those of most of the pachydermata.
The physiognomy of the pachydermata in general is rather dull and unexiiressive,
the eyes being small, and having that character of which a familiar example is found in
the common hog. When enraged, however, they manifest their fierceness in their <
and although, in general, mild and gentle, they are capable <>f being aroused to great fury.
The skeleton of the P. ordinaria and proboscidea is strong and massive; the i
short, the processes of its vertebrae strongly developed; 1 he skull affording a large sur-
face for the muscles which support and move it.
The pachjidermata generally feed on vegetable substances. Some are omnivorous.
The digestive organs art more simple than in the ruminantia, but exhibit considerable
diversity. The stomach is simple in some, and in others is more or less completely
divided into sacks, approaching to one of the most remarkable characters of the /•»////-
nantict. The intestines are generally longer than in the ruminanlia. The dentition
exhibits considerable diversity; the adaptation to vegetable food being the most . preva-
lent character. The most important peculiarities of the dentition and digestive <•
are noticed in the articles on particular families and genera.
PACIFIC, a co. ins.w. Washington territory, has the Columbia river for its s. bound-
ary: the Pacific ocean on thew., and Shoal water bay on the n.w., an estuary of the Pacific;
750 sq. m. ; pop. '80, 1645 — 1 122 of American birth, 369 colored. Cape Hancock (formerly
I (\K Pachytlermat*.
Pacific.
cape Disappointment) is in the extreme s.w. section. It is drained by the Willopah river,
emptying into Shoalwater bay, and other small streams flowing into the ocean. A large
proportion of the .surface is covered with timber, and is hilly. The soil in the Willopah
valley is fertile, and adapted to stock-raising and the cultivation of grain. Its mineral
products are Columbia cement-rock and silver. Lumber and wool are the chief com-
modities, and fishing and the oyster trade are the principal industries. Co. seat, Oyster-
ville.
| PACIFIC OCEAN, the largest of the five great oceans (see OCEAX), lies between Amer-
ica on the e., and Asia, Malaisia, and Australasia on the west. The name "Pacific,"
given to it by Magellan, the first European navigator who traversed its wide expanse, is
doubtless very appropriate to certain portions oi this ocean; but as a whole, its special
claims to the epithet are at the least doubtful, though the name has by long usage become
too well established to be easily supplanted by any other.
The greatest length of the Pacific ocean from the Arctic (at Behring's strait) to the
Antarctic circles is 9,200 m., and its greatest breadth, along the parallel of hit. o° u.,
about 10,300 m.; while its area may be roughly estimated at 80,000,000 English sq.m.,
or about two-fifths of the whole surface of the earth. Its form is rhomboidal, with one
corner incomplete (at the s.), and its surface is studded with numberless islands, either
scattered or in groups; these, however, are chiefly confined to the western side. Along
the whole eastern side there is a belt of sea of varying width, which, with a very few
exceptions, is wholly free irom islands.- The deepest sounding yet found (in n. lat. 11*
24', c. long. 143° 16') in the Pacific ocean is 2(5,830 ft., or above 5 m. — nearly equal to the
height of the highest mountain on the globe.
The coasts of the Pacific ocean present a general resemblance to those of the Atlantic,
and the similarity in the outline of the western coasts of each is even striking, espe-
cially n. of the equator; but the shores of the former, unlike those of the latter, are
sinuous, and, excepting the n.e. coast of Asia, little indented with inlets. The shore on
the American side is bold and rocky, while that of Asia varies much in character.
Though the Pacific ocean is by far the largest of the five great oceans, being about
equal to the other four in extent, the proportion of land drained into it is comparatively
(insignificant. Its basin includes only the narrow strip of the American continent to the
w. of the Andes and Rocky mountains; Melanesia (with the exception of almost the
whole of Australia), which contains few rivers, and none of them of large size; the Indo-
Chinese states, China proper, with the e. part of Mongolia, and Manchuria in the Asiatic
continent.
Wind*. — The trade-winds of the Pacific have certain peculiarities, which have only
lately been discovered. In general, they are not found to preserve their peculiar char-
acteristics except within certain limits, thus, the s.e. trades are found to blow steadily
only between 92° and 140° of w. long.; while the n.e. trades are similarly fluctuating,
except between long. 115° w. and 214° w. Beyond these limits, their action is in whole
or in part neutralized by the monsoons and other periodical winds peculiar to the tropi-
cal regions of the Pacific. In Polynesia, especially near the New Hebrides group, hurri-
canes are of frequent occurrence from November to April, but they exhibit few of tho
terrible characteristics which distinguish the hurricanes of the West Indies and Indian
ocean. North and s. of the tropical zone the winds exhibit little periodicity, being found
to blow from all parts of the compass at any given senson of the year, though a general
westerly direction is most frequent among them. On the coast of Patagonia and at cape
Horn, w. winds prevail during the greater part of the ye;'.r, while in the sea of Okhotsk
they are of rare occurrence. The frightful typhoon (q.v.) is the terror of mariners in
the Chinese seas, and may occur at all seasons of the year. There are many other
winds and storms, such as white squalls, cyclones, " tempestades," etc., which are con-
fined to particular localities, and will be found noticed under other heads, and also under
STOKMS.
Currents. — The currents of the Pacific ocean, though less marked in character and
effects than those of the Atlantic, are yet of sufficient importance to require a brief
notice. The Southern Pacific current takes its rise s. of Van Diemen's Land, and flows
eastward at the rate of half a mile per hour, dividing into two branches about long. 98°
w., the northern branch, or current of Mentor, turning northward, and gradually losing
itself in the counter equatorial current; the southern branch continuing its eastward
course until it is subdivided by the opposition of cape Horn into two branches, one
of which, the cold cun-ent of Peru, or Ilumboldt's current, advances northward along the
w. coast of South America, becoming finally absorbed in the equatorial current; the
other washing the coast of Brazil, and becoming an Atlantic current. The Pacific ocean,
like the Atlantic, also possesses its equatorial current, separated into a northern and
southern current by the equatorial counter-current. It sweeps across the whole ocean
from e. lowest. Two subdivisions of ?he southern current, called respectively the "cur-
rent of Rossel " and the " warm current of Australia," flow, the one through the Polyne-
sian archipelago to New Guinea., and the other along the e. coast of Australia. The
northern equatorial current, after reaching the coast of Asia, turns n.e., washing the
shores of China and Japan, under the name of the black or Japan current; it then sends
off a branch along the coast of Kamtchatka, and advances eastward till it becomes
Pacinian. -I f>(>
Factum.
lost on the n.w. coast of North America. There are other minor currents, the most
remarkable of which is Fleuriuu, which describes a kind of irregular circle with a radius
of about 240 miles. It is situated in hit 2.V to 40" n., and long. 183° to 155° west. All
these currents have their corresponding counter-currents.
There are two "sargassos" or weedy seas of considerable extent in the Pacific ocean
one lying 15° e.s.e. of New Zealand; the other, and by far the larger, about 15' w. of
San Francisco in California. There is also a large region lying nearly half-way between
cape Horn and New Zealand, which seems to correspond io the deserts on land, as
mariners report it almost wholly destitute of any signs of life either in sea or air.
llixtory. — The existence of this ocean first, became known to Europeans through Colum-
bus, who had received accounts of it from some of the nativ.s of America, though it
was first seen by Balboa, Sept. 29, 1513, and first traversed by Magellan 8 years after-
wards; but its size, limits, and the number and position of its islands, etc.. were little
known till long afterwards. Capt. Cook deserves the first place among the invesiiga-
tors of the Pacific ocean; and after him come Alison, the two Bougainrilles, La
Perouse, Carteret, Vancouver, Kruzenstern, Kotzebue. etc. 15ut the most thoroughly
scientific examination of its physical condition is that accomplished by the CItu
expedition of 1873-76.
PACIN IAN CORPUSCLES are very remarkable structures appended to the nerves.
In the human subject they are found in great numbers in connection with the nerves of
the hand and foot, and sparingly on other spinal-nerves, and on the plcxusisof ihe sym-
pathetic, but never on nerves of motion. rlhey always present a /-lo.i'i/iHtl < nd. attached
to the nerves by a stalk of fibrous tissue prolonged from the neurilemma, and occasion-
ally one-tenth of an inch long; and a tiixtal end, lying free in the connective or areolar
tissue. In the human subject the corpuscles vary in length from one-twentieth to one-
tenth of an inch. They are usually seen very readily in the mesentery of the cat,
appearing as pellucid oval giains. rather smaller than hemp-seed. The micro- copic
examination of these bodies discloses an internal structure of a very remarkable kind.
They consist, first, of a series of membranous capsules, from '60 to GO or ir.ore in number,
inclosed one within the other; and secondly, of a single nervous fiber, of the tubular
kind, inclosed in the stalk, and advancing to the central capsule, which it traver.-cs from
beginning to end, and where it finally terminates in a fixed swollen extremity. The 10
or 15 innermost capsules are in contact with one another, while the rest are sejiaraied by
a clear space containing fluid, which is so abundant as to constitute far the largest por-
tion of the bulk of the entire corpuscle. Such are the views of Paciui (as given in his
Rvovi Organi Scoptrtc nd CoipoUmano, 1840), who is usually regarded as their discoverer,
although they had been noticed and roughly described nearly a century beiore by Yatcr,
of Henle, and of Todd and Bowman; but later observations made by Huxley, Ley dig,
Kolliker, and others, show that the question of their true nature is stiil an open one.
Huxley asserts that their central portion is solid, and not hollow; that in birds, and in
the human hand, there is no fluid between the lamina: — and indeed, that the laminae
themselves have no real existence — the Pacinian corpuscle being merely a solid n,
connective tissue (a thickened process of the neurilemma of the nerve to which it is
attached), Avhose apparent lamination depends on the regular disposition of iis elastic
elements. If Pacini's views of thtse structures be correct, there is probably seme gen-
eral analogy between Ihe electric organs of the torpedo and those corpuscles; at present
we know nothing with certainty regarding their otfice.
PACKARD, ALPHEUS SPRING, D.D., b. Chelmsford, Mass., 1799; a graduate of Eow-
doin college, Maine, class of 1816; was college tutor for 5 years aliens areis, and became
a Congregational minister. In 1824 he was called to fill the chair of proie.-sor of Latin
and Greek languages and literature at Bowdoin college, which he now holds. In 1864
•>p became Collins professor of natural and revealed religion, and librarian in 1869. He
married the daughter of Jesse Appleton, D.D., president of ISowdoin college 1807-19,
and in 1837 published Appleton's works, in 2 vols. , embracing lectures on theology,
addresses, and sermons, with a mernoir prefixed. His wife's sister married p'.esidcnt
Franklin Pierce. Among other works by his pen there appeared, in ] .'io/t's
Memorabilia of Socrates, edited with English notes, later edition 1843; in INI:! lllttartj t,f
Ihe Bunker Hill Monument Association. "He has been a contributor to the 3»rth American
Review and other periodicals.
PACKARD, ALPIIEUS SPUING, Jr., b. Brunswick, Me., 1839; son of the Rev. Dr.
Alpheus Spring; graduated at Bowdoin college, Maine-, class of '61; studied natural his-
tory at the museum of comparative zoology connected with Harvard university, attend-
ing mainly to the department of entomology. In 1864 the Maine medical school at
Brunswick conferred upon him the degree of M.D. He has made several excursions in
the interest of his profession in Maine and elsewhere, lectured for several years on ento-
mology at Bowdoin college, was curator of the Peabody academy of sciences at Sule-m,
Mass!? and one of the editors of the American Naturalist published by that institution.
In 1868 he established the Annual Record of Entomology, which he has since edited, lie
published in 1867, Observations on the Glacial Phenomena of Labrador and Maine, vi/Ji n
view of the Recent Invertebrate Fauna of Labrador; in 1808-69, A Guide to the fif>/d>/ of
Insects, of which, later editions have been issued; and a treatise 011 those insects injuri-
Pacinian.
1'actuui.
ous and beneficial to crops, for the use of colleges, farm-schools, and agriculturists.
In 1875 he published Huff Ho urn with Insects; later publications are Outlines of Cv>i<i>< na-
tive Einbryoi'jcji/, and Zoology, both illustrated. lie is at present (1881) connected with
Brown university, Providence, R. I.
PACKARD. FREDERICK ABOLPHUS, I,L.D. ; 1794-1867; b. Mass. ; graduated at Har-
vard'college, 1814; studied law at Northaiiipton, Mass. , and practiced at Springfield,
Mass., 1317-29, editing al.-o the Federalist newspaper; was editor of the publications of the
American Sunday-school union, Philadelphia. 18:29-67, also of its periodicals for a large
part of that time; declined the presidency of Girard college at Philadelphia, 1849; pub-
lished the Union Bible Dictionary, The Teacher Taurjht, Life of Hubert Owen, and various
other works.
PACKER, WILLIAM FISHER; 1807-70: b. Peun. ; received a common-school educa-
tion, learned the printer's trade, and studied law, but was never in active practice.
From 18:37 to 18iW he was proprietor and editor of the Lycoming Gazette, became inter-
ested in politics and local improvements, and held the offices of canal commissioner and
Btalc auditor, three years each. In 1845 he was elected state senator, and at the close of
his term was made president of the Susquehauna railroad company. When that corpo-
ration consolidated with the Northern Central, he became a director of the joint com-
pan}r, and continued so until 1858, when he was elected gov. of Pennsylvania by the
republican party and served until 1861.
PACKFONG, or PETONG', a Chinese alloy or white metal, consisting of arsenic and
copper. It is formed by putting two parts of arsenic in a crucible with five parts of
copper turnings, or finely divided copper; the arsenic and copper require to be placed in
uKernuic layers, and the whole i.s covered with a layer of common salt, and pressed
down. When melted, the alloy contains nearly the whole of the arsenic, and is yellow-
ish-whito in oolor when in the rough state, but takes a fine white polish resembling sil-
ver. It is not very ductile, and cannot be fused without decomposition, as the arsenic
is easily dissipated. It was formerly much used in this country, as well as China and
India, for making the pans of small scales, dial-plates, and a variety of other articles
requiring nicciy of make, such as g/aduated scales for philosophical instruments. . It is
probably never imported now, the nickel alloys of Europe having quite superseded it»
use; in China, however, it is still extensively employed.
PACK-HORSE, a horse employed in the carriage of goods, which are either fastened
on its b.n-k in bundles, or, if weighty, are placed in panniers, slung one on each side
aoro-s the horse's buck. The saddle to which the bundles were fastened consisted of
two pieces of wood, curved so as to fit the horse's back, and joined together at the ends
by other t\vo straight pieces. This frame was well padded underneath, to prevent injury
to the horse's buck, and was firmly fastened by a girth. To each side of the saddle a
strong nook was attached, for the purpose of carrying packages, panniers, etc. Pan-
niers were sometimes simply slung across the horse's back with a pad under the band.
The panniers were wicker baskets, and of various shapes, according to the nature of their
usual contents, being sometimes long and narrow, but most generally having a length of
t.iree feet or upwards, a depth of about two-thirds of the length, and a width of from
one to two feet. The pack-horse with panniers was at one time in general use for carry-
ing merchandise, and for those agricultural operations for which the horse and cart are
now employed; and in the mountainous regions of Spain and Austria, and in other purls
of the world, it still forms the sole medium for transport; though the mule has, especially
in Europe, been substituted for the horse.
An army requires to be accompanied by several thousand pack-animals, sometimes
horses, but preferably mules; and in Asia, commonly camels, or even elephants.
Pack-saddles are variously fitted, according to the objects to Nbe carried; some for pro-
visions or ammunition; others for carrying wounded men, tents, and in mountain-war-
fare, even small cannon. In battle, the immediate reserves of small-arm ammunition
are borne in the rear of divisions by pack-animals; the heavy reserves being in wagons
between the army and its base of operations.
PACOUHY-TTVA, a sweet and delicious Brazilian fruit, a large berry, produced by the
Pla-tiiiiia inxiyiiis, a tree of the natural order Clusiaccae. The seeds have the taste of
almond:-;.
PACTO'LTJS, aiic'entlj' the name of a small brook of Lydia, in Asia Miner, which rises
on the northern slo^e of Mount Tmolus (modern Bnz 'Ddf/h), flows north past Sard is
(Sart), and empties itself into the Hermns (Kodu*). It is never more than 10 ft. broad,
and 1 ft. deep. The sands or mud of Pactolus were long famous in antiquitity for the
particles of gold dust which they contained, and which are supposed to have beeu
«arried down by its waters from the bosom of Tmolus — a hill rich in melals. The
collection of these particles, according to legend, was the source of Croesus's vast wealth.
But as early even as the time of Strabo, Pactolus had ceased to yield any of the precious
dusr. The brook is now called Saralut.
PACTUM ILLICITUM is, in the law of Scotland, a contract or agreement, for some
illegal purpose, i.e.. a. purpose either expressly prohibited by statute, or by the general
poli'y of the law. Thus, an immoral contract between a man and woman would be held
Pacuvlua. 1 />O
rutleiborn.
void 011 the ground, that the law discountenances practices contra bonos mores. A con-
tract between a client an agent, called a jmi'ttiiu dt>. qmAa. iilin, whereby a share of the
property which is the subject of litigation is given to the agent instead of his usual
is void in most cases; though it. is often difficult to determine what co:.iracl> fail within
this rule. The courts, however, have construed very jealously every contraet which
tends to corrupt the administration of the law, and hence an agreement bci \\ccn a town
uud country agent to divide the profits has been held a pm-tnui iilii-ttmit. So agreements
by a client to give an excessive sum to his law-agent as a gift have been often -<•'< aside.
lu England, similar doctrines prevail, though the phrase ] met it m HHf.itniii, which was
borrowed from the Roman law, is not used, contracts of this description being technically
described us illegal contracts.
PACUVIUS, MARCUS, h. atBrtmdusium about B.C. 219, d. about B.C. 129. Repairing
to Rome he soon acquired fame by his skill iu poetry and painting. One of hi> pictures
\vas hung in the temple of Hercules in the Forum Boarium at Rome. But his finest
works were his tragedies, which showed eloquence and ivt'mcment. The fragments of
Pacuvius have been printed in Stephen's FragmentaVeterorum Pwlaniiu, and iu Uothe's
Poetaruin, Latii tieeniconiui Fiayiucutu.
PADANG, the capital of the Dutch government of the w. coast of Sumatra, is situated
in 0° 59' 30" s. lat., and 100° 20' 30° e. long., anil has about \'2,(<(M inhabitants. The
Padang flows through the town, but is only navigable for small vessels, the larger
requiring to anchor in the roadstead, about 3 in. distant. On the left bank, stand the
houses of the natives, unsightly bamboo erections, elevated about 8 ft. from the ground
l>y posts of the cocoa-nut tree, and covered with leaves. The gov< nunent buildings,
houses of the Europeans and Chinese, etc., are on the right, and mostly built of wood
or stone, and roofed with tile. Padang is picturesquely inclosed by a semicircle of
mountains, behind which rises a loftier chain, two being volcanoes. There are a ljn>ie*-
lant church, a Roman Catholic church, flourishing schools, a fort, military hospital,
government "workshops, large warehouses, etc. An agent of the Netherlands Trading
company (q.v.) resides at Padang. Being the center of the exports and imports of
Sumatra's w. coast, Padang has a lively trade, not only with Java, the other islands of
the eastern archipelago and Europe, but also with the interior of the island.
The climate is considered healthy, although the heat is great. .Colonel Xahuys found
the thermometer range from 70' to 80° at 6 A.M.. from 82 to 88° at noon, 84° to 90 at
2 I'.M., 78° to 84° at 6 P.M.. and from 72" to 80° at 10 in the evening.
The governor resides at a country-house about 2i in. above Padang, and rules over
a territory stretching from the residency of Beucoolen (which has a population of 112,000
souls, and stands immediately under the government at Batavia), n.w. over 7° of latitude.
It is divided into the residencies of lower Padang, upper Padaiig, and Tapanoel
(Tapanuli); the population iu 1870 being 1,600,730 natives, 2,178 Europeans, and nearly
3,000 Chinese.
Lower Padang was the first district of the w. coast of Sumatra which submitted to
the Dutch, who had formed a settlement at Padang as early as 10(30, and by repeated
wars gradually extended their territory.
Upper Padang lies to the n.w. of the lower province, from which it is separated l.-y a
chain of lofty mountains, some of which, as the Singalang, Merapie, an 1 Sago, attain to
nearly 10,000 ft. in height; Merapie being an active volcano, the last eruptions of which
were in 1845 and 1855, though it sent forth volumes of smoke in 1861. This residency
possesses the most lovely districts of the island, or of any tropic land, the mountain
slopes being studded with villages, rice-fields, cocoa-nut and coffee-trees, of which last it
is calculated that there are 32,000.000 in upper Padang. In addition to the coffee-culture,
gambier, cassia, pepper, rattnns, indigo, caoutchouc, etc., are largely produced, :md gold,
iron, copper, lead, and quicksilver are found. In the district of Tanah Datar is the town
of Paggeroejong, formerly the capital of the powerful kingdom of Menangkabo, ami tho
residence of the king.
Tapanoeli, the remaining residency tinder the government of Sumatra's w. coast, lies
n.w. from upper Padang. The independent spirit of the inland natives has caused the
Netherlander much trouble, but each fresh outbreak only extends their territory and
power further into the interior, and towards the n.w. of the island.
PADDLE, probably the precurser of the oar (q.v.), and still its substitute among
barbarous nations, is a wooden implement, consisting of a wide flat blade with a short
handle, by means of which the operator spoons the water towards him. In canoes for
only one sitter, a double paddle is generally used, which is dipped alternately on either
side: the inhabitants of Greenland are especially skillful in this operation. The action of
the paddle is the same as that of the oar. The paddle has, however, one advantage —
viz., that the rower faces the bow of his boat, and therefore sees what is before him. la
threading narrow streams, etc., this is an appreciable gain.
PADDLE-FISH, Polyodon folium, a fish inhabiting the Mississippi river and its
tributaries. It is about 5 ft. long, without scales, and has a long, bony snout of about
the length of the body, with which it-plows or digs up the mud of the bottom ia search
of food. It has a dark bluish back and a whitish belly.
169
Pacuvius.
Faclerbom.
PADDLE-WHEEL — one of (he appliances in steam-vessels by \vLich the power of the
engine is made to act upon the water ami produce locomotion— is a skeleton wheel of
iron, on Hie outer portion of whose radii flat boards, called floats or paddles, are fixed,
which beat upon the water, and produce, continuously, the same effect ;:s is given, in an
intermittent manner, by the blades of oars. The use of paddle-wheels iu conjunction
with steam as a motive-power dates
from about the commencement of the
present century, but the employment
of the paddle-wheel itself is as ancient
as tiic time or the Egyptians. A speci-
men is also known to have been tried in
•Spain in the Kith century.
The Fig., shows the usual form of
paddle-wheel, that called the radial, in
which the floats are fixed. It will be
seen that a certain loss of power is in-
volved, as (he full force of the engine
on the water is only experienced when
the float is vertical, and as on entering
and leaving the water the power is
mainly employed iu depressing or lift-
ing the particles of water. This objec-
tion has great force at the moment of
starting, or when progress is very slow, as is illustrated by the small power a paddle-
steamer evinces when trying to tug a stranded vessel off a sandbank: but when, in full
progress, the action is less impeded by this circumstance, the water in front of the wheel
being depressed, and that abaft being thrown into the form of a wave. 'Die extent of the
immersion much influences the economy of power, as will be readily understood if the con-
sequences of immersion up to the center of the wheel be imagined. An immei>iim
somewhat over the top of the lowest float is about the most advantageous, and in order
that .the floats may be as nearly as possible vertical when they strike the water, it is
advisable to give the wheel as large a diameter as possible, and to place the axis at the
highest available point in the vessel.
To ove.-come the Drawbacks to the radial wheel, Elijah Galloway patented, in 1S29.
^he feathering paddle-wheel, in which the floats are mounted on axes, and are connected
by rods with a common center, which revolves upon a pin placed eccentrically to the
axis of the paddle-wheel. By this me! hod the floats are kept, while immersed, at right
angles to the surface of the water. So long as the water is smooth the gain is great, con-
sequently feathered floats are much used in river-steamers; but for ocean-steamers the
liability to derangement, perhaps at a critical period, is a great objection to their use.
The paddle-wheel, in revolving, imparts both a forward velocity to the vessel and a
backward velocity to the water. The latter is called \\\exlip, and sometimes bears a very
large and wasteful proportion to the former. The absolute velocity of the paddle floats
is equal to the sum of the slip and the forward motion of the ship, so that the wheel
always revolves faster than the ship makes way.
PADDOCK, BENJAMIN HENRY, D.D., b. Conn.; graduated at Trinity college in
1848, and at the Episcopal general theological seminary. New York, in 1852; was as>i>t-
aut at Epiphany church. New York, 1852-58; rector of Trinity church, Norwich, Conn.,
185:5-60; of Christ church, Detroit, Mich., in 1860-69, and of Grace church, Brooklyn,
1869-73. He was consecrated bishop of Massachusetts, Sept. 17, 1873.
PADDY, or PADDIK, the name commonly applied in India to rice in the husk. It is
the Tamul and the Malay name. See RICE.
PADEL'LA (Ital. a frying-pan; plur. pc.lette), a shallow vessel of metal or earthenware
used in illuminations. 'The illumination of St. Peter's at Rome, and1 other large build-
ings in Italy, is effected by the tasteful arrangement of large numbers of these little pans,
which are converted into lamps by partly filling them with tallow or other grease, and
placing a wick in the center. This mode of illumination was first adopted on a large
scale in Grfut Britain on tiie occasion of the marriage of the prince of Wales with the
princess Alexandra, when the inhabitants of Edinburgh produced by this means a most,
magnificent illumination of their city.
PADEEBOKN, the chief t. of a district in the Prussian province of Westphalia, situated
in 51 48 n. hit., and 8° 45' e. long., iu a pleasant and fruitful district, is built at the
source of the Pader, which bursts forth from below the cathedral with sufficient force to
drive mills wiihin 20 paces of its point of exit. Pop. '75, 13,728. Paderborn has narrow,
dark, old-fashioned streets, presenting no special attractions, although it has some inter-
esting buildimrs. as, for instance, the fine old cathedral, completed in 1143. with its two
magnificent facades, and containing the silver coffin in which are deposited the remains
of St. Libovius. It is the seat of a bishop and chapter, and of an administrative court.
The manufactures of Paderborn, which are not very considerable, include tobacco, starch,
hats, and wax-cloths, and there are several-breweries, distilleries and sugar-refineries in
the town, which carries on a considerable trade in cattle, corn, and oils. Paderboru is
r.ulilium.
one of the important stations on the Great "Westphalia railway. Pr.rlerborn, -which ranked
•till 1803 as a five imperial bishopric, owes its foundation to Charlemagne. who nominated
the first bishop in 7iJ5. Several diets were held during the middle ages at IV'erborn,
which at that period ranked as one of the most nourishing of the llaiiseati.1 cities, while
it was also numbered among the1 free imperial cities. In HUH it was forcibly deprived
by the prince-bishop, Theodore of Fiirstenbuni, of many of the special rights and pre-
rogatives which it had enjoyed siuce its foundation, ami compelled to acknowledge the
Ko'nan Catholic, as the predominant church, iu the place of Protest an ti>m, which had
bee: i established during the time of Luther. In 1803 Paderborn was attaclnd n< an
hereditary principality to Prussia, and, after being for a time incorponiicd in the kingdom
of Westphalia, was restored to Prussia ill 1813, and incorporated in the Westplialian
circle of Minden.
PADIHAM, a large chapel ry and township, in the higher division of the hundred of
Blackburn, seated ou an eminence springing from the n. bank of theCalder. an 1 reached
by the Hose Grove station of the Lancashire and Yorkshire railway, and al-o by th«
Leeds and Liverpool canal. It is about 9 m. n. e. of Blackburn. The co'.ton trad" cm-
ploys a great proportion of the population— -(1871) 6,675 — but coal mine s and exlcn-ivo
quarries also add to industrial activity and the prosperity of Padiham; which has been
greatly improved in appearance recently by several new streets.
FADILLA, JUAN DE, one of the most popular heroes it! Sp.:ni-h history, was a scion
of a Toledan family, and was appointed by the emperor Charles V. military commandant
of Sarago<sa. While he was so employed a formidable rebellion, caused by tin- excessive
taxes which the emperor imposed on the Spaniards, to defray the cost of Ins various wars
in Italy, Germany, and the Low Countries, broke out among the towns (w,/, ,/,///,,
of Castile, and the rebels, who were known as ri>innut.n. '/YM-, called upon Padilla to put
himself at their head. The introduction of the religious element into the quarrel tended
grcatty to strengthen the insurgents, and for an instant Padilh; was the ruler of Spain,
and formed a new junta to carry on the government. lie was mcce.s<t\>l in a number of
enterprises undertaken against the royalist party; but on April 23, 1501, was completely
beaten by the royalists at Villalos. This conflict decided the fate of the rebellion, and
of Padilla himself, who was taken prisoner, and next day beheaded.
His wife. DOXA MAHIA DE PACIIKCO, rallied the wrecks of the rebel army, and fora
long time held Toledo against the royalist besieging army, and after its fall, retired to
Portugal, where she died soon afterwards. With Padilla and his wife expired ih
remnant of the ancient freedom of Spain. Numerous poems and dramas celebrated their
deeds.
PADISH AH, in Turkish PADISIIAG (Persian padi, protector or throne, sliah, prince),
one of the titles of the sultan of the Ottoman empire, and of tiie shah of Persia. For-
merly this title was accorded only to the kings of France among European r.ion;;rchs,
the others being called kral, king. It was subsequently allowed to the emperor of Aus-
tria, and still later, by a special article iu the treaty of Kutshuk Kuinardji (Jan. 10, 1775),
to the autocrat of all the Russias. Of late it has been accorded to the monarchy of all
the great European nations, and even to those of secondary states.
PADB05T, a very ancient t. of Spain, in the province of Corufia, 15 m. s.w. of Sant*
iago, on the Sar. a few miles from the coast. Pad ron being the place at v.'hich the body
of Santiago is said to have landed itself, was formerly an important place of pilgrimage.
Pop. 6,090.
PADUA., a province of Italy, in Venetia, called by the Italians Padora. having on
the n. Treviso, on thee. Venice, on the s. Rovigo and the river Adige, on the w. Yuen/a
and Verona, on the s.e. the Adriatic sea or gulf of Venice; 805 sq.m. ; pop. '7','. 364,430.
It is about 40 m. in length from n. to s., its greatest breadth 30 in., its narrowc t portion
15 miles. Its surface is generally level, rising in the s.w. into the volcanic District of the
Euganean hills, which extend from the vicinity of Padua to Este, and are separated from
the Alps by the Paduan plain. Near these hills arc mineral springs of great value. It
is drained by the rivers Brenta, Gorgone, Bacchiglione, and other >mail streams flowing
down the incline of the plain toward the lagoons of Venice. Its soil is very fertile, pro-
ducing wheat, corn, pulse, olive oil, wine, flax, hemp, chestnuts, honey, wool, and silk
of superior quality, potatoes and the nutritious grass that furnishes excellent pasturage.
Cattle, sheep, and poultry are raised, and grapes are cultivated. Very little care is taken
of the vines which with the attention paid to their culture in some countries, would yield
a crop equal to any. The temperature is equable, there is sufficiency of moisture through
the nights, plenty of direct rays of the sun during the month of August, everything
favorable to the ripening of grapes that make sweet and highly flavored wine. It is con-
sidered the most fertile and the most densely populated of the Venetian provinces. It is
intersected by several railroads, and by irrigating and navigable canals, and is divided into
the districts of Padua, Camposanpiero, Piore, Citadella, Monselice, Este, Montagna, and
Conselve. The leading industries are the manufacture of leather, silk, woolen goods,
and hats. The principal towns are Este, pop. 8.000. which gave its name to an illustri-
ous family; Montagnana, pop. 8.000, containing tanneries and hat factories; Abano,
pop. 3 000, noted for it1-, medicinal springs; Battaglia, also visited for its mineral waters,
near which city is the village of Arqua, where Petrarch died. Capital, Padua.
1 >7l Padiham.
1 • L Paez.
PADUA (Ttal. Padoca), capital of the province of the same name, in n. Italy,
stands on a beautiful plain on the Bacchiglione, 23 m. by railway w.s.w. of Venice. It
is surrounded by walls and ditches, and is fortified by bastions. Its houses are lofty,
supported for the most part on long rows of arches, generally pointed, and most of its
streets, especially in the older quarters, are narrow, dark, dirt}-, and ill-paved. There
are, however, several handsome gates, as those of San Giovanni, Savonarolo, and Fal-
conetto; a number of fine squares, of which the Prato delia Valle is the largest and the
finest, and is surrounded by a stream, and planted with trees; and several magnificent 1
buildings. Of these the cafe Pulrocchiis esteemed the finest edifice of the kind in Italy.
Portions jf a Roman edifice were discovered while the foundations of this building were I
being made, and the marbles found now adorn the pavement, etc., of the x<i!vn.e.. The
Palazzo della Municipality, built 1172-1219, is the most peculiar and the most national in
the city. It is an immense building, forming one side of the market place, rests wholly
on arches, and is surrounded by a loggia (q.v.). Its e. end is covered with shields and
armorial bearings, and its roof is said to be the largest unsupported by pillars in the
world. It.-; hall is 2-37-J- ft. long, and 89 ft. wide, i , covered with mystical and metaphor-
ical paintings, and contains a monument of Livy, the Roman historian, and a bust of
Belzoni, the traveler, both natives of this city. The other chief edifices are the cathe-
dral, the church of Saut' Antonio, a beautiful building in the pointed style, witli several
Byzantine features, and remarkably rk:h and splendid in its internal decorations; and
the churches of 8an Giorgio and Santa Giusthui; all of them richly decorated with ]i^'nt-
ings, sculptures, etc. The university of Padua, the most famous establishment in the
city, was celebrated as early r,s the year 1221. It embraces 61 professors and other
teachers, and is attended by about 1000 students. Connected with the university are an
anatomical theater and a botanic garden, both dating from the 18th c., and each the first
of its kind in Europe. There is also a museum of natural history, an observatory, a
chemical laboratory, and a library of 120,000 volumes and 1500 manuscripts. There are*
also numerous palaces, theaters, and hospitals. Pop. '72, 52,011.
P.uhia, the Roman I'ntitciu.-u, is one of the most ancient towns of Italy. According
to a wide-spread belief of antiquity, alluded to by Virgil, it was founded by the Trojan
chief Antenor, but we really know nothing of its history until it became a Rom:m town.
During the first centuries of the empire, it was the most flourishing city in the north of
Italy, on account of its great woolen manufactures, and could return to the census more
persons wealthy enough to be ranked as equitcs than any other place except Rome. But
in 452 Altila utterly razed it to the ground. It was, however, rebuilt by Narses, again
destroyed by the Lombards, but once again rose from its ashes, and became a very
famous city in the middle ages. It fell into the hands of the Carrara family in 1318, and
in 1493 it was conquered by Venice, the fortunes of which it has since shared.
PADZTCAH, a city of Kentucky, on the s. bank of the Ohio river, just below the
mouth of the Tennessee river, 322" in. below Louisville. It is the entrepot of a fertile
country, and has a large trade by the rivers, the Louisville, Paducah and South-western,
and the Paducah and Memphis railways. It contains county buildings, 4 banks, 3 ship-
yards; steam saw-mills, extensive manufacturing establishments, and 15 churches. Pop.
70, 6,806.
PADU'LA, a t. of s. Italy, in the province of Salerno, 52 m. s.e. of the town of
Salerno, in a mountainous district. Below Padula are the ruins of the once famous and
magnificent monastery, La Certom di S. Lorenzo, despoiled by the French during their
occupation of Calabria. Pop. '71, 8,556.
PADUS. See Po, ante.
FJE AN (of doubtful etymology), the name given by the ancient Greeks to a kind of
lyric poetry originally connected with the worship of Apollo. The oldest paeans, as we
learn from Homer, appear to have been either hymns, addressed to that deity for the pur-
pose of appeasing his wrath (Iliad, i. 473), or thanksgiving odes, sung after danger was
over and glory won (Iliad, xxiii. 391). Nevertheless, at a later period, they were
addressed to other deities also. Thus, according to Xenophou, the Lacedaemonians sung
a paean to Poseidon after an earthquake, and the Greek army in Asia one to Zeus.
P-ffiDO-BAPTISM. See BAPTISM, INFANT.
PAER', FEKDISANDO, 1771-1839; h. Italy; chapel-master at Dresden, imperial com-
poser to Napoleon, and director of the Italian opera at Paris 1818-25. Besides a num-
ber of operas, such as Oriselda, Leonora, Camilla', Dido, etc., he composed overtures
and cantatas of merit.
PAEZ', JOSE' ANTONIO, 1790-1873; b. Venezuela; raised a force of revohitionists in
1810, and defeated the Spanish troops under Lopez in 1815. He inflicted another defeat
upon the royalists in 1816, and was appointed brig.gen. in command of the revolution-
ary army. He again defeated Lopez, and secured control of the province of Apure. In
1817 he recognized the authority of Bolivar, and two years later he became gen. of
division, and worsted iren. Morillo in several engagements. The victory which he won
at Carahobo in 1821 effected the independence of Colombia. Upon the erection of the
new state, lie became one of the representatives of Venezuela in the senate. An attempt
was made in the house of representatives in 1826 to impeach him, whereupon he organ-
Peestiim. 1 *7O
Paget. -1 ' -i
i/ed a revolt, which continued till Bolivar recognized him as the commander in Vene-
zuela. In 1830, and again in 1839, lie was elected proident of \ cne/.uela. Mo;
who succeeded him in 1846, attempted to make himself dictator and was opposed by
Pac/.. who was defeated and captured. Released, but. banished, lie spent the ;,t .-Irs
1850-58 in New York. On the overthrow of Moir.g.i-- i,i 1858 he returned to \ ; nc-
zucia. He was Venezuelan minister at Washington 1860-01, when lie rc.-igncd, and,
.returning to Venezuela, was appointed dictator. Failing to restore order he relumed to
New York in 1864. He subsequently lived in Peru and the Argentine Republic.
PJESTUM, anciently a Greek city of Lucania, in s. Italy, in the present province
of Salerno, on the Sinus Pamtanus, now the gulf of Salerno, and not far from mount
Albumus. It was founded by the Troszeuiaus and the Sybarites, some time between
650 and 610 B.C., and was originally called Poseidonia (of which 1'nxh.m is 1-elieved to
be a Latin corruption), in honor of Poseidon (Neptune). It was subdued by the Sain-
nites of Lucania, and slowly declined in prosperity after it fell into the hands of the
Romans, who established a colony here about 273 B.C. The Latin poets celebrate the
beauty and fragrance of its flowers, and particularly of its roses, which bloomed twice
a year. Wild roses, it is said, still grow among its rums, which retain their ancient
property, and flower regularly both in May and November. Pa-stum was h-'.nxd by
the Saracens in the 10th c., and there is now only a small village called P-S.IO. in a
marshy, unhealthy, and desolate district; but the ancient greatness of the city is indi-
cated by the ruins of temples and other buildings. These appear to have been tirst
noticed in the early part of the 18th c., by a certain count Qazola, in the service of the
king of Naples; they were next described by Antonini. in a work on the topography of
Lucania (1745), and have since been visited by travelers from all parts of Europe.
PAGANI, an uninteresting t. ofs. Italy, province of Salerno. In the church of St.
Mi.chele, ?s the tomb of Alfonso de' Liguori, founder of the order of the mlemptionists,
'who died here, 1787. The body is preserved in a glass case. Pop. about 12,000.
PAGANINI, NICOLO, a famous violinist, son of a commission-broker at Genoa, where
he was born in 1784. His musical talent showed itself in his childhood; in his ninth
year he had instructions from Costa at Genoa, and afterward from Rolla at Parma, and
from Ghiretti. In 1801 he began his professional tours in Italy; in 1828 he created a
great sensation on appearing for the first time in the principal towns of Germany; and
in 1831 his violin-playing created an equal Juror in Paris and London. His n.
over the violin has never been equaled, but he was too much addicted to using it in
mere feats of musical legerdemain, such as his celebrated performance on a single siring.
His execution on the guitar was also very remarkable; for four years he made that
instrument his constant study. Paganini died at Nice in 1840, leaving a huge forir.ne.
PA'GANISM, another name for heathenism or polytheism. The word is derived from
the Latin pugitnus, a designation of the inhabitants of the country (payus). in conn
tinction to the inhabitants of towns, the more educated and civilized inhabitants of
towns having been the first generally to embrace Christianity, whilst the old polytheism
lingered more in remote rural districts.
PAGE (derivation variously assigned to Gr. pats, a boy, and Lat. par/its, a village),
a youth employed in the service of a royal or noble personage. The practice of employ-
ing youths of noble birth in personal attendance on the sovereign, existed in early times
among the Persians, and was revived in the middle ages under feudal and chhahic
usages. The young nobleman passed in courts and castles through the degree of page,
preparatory to being admitted to the further degrees of esquire and knight. The prac-
tice of educating the higher nobility as pages at court, began to decline after the loth c. ,
till pages became what they are now, mere relics of feudal usages. Four pa-
honor, who are personal attendants of the sovereign, form part of the state of the British
court. They receive a salary of £200 a year each, and on attaining a suitable age,
receive from her majesty a commission in the foot guards.
PAGE, a co. in s.w. Iowa, having the state line of Missouri for its s. boundary: 600
divided into prairie and woodland. The soil of the valleys which follow, the water
courses is fertile, and is adapted to the production of grain and the raising of stock.
Co. seat, Clarinda.
PAGE, a co. in n. Virginia, having a range of the Blue Ridge for its e. boundary,
the Massanuttar mts. on the west; 280 sq.m. ; pop., '80, 9.965—9,934 of American birth,
1115 colored. Ft is drained by the south fork of the Shenandoah river intersecting it
centrally. Its surface consists of a vallev at the base of the Blue Ridge. Timber grow s
on. the uplands, which also furnish excellent pasturage. Its soil is calcareous and M ry
productive, adapted to the production of grain and tobacco, and the raising of live stock.
Its mineral products are copper, iron, and marble. It has blomaries and blast furnaces
for the manufacture of iron; other industries are the manufacture of woolen goods, and
distilled liquors. At Luray an immense cave has been discovered. Co. seat, Luray.
1>ro Paestnm.
• ° Paget.
PAGE, JOHN, 1743-1808; b. Rosewell, Va., a graduate of William and Mary college.
Williams burg, Va., class of 1768; represented the college in the house of burgesses, and
became a member of the colonial council. During the revolutionary war he was an
arcL'nt supporter of tiie cause of the colonists, contributing of his private means for its
support, and was a leader of his party in his native state, of which he was elected
lieutenant-governor, and held other offices in the gift of the people. He was a men;!, r
of the convention which framed the constitution of Virginia, at one time was colonel
of a militia regiment, was appointed one of the first councilors, and member of the com-
mitt< c of public safety. He was contemporary with Thomas Jefferson, with whom he
sustained very friendly relations. He was member of congress 1789-97, and presidential
elector in 1800. In 1803 he was elected governor of Virginia and tilled the office three
years, lu 1796-99 he published Addresses to the Peopk. He had a son, Octavius Augus-
tus, first lieutenant of the frigate V/wsapeake, who died in 1813.
PAGE, WILLIAM, b. Albany, N. Y., 1811; at the age of eight years went to New
York with his parents, studied drawing, and three years afterward received a premium
from the American institute for a drawing in India ink. In 1825 he commenced the
study of law in the office of Fredrick De Peyster, but left it to learn the art of portrait
painting of Herring, witli whom he remained a year, and afterward entered the studio
of Samuel F. B. Morse, artist, sculptor, inventor of the telegraph, and author of a
portrait of Lafayette in the New York city hall, who, in connection with other artists,
organized a drawing-school which resulted in the establishment, in 1826, of the national
academy of design. By the influence of Mr. Morse he was admitted as a student at the
academy, and for his drawings from the antique was awarded a large silver medal. In
1828 he joined the Presbyterian church, and removing to Andover, Mass., began the
ptudy of theology, and went from there to Amherst, in that state, intending to fit himself
for the ministry, but returned to his artist life in 1830. He passed a year in Albany
painting portraits, and was considered a painter of great promise, excelling in brilliancy
of color and accuracy of drawing. Returning to New York he was admitted as a mem-
ber of the national academy. Among his most valued works are a portrait of gov. Marcy
in the New York city hall, that of John Quincy Adams in Faneuil hall, Boston: " The
Holy Family" in the Boston athenaeum, " The Wife's Last Visit to her Condemned Hus-
band," and " The Infancy of Henri IV." In 1844 he established himself in Boston and
industriously followed his profession. In 1847-49 he resided in New York, and in the latter
year went abroad, living 11 years in Italy studying in Rome and Florence. He is said
to have made such literal copies of Titian that they were mistaken for the originals even
by the residents of Florence. While in Italy he painted the portraits of several distin-
guished Englishmen and American tourists and residents abroad, and among his produc-
tion, of that period are his two Venuses, " Moses and Aaron on MountHoreb," " The.Flight
into Egypt . " and ' ' The Infant Bacchus. " In 1860 he returned to the United States and took
up his residence in Eagleswood, near Perth Amboy, N. J., after a time building a house on
Island, and painting in his studio in New York. He has delivered several courses
of lectures on art. and in 1870 painted a portrait of Christ, which was placed on exhibition,
and was the subject of considerable critical controversy. He was president of the academy
of design in 1871-73. From photographs of the Kesselstadt mask of Shakespeare, pre-
served in Germany, he has produced a bust of the poet, making the journey to that coun-
try for the purpose, and has painted portraits from it. Among recent portraits are those
of Henrv Ward Beecher, Charles A. Dana, Parke Godwin, Wendell Phillips, and, about
1876, a full length representation of "Farragut at the Battle of Mobile, " which was pre-
sented to the late emperor of Russia by a committee who purchased it. He published in
1860, A New Geometrical Method of Measuring the Human Figure, based upon the models
of the antique, and is distinguished as acolorist, for which department of the art of paint-
ing he lias advanced original theories, and as an accurate draughtsman.
PAGET, FAMILY OF. This noble family, though said to be of Norman extraction, do
not trace their descent further back than the reign of Henry VII., in whose time one
William Paget held the office of one of the sergeants at- mace of the city of London. His
son William, who was educated at St. Paul's school, and at Cambridge, was introduced
into public life by Stephen Gardiner, bishop of Winchester, early in the reign of Henry
VIII., who sent him abroad to obtain the opinions of foreign doctors as to his contem-
plated divorce from Catharine of Aragon. From this time forth his rise was rapid, aid
he was constantly employed in diplomatic missions until the death of the king, who
Appointed him one of his executors. He now adhered to the party of the protector
Somerset, and was raised to the peerage in 1552, as lord Paget of Beaudesert. He slm>vd
in the power, and also in the fall, of the protector, and was heavily fined by the star
chamber, who also deprived him of the insignia of the order of the garter. His disgrace,
however, was not of long continuance, and a change taking place in the councils of his
opponents, he soon obtained his pardon. On the accession of queen Mary, he was sworn
a member of the privy council, and obtained several large grants of lands. He retired
from public life on the accession of Elizabeth, who regarded him with much favor,
though he was a strict Roman Catholic. The representative of the family adhered to the
cau-e of Mary queen of Scots, and suffered, in consequence, the confiscation of his prop-
erty. The fifth lord Paget so far departed from the traditionary policy of the family as
Tug ft. i 7 (
Paige. J • *
to accept from the parliament the lord-lieutenancy of Buckinghamshire; but he returned
to his allegiance shortly afterward, and lu-ld the command of a r-gi;iK-nt. umh r tlir i >\ ul
standard at the battle- of Edge-hill. His grandson w;.s advanced io the earldom of Cx-
bridge, but this title becoming extinct, the represi -n'u.t ion of the family dc\ ul\ed on a
female, who carried the barony of Paget by marriage into the house of Uayly. The son
of tiiis marriage, however, having assumed the name of IV;ei, oiii.-d;icd a renewal of the
earldom of Uxbridge. and the second carl, for his gallantry ;it Waterloo, was advanced
to the marquisalc oi Anglesey. Of late years, the rage I lamily have usually held throe
or four seals in every parliament, and they have cons:a.it,y supported the liberal party.
PAGET, Sir JAMES, D.C.L., b. England, 181-1: l-.oeiiine a member of the royal college
of surgeons in 1836, and an honorary fellow in 1843. He is a member of ihe sen :
the university of London, and of the council of the college of surgeons. He was made a
baronet in Ib71, and elected president of the college of surgeons in LS7-"). He is consult-
ing surgeon to St. Bartholomew's hospital, and surgeon to the princ<- of V> ales aud the
queen. He has published Pathological Catalogue of tfa M>'»t'iiiit of tin-. L'<>'!-:.< <j 8ui
ll<H>orl on tlic, Jit'x'iiiis of the Use of the MicroMoj*'., anil lectures on tiaryicul I'ut/:
PAG ING-MACHINE. Several machines have been made for paging books and num-
bering bank-u^tes, checks, railway tickets, and other similar papers. The great object
of these machines is to prevent the chance of error or fraud by making it hnpo-sibie that
a page, check, etc., can be abstracted or lost without detection. .Messrs. \V':i'ei low <fe
Sous of London, perfected an ingenious machine, by which pages of books, such as
ledgers and other commercial books, and bank-notes, etc., arc numbered in n gular suc-
cession. The numbers are engraved on metal rowels, usually of steel or brass. A
of these rowels are so arranged, that when the machine is worked, the numbers must be
impressed on the paper in regular succession from 1 to 99,999; and it is imp >--ii»le to
produce a duplicate number until the whole series has been printed. The ins; rumen! u
make to supply ink to the types, so that it may be locked in such a manner as to admit
of being worked without the chance of its being tampered with.
An extremely ingenious modification of this machine has been perfected by M.
Auguste Trouillet, of Paris, under the name of ^niit^ndiiir Men/, ii<jn,', which is not
only more simple, but admits of wider application; for it not only pages books and num-
bers notes, tickets, etc., but can jflso be used for numbering bales and other pack;i
merchandise. The instrument has six rowels, on each of which is a set ol eni. :
numbers, so arranged, that their revolutions produce in r gular succession tin- !••<) lired
numbers, by the action of a lever which moves horizontally, and supplies the type wish
ink as it moves backward uud forward.
PA GO, an island belonging to the Austrian crownland of Dalmatia. separated from
Croatia by the Morlacca • anal, a channel from two to three miles in width. It is long
and narrow, runs parallel to the Croatian coast, and has an area of 10S su.m. Pop.
5,150, who are most industrious, and support themselves by vine-culture, the manufac-
ture of salt and fishing.
PAGO DA (according to pome, a corruption of the Sanskrit word N'rimratn, from
tf, sacred; but according to others a corruption of p>'f-r?ft(!,/. from the Persian
put, idol, and ft<tda, house) is the name of certain Hindu temples which are aironir^t the
most remarkable monuments of Hindu architecture. Though the word itself
but the temple where the deity — especially S'iva and his consort Durg'i. or P;":
was worshiped, a pagoda is in reality an aggregate of various monuments, which, in
their totality, constitute the holy place sacred to the god. Sanctuaries. > 'on-
nadcs, <riteways, walls, tanks, etc., are generally combined for this pur >rding
to a pi in which is more or less uniform. Several series of walls form an inc1
between them are alleys, habitations for the priests, etc.. ami the interior is occupied by
the temple itself, with buildings for the pilgrims, tanks, porticoes, and open colom
The will* have, at their openings, gnpura*, or large pyramidal gateways. hMi-r than
themselves, and so constructed that the gopura of the outer wall is ,••! ,\ ays 1 ^irli'-r than
that of the succeeding inner wall, the pagoda itself being smaller than the ?m
popu'-a. Tho extent of the inclosing walls is generally considerable; in mo>f instnnee*
they consist of hewn stones of colossal dimensions, placed upon one another \\iihout
mortar or cement, but Avith such admirable accuracy that their joints :m- s'-;;iv; ly v
The gateways are pyramidal buildings of the most elaborate workmanship; they ronsi>t
of several, sometimes as many as fifteen stories. The pasrodas themselves, too. a;,-' of a
pyramidal rhape, various layers of stones having been piled upon one ano'lur in suc-
cessive rcc»«sion: in some pagodas, however, the pyramid::! form begins only Avilh the
higher stories, the broad basis extending to about a third of the heiirht of (lie whole
building. The sides of the different terraces are vertical, but the transition from one to
the other is effected by a vault surmounted by a series of small cupolas, which hide the
vault itself. A single cupola, hewn out of the stone, and surmounted by a rloVe, gen-
erally crowns the whole structure; but sometimes the latter aNo ends in ; MHOS
of a fanlike shape or concave roofs. The pagodas are covered all over with the riehest
ornamentation. The pilasters and columns, which take a prominent rank in the orna-
mental portion of these temples, show the greatest variety of forms; some pagodas are
1 ^o Paget.
-I • v Paige.
also overlaid with strips of copper, having the appearance of gold. The most celebrated
pagodas on the mam-land of India are those of Mathura, Trichinopoli, Chalambron, Kon
jeveram, Juggernaut, and Deogur, near Ellora. — That of Mathura consists of four stories,
aud is about 63 ft. high; its ba^-e comprises about 40 ;q. feet. Its lirst story is made of
hewn stones, copper, aud covered with gilt; the others of brick. A great number of
figures, especially representing deities, tigers, and elephants, cover the building. — The
pagoda of Tanjore is the most beautiful monument of tliis kind in the s. of India; its
height is 200 ft., and the width of its basis is equal to two-thirds of its height. — The
pagoda of Trichinopoli is erected on a hill, elevated about 800 ft. over the plain ; it differs in
style Ironi oilier pagodas dedicated to Brahmanical worship, and exhibits jiiv-at similarity
with the Buddhistic monuments of Thibet. — The great pagoda of Chalambron, in Tan-
jore, is one of the most celebrated and one of the most sacred of India. It is dedicated
to S'iva and Pilrvali, and filled with representations belonging to the mythical history of
these gods. The buildings of which this pagoda is composed cover an oblong square
860 ft. long and 210 ft. wide. — At Konjeveram there are two pagodas — the one dedicated
to S'iva and the other to Parvatl. — The pagodas of Juggernaut, on the n. end of the
coast of Coromandel, are three; they are erected likewise in honor of S'iva, and are sur-
rounded by a wall of black stones — whence they are called by Europeans the Black
Pagodas— measuring 1122 ft. in length, 696 ft. in width, and 24 ft. in height. The
height of the principal of these three pagodas is said to be 344 ft. ; according to some,
however, it does not exceed 120 to 123 feet. — The pagoda of Deogur. near Ellora, con-
sists also of three pagodas, sacred to S'iva; they have no sculptures, however, except a
trident, the weapon of S'iva, which is visible on the top of one of these temples. — The
monuments of Mavalipura, on the coast of Coromandel, are generally called the Seven
Pagoda.;; but as these monuments — which are rather a whole city than merely temples —
are buildings cut out of the living rock, they belong more properly to the rock-cut mon-
uments of ludia than to the special class of Indian architecture comprised under the term
pagoda.
The term pagoda is, in a loose way, also applied to those Chinese buildings of a, tower
form which consist of several stories, eacli story containing a single room, and being
surrounded by a gallery covered with a protruding roof. These buildings, however,
differ materially from the Hindu pagodas, not only so far as their style and exterior
appearance are concerned, but inasmuch as they are buildings intended for other than
religious purposes. The Chinese call them ta, and they arc generally erected in com-
memoration of a celebrated personage or some remarkable event; and for this reason,
too, on some elevated spot, where they may he conspicuous, and add to the charms of
the scenery. Some of these buildings have a height of 160 ft. ; the finest known speci-
men of them is the famous Porcelain Tower of Nankin (q.v.). The application of the
name pagoda to a Chinese temple should be discountenanced, for, as a rule, a Chinese
temple is an insignificant* building, seldom more than two stories hijih, and built of
wood; the exceptions arc rare, and where they occur, as at Pekin. such temples, how-
ever magnificent, have no architectural affinity with a Hindu pagoda.
PAGODA (nnff). A word of Persian origin, applied to religious and monumental
edifices of a peculiar order of architecture. They arc generally the accompaniments of
temples, but sometimes commemorate persons or events. In Burinah, India, and China
they arc often of stone, in the shape of terraced pyramids. In China, at Ptkin, one
built of massive masonry, and a superb tower of bricks coated with porcelain enamel,
are famous among a vast number of smaller pagodas. In Japan they are always of
wood, painted crimson, and, having from five to nine stories, are surmounted by a plume
or spindle having copper rings. Those at Asakusa, in Tokio, and in Ozaka and Kioto
are the m«st famous.
PAGU'EUS AXD PAGTT KID.E. See HERMIT CRAB.
PAHLAITPFR', a t. of India, capital of the state of the same name, SCO m. e.s.e. of
It is a walled t., is the scat of extensive trade and of several manufactures.
Pop. < s; imated at 80,000, many of whom are artificers and shop-keepers. The state of which
Pahlanpur is capital lio^ between Int.. 23° 57' and 24D 41' n., and long. 71° 51' and 72° 45'
cast. Ope-s-'.j.Tnih of the population are iloslem and the remainder Hindus. The state,
whose " venue. 1870-71. was £37.593, pays an annual tribute of £5.000 to the guicowar,
and £000 p-;- ar.mun for the maintenance of a British political agent. The ex.-ct area
of the state iV. not known: the state, however , contains 300 villages; pop. 216,000. The
products ;>re wheat, rice, sugar-cnne, and cotton. In the n. and w. the soil yields only
one crop annually, but in the s. and e. three crops are obtained in the year.
PAH UTE, a eo. in n.w. Ari/ona, bordering on Utah and Nevada, separated from
the latter by the Colorado river, which runs through it in deep canons; 4,3GO sq. miles.
The soil ;- sterile and barren. Co. seat, St. Thomas.
PAIGE. Ei,m?inoK GF.RTIY, 1813-59; b. N. Y. ; for some time the editor and pro-
prietor of the N. Y. <c'' Did'i'i *>?/>)•>• >/>•>/, in which lie published a series of papers called
Short Puff at Sermons, by Lorenzo Dow. republished in 1854 in 3 voK He was an unsuc-
cessful business man. In 1849 he became one of the early California emigrants, and
there died in great poverty.
I'aine.
-I
-1
PAILA is, according to the Pir.-an'as (q.v.), one of the disciples of Vyfisa (q.v.), the
reputed Jin-anger of the Ved;is (q.v.); he was taught by the latter the R'toyeda, and. on
his part, coniiiiunicated this knowledge to i'.^likali and Indraprainati. This iraditiou,
Uicrefore, implies that Paila was one of the earliest compilers of the U igveda.
PAIN is an undefiuable sensation, of the nature of which all persons are conscious.
It resides exclusively in the nervous system, but may originate from various s mrccs.
Irriiation, or excessive excitement of the nervous system may produce it ; it frequently
precedes and accompanies inflammation: while it sometimes occurs in, and sc,-ms to be
favored by a state of positive depression, as is seen in the intense! pain which is ol'icn
experienced in a limb benumbed with cold, in the pain which not unfrequently ai
panics palsy, and in the well-known fact, that neuralgia is a common result of general
debility. Hence, pain must on no account be ivgar<i< d as a certain indication of inflam-
mation, although it rarely happens that pain is not felt at some period or other in inflam-
matory diseases. Moreover, the pain that belongs to inflammation differs very much,
according to the organ or tissue affected; the pain, for example, in inflammation of the
lungs, differs altogether in character from that which occurs in inflammation of the.
bowels, and both these pains from that occurring in inflammation of the kidneys.
Pain differs not only in its character, which may be dull, sharp, aching, tearing,
gnawing, stabbing, etc., but in its mode of occurrence; for example, it may in1 flying or
persistent, intermittent, remittent, or continued. It is not always that the pain is felt in
the spot where the cause of it exists. Thus, inflammation of the liver or diaphragm
may cause pain in the right shoulder, the irritation caused by stone in the bladder pro-
duces pain at the outlet of the urinary passage; disease of the hip-joint occasions pain in
the knee, disease of the heart is often accompanied with pain in the left arm, and irrita-
tion of the stomach often gives rise to headache. Pain is differently felt by persons of
different constitutions and temperaments, same persons being little sensitive to painful
impressions of any kind, while others suffer 'greatly from slight causes. Then
seem to be nation d differences in this respect; and before the introduction of chloroform
it was a matter of common observation that Irishmen were always more Iroubl • -* . >me
subjects for surgical operations than either Englishmen or Scotchmen; and the n< e
probably less sensitive to pain than any of the white ra.-.'s.
Although in most cases we are to regard pain merely as a symptom to be removed
only by means which remove the lesion which occa-ions it, there are cases in which,
although it is only a sjMnplom, it constitutes a chief element of disease, and one again>t
which remedies must be specially directed. As examples of these cases, maybe men-
tioned neuralgia, gastralgia, colic, dysmenorrhoea, and perforation of the intestines; and
in a- less degree, the stitch of pleurisy, which, if not relieved, impedes the respiration.
and the pain of tenesmus, which often causes such efforts to empty the lower bov
seriously to disturb the functions of the intestine, and to exhaust the strength.
For the methods of relieving pain, the reader is referred to the articles on the different
diseases in wnich it specially occurs (as COLIC. NEURALGIA, PLEURISY, etc.). and io
those on CHLOROFORM, ETHEH, INDIAN HUMP, MORPHIA, NARCOTICS, OPIUM, etc.
PAINE, CHARLES, 1799-1853; b. Vt, ; son of Dr. Elijah; graduated at Harvard cpl-
rege, 1830. He became engaged in various manufacturing enterprises, acquired consid-
erable wealth, and became noted for his liberal assistance to the Vermont state university
and North field academy. In the construction of the railroads of the state he was promi-
nent, and at the time of his death was interested in the scheme of a Southern Pacific
railroad. He was governor of Vermont, 1841^43.
PAIXE, ELIJAH. LL D, 1757-1842; b. Vt. : graduated at Harvard college, stud'«d
l.iw and was admitted to practice in 1781. He was a member of the state legislature,
1787-91; judge of the state supreme court, 1791-95; was then elected U. S. senator, and
nt the close of his term of office, 1801. was appointed U. S. district judge for Vermont, a
position which he held until his death. In 1782 he delivered the first Phi Beta Kappa
oivition at Harvard, and in 1789 was made president of that society. He was noted not
only as a scholar, lawyer, and publicist, but also for his benevolence and his liberality to
educational institutions. He was one of the first to undertake the manufacture of
American cloth.
PAINE, HALBEUT E. ; b. Ohio, 1826; graduated in 1845 at Western Reserve co1
in 1848 was admitted to the bar at Cleveland, and in 1857 removed to Milwaukee, Wis.
He joined the union army, was col. of the 4th Wis. vols., 1861-63. and became- brig..
gen 1863. He assisted in defending Washington during Early's raid; served in the
Vicksburg campaign, in command of a division; and in the last assault on Port Hud-
son lost a leg. In 1865 was brevetted maj.gcn. In 1866 he was a del-gate to the Phila-
delphia loyalist convention, and in 1865-71 a Republican member of con
PAINE, MAHTYN, LL.D., 1794-1877; b. Vt.; after graduating at Harvard in!813, studied
medicine with Dr. John Warren, of Boston. In 1816 IK- began practice in Montreal, and
in 1833 removed to New York, where he soon gained extensive practice. In 1841 he
was prominent in establishing the N. Y. university medical school, and became professor
of medicine and materia medica and afterwards of materia medica and therapeutics. In
1854 he, with others, procured the repeal of a state statute forbidding dissection of the
human body. He published, besides many contributions to medical periodicals, a trca-
mPaila.
Paine.
tise on the cholera epidemic of 1834; Medical and Physiological Commentaries, 1840-44;
Mater ia Medica and Therapeutics, 1842; Institutes of Medicine, 1847; 'iJie Soul and Instinct
Distinguished from Materialism, 1848; and Theoretical .Geaiogy, 185G.
PAINE, ROBERT, D.D. ; b. N. C. in 1799; removed to Tennessee in 1813; in 1819
joined the Tennessee conference of the Methodist Episcopal church; president of
Lagrauge college, Ala., 1830-40; and was then elected bishop. He was •chairman of the
committee of nine appointed to prepare a plan for the division of the church; was a
prominent member of the Louisville convention in 1845, which organized the Methodist
Episcopal church south. He has been distinguished as a preacher and as piesiding
officer in the conference. He is the author of a work on Hopkinsianism, and the Life
and I'imes of Bishop McKendree.
PAINE, ROBERT TREAT, 1731-1814; b. Boston; son of Thomas, minister at Wey-
mouth. lie graduated at Harvard college in 1749, and after teaching school and
making a tour in Europe, studied for the ministry. He was chaplain of the provincial
troops in the north in 1755, and afterward studied law, and was admitted to the bar in
1759. He practiced law in Tauutou fora number of years. In 1768 he was a delegate
from that town lo a convention called by prominent citizens after the legislature had
been dissolved by gov. Bernard for refusing to take back its circular letter to the other
colonies. In 17 JO lie managed in the absence of the attorney-general the prosecution of
capt. Preston and his troops for the Boston massacre. In 1773-74 he was a member of
the Massachusetts legislature. He was a representative of that state in the continental
congress, 1774-78, and a signer of the declaration of independence. In 1776 he was a con-
gre>sional commissioner from congress to Schuyler's army. He was speaker of the
Massachusetts house of representatives in 1777, and was the first attorney -general of that
state under the new constitution, which he had himself helped to frame. .He continued
to hold the office of attorney-general till 1700, when he accepted an appointment as an
associate justice of the state supreme court. He resigned in 1804 on account of dc::f-
i;e s. His last public office was that of councilor, lie was an able lawyer, and a sound
judge.
PAINE, Ror.ERT TREAT, jr., 1773-1811; son of Robert T. His name was origin-
ally Thomas, but was changed in 1801 to that of his father. Paine remarked upon
the occasion of the change, and in allusion to the more famous Thomas Paine, that he now
for the first time had a " Christian" name. He graduated at Harvard in 1793, and went
into business. But he soon abandoned mercantile life, and began a bi-weeMy literary
paper called The Federal Orrery. About the same time he began to write theatrical
criticisms. He wrote for the Orrery the Lyars and The Jacobiniad, which were full of
personalities, and made him many enemies, and he was several times assaulted. In
1795 lie married Miss Baker, an actress. The same year, upon taking the degree of A.M.,
lie read a poem upon Tlie Invent ion of Letters, for which he was paid $1500, and Wash-
ington wrote him a letter expressing a high opinion of its merit. He sold his newspaper
in 1796, and the same year read a poem on The Ruling Passion, before the Harvard Phi
Beta Kappa society; this poem he disposed of t^v $1200. In 1798 he composed the song
called Adams and Liberty, for which he received $750.
PAIKE. THOMAS, an author famous for his connection with the American and French
revolutions, and for his advocacy of infidel opinions, was b. Jan. 29, 1737, at Thetford,
in the county of Norfolk in England. He Avas trained to the business of his father, who
was a staymaker, but afterward obtained a situation in the customs, and the manage-
ment of a tobacco-manufactory. His income, however, was small, and he fell into debt,
and was dismissed in 1774. upon which he went to America; was. favorably received by a
b."ok-seller in Philadelphia, and in 1776 published a pamphlet entitled Common Sense,
Avritten in a popular style, in which he maintained the cause of the colonies against the
mother-country. The success and influence of this publication were extraordinary, and
it won him the friendship of Washington, Franklin, and other distinguished American
leaders. He was rewarded by congress with the appointment of secretary to the com-
mittee of foreign affairs: visited France in the summer of 1787, where he made the \
acquaintance of Buffon. Maleshorbr>s, La Rochefoucauld, and other eminent men : and ;
in the autumn following went to England, where, in 1791, he published The Rights of
Man, the most famous of all the replies to Burke's Reflections upon the French Revolution .
The work has gone through innumerable editions, and has been translated into almost all
the languages of Europe. His defense of the principles of the French revolution against
the magnificent assault of Burke and the outcry of the English aristocracy is vigorous,
and by no means unsuccessful. But the value or at least the popularity of the work h;is
been injured by its advocacy of extreme liberal opinions. His assaults on the British
constitution exposed him to a government prosecution, and he fled to France, where he
was admitted to citizenship; and in 1792 the department of Pas-de-Calais elected him a
deputy to the national convention, where he voted with the Girondists. At the trial of
Louis' XVI., says Madame do BinoM. "Thomas Paine alone proposed what would have
done honor to France if it had been accepted — the offer to the king of EH asylum in
America;" by which he offenf.c'1 th<> mountain party; and in 1793 Robespierre caused
him to be ejected from the convention, on the ground of his being a foreigner, and
thrown into prison. During his imprisonment he wrote The Age of Reason, against
U. K. XI.— 12
Palnesville. 1 7ft
Painting.
Atheism, and against Christianity, and in favor of Deism. After an imprisonment of 14
month- lie was released on the intercession of the American government, and restored to
liis s,-at in the convention, lie was chosen by Napoleon to introduce a popular form of
government into Britain, after he should have invaded and conquered the i>iand. Hut
as Napoleon did not carry out hi* design, Paine was deprived of an opportunity of play-
ing the part of legislator for his conquered countrymen. He then retired inio private
lite, ami occupied "himself with the study of finance. In 1802 he returned to the United
Nates and died June 8, 1809. The most complete edition of his works is that by J. P.
Mendum (Bost. 1856); the most noted of his numerous biographers is William (
(1796).
PAINESVILLE. a t,, the co. seat of Lake co., Ohio, on the w. bank of Grand
river, tiie hake ignore and the Michigan Southern, aud Painesville and You;rj-t<>wn rail-
roads; pop. 'TO. 8,728. It has churches, schools, a female seminary, banks. '' weekly
newspapers, foundries, Hour mills, and machine-shops, etc. A viaduct 800 it. long
crosses the Grand river at this point.
PAINS AND PENALTIES. When a person has committed some crime of peculiar
enormity, aud for which no adequate punishment is provided by the ordinary law. the
mode ol proceeding is by introducing a bill of pains and penalties, the object of which,
therefore, is to inflict a punishment of an extraordinary and anomalous kind. The<e
bills are now seldom resorted to, and the last instance of an attempt to revive -uch a
form of punishment was by the ministers of George IV. against queen Caroline, an
attempt which was signally defeated. When a bill of this kind is resolv<d upon, it is
introduced, and passes through all the stages like nny other bill in parliament, except that
the party proceeded against is allowed to defend himself or herself by counsel and A\ it-
nesses. The proceeding is substantially an indictment, though in form a bill.
PAINTER, in naval matters, is the rope by which a boat is fastened to a ship or pier.
PAINTER, GAMALIEL, 1773-1819; b. New Haven, Conn.: received hi- edm-ati. n at
the public schools; the pioneer settler of Middlebury. Vt., erecting the first hotue in
the town. He was also the founder of Middlebury college in that place1, bequeathing
$10,000 for that purpose. In the revolutionary war lie served as capt. of a e<>n>i any.
and as quartermaster. In 1777 he was chosen delegate to the convention which tieclan d
the independence of the state of Vermont, and was representative from his district to
the Vermont legislature in its earliest sessions. In 1793 he was a member of the >
tutional convention of Vermont; held the office of judge of the county court. ai:d v.as
councilor in 1813-14.
PAINTER'S COLIC. See LEAD POISONING, ante.
PAINTER'S CREAM, a composition used by artists to cover oil-paintings in prr_
•when they leave off their work; it prevents drying, aud the consequent showing of lines
where new work is begun. It consists of 6 parts of fine nut oil, and 1 pa;
mastic. The mastic is dissolved in the oil, and then is added a quarter part of ;
or sugar of lead, finely triturated with a few drops of the oil. When well incorporated
with the dissolved mastic, water -must be added, and thoroughly mixed, until the whole
has the consistency of cream. It is applied with a soft brush, and can easily Le removed
with water and a sponge.
PAINTING, the art of representing objects to the eye on a flat surface by means of lir.es
and color, with a view to convey ideas and awaken emotions. See AKT. As .
the tine arts, painting occupies a prominent place; some claim for it the first pi
combining the chief elements— namely, form, light and shade, and color. As con pared,
however, with music and poetry, it lacks the important element of n.ovt men!, the
representation being confined, in'a great measure, to one aspect and one instant of time.
In its ruder and more elementary forms, in which the primary design was to communi-
cate ideas, painting is perhaps the oldest of the arts, older, at all event.-, than writing
(see ALPHABET, HIEROGLYPHICS); and, as a vehicle of knowledge, it p<
advantage over writing — that no flescnption, however minute, can convey M- accurate
and distinct an idea" of an object as a pictorial representation, much less make so
I vivid an impression. Besides tliis, it is not limited, as writing K by differences of lan-
guairo, but speaks alike to all nations and all ages.
The great antiquity of pointing is proved by remains discovered in Egypt, and by
reference to it in ancient writings. It has been ascertained that, as early as the lOlh c.
K.C.. the walls and temples of Thebes were decorated by painting ai:d sculpture.
EzekiH, who prophesied about 598 years B.C.. refers to pniniincs in Jerusalem after the
manner of the Babylonians and Chaldeans. Though no specimens- have come down to
us. it i« evident that paintings of the highest excellence were executed in Greece. Tins is
proved by what is recorded.of them, for the subjects of many of those mentioned required
the putting forth in a high decree of all the qualities requisite for the production of
the greatest historical works, such jis form, grouping, expression, fore-shortening. From
the immense sums given for paintings, the care with which they were preserved in tem-
ples and other public buildings, and from the fact of the high state of sculpture at
contemporary periods, as proved by well-known works now extant, it may be deduced
that painting" which, like sculpture, is based on design or drawing, must have occupied
mPalnesville.
Painting.
an equally high position. Even the imperfect specimens of painting discovered in
Pompeii, where the style and influence of Greek art may be traced to some extent, lead
to conclusions highly favorable to the high position of painting in classic times. The
chief schools of painting in Greece were those of Sicyon, Corinth, Athens and Rhodes.
The rirst great artist of whose works there is any authentic description, and from details
of which an idea may be formed of his attainments, is Polyguotus of Thasos (tior. 420
u.c. ), who painted, among other works, those in the Pu;cile, a celebrated portico at
Athens, and the Lesche, or public hall at Delphi.
The works of Apollodorus of Athens (flor. 408 B.C.) are described and highly praised
by Pliny. Zeuxis, the pupil of Apollodorus, Eupompus, Androcides. Parrhasius (q.v.)
the Kphesian, and Timanthes of Sicyon, prosecuted painting with distinguished su<
and liy them it was carried down to the time of Philip, the father of Alexander. Of the
same period was Pamphilus, celebrated not only for his works, but as the master of the
artist universally acknowledged as the greatest of the ancient painters, Apelles (q.v.),
who was born probably at Colophon, and flourished in the lattter half of the 4tli c. B.C.
He was highly esteemed by Alexander the great, and executed many important works
for that monarch. Protogenes of Rhodes was a contemporary, and may be styled the
rival of Apelles, who greatly admired his works. His picture of lalysus the hunter and
the nymph Rhodes was preserved for many years in the temple of Peace at Rome. Art
in Greece had now reached its highest point; its course afterwards was downwards.
In Italy art was followed at a very early period by the Etruscans, and, according to
, Pliny, painting, as well as sculpture, was successfully practiced in Ardea and Lauuvium,
citii's of Latium, perhaps more ancient than Rome. The finest specimens of Etruscan
art, however — as the paintings on tombs, and the remains of armor and rictiie ware
ornamented with figures, evince unmistakably the influence of, or rather are identical
with Greek art. According to Pliny it was introduced from Corinth about 650 B.C.
No great national school of painting ever flourished in Rome, for though the names of
Romans who were painters are cited, the principal works of art that adorned the tem-
ple- and palaces of Rome were obtained from Greece, and it is probable that many of
the paintings executed there were by Greek artists. When the seat of empire was
transferred to the east, such art as then remained was carried with it, and in a ne\V
phase was afterwards recognized as Byzantine art — a conventional style, in which cer-
tain typical forms were adopted and continually repeated. This mode has been pre-
sui'vcd, and is practiced in church-painting in Russia at this present time.
.Much discussion has arisen in modern times as to the supposed technical modes or
processes of painting employed by the ancients. It seems established that painting in
frcso was much practiced; but many of the most valuable pictures we read of were
removable, and there are accounts of some carrried from Greece to Rome. "The Greeks
preferred movable pictures, which could be taken away in case of fire" ( Wilkinson on,
Emjiitian and Greek Piuntlnf/x), and Pliny says Apelles never painted on walls; therefore,
there can be no doubt that the ancients painted on boards; indeed, the name tabula or
picta proves this, and it seems to be now generally acknowledged that these were,
executed in tempora — that is, with size, and probably fixed or protected by some kind
of varnish, in the preparation of which oil was used; or in encaustic, a process in which
wax was employed to fix and give brilliancy and depth to the colors, heat being applied
in working with it.
Painting was revived in Europe in the 13th c. ; previous to that period, Byzantine
artists chiefly were employed. On the conquest of Constantinople by the Latin-* in
120i, the Byzantine school was broken up, and many Greek artists were transplanted to
Italy, where art was now destined to flourish, so the works of the Italians who profited
by their instructions, were necessarily, at the commencement, composed in the Byzantine
style. The first Italian whose name is associated with the revival of Italian art is Guide
of Sienna; a work by him, a large Madonna, inscribed with his name and the date 1221,
i preserved in that city. The next is Giunto da Pisa .(1236). But Giovanni Cima-
bue (q.v.), 1240-1300), is commonly styled the founder of the Italian school. Sover.il
works of considerable importance are ascribed to him; and though he followed the
Byzantine arrangement, he ventured occasionally out of the path, introduced the study
of nature in his drawing, and imparted a greater degree of softness to his painting than
the Byzantine artists. The influence of Byzantine art was not confined to Italy: if oper-
ated in Germany, Bohemia, and France; but there also art began to assume a nation;-,]
character early m the 13th c., and paintings are still preserved at Cologne, dated 1224
The Italian school of painting, or that style in which so many of the highest qualities of
art have been so successfully carried out, received its chief impetus from Giotto (q.v.),
the son of Bordone, born in 1276 at. Ve<pi«_rnano, near Florence, where he died in 1336.
It is said that he was originally a shepherd boy, and being discovered by Cimabue draw-
ing a sheep on a slate, was instructed by him in painting. 'His style' is distinguished
from that of earlier painters by the introduction of natural incidents and impressions, by
greater richness and variety of composition, by the dramatic interest, of his groups, and
by total disregard of the typical forms and conventional style of his predecessors. His
influence was not confined* to Florence, but extended over the whole of Italy: and works
by this artist may be traced from Padua to Naples. Giotto followed pope Clement V. to
Avignon, and is said to have executed many important pictures there, and in other cities
Piiiuting.
in France. The most celebrated of his frescoes now extant arc those at Assisi; some
noted works by him in that class also remain at Padua, Florence, and Naples. _M.
the small easel-pictures ascribed to him are of doubtful authenticity, but some presence!
in the gallery ai Florence arc acknowledged to be genuine. His high powers as a sculp-
tor and architect are also exemplified by work'- in that city. Giotto had numerous schol-
ars and imitators, and several of these have left works which show that while they
profited by his instruction or example, they were ftlao gifted with original taknt. Among
these may be noticed Taddeo Gaddi, the favorite pupil of Giotto (born 1300, living in
1352); Simone Memmi (1284-1344); and Andrea Orcagna (1329-89), one of the artists
employed in the decoration of the celebrated Campo Santo at Pit-a. Painting in Italy
continued to be impre>:»e.d with the feeling and style of Giotto for upwards of a hundred
ye:;rs; but early in the loth c. the frescoes executed by Masaccio (1401—43) in the iJrau-
c;;<-ci chapel in the Carmelite church at Florence, clearly prove that it had entered on a
new phase, and had come forth strengthened by an important clement in which it form-
erly was deficient, viz.. correct delineation of form, guided by the study of nature.
These celebrated frescoes, twelve iu number, were at one time all ascribed to T.Iasaccio;
but it seems now to be acknowledged by judges of art that two of these are by Masoiino
da Panicalc (1378-141")), the master of Masaccio; and three, or probably four, and a small
portion of one, by Filippino Lippi (1460-1505). The frescoes by Masaccio, however, are
superior to those by Masolino anil Lippi, and, indeed, for many of the highest qualities
in art, have, as compositions, only been surpassed by Raphael in his celebrated cartoons,
in about a century from Masaccio's time, painting In Italy attained its highest develop-
ment; but before referring to those artists who arc acknowledged as having carried paint-
ing to the highest elevation it has attained since the period of the middle ages, it is right
to note the names of some of the painters who aided in raising it to that position. '1 he
works of Fra Giovanni da Fiesole (1387-1455) are highly valued and esteemed by many
critics as the purest in point of style and feeling, and so the best fitted for devotional
purposes. Confining his efforts to simple uud graceful action, and sweet and tender
expression, he adhered to the traditional types, and ventured on none of the bold innova-
tions which were introduced in his time, and carried so far by Masaccio. His example,
as regards feeling and expression, iuilueuced many succeeding areists, particularly Pietro
Perugino, the master of Raphael (1446-1524), and Francesco Francia of Bologna (1450 or
1453-1517), by both of whom these qualities, united to greatly improved technical pou. r,
were brought to high excellence. Giovanni Bellini, the founder of the early Venetian
school (1422-1512), has left many admirable works; he had numerous scholars, among
them Titian and Giorgione. Domenico Corrndi or Ghirlandajo, under whom .Michael
Angelo studied, successfully followed out that direction given to art by Masaccio, which
involved individuality of diameter and expression in :lie figures. Andrea Mantegna, of
the school of Padua (1430-1506). along with strong expression, gave an impetus to form,
modeled on Greek or classic art. Luca Signorelli of Cortona (about 1440-1521), su
fully exemplified powerful action and bold foreshortening, particularly in hi-
Orvieto, which, with his other works, are supposed to have strongly influenced the style
of Michael Angelo. Antonello da Messina (1447-96) is said to have been a pupil of
Jan Van Eyck, who imparted to him his secret in the preparation and use of oil-colors,
the knowledge of which he spread among the Venetians The above statement, how-
ever, as to the exact period at which oil-painting was first introduced, is one attended
with much doubt. Painting with colors mixed in oil is mentioned by Italian writers
before the period of Van Eyck; painting in tempera, or size, was continued in Italy, par-
ticularly in the Florentine and Roman schools, to the time of Raphael; and the transi-
tion from the one method to the other has been so gradual, that many judges of art have
expressed inability to determine whether the pictures of Perugino. Francia, and Raphael
are in oil or tempera, or in both. The practice of painting on canvas, in place of wooden
boards or panels, was introduced and carried on for a considerable time in Venice before
it was adopted in other parts of Italy, and canvas is the material best suited for pictures
in oil-colors when they are not of small dimensions; so, on the whole, the conclusion
seems to be, that though oil-painting was not unknown in Florence and the south of
Italy, painting in tempera was longer practiced there than in Venice. At the time when
the painters above referred to flourished, there were many able artists in Germany, who-e
works are deservedly very highly prized. Among these, Jan Van Eyck (q.v.), (about
1390-1441), deserves special notice. To him is generally given the credit of being the
first painter who used oil in place of size in his colors. His works are remarkable for
brilliant and transparent coloring and high finish. He had numerous scholars; among
these, Justus of Ghent (flor. 1451), Hugo Vander Goes (died 1480) — supposed to be the
painter of the celebrated wings of an altar-piece, now at Holyrood palace, containing
portraits of James III. and his queen — Roger of Bruges (1365-1418), Hans Hemling or
Memling (died 1489), the best scholar of the Van Eyck school; Quintin Matsys (1450-
1529), Jan Van Mabuse (1470-1532), Albert Diirer (q.v.), (1471-1528), Lucas Van Leydeu
(q.v.). (1494-1533). The career of the two last-named extended to the best period of art,
and for many high qualities their works strongly compete with those of the ablest of the
Italians; while portraits by Hans Holbein (q.v.), (1497-1554), and Antonio More (1512-
88) rank with those of any school or period. The leading qualities in German art are
invention, individuality of character, clearness of coloring, and high finish; but they are
Painting.
inferior to the Italians in embodying beauty; their representation of the nude is angular
in form and deficient in the elegance and grace attained by tlie painters of Italy; and in
their draperies they do not attain the simplicity and grandeur so remarkable in the
works of their southern competitors.
Anything like an account of the artists by whom painting was carried to its high-
est pitch, of sufficient comprehensiveness to exhibit their peculiar aesthetic qualities, can-
not be attempted in so short a notice as this; but that deficiency is in some degree sup-
plied by, and reference is made to, the biographical notices of distinguished painters
given in this work under their names. Keeping this reference in view, therefore, the
next step is to note the relative positions generally assigned to the most distinguished
painters of that period, with reference to the estimation in which their works are now
held. Leonardo da Vinci (q.v.), (1452-1519), Michael Angelo .Buonarotti (1474-1563),
and Raphael or RalFaello iSanzio of Urbino (1483-1520), are universally acknowledged as
the three greatest among the Italian artists; but two other names may be added as
Worthy to he put in an equally high place — those of Titian (q.v.), (1477-1576), and
Antonio Allegri, surnamed Correggio (q.v.), (1594-34). These five painters exhibit in
their works, some of them the whole, others the greater portion of the various elements
— which in the earlier periods of art had existed apart, and composed distinct styles —
tmited, and more highly developed; while each of them has taken up one of these ele-
ments, and carried it not only further than his predecessors had done, but further than
it was by his contemporaries, or by any subsequent artist. Thus we see in Leonardo's
celebrated picture of the " Last Supper," that though he has adopted the traditional style
of composition handed down from Giotto's time, and carried out the religious feeling
and dignified expression aimed at by the older masters, the whole is deepened and ele-
vaicd by the manner in which it is worked out — namely, by a mind and hand possessing
mastery over all the elements that are combined in the production of the highest works
of art. Michael Angelo was a proficient in all the qualities that constitute a painter, but
he carried several of them — viz., grandeur of design, anatomical knowledge, and power
of drawing — far beyond all other artists of his own or of later times. Titian and Correg-
gio, again, with great power over every art-element, have each carried one quality further
than all other artists— the former, color; the latter, light and shade. Raphael is gener-
ally allowed the first place among painters, for, though each of the four artists just
referred to carried one, or perhaps Two, of the qualities of painting further than he did,
lie excelled them in every other element but the one for which each was particularly dis-
tinguished, and in several of the highest qualities of art he attained to greater excellence
than any other artist; the expression of dignity of movement by broad masses and grand
lines aimed at in the works of Masaccio, is successfully realized in the cartoons at
Hampton court; and the pictures in which Perugino and I'raucia so earnestly and suc-
cessfully embodied female beauty, maternal affection, and infantine purity, are as much
inferior to pictures of similar subjects by Raphael as they are above those executed dur-
ing the decadence of Italian art. Besides the five leading masters just referred to, there
were many other Italian artists of great talent, who may be ranged in three classes: 1.
the contemporaries of those artists; 2, those influenced by their style; 3, their scholars.
Among their contemporaries, the works of Fra Bartolommeo (1469-1517) and Andrea
Vanucchi, called Andrea del Sarto (1488-1530),' both Florentines, deservedly rank very
high. Giorgio Barbarelli, called Giorgione (1478-1511), was, under Bellini, a fellow-
pupil of, and is generally styled the rival of Titian; and his works, which are of great
excellence, prove that he was worthy of that name. In class 2, Correggio himself may
rank as being influenced by Leonardo's style, but the great prominence of his other
qualities makes his style original and independent. On Bernardino Luini (about 1460,
living in 1530), Leonardo's influence is direct; and as he was an able painter, his pictures
are very valuable for embodying many of those qualities in art which Leonardo had so
much improved. Sebastiano del Piombo. a Venetian (1485-1547), studied under Gio-
vanni Bellini and Giorgione; and after settling in Rome, became intimate with Michael
Angelo, who employed him to paint some of his designs, with a view of benefiting by
bis admirable coloring. His pictures are greatly esteemed, as uniting rich color to
grandeur of design. C'lass 3. All the five leading artists above referred to had pupils or
scholars, particularly such of them as, like Raphael, were much engaged in extensive
works in fresco, in the execution of which assistants are generally employed. A com-
plete list of these, however, would occupy too much space here. Among the scholars
of Michael Angelo, Daniele da Volterra (1509-66) was the best; and among Raphael's
scholars, the first place is generally accorded to Giulio Pippi or Romano (q.v.), (1492-
1546). After the first quarter of the 16th c., painting in Italy, except in the Venetian
school, showed symptoms of rapid decline; that school, however, continued its vitality
longer than any other in Italy, having flourished with all the life of originality during
the whole 16th century. This is attested by the productions of many able Venetian
painters; but among those, the works of Jacopo Robusti, or Tintoretto (q.v.), 1512-94),
and Paolo Caliari, or Veronese (q.v.), 1528-88), are by far the most important. The
pictures of the former exhibit great vigor in composition, and much richness of color —
the former quality evincing the influence of Michael Angelo; ihe latter, that of Titian.
Veronese ranks before even Tintoretto; his compositions are animated and full, and as a
colorist he is a powerful rival io Titian, not aiming at the rich glow of that master's
Painting.-
tints, but excelling every artist in producing the brilliancy and sparkling effect of mid*
daylight on figures gorgeously attired, and seen again>: backgrounds enriched with land-
scape and architecture. The other great schools of Italy, however, as already said, had
le>s vitality than the Venetian, and showed symptoms of decay at the end of the lir>t
quarter of the Kith century. Raphael left numerous scholars and a>>i>tants; many of
these, after his death in 1520. quitted Rome. The pillage of that city by the French
under Bourbon in 1527 had also the effect of dispersing them, and this naturally led to the
style of Raphael, so 1'ar as they could acquire it. being transplanted into other parts of
Italy : but Raphael's style "was founded on his own peculiar feeling for the beautiful, and
on his own peculiar grace; and all that his scholars had acquired or could convey was a
mere imitation of his external forms, without the spirit and pure feeling of which these
form-; are the expression. The imitation of Michael Angel o became the gr.-at object
with the Florentines; but his scholars and imitators being unable to comprehend his
powerful spirit, and not possessing his technical powers and theoretical knowledge, their
pictures are merely exaggerated compositions of academic figures. Nor wen- Correggio's
scholars more successful in following his walk, for they exaggerated the peculia.i::
his style, which in their hands became affected and insipid. Leonardo's scholars
repeated his distinguishing qualities, modified by their own individual peculiarities, and
avoided that academic ostentation displayed by the followers of the masters just named.
Their reputation therefore stands higher.'
The German painters who succeeded Dilrer, Van Leyden, and the other celebrated
artists of their period, before referred to, endeavored to improve their national style by
the study of Itali.m art, at first attempting to combine the two styles, and afterwards,
to the close of the 16th c., devoting themselves exclusively to the study or imitation of the
Italian painters. The works of these artists, the worst productions of any school, form
a connecting link between those of the famous old German masters and the vigorous,
varied, and "at tractive works of the painters of the Netherlands in the 17th century.
Towards the end of the 16th, and during the first half of the 17th c., a revival of art
in Italy was attempted. This was sought for in two ways by two classes of artists; the
larger body were known by the name of eclectics, from their having endeavored to select
and unite the best qualities of each of the great masters, combined with the study of nature;
the other class were distinguished by the name of naturalist!, and they aimed at forming
an independent style, distinct from that of the earlier masters, based on the indiscrim-
inate imitation of common life, treated in/a bold and lively manner. In their develop-
ment, both classes exercised an influence on each other, particularly t he naturalist! on
the eclectics. Eclectic schools arose in various parts of Italy, but the most celebrated
was that at Bologna, founded by Lodovico Carracci (q.v.), (1555-1619), a.-sisted by his
two nephews, Agostino Carracci (155S-1602) and Annibale Carracci (1500-1609). the
most eminent of the three. Many painters of mark were reared in this school; among
those, DonvMiico Zampieri. called Domenichino (q.v.), (1581-1641), and Guido Reni
(q.v.), (1575-1642), wTere by far the most eminent. The art of the eclectics has been
greatly overrated. Till recently, the leaders of that school were always placed on an
equality with the best masters of the early part of the 16th c., and far above any of tin;
painters of the 15th century. These notions have recently undergone a complete change;
it is now acknowledged that the attempt of the eclectics to combine the excellem
various great masters, involves misapprehension with regard to the conception and prac-
tice of art, for the greatness of the earlier masters was brought out in their individual
and peculiar qualities, the uniting of which implies a contradiction. Michael Angeln
Amerighi da Caravaggio (q v.), (1569-1609) was the founder of the naturalisti school;
he resided principally at Rome, but at a later period went to Naples. Malta, and Sicily.
The naturalisti were in their greatest strength at Naples, where they ]>er<e\ crinkly
opposed the followers of the Carracci, their leader being Giuseppi Ribera (q.v.), a Span-
iard, hence called Spagnoletto (1593-1656). With much of the force of Caravaggio. he
united more delicacy and greater vivacity of color. The historical or scriptural subjects
of Salvator Rosa (q.v.), (1615-73) are in the style of the school of. the naturalisti; but
on account of his yenre pieces and landscapes, Salvator is entitled to occupy the place
of the originator of a style noted for certain qualities of poetic feeling. The influence;
of the school of the naturalisti h.id more important results than that of the eclectics, i./r
it affected to some extent the leading masters of the Spanish school. At Rome, con-
temporaneously with Domenichino, Guido, and other leading masters of the school- of
the eclectics and naturalist!, the three following artists elevated landscape-painting to a
high position — Nicholas Poussin (q.v.), a Frenchman (1594-1665) ; Claude Gelee, also a
native of France (1600-82), called Claude Lorraine (q.v.); and Gaspre Duchet, named
Gaspar Poussin (q.v.), born in Rome, but the son of a Frenchman (1613-75). Among
the great masters who occasionally practiced landscape-painting as a distinct branch of
art, the earliest were Titian and Giorgione; the Carracci (particularly Annibale) carried
out their style with considerable success; the landscapes of Domenichino are esteemed,
and other scholars of the Carracci turned their attention in that direction. The reputa-
tion of N. Poussin is principally based on his figure-pictures, the subjects of which were
mythological and scriptural. Into these pictures, he endeavored, with considerable
success, to infuse the classical style; but his compositions were generally arranged with
a large space of landscape background, which was in many cases not the least important
183 Painting.
portion of the picture; and these, and the pictures he painted falling strictly under the
class of landscapes, are distinguished for largeness of style and poetic feeling. Claude
and Gaspar directed all their efforts to landscape, and attained to high eminence in that
department of art.
The earlier specimens of painting in Spain resemble in style the works of the old
German painters, who seemed to have disposed of many of the pictures in that country,
while Spanish art of the 16th c, was modeled on that of Italy, Titian and Raphael being
the masters studied; but when works of the Spanish school are spoken of, those executed
in the 17th c. are always understood to be referred to, as it, was tiien that Spanish art
became entirely national in feeling and style, and that is the period in which the best
works of the school were produced. The two most distinguished Spanish painters are
Don Diego Velasquez (q.v.), (1599-1660), and Bartholonie Estebau Murillo (q.v.), (1618-
83). The portraits of the former are characterized by truthful and dignified expres-
sion, great breadth and vigorous handling, and rank with the best works of that class of
any school ; while the Scripture subjects of the latter, which are noted for tender expres-
sion, rich color, and powerful light and shade, may be classed with similar works by
Rubens and Van Dyck. Spagnolelto, a Spanish painter, lias already been referred to as
a leading artist of" the school of the naturalist! at Naples. Alonzo Cano (1601-67),
Francisco Zurbaran (1598-1662), and Claudio Coello (b. between 1630 and 1640, d. 1693),
.have a high reputation. No name of a Spanish painter of eminence occurs after the
close of the 17th century.
Very soon after the period when the eclectic and naturalistic schools arose in Italy,
a revival of art also occurred in the Netherlands. This was very different in its effects
from the revival in Italy, the only results from which were academical imitation of the
older masters, and coarse naturalism, either separately or combined in varied propor-
tions; while the works of the artists of the Netherlands executed about the same period,
though they do not exhibit the high qualities found in the compositions of the Italian
masters of the best period, possess many new and attractive features — freedom, origi-
nality of treatment, attention to the peculiar character of individual life, and the daily
intercourse of men with each other in all its variety, and the study of nature, brought
out with truth and delicacy of execution. Two important schools of art were Established
by this movement — the Flemish and the Dutch. 'I he Flemish school flourished in Bra-
bant, where the Roman Catholic faith — then making strenuous efforts to oppose the
reformed religion — still retained and actively employed art in its service. The Dutch
school flourished in Protestant and republican Holland, where the artist, having to trust
to private encouragement, painted, for the most part, familiar subjects from everyday
life; and in place of altar-pieces for churches, and large historical and allegorical pic-
tures for palaces produced the subjects then in demand — portraits, genre pictures, or
works in which life and manners are depicted in various phases — landscapes with and
without figures, sea-pieces, battle-pieces, compositions representing hunting, animals,
game, etc. The catalogue of the names of the able artists of these two schools is long;
in the Flemish school, those who stand highest are Peter Paul Rubens (q.v.), (1577-
1640), Anthony Van Dyck (q.v.), (1599-1641), David Teniers (q.v.) the younger (1610-
90), F. Snyders (1579-1657). The following are the most eminent in the long list of
artists of "the Dutch school: Rembrandt (q.v.), (1608-69), Vanderhelst (1613-70), Albert
Cuyp(q.v.). (1605-91), Terbunrh (1608-81). A. V. Ostade (1610-85), J. Ruysdael (q.v),
(1630 or 1636-81), Hobbima (1629-70), P. Potter (1625-54), K. du Jarden (1635-78), Jan
Steen (q.v.). (1636-89), G. Metzu (1615-58), F. Mieris (1635-81), W. Van de Velde (1633-
1707). A. Van der Neer (1613-84), P. Wouvermans (q.v.), (1620-68).
Painting has been practiced for a very long period in France; but there, as in Spain
and in Britain, the marked preference shown in early times by the sovereigns of the
country- for the works of foreign artists, their undervaluing native talent, and their
directing it into a channel supplied from a foreign source, had the effect of neutralizing
it as the exponent of national feeling. Francis I. is acknowledged to have been a patron
of art; he had a desire to possess fine works, and he liberally rewarded able artists, but
his patronage was almost entirely confined to foreigners. Louis XIV. did what he could
to place French art above that of every other nation; but he had no knowledge of it
himself; he did not comprehend its nature and true intention, and imagined that pic-
tures if painted by Frenchmen must necessarily be national. Nevertheless, his influence
was, on the whole, highly beneficial to French national art. He always showed him-
self desirous to employ native rather than foreign talent, and he encouraged and enlarged
the academy of fine arts, which had been founded at the commencement of his reign,
under the direction of Lebrun. Although in many respects the principles and the
regulations of the academy tended rather to the perpetuation of debased Italian, than to
the development of genuine French art: yet the bringing together of a body of influen-
tial French artists, was the measure most likely to foster the feeling of nationality and
to lead to the foundation of a national school of art. In the 16th c., Francois Clouet
was distinguished as a portrait painter; and Jean Cousin as a painter, sculptor, and
architect. In the 17th c. . among many names, those chiefly deserving notice are Simon
Vouet, the brothers Le Nain, N. Poussin. Claude Lorraine, Mignard, S. Bourdon, Le
Sueur, J. Courtois (called Borgognonc). and Coypel. Among these, the works of the
brothers Le Naiu alone possess national feeling and character, and they are held ki very
Painting.
184
considerable estimation; those of the others were executed under the influence of foreign
art; and excepting Claude's splendid landscapes. Poussin's learned compositions, and
sonic of Borgognone'e battle-pieces, hold u low position. The works of Anthony Wai-
tc:i. i (1684-1721) are truly national, excellent in execution, :'.nd very highiy valued.
This artist maybe classed as at the head of the school of the 18th c. — the period in
which art in France became really national. Not only did most of the pointers of his
school — which lasted till the end of the century, when classic art ruled for a time — form
their style upon the works of \Vatleau. but his influence also affected the British school,
which arose soon after that of France! was develop« d. Lancret (1690-17-12) was the
inos: successful imitator of Watteau; Pater (1696-1736) followed in the same course:
Chardiu (1699-1779), though influenced by him. bad an original style o; his oun, and
his works now stand high. The pictures of Boucher (1704-70) exhibit the
the French school of the 18th c., unredeemed by the delicacy ai i! grace, and high icch-
iiical execution and truth of "Waileau, Chardin. and Grcuze (lISo-lM,.')). the '.
whom sustained the character of French national art, and carried it into the '!»;hc.,
when it was re-established, after the classic school of David, founded at the revolution,
and patronized under the empire of (lie first Napoleon, had in its turn been laid aside.
David (q.v.), (1748-1825), the leader of this school, carried his admiration oi
to the length of substituting the study of statues, the works by which the ar! of the
ancients is chiefly known, for that of nature. He had numerous able pupils, several of
whom, tired with this constant repetition of conventional form, ncimcd to nature!
extended their range of subjects, and infused new vigor into the !••:!. cli school.
Among many distinguished artists that have maintained the f;.me of the French school
during the present century the following names may by mentioned: Gericauk, Prud'h n,
Leopold Robert, Delaroche (q.v.), Horace Yernet (q.v.), Ary SchcfTer (q.v.), I
Delacroix (q.v.), and Ingres (q.v). A number of artists, chiefly pupilsof tl.e above, now
sustain the high position of French art in every department; while in th, t of !;,!!•.
illustrative of French scenery, a branch of art never much studied in past times, meat
progress has been made, and the rise of this flourishing branch of French art is :i< knoul-
edged by the French themselves to be due to the wo'ks of the English painter Constable,
exhibited iu Paris in 1824.
The English school was the latest national school that arose in Europe, for although
the modern schools of Germany and Belgium are of t-till later date, having arisen in the
present century, still they can scarcely be classed as new schools, but rat avals
of former national schools. In England, as in France, foreign artists chiefly were in
early times employed by the court and the nobles. Henry VIII. competed with Francis
I. for the services of the greatest of the Italian artists, and permanently secured these
of Hans Holbein, one of the most distinguished of those of Germany. Charles I. liber-
ally patronized Rubens and Van Dyck; and if he had reigned longer, would in all proba-
bility, like Louis XIV., have founded a national school. But referring to the sej
notices in this work of the foreign artists under their names respectively who were
employed in this country, and to the article MIKIATTIIE PAINTING for no! ice of seveial
eminent native artists in that .branch of art, it is only necessary here to touch on the
subject of painting in this country from the time it acquired a truly national chai; ctcr.
At the beginning of the 18th c., art in Britain was at the lowest ebb; the career
Godfrey Kneller (q.v.) (1648-1725 or 1726), the last of the foreigners, was dnnvin.L
close; sir James Thornhill (1676-1734), an Englishman, followed out the decorative kind
of art on which Verrio, La Guerre, and others were so much employed: but aft<
death, that debased style finally went down. The time had now arrived for native art-
ists, if there were any entitled to the name, to assert their independence; and ac-coMj-
ingly, in 1734-35, as many as from thirty to forty artists combined together in !.•
and instituted an academy for studying the human figure. About the same time a > '.mi
lar movement was going'on in Edinburgh; thccontiact or indenture for establishing a
school of art, dated Oct. 18, 1729, and signed by 17 artists, besides amateurs, is n> the
possession of the royal Scottish academy. The effort above referred to, of artists < om-
bining to found a life academy, was mainly due to William Hogarth (1697-1704), who,
on this account, and from his first having developed, in a very high degree of <-.\< el
in his works, the leading characteristics of the English school, is justly entitled to be
considered its founder. This combination led to these important results— it showed the
artists their strength, and enabled them, after a probation of 34 years, to found the
royal academy, an institution managed by artists, and intended to support and encourage
a national school of art. The means by which the royal academy proposed to attain its
purpose were the following: 1, by founding a school where artists may learn tin i:
fession; and 2, by instituting an exhibition where, independently of private patronage
and support, artists may bring their works directly before the public. ITormih died
four years before the royal academy was organized; but he powerfully contributed to
its establishment by his exert ions in bringing the artists together in 17:"4. by supporting
the modern exhibitions at Spring gardens, and by ridiculing by }\}< pencil and pen the
passion of the cognoscenti of the day for crying up as superior to the modern the doubt-
ful specimens of 'old art which were largely imported and disposed of at great prices in
numerous salerooms established for the purpose in London. As regards technical exe-
cution^ and indeed in style generally, the English artists were at first indebted to the
Painting.
French school, which, in the commenceme at of the 18th c., was in great vigor. Hogarth
himself, iu these respects, looked closely at the works of Watteau, engravings from
which were well known iu this country iu his time; indeed, Watteau's pictures were so
greatly admired here that he came over and spent the year 1720 painting in London,
ut Hogarth, \hough alive to the qualities iu art produced by others, ranks among
painters as one of the most original, for he greatly extended the dramatic element in
painting, and imparted an originality and vigor to it never before attained; and his
example has led to that element being one of the leading features of the English school,
as is exemplified in the works of Wilkie (q.v.), Leslie (q.v.), Stuart Newton, Boniugton,
and others; and those of many distinguished artists of the present day. In the depart-
ment of portrait-painting, many of the works of the British school rank with those of
Titian, Van Dyck, and Velasquez, such, for instance, as Reynolds's portraits of Nelly
O'Brien and lady Hamilton, Gainsborough's Mrs. Graham and Mrs. Siddons, and
some of Raebunf s heads, etc. While in that of landscape, the position of the English
school is acknowledged to be very high, its influence now strongly affecting the French
school — this is proved by the works of R. Wilson, Gainsborough (q.v.), and Turner
(q.v.), the last of whom, for wide range of subject, and rendering of atmospheric effect,
stands alone; Constable, whose powerful grasp of nature has excited the emulation of
the French artists; Calcott (q.v.), Collins (q.v.), Nasniyth, J. Thomson, Muller, and
others; and their successors, the artists of the day, who ably represent the Englisn
school. Animal-painting has also been elevated to a high position. And an important
department, that of painting in water-colors, originated iu England, and has there attained
far higher excellence than in any other country.
Painting is cultivated with success and receives much encouragement iu America,
but there the features that mark a national school have not yet had time for develop-
ment. From the close connection between Britain and America, the art of the latter
country was naturally influenced by and became assimilated to that of the former.
America may, however, justly take credit for having contributed in no small degree to
strengthen the British school of art, as several very able members of the royal academy
were Americans. Benjamin West (1788-1820) was one of the original members, and
elected president of the royal academy in 1806. J. S. Copeley (1737-1815), elected R.A.
in 1799; his "Death of Chatham," and "Defense of St. Heliers, Jersey, against the
French, and Death of Major Pierson at the moment of Victory," are excellent works,
and as such were conserved in the national gallery, London. C. R. Leslie (1794-1859)
wu- born in London of American parents; but in 1799 went to Philadelphia, where he
was educated.. Returning to London in 1811, he entered the schools of the royal acad-
emy; was elected academician in 1826. and professor of painting in 1848. G. S". Newton
(1794-1885) — he was admitted a student of the royal academy in 1821, and elected
academician in 1832. Washington Allston (1780-1843) was elected an associate in 1818;
but afterwards returned to America, where he died. With the exception of the last
named, the feeling evinced in the works of all these artists, influenced by study and
con inued residence, was essentially English; indeed few have equaled Leslie and New-
ton iu their power of embodying the various incidents made national by English poets;
and iu none of their works can anything be set down as contributing in any degree to
the foundation of a national American school. There is every reason to think, however,
that such a school is being gradually evolved, and will soon be developed. Already
something like originality of a national kind is exhibited in landscape painting, in
which some American artists are endeavoring to embody scenes embracing a vast extent
of countiy. or of extraordinary magnitude — such as those met with in the Andes, at
Niagara, or exhibited by floating icebergs; and American literature, having now assumed
imposing proportions, and great historical events having recently taken place, illustra-
tions of American poetry and pictures of stirring national events will be called forth;
and able American artists will doubtless be found to embody them and create a school
truly national.
A g-,'iKTal survey of painting at the present time exhibits the following aspect and
arrangement: 1. A school in Germany, which arose during the present century, osten-
sibly a revival of the old national, but truly modeled on the early Italian school, the
religious element being prominent. Its principal works are mural,' of large dimension,
and mostly executed in fresco, or on a kind of fresco lately invented, called silica or
water-glass painting, from a vehicle of that kind being used. Invention, composition,
grouping, and powerful and correct drawing, characterize the modern German works;
but being of necessity executed from cartoons, they are deficient in that amount of
individual expression, and natural color and effect, that can only be attained by a direct
and continued reference to the object represented! 2. A Belgian school, which arose in
the present century, and is also a revival of the earlier national schools. Some of the
Belgian artists lean to the manner of the very early Flemish school, others to that of
Which Rubens was the head. The greater portion "of the Belgian works are easel-pic-
tures, and many of them rank high for individual expression, color, and technical exe-
cution. 3. A French school, exhibiting in active operation the various styles that have
at different periods prevailed in that country, sometimes modified or Adapted to the taste
and feel ina: of the times. The works of the French school of the 18th c. were utterly
condemned by French artists at the close of that and commencement of the present
Fainting:.
century. They would tolerate nothing but what they called classic art. L'Ecole da*-
sique, as it was styled, was in its turn supplanted by I" KcoL roinitntii/'n . Now. hov, e\ er,
all styles are tolerated, even those of foreign schools — for instance, tin: English school of
lands. -ape — and there can be no doubt that, by the extensive ranue of sul)ject, invention,
drawing, and other high <]ii;dities the French artists display in their works they bave
now raised that school ton very high position. 4. A British school, whieii has been in
existence as a national school nearly as long as that of France, undisturbed by the con-
vulsions that affected it. Vitality in art is maintained by close reference to nature, and
this has all along been the leading characteristic of the English school; while tin- ten-
dency of the artists at present is, taking advantage of the aid of science, whieii lias
lately discovered photography, to study nature with still greater earnestness and care.
The high claims of the British school, long denied abroad, are now fully admitted. For-
merly, foreigners never classed a British school among those of Europe, but now this is
invariably done. One of the most popular writers on art in France, Theophile Gamier,
in his work, Les Beaux-Arts en Europe, divides the art of the world into four strongly*
denned zones — viz., Great Britain, Belgium, Germany, and France — Britain bei;;.
tinguished by " individuality," a potent element in art ; Belgium, by " skill "; Germany,
by " ideality"; and France, by " eclecticism, "or a selection and combination of the quali-
ties of all other schools.
Regarding technical modes or processes of painting, reference is made to the separate
notices under FRESCO, ENCAUSTIC, MIMATUKE.PAINTING. The period when the method
of mixing up colors with oil was introduced, and the artists to whom the invention is
attributed, have been already alluded to. It is necessary, however, to enter on some
details touching the mechanical processes in oil-painting, the branch of tin; art that
occupies the most prominent position; and the practice of cleaning and restoring
pictures.
The implements used by a painter in oil are charcoal, chalk, or lead pencils, for
drawing the outline; hair-pencils or brashes of various sizes, made of hoi:'.- l>,i-
finer hair, such as sable; a knife or spatula to mix the colors, and a paieitc or small table
of thin wood, to be held in the left hand, on which the colors and tints are placed and
mixed; an easel or stand for supporting the picture is also required, and a light n
steadying or resting the hand on. Large pictures are always executed on canvas, stretched
tightly on a frame, and primed or coated with paint. Small pictures are often painted
on boards or panels, generally of hardwood, such as oak or mahogony, and similarly pri mod
or prepared; but canvas, even for small works, seems at present to be generally preferred.
Panels are apt to twist, or warp, or split, and in the event of the surface of a picture
chipping or breaking off from the ground, the damage can be more easily remedied, and
its progress stopped, when the picture is on canvas, by re-lining. The color tit' the
ground of the canvas or panel has been the subject of much diversity of opinion among
artists in different countries and at various periods; and it is certainly a matter of
importance, as it affects the general color of the work, or makes it necessary for the
artist to adopt a peculiar style'of working. The color of the ground used by the early
masters was white, or nearly purely white. This arose from tempera or si/.e 1>< ing the
medium first used in painting, and a pure white ground prepared with si/.e was neces-
sary for that kind of work. This practice, except as regards the Venetian school, con-
tinued till the decline of Italian art. Dull red was the universal color adopted in the
eclectic, naturalistic, and late Italian schools, and this is one of the causes of the works
of these schools being characterized by blackness and heaviness; at the same time, it is
certain that red grounds were also used by many of the best Venetian painters, in whose
works these defects are never found, probably from having used an impasto or body of
color sufficiently powerful to bear out on the ground. A dark ground allords a facility
for working expeditiously, and that, probably, was the principal cause i\,i its being
adopted. The Dutch ana Flemish painters generally used light grounds; some of them
light-brown, nearly the color of oak. Van Dyck occasionally used gray, and sometimes,
when he painted in Italy, dull-red grounds. In the British school, light ground 8 are
preferred. Some artists use smooth canvas, others prefer it rough, and avail them
of the texture to increase the richness of the surface of their work. All th<
in the materials are called for in consequence of the numerous styles or modes adopted
by painters in oil colors. Every artist has his peculiar way of working, an 1 in bringing
out the color or effect, or special quality in his picture, by which the feeling or idea of
the subject he conceives is expressed. No two artists — imitators and copiers are not
referred to — produce their tints by mixing colors in the same proportions, nor. indeed,
by using the same colors; and it is difficult to lay down general rules for the execution
of works, seeing that depends very much on individual feeling and appreciation. The
design or drawing is first outlined on the canvas, if it is light, with charcoal, or with
white chalk when it is dark, and these lines are easily dusted off or rubbed out when
corrections are made. It is then put in with black chalk or a lead pencil. Not many
years ago it was the practice of painters, particularly landscape-painters — Xasmyth. for
instance — to rub in the design with some brown color, such as a tint composed of burned
sienna and black; but this practice is not much adopted now. Some artists make but a
slight outline, and paint — or, as it is called technically, rub — in the subject in a bold,
rough manner, afterwards gradually finishing it up; others draw the design very care-
Painting.
fully, ami work the picture up in portions, finishing or nearly finishing one portion
before commencing another. In arranging the colors, or as it is called, setting the
palette, ninny artists use a great variety of colors, others produce rich tones with few
colors; some mix up tints in various gradations, others place the colors on the palette,
commencing at the outer edge with white, followed by yellows and burned sienna (a
reddish brown), then reds, including lakes, sucli as pink, madder, next blue, and lastly
black, and merely mix up the tint on tiic center of the palette with their brush, as they
proceed. In laying the colors on the canvas, the painter with his brush mixes or dilutes
them with what is called a vehicle or medium. Here, again, the practice of artists is
very varied; and this is a matter of importance, as the tone and quality of the picture,
as regards texture or surface and transparency, is much affected by the medium employed,
and the manner of using it. The durability of the work also depends very much on the
medium and the artist's management of it. A medium composed of mastic varnish and
drying or boiled linseed oil, named niagilp, is that most generally used. This mixture
lates or forms a jelly, and has the advantage, when placed on the palette, of not
running off it, or mixing with the colors when the palette is not held level. Some painters
prefer using raw linseed oil mixed with a dryer, such as litharge, or drying oil mixed
with turpentine, or copal varnish and turpentine, or copal varnish and oil, with mastic
varnish added, to make it coagulate. Other ingredients are often mixed with the medium
to give a thick consistentcy to the paint, such as fat or thickened nut oil, paste, etc. ; and
various preparations sold by artists' colormen are much used; for instance, Roberson's
medium, and Siccalif de Harlem, a preparation imported from Paris. The mode of
using the medium is of great consequence; some apply it very sparingly, others, particu-
larly those who prefer magilp, or a medium that coagulates, employ it lavishly. By the
lirst. method, firmness and decision of touch may be exhibited, by the latter, richness
and brilliancy of tone; the excess tends to produce, in the one case, a hard and dry sur-
face, and the want of the protection that varnish mixed with the color gives against
atmospheric action ; the other induces a surface having a horny appearance, and a ten-
dency to darken, or crack, or open up.
Arresting the decay. of pictures, and repairing, or, as it is styled, restoring them, after
they have suffered from age or bad usage are matters which engage much attention.
There can be no doubt that many paintings of vast importance have been saved by the
care and skill of those who have earnestly devoted themselves to that kind of work; but
picture-cleaning is now a trade followed in numerous instances by ignorant pretenders
and quacks, who hold out that they possess seme means by which they can freshen a
picture, and restore it to the state it was in when originally executed. Generally speak-
ing, the great extent to which this business is carried on is owing to the credulity of
those who dabble in collecting old pictures, one great incentive to which being the hope
of picking up, or discovering, some picture of great value concealed under the dirt and
discoloration acquired in a long course of years; but, nevertheless, there can be no doubt
that many proprietors of works of art who collect from far higher motives are remark-
ably prone to call in the picture-cleaner when his services are anything but necessary or
beneficial. The late sir Edwin Landseer, R.A., when examined by the select committee
of the house of commons appointed to inquire into allegations of damage by cleaning,
sustained by the pictures in the National gallery in London (report and evidence ordered
to lie printed, 1858), stated in the following terms, his idea of this rage for picture-
cleaning, or rather picture-destroying: "The first thing, whenever a picture is sold, I
think, is, that it goes to a picture-restorer, or a picture-liner, or a picture-cleaner, no
matter what its condition is. It is exactly the same thing as when you buy a horse;
your groom says he will be all right when he has a dose of physic through him, whether
he wants it or not." The mania for picture-cleaning is not confined to this country; it
is extensively carried on with even more ruinous consequences abroad, particularly in
Italy, where there is a large traffic in old, and few commissions for modern works, and
where in many of the public galleries one or more picture-cleaners, for whom work must
be ft.und, are attached as permanent officers.
The process'of picture-cleaning, or the removal of the old varnishes or other incrusta-
tions by which a painting may be obscured, is effected either by mechanical or chemical
means. The first method is accomplished when the varnish on the surface is mastic, by
rubbing with the fingers the surface of varnish when in a dry state, by which action it is
brought off in a fine white powder; or by scraping or erasing the surface with sharp
steel instruments when the surface of the picture is tolerably smooth. The first of these
processes is the best that can be employed; but when the surface is rough or unequal,
the prominent portions are apt to be over-rubbed; erasing or scraping is often practiced
in Italy, but rarely in this country. The chemical means consist in the application of
solvents, chiefly alkali, or alcohol, to dissolve the old varnish. The danger here is, that
the action of these solvents is not always stopped with sufficient promptness raid dex-
terity, and part of the surface of the picture is taken off; consequently it is by this latter
process that most destruction is caused. For the various methods employed in picture-
cleaning, the report and minutes of evidence, already referred to. may be consulted, and
the Guide Thturique et Pratiwte de F Amateur de Tableaux, par Theodore Lejewne (Paris.
1864), in which are stated all the most approved methods of cleaning and restoring
pictures.
Painting.
Works on pain tine and painters: Vasari (Florence, 1568); Borghini (Florence, 1584);
Rodolphi (Venice, 1648); Zanetti (Venice, 1771); Lan/i (17!r_'), (John's edition of Roi
translation; Von Rumour (Berlin, 1S27); Kuglcr's Hand-book of Painting, JtiiUnn
(ed. by Easthike, 185o), Gen/mit, F«nu^li, and Dutrl; .SvW/x ( is-iil); N/ *//,/>// "/••</ /
Schuol* (1848); History of Painting in Italy, by Crow e ami Cavalca>die (IS76): linnd-
b i •!,- for Young Painters; by C. ' R. Leslie, "it. A. (1805); Ruskin's Modern, Painters
(1843—60).
PAINTING (ante) in the United States had slow development until a comparatively
recent date. The colonial period and the lirst half century of the republic were not
conducive to the culture of art, although even then America had already produced
artists of merit, recognized both here and in Europe — notably Benjamin \Ve.-i • i ,:;-; 1820),
who was not only honored by the academies of Florence. Parma, and Bologna, but made
president of the royal academy of England; of his numerous works, c lim.-.ied ai
most are in that country, but his "Lear," "Hamlet and Ophelia.'' " Chrisl Healing the
Sick," and "Rejected Christ," are in this country. Copley (!;:!? i.-mks very
high as a portrait painter, whose works were valued for botli truthfulness and coloring.
His historical paintings, likewise, were much admired, and three are in the national
gallery. It is said that the first American flag hoisted in England appeared in a portrait
by him, Dec. 5, 1782, the day ou which the king formally recognized the United .Stales.
Leslie (1794-1859), also, was honored in England, and valued for the high d.r
subjects which he painted; but though he was appointed professor of painting in the royal
academy, and published A Hand-book for Young Pat/item, he excel led Ica-i in coloring.
Allston (1779-1843), although named last, is really the tirst American anist win
superior to the English traditional style, which more or less charactcri/cd the produ
of the former. His "Spalatro" or ''The Vision of the Bloody Hand" he esteemed the
best of his pictures. Mr. Page said of it: "In color it is not as good as the bv-t of
Titian's, yet few pictures of Titian's, of that size, are so good in color. In comp»
and chiaro-oscuro it is one of the great pictures." His was a genius of no common .
the versatility of his conceptions, and the lofty purity of his spirit shining in them,
entitle him to a place in the front rank of the best painters of the period. " The beauty
of ' Beatrice ' and ' Rosalie,' the prophetic sternness of ' Jeremiah,' the grace of ' Miriam,'
the moonlight effects, the forests and mountains of his landscapes, the horror of ' Spala-
tro,' and the impressive mysteriousuess of 'The Reviving Dead -Man/ display a won-
derful scope of thought, and a surprising power of execution" (Clement, Handbook
etc.).
A distinctly accentuated American school of painting had no existence before
when Thomas Cole (1801-1848) originated what, has been called the Am;-: v an school of
landscape painting. His experiments were views of the Hudson, for which lie found a
ready market. When some of his autumnal pieces, reflecting the glovii < of Am.
sunshine, were exhibited in England, they were thought the invention of an extravagant
Yankee. Although his allegorical pictures arc most celebrated, they are artistically
inferior to his landscapes, which are lovely and loving reproductions of natuie. He
painted nature in England, Sicily, and Italy' but he loved her nowhere so int.
America, and performed with his brush the same service for our scenery. »s has
said, which Bryant performed with his pen. He wrote from Italy, "Neither tin- Alps,
nor the Apennines, nor even Etna itself, have dimmed in my eyes the beauty of our
own Catskills." Among his numerous followers in that department of painting, and
among tli3 earliest. American artists who interpreted with truth and feeling oar autum-
nal season, Thomas Doughty deserves to be named. The first American painter
who attempted genre, with rather doubtful success, was Henry Inman; his nictuiv
quite numerous; some of his portraits are in ihe Boston athenaeum, Independence hall,
Phila., City hall, N. Y., and the capitol at Albany; his f/enre pictures are in private col-
lections, and amongthem are the "Boyhood of Washington," the "Newsboy." ''Awak-
ing of Rip Van Winkle," etc. Rembrandt Peale (1787-1830), the son of Charles A\ il-on
Peale, who painted 14 different pictures of Washington, and established a museum in
Philadelphia, is said to have produced the best portrait of Washington: he painted ;wo
historical subjects, but both he and his father were portrait, painters. Since then there
are few departments of painting in which American artists have not labored, a. id often
with marked success; the limits of this article preclude even passing notices of the best
of their works. The fields of history and r/cnre give us the names 01 Kothennel.
(a fine colorist), Eastman Johnson, Winslow Homer, Lcut/.e. Weir. .May. Powell. I)
Lambdin, Hennessey, Hall, Brown. Terry, Coleman, Freeman. Perry. Vedder, and V.
Marine subjects, those of Bradford. Dana, DeHaas, Dix. Haseltine. Moran. and others.
Animals are treated by J. H. and W. H. Beard, Butler. P. Moran, Tail. Hay. and Ilink
ley. Portraiture is cultivated by Ames, Baker. LeClcar, Flagg. Gray, Hicks, Hunt,
Staigg, Stone, and many more. Landscape furnishes the names of Church, Biorstadt,
Kensett, Inuess. James M. a-ul William Hart. Cropsey. ( asilcar. the Giifords, Brown,
Bristol. Cranch, Griswold, Gignoux; Wyant, Fitch, and many besides.
Landscape is probably the true field for the growth of a pure and noble American
school of painting, where leaning on foreign schools might be, and ultimately will l>e,
avoided. It is not the departed classicism of the older masters, nor the fashionable.
Painting.
adaptation of French coloring and ideal lines, nor the realistic and utterly unpoetic prosi-
ness of so many English landscapes that is required, but an honest, persistent study of
American scenery, which needs no foreign aid to be truly and enthusiastically portrayed.
It is difficult to indicate the horizon of the ideal; ideality pertains as much to poetry and
music as to painting; it may be said to be its very soul; but an ideal painting is not
necessarily au exaggerated one of impossible mountains, gigantic foliage, and garish
illumination.
In the domain of historical paintings, likewise, the drift is an escape from such barren
liteniiness as is often found crowded into walls of canvas; it is not size, or the multipli-
cation of figures about as life-like as the ordinary photograph, but spirit, the true and
feeling poetry of the motive, that are wanted, and here also there is a manifest tendency
to idealize. In portrait painting it is not the minute delineation of secondary accessories,
but expression, that now rivets attention, and in that field lies the amplest scope for the
application of true artistic skill. In a photograph there may be resemblance; in a por-
trait, if it be a portrait, there must be speaking likeness, life-like, or better still, living
expression of character, mood, and carriage; here also the drift is in the direction of the
poetic or ideal. The same drift seems To characterize genuine American r/em'e, e.g.,
George Fuller's "And She was a Witch" plainly shows that motives may be found on
native soil admitting of poetic and ideal treatment. Anything more unpleasantly bare
than the "Coming Man, "by Frank Duvenek, and painfully realistic than Muhrman's
" Bather," could not easily be conceived. Realistic or exaggerated literalness should
have no place in American genre. As the number of French pictures, and of the Diis-
seldorf and Munich schools, in the United fcilates, is much greater tlfaii that of others, a
certain leaning on their styles is more or less perceptible in not a few of the recent pro-
ductions of our native painters, as a leaning on the English style characterized the works
of our earlier artists. With the growth of art in the country, and the growth of an art
clientele, the tendency to draw artistic excellency, and to rise to higher standards, Ameri-
can art, with her illimitable H sources and possibilities, has a bright future before it; and
the time will come when writers like Lilbke will, in 8vo volumes of 900 pages, find a
little more to say of art in America than in the six lines which dispatch.it by the juxta-
position of the names of Leutze, Winslow Homer, Thomson, Bierstadt, Whittridge,
Coleman, and Gifford. The Preraphaelite movement of Englkii origin, and by no means
limited^o England, has obtained of late a certain vogue here, but its grotesqueness will
prevent it from ever being permanently national among us.
Attention is directed to the superior art-illustrations which of late years have been
introduced in American publications, and they very often, and very felicitously, bring
matter purely American in conception, motive, and force.
PAINTING (HousE) is one of the useful arts, combining much that is artistic with
much that is absolutely necessary. The primary object of painting houses, or parts of
them, either internally or externally, is to preserve them from decay — to cover the parts
liable to suffer from exposure with a durable composition. That now used is made of
ground white-lead mixed with linseed oil. This produces white paint, which forms the
basis of all others. The various colors given to it are produced by the grinding of pig-
ments (or stnine.rs) along with the white-lead. The commonest of these are ochres (yellow
and red earths), lampblack, Venetian red, umber, Prussian blue, chrome, vermillion, etc.
Substances called driers are also mixed with the paint, such as spirits of turpentine,
boiled oil, litharge, and sugar of lead ground in oil. Paint may be laid on any material
— stone, wood, iron, and plaster being the most usual in buildings. It has the effect of
preserving these by filling up the pores in them and forming a coating on which the
moisture of the atmosphere does not act. The paint is laid on in several coats or layers,
each being allowed to dry before the next is applied. The usual number of coats for
new wood or plaster varies from three to six. Five coats form a good and lasting pro-
tection from the weather. Plain painting is generally finished with a coat prepared with
a mixture of oil of turpentine, which takes off the gloss from the paint, and leaves the
surface quite mat or dead. This is called flatting. A very common form of decoration
in all ages has been to imitate the veins or colors of marbles, and the grains or marks of
growth of various woods. In modern times these arts form a separate branch of house-
painting, some men being cjrainers, others marblers, etc. The mode in which these imi-
tations are produced is by forming a grounding of several coats of plain paint — usually
four — and applying the coloring coat over this. In marbling the coloring matter is
marked and veined with feathers, in place of brushes; and in graining steel combs are
used. When the surface is dry it is protected with one or more coats of copal varnish.
Besides painting, the decorator uses paper-hangings for adorning the walls of houses.
These are applied to the walls with paste. Size-coloring is also used, the coloring mat-
ter in this case being mixed with strong size (q.v.) in place of oil; but this has the disad-
vantage of being easily acted on by moisture. It is often used for the ceilings of
common rooms, and for the walls of kitchens and servants' apartments, being much
cheaper than oil-paint. In ancient times, in Greece and Rome, wax was used in mixing
the colors with; but although there are many very fine specimens of Roman paintings
still preserved on the walls of the houses of Pompeii, the mode in which these decora-
tions were applied is not known
Paints. -i nrj
Parley.
PAINTS, PAINTERS' COLORS, or PIGMENTS. These nomes are applied to the prepared
or unprepared compositions by which wood, stone, and other materials are coaled with
a preservative surface of oil. mixed with an earthy matter to give it color and ronsi.-t-
em:y; also to the materials used by artists to produce the colored surfaces of their
pictures. The art of painting in its primitive slate consisted merely in applying such
natural, mineral, and vegetable colors as wen: spontaneously yielded, without any
vehicle to render them permanent, consequently ihey had to lie renewed as often as they
were rubbed or washed off from the surfaces to which they were applied. The paints
now in use are nearly all mixed with a liquid vehicle, and are applied hi the liquid
The mixing materials are varied according to the requirements of the work. Tin
some kinds of decorative work, and for water-color drawings, gum, glue, ,-i/e. or other
adhesive materials dissolved in water, are employed; whilst for the pain'ing of build-
ings, etc., and for oil-paintings, oils of various kinds are used for mixing ai;d thinning
the colors. Thus, for painted work exposed to the weather, it is found that linseed nil
boiled with the sulphates of lead (litharge) or zinc, or with acetate of lead (n;gar of lead),
is the best. The preparation of boiled oil is one requiring particular care, as it is de-ara-
ble to have it bright and -clear. Hence the proportions of the metallic salts are much
varied by different manufacturers, and by some various other ingredients are added.
The time of boiling and the method of filtering are also much varied. For indoor \.ork,
plain linseed oil and oil (spirit) of turpentine are used; if a glossy surface is wished, the
linseed oil must be in excess; if a dull or fattened surface, then the quantity of turpen-
tine, or turps, as it is often technically called, must be increased; and it is usual to
add a small quantity of ground litharge and sugar of lead, which are prepared for
this purpose, and sold under the name of driers. For artists' colors, very fine linseed or
nut oil is used, unboiled, and in small quantity, and turpentine is employ* d to dilute
them. Paints for very rough purposes, such as ship-work, stonewalls, etc., are oiteu
mixed with whale oil boiled with white vitriol (acetate of zinc), litharge, and vinegar,
and they are diluted with common linseed oil and turpentine.
Most of the paints used for ordinary purposes are composed first of the coloring
matter, then of a quantity of white-lead, with which and the oil they are worked into u
paste of the shade required, and afterwards thinned down with oil and turpentine when
used. The white-lead which thus forms the basis of most paints, and by itself a color,
is a carbonate and oxide of the metal, produced by exposing pieces of lead to the action
of the steam of acetic acid in beds of fermenting tan. It is the principal white paint
used, but is liable to discoloration from the gases contained in impure atmo'i
Other white pigments are prepared from the oxide of zinc, and the earl>"nate and >\>.\-
pliate of barytes. Pale yellow is made with chromate of strontian, orange-yellow with
sidphuret of cadmium, whilst several varieties of this color are produced by chromate of
lead, sulphuret of arsenic, or king's yellow, and various native earths in which silica
and alumina are combined with oxide of iron. Amongst these are yellow ochre, Oxford.
Roman, stone, orange, Indian, and American ochres. -R«Z*arc either purely min< •
they are kikes, i.e., organic colors precipitated on alumina bases. Of the latter there are
madder-lakes, prepared from madder-roots, and carmine-lakes, prepared from cod/
of the former, vermillion (bisulphuret of mercury), Indian red (a native oxide of iron),
Venetian red (also an oxide of iron), red lead (red oxide of lead or ?////< /<///<). A very
beautiful red is used by artists called palladium red; it is formed of ammouio pcr-
chloride of palladium. Blues consist of the artificial ultramarine, and for artists' pur-
poses of the real ultramarine, also the silicate of cobalt, and for water-colors, indigo
and Prussian blue. Greens are either produced by mixtures of yeUvir* and blue*, or they
are made directly from the phosphates, carbonates, acetates, and arsenites of <•<
also from the sesquioxide of chromium and from tcrre rerte. a native mineral, cons
of iron, silica, potassa, and magnesia. The last two are the best for artists. Jl,
are numerous, and various in their composition. Decomposed peat, burned madder,
burned Prussian blue, burned terre vertc, asphalt, manganese brown, catechu, umber
(which is an oxide of iron with manganese), and mummy, or the asphalt mixed with
other matters taken from Egyptian mummies, are amongst the best known and
used/ Blacks are made of lampblack and hone-black (q.v.), peroxide of manganese
blue-black, which is made of the charcoal of burned vine twigs.
In all cases the coloring materials of paints require to be very Snely ground, and as
many are very poisonous, great care is required in their preparation, and several forms
of mill have been invented for the purpose. The principle upon which all are made is
to secure the operator from the poisonous dust and exhalations, and to reduce the color-
ing material, if ground dry, to an impalpable powder, or, if mixed with the oil, to a
perfectly smooth paste.
PATXTTAXS. HENRI JOSEPH, i783-1854; b. France; educated at the polytechnic
school, and appointed to the artillery, in which he rose to be gen. He made valuable
improvements in heuvv ordnance, in gun-carriages and projectiles, and the methods of
working guns. The Paixhans gun, intended for ships of war or coast fortresses, and
adapted to throwing shells and hollow shot, was adopted in France about 1824. and
afterwards in England. It was \ised by the Russian fleet which destroyed the Turkish
lorts and ships ia the harbor of Sinope. Paixhans recommended cylindro-conical pro-
m Paints.
Paisley.
jectiles as going more directly and striking more powerfully than round balls, and
exposed to less resistance from the air. He believed in smaller ships carrying heavier
guns for firing shell and hollow shot. The original Paixhans gun was 9 ft. 4 in. long,
with a bore of 8| in., and a weight of about 7,400 Ibs. The charge was between 10* and
18 Ibs. of powder. It would bear hollow shot of 60 Ibs., or solid shot of 86 to 88 Ibs.
He wrote several works on naval artillery.
PAISIELLO, GIOVANNI, an eminent musician, son of a veterinary surgeon at Taranto,
wa^ b. in 1741, and received his musical education in the conservatorio St. Ouofrio at
Naples. Of his earlier operas produced at Naples, the most celebrated was Dal Finto al
Vet'o, composed in 1777. Some of his best works, particularly 11 Barbiere de Semglia,
were written during an 8 years residence at St. Petersburg. At Vienna, he composed
12 symphonies for a large orchestra, and the opera buffa, II re Teodoro. Between 1785
and 1799, he produced a number of operas for the Neapolitan theater, and was appointed
by Ferdinand IV. his maestro di capella. In consequence of having accepted under the
revolutionary government the office of national director of music, he was suspended from
his functions for two years after the restoration of royalty, but eventually restored to
them. In 1803, he went to Paris to direct the music of the consular chapel; but the
indifferent reception shortly after given to his opera Proserpine, led him to return to
Naples, where he died in 1816. His compositions are characterized by sweetness and
gracefulness of melody, and simplicity of structure. Besides no fewer than 90 operas,
Paisiello composed masses, requiems, cantatos, an oratorio, instrumental quartets,
ichord sonatas, concertos, and a highly praised funeral march in honor of gen.
Hoche.
I AISLEY, a municipal and parliamentary burgh, and an important manufacturing t.
of Scotland, in the co. of Renfrew, on both banks of the White Cart, 3 m. above its
junction with the Clyde, and 7 m. w.s.w. of Glasgow by railway. The progress of the
town has been much hindered by the fact that it was bankrupt for nearly 30 years. A
bill was. passed in 1872, by which a settlement was effected, and the town property
restored to the corporation. Since then, extensive improvements have been made.
An abundant supply of water is brought from the Gleniffer hills, and more recently from
Row bank.
By far the most interesting edifice is the abbey. It was founded by "Walter, the high
steward of Scotland, about 1163, for a prior and 13 monks of the Cluniac order of
reformed Benedictines, and was dedicated to St. James, St. Mirren, and St. Milburga.
It was the burying-place of the Stewarts before the accession of that family to the throne,
and was occasionally used by them afterward as a place of sepulture. It was raised to
the-rank of an abbey in 1245. What remains of the building is the nave, of 6 bays,
chiefly in the first pointed style. In 1862 a thorough restoration of the abbey (at a cost
of £4,000) was made, the happiest feature of which was the removal of the unsightly
galleries. The eastern gable window represents the ascension. It is of Munich manu-
facture. Another window has been inserted by the St. Andrew's society of Glasgow, in
memory of sir William Wallace, who, if he was born at Ellerslie, was a native of the
abbey parish. Extensive improvements in the surroundings of the abbey have also been
made.
Among the other edifices, the principal are the county buildings, a quadrangular pile
in the castellated style; the Neilson educational institution, a noble bequest, built in the
form of a Greek cross, and surmounted by a fine dome; the infirmary; the school of
de-imi; and the grammar-school. This last institution was founded by king James VI.,
and the present building was completed in June, 1864. In 1870 a free public library and
museum was presented to the town, and is maintained by the community under the free
libraries act; and by a similar act of liberality, its amenity was increased by a pleasure-
ground named the fountain gardens. In 1873 a native of Paisiey bequeathed £20,000for
the erection of a town hall. Paisiello possesses a trust for the education of boys born in
the burgh and abbey parish, the revenue of which amounts to £500, and is spent on
educational bursaries.
In the beginning of the last century the principal manufactures were coarse linens and
checkered cloths. About the middle of that century the weaving of linen and of silk gauze
bee nne the staple manufactures. In 1784 silk gauze was manufactured to the value of
£350,000, and employed 5,000 looms. Shawls, which used to be a principal and are still
an important article of manufacture, began to be made here in the beginning of the
present century. Within recent years the annual value of the shawl trade of Paisiello
was estimated at about £1,000,000 sterling, but it has now jgreatly declined. Cotton
thread is manufactured on a most extensive scale; indeed Paisiello maybe considered
the seat of the thread manufacture for the home and American markets. Different
varieties of tartan cloths, handkerchiefs, carpets, etc. are made; soap, starch, and corn
flour are largely manufactured ; dyeing is carried on by several firms on an extensive
scale; and power-loom factories, print-works, machine shops, bleach-fields, ship-building
yards, etc., are in operation in the town and vicinity. At the St. James' day fair,
horse-races, originated by act of the bailies of the burgh in 1608, are held. Pop. '71,
48,257.
Pajoit.
Valaiiteryx.
PAJOU, AuorsTix. 17rO-1809; b. Paris; pupil in sculpture of the eminent Lcmoinc;
obtained the grand pri/e fur sculpture in the French academy in 1748, with the privilege
of going to Rome to complete his sindics. On his return after 12 years he WHS cieeied a
member of the academy. lu lltJT lie became a professor. Louis XVI. employed him to
I'.dorn with sculptures the facade of the Palais Koyal, and to execute; statues of I
Turenue, Bossuet, Buffon and Decartes. He executed also the sculptures of tin
del' Opera at Versailles; the ornaments of the Palais Bourbon, and of the cathedral of
Orleans. Gabet says he was the sculptor of about 200 works in bronze, mai
wood, and even paper or pasteboard, lie received a handsome fortune from his works,
but lost it by the revolution, and for the rest of his days was in comparative poveny.
PA'KENHAM, Sir EDWARD 31 u HAKL, 1779-1815, b. Ireland, made maj. of dragoons
1794, lieut. 1799, col. 1809, and maj.gen. 1812. lie was quartermaster under Well inn-ton
in the peninsular campaign. In 1814 he commanded the expedition against _Nc\v < >rieaus,
and was killed at the battle of New Orleans, Jan. 8, 1815.
PAKS, a market t. of Hungary, in the co. of Tolna, CO m. s.s.e. of Pesth, on the
Danube. The river is here very winning, and the eastern bank a desert and useless rnor-
ass. The town is frequently subject to inundations. Pop. '69, 9,4'!!:.
PALACE, this title is applied, Avith few exceptions, in this country to houses occupied
by royal personages only. In Italy the name is given to all fine dwellings.
PALACKY, FRANTISEK, a Bohemian philologist, critic, and historian, was b. June 14,
1798, at H<;dslavitz, in Moravia, and studied at Prcsburg and Vienna, confining his
attention chiefly to philological and historical investigations. In 1831 he was appointed
by the states of Bohemia historiographer to that country, and was intrusted with the
compilation of a general history of Bohemia. In furtherance of this work, he ran
all the libraries and archives in Bohemia, and made long visits to Germany and Italy in
search of material?. He took in the political agitation of 1848, and was the leader of the
Slav or national party as opposed to the German at the diet of Kremsier, after the dis>o-
lution. of which he returned to his literary labors. His great and justly celebrated work,
History of Bolicinia, (in German and Bohemian, Prague, 1836-67, 5 vols.), was received
with enthusiasm by the whole Bohemian nation. Besides an early treatise on aesl
Palacky published many volumes of documents pertaining to Bohemian history, at.d a
series of monographs on th3 same subject; a work on the most ancient monuments of the
Czech tongue; an account of a literary tour to Italy in 1887; and in 181. his /
Tcatament. "Father Palacky," as he was fondly called by his Czech fellow-country-
men, was beloved by them as the first to give access to the real history of Bohemia ; and,
though himself a Protestant, was regarded by Catholics with perfect confidence.
Throughout life a zealous contender for the crown rights of Bohemia, he persistently but
vainly opposed the reconstruction of Austria on a German-Hungarian Inuds: and wkcn
in 1861 he was elected into the Austrian house of lords, he declined to attend, lie died
in May, 1876.
PALADIN, a term originally derived rrom the counts Palatine, or of the palace (see
PALATINE), who were the highest dignitaries in the Byzantine Court, and thence used
generally for a lord or chieftain, and by the Italian romantic poets for a knight-errant.
PALAFOX Y MELZI, DON JOSE DK, Duke of Saragossa, a Spanish pntriot. was b. in
1780 of a distinguished Aragonese family, and received an excellent education. H<-
accompanied Ferdinand VII. to Bayonne, and on seeing him made a prisoner there fled
to Saragossa, where he exerted himself to prevent the invasion of Aratron bv the French.
His defense of Saragossa (q.v.), July 27, 1808— Feb. 21, 1809. which only yielded to the
French after a second investment, is' one of the most brilliant and heroic incidents in
modern history, and has conferred lasting glory on Palafox and the whole city. The
ancient fame of the Spaniards for obstinate valor in the defense of walled citie
rivaled, if not surpassed, and Saragossa could proudly claim to vie with 'Xr.mantia.
Palafox, sick and exhausted, was taken prisoner and conveyed by the ungenerous
French to the dungeons of Vincennes, where he was treated with great hardship.
Released in 1813, he returned to Spain, and was appointed in the following year r-apt.-
gen. of Aragon. Palafox was no great politician, but he loved liberty and hated anarchy,
and on more than one occasion he supported the former and crushed thr latter. After
being created duke of Saragossa. and grandee of Spain of the first class in 1836, he kept
himself apart from politics. He died at Madrid, Feb. 16, 1847.
PALAI'A, a t. in n. Italy, province of Pisa, 19 m. from the city of Pisa; pop. '74,
10,119. It was once a fortified town, and is situated on elevated land, with the river
Chiecinella flowing at its base.
PALAIS ROYAL, a heterogeneous mass of buildings on the eastern side of the rue
Richelieu in Paris, composed of a palace, theaters, public gardens, bazaars, shops, cafes,
and restaurants. The old palace was built between 1624 and 1636 on the site of the
hotel Rambouillet by cardinal Richelieu, who at his death bequeathed it to Louis XIII.
Henrietta of France, widow of Charles I., and Anne of Austria, the queen mother, after-
wards lived in it fora time with her young son, Louis XIV. It subsequently became
the town residence of the Orleans branch of the Bourbons, and during the minority of
Louis XV." it acquired a scandalous notoriety as the scene of the wild orgies in whicb
iqq pajon.
Palapteryx.
the regent, duke of Orleans, and his dissolute partisans were wont to indulge; while in
the time of his son, Philippe Egalitc, it became the focus of revolutionary intrigue, and
the rendezvous for political demagogues of every shade of opinion. This prince, partly
to repair his impoverished fortune and partly to persuade the saus-culottes of Paris of
the sincerity of his professed sympathy with their striving for equality, converted part
of his gardens into a place of public resort, and the pavilions ,of the great court into
bazaars, which were divided into shops and stalls. On the downfall of Egalite the
palais royal was taken possession of by the republican government, and used for the
sittings of the tribunes during the reign of terror. On the restoration of the Bourbons,
it reverted to the Orleans family, and was occupied by Louis Philippe till his election tc
the throne of France in 1830, when it was incorporated in the general domains of the
state, and ceased to be an appanage of the house of Orleans. The palace was sacked by
the mob during the revolution of 1848, when many of its best paintings and most precious
works of art were destroyed. After having been temporarily appropriated to various
public purposes, it was thoroughly repaired and magnificently furnished, and given by
the late emperor, in 1855, to his uncle, Jerome Bonaparte, whose son, prince Napoleon,
resided there until 1871. The main entrance, with its elegant facade, is in the rue St.
Honore; and on passing through the first court, the second or cour royalc is readied, to
the left of which stands the Theatre Francais, wliile immediately facing it is the cele-
brated Galerie Vitree, or glass gallery, which contains on the ground floor s<;mc of the
most brilliant shop* of Paris, while the upper stories are chiefly occupied by cafes and
restaurants. The garden, which is surrounded by this and other galleries, measures ?CO
ft. by 300. The red republicans set fire to the palace in Mar., 1871 (see PARIS), when
all the apartments occupied by prince Napoleon were destroyed. The firemen and thos-e
who aided them, while forming into line to pass buckets of water, were fired upon by
the insurgents, but kept to their work, and succeeded in checking the flames before
they spread to the galleries and shops, which may almost be said to have remained intact.
In the autumn of 1873 that part of the palace injured by the insurgents was restored.
The garden, with its avenues and parterres, fountains, and grass plots, still constitutes
one of the liveliest and most frequented spots in the whole city; and although much of
their glory has faded, its cafes still maintain, in great measure, the world-wide reputa-
tion they long ago acquired.
PALAME'DES, a Grecian hero, son of Nauplius and Clymene. ITe was the prince
whom the Greeks deputed to induce Ulysses to join in the war against Troy, but his
stratagem, by which lie exposed the pretended insanity of Ulysses, produced an irrecon-
cilable enmity between them. He was for a time commander-in-chief in place of Aga-
memnon. His death is attributed to Ulysses, in revenge, who accused him of treason:
as to its modes, there are various traditions.
PALAMEDI'D^E, a family of birds, somewhat resembling the ducks (anatidcf), and
also the rails (miUidte). Feet very large, neck short, head small, bill short, nostrils large;
wings large and armed at the shoulder with two strong spurs; tail small, legs large and
covered with hexagonal scales; toes long, three before and one behind; the anterior toes
connected by slight, scaly webs. Family includes two genera, palamedea, with one
species, and chauiue, with two species. They are natives of South America, inhabiting
marshy grounds and borders of lakes and rivers.
PALANQUIN, or PALKI, the vehicle commonly used in Hindustan by travelers, is a
wooden box, about 8 ft. long, 4 ft. wide, and 4 ft. high, with wooden shutters which
can lie opened or shut at pleasure, and constructed like Venetian blinds .for the purpose
of admitting fresh air, while at the same time they exclude the scorching rays of the
sun, and the heavy showers of rain so common iir that country. The furniture of the
interior consists of a cocoa mattress, well stuffed and covered with morocco leather, on
which the traveler reclines; two small bolsters are placed under his head, and one under
his thighs, to render his position as comfortable as possible. At the upper end is a shelf
and drawer and at the sides are nettings of larger dimensions than the ordinary pockets
in carriages, for containing those articles which may be necessary. to the traveler during
his journey. At each end of the palanquin, on the outside, two iron rings are fixed, and
the hammals, or palanquin-bearers, of whom there are four, two at each end, support the
palanquin by a pole passing through these rings. Traveling in this mode is continued
both by day and night. (See DAWK.) The palanquin is also used at the present day in
Brazil, with the prominent exception of Rio Janeiro.
Similar modes of traveling have been at various times in use in western Europe, but
only for short distances. The Roman "litter," the French " chaise a porteurs," and the
"sedan-chair" were the forms of vehicle most in use, and the two latter were in general
use in towns till they were superseded by hackney conches. The Roman " litter" was
one of the criteria of its owner's wealth, the rich man generally exhibiting the pros-
perous condition of his affairs by the multitude of the bearers and other attendants
accompanying him.
PALAPTERYX (Gr. an. apteryx), a genus of fossil birds whose remains are found
in the river silt deposits of New Zealand, associated with the gigantic dinornis. and
which, like it, resembled in the form of the sternum, and the structure of the pelvis and
legs, the living wingless apteryx. Two species have been described.
U. K. XL— 13
Fulat*. 1 QJ.
Palatine.
PALATE, THE, forms Hie roof of the mouth, and consists of two portions, the hard
palate in front and the soft palate behind. The framework of the hard palate is formed
by the palate process of the superior maxillary bone, and by the horizontal pl-
ot' the palate bone, and is bounded in front and at the sides by the alveolar arches and
gums, and posteriorly it is continuous with the soft palate. It is covered by a dense
structure formed by the periosteum and mucous membrane of the mouth, which are
closely adherent. Along the middle line is a linear ridge or raphe, on eiiher side of
which the mucous membrane is thick, pale, and corrugated, while behind it is thin,
of a darker tint, and smooth. This membrane is covered with scaly epithelium.
and is furnished with numerous follicles (the palatal glands). The soft jialate is a.
movable fold of mucous nlembranc inclosing muscular fibers, and suspended from
the posterior border of the hard palate so as to form an incomplete septum between
the mouth and the pharynx; its sides being blended with the pharynx, while its
lower border is free. When occupying its usual position (that is to s;iy, when the
muscular fibers contained in it are relaxed), its anterior surface is concave; and when
its muscles aVe called into action, as in swallowing a morsel of food, it is raised and
made tense, and the food is thus prevented from passing into the posterior nares, and is
at the same time directed obliquely backwards and downwards into the pharynx.
Hanging from the middle of its lower border is a small conical pendulous pr<
the uvula; and passing outwards from the uvula on each side are two curved folds of
mucous membrane containing muscular fibers, and called the archets or pil'.ai'x <>f ;
palate. The anterior pillar is continued downwards to the side of the base of the tongue,
and is formed by the projection of the palato-glossus muscle. The pi^-f/ rim' pillar is
larger than the anterior, and runs downwards and backwards to the side of the pharynx.
The anterior and posterior pillars are closely united above, but are separated below by
an angular interval, in which the tonsil of either side is lodged. The tonsils (amygdalae)
are glandular organs of a rounded form, which vary considerably in si/,e in different
individuals. They are composed of an assemblage of mucous follicles, which secrete
a thick, grayish matter, and open on the surface of the gland by numerous (12 to 15)
orifices.
The space left between the arches of the palate on the two sides is called the /V
of Uie fauces. It is bounded above by the free margin of the palate, below by the tongue,
and on each side by the pillars of the soft palate and tonsils.
As the upper lip may be fissured through imperfect development (in which case it
presents the condition known as the hare-lip), so also may there be more or lc-- decided
fissure of the palate. In the slightest form of this affection, the uvula merely is
fissured, while in extreme cases the cleft extends through both the soft and hard palate
as far forward as the lips, and is then often combined with hare-lip. When the ris-ure
is considerable, it. materially interferes with the acts of sucking and swallowing, and
the infant runs a great risk of being starved; and if the child grows up, its articulation
is painfully indistinct. When the fissure is confined to the soft palate, repeated cauter-
ization of the angle of the fisv.ne has been found sufficient to effect a cure by means of
the contraction that follows each burn. As a general rule, however, the child is allowed
to reach the age of puberty when the operation of tttaphyloraphy (or suture of Hi
parts) is performed — an operation always difficult, and not always successful. For the
method of performing it, the reader is referred to the Practical Surgery of 3Ir. IVr-
gusson, who has introduced several most important modifications into the old operation.
Acute inflammation of the tonsils, popularly known as QUINSY, is treated of in a
separate article.
Chronic enlargement of the tonsils is very frequent in scrofulous children, and is not
rare in scrofulous persons of more advanced age. and may give rise to very considerable
inconvenience and distress. It may occasion difficulty in swallowing, confused and inar-
ticulate speech, deafness in various degnees from closure of the eustachian tubes (nov.-
often termed throat deafness), and noisy and laborious respiration, especially during
sleep; and it may even cause death by suffocation, induced by the entanglement of vi»-
cid mucus between the enlarged glands. Iodide of iron (especially in the form of B!an-
card's pills) and cod-liver oil are the medicines upon whose action most reliance should
be placed in these cases, while a strong solution of nitrate of silver (a scruple of the salt
to an ounce of distilled water), or some preparation of iodine, should be applied once a
day to tlie affected parts. If these measures fail, the tonsils must be more or less rcmovi d
by the slirgeon, either by the knife or scissors, or by a small guillotine specially invented
for the purpose.
Enlargement or relaxation of the uvula is not uncommon, and gives rise to a con-
stant tickling cough, and to expectoration, by the irritation of the larynx which it occa-
sions. If it will not yield to astringent or stimulating gargles, or to the stronger local
applications directed for enlarged tonsils, its extremity must be seized with the forceps,
and it must be divided through the middle with a pair of long scissors.
PALATINATE, a name applied to two German states, which were united previously
to the year 1620. They were distinguished as the Upper and Lower Palatinate. The
Upper or Bavarian Palatinate, now forming a circle of the kingdom of Bavaria, was a
duchy, and was bounded by Baireuth, Bohemia, Ncuburg, Bavaria, and the district of
1 Q ^ Palate.
Palatine.
Number::. Area, 2,830 sq.m. ; pop. 1807, 283,800. Ambcrg was the chief city, and the
se;it of government. The Lower Palatinate or the Palatinate on the Rhine, embraced an
area of from 3,045 to 3,150 sq.m.; and consisted of the electoral Palatinate, the princi-
pality of Simineru, the duchy of Zweibrilcken, the half of the county of Sponheim, and
the principalities of Beldenz and Lautern. For the area and population of the modern
provinces of the Upper and Lower Palatinate, see article BAVAKIA.
The counts of the electoral or Rheinish Palatinate were established in the hereditaiy
possession of the territory of that name, and of the lands attached to it, as early as the
llth century. After the death of Herman III., the emperor Friedrich I. assigned the
Palatinate to Conrad of Svvabia. After Conrad's death, his son-in-law, duke Henry of
Brunswick, came, in 1196, into the possessiou of these lands, but he, having been out-
lawed in 1215 by Friedrich II., was succeeded by his son. Otto III., duke of Lav aria.
Ludwig II., or the Strong, succeeded the preceding in the Palatinate in 1253, and was in
turn succeeded in 1294 by Rudolf I., who, however, was banished by his brother, the
emperor Ludwig, because he had taken part with Friedrich of Austria. The country
was ruled by his three sons. Rupvecht III., who died in 1410, was a German emperor.
Of his four sous, Ludwig III. received the electoral or Rheinish Palatinate, Johann, the
Upper Palatinate; Stephan, Zweibrilcken; and Otto, Mosbach. The second and fourth
lines soon died out, as well as al«o that of Ludwig III., which came to a close in 1559,
upon which the possessions of that prince, together with the electorate, passed to Fried-
rich HI. of the Simmern line. He was succeeded by Ludwig IV. in 1576, by Friedrich
IV. in 158:5. and by Friedrich V. in 1610, who, after he accepted the Bohemian crown,
was drived from his possessions by the emperor in 1619, and his office of elector was
transferred to Maximilian, duke of Bavaria. Karl Ludwig, son of Friedrich V;, received
the Lower Palatinate at the peace of Westphalia, and in his favor a new or eighth elec-
torship was created. With his son Karl, the Simmern line terminated in 1685, upon
which the Palatinate fell into the hands of Philipp Wilhelm, count palatine of Neuburg.
The house of Neuburg was descended from Ludwig the Black, count palatine in Zwei-
briicken, second son of Stephan, count palatine in Simmern. Wolfgang, a descendant
of Lucl wig's, was the founder of all the other lines of counts palatine. Of his three sons,
Johann founded the line of Neu-Zweibriicken. Karl the Bivkenfeld line, Philipp Ludwig
the Neuburg line. Philipp Ludwig had three sons, Wolfgang Wilhelm, August, and
Johann Friedrieh. The first founded the Neuburg line, the second the Sulzbach line,
the third died childless. The son of Wolfgang Wilhelm died in 1690. His son, Johann
'Wilhelm, became heir to the Beldeuz line in 1694. He was succeeded by his brother, Karl
Phillip, who in turn was succeeded in 1742 by Karl Theodor, from the Sulzbach line,
who united the Bavarian territories with the Palatinate. Duke Maximillian of Zwei-
briicken next succeeded in 1799, who at the peace of Luneville (1801) was compelled to
cede a portion of the Rhenish Palatinate to France, a part to Baden, a part to Hesse-
Darmstadt, and a part to Nassau. Treaties of Paris of 1814 and 1815 re-assigned the
Palatinate lands beyond the Rhine to Germany, Bavaria receiving the largest share, and
the remainder being divided between Hesse-Darmstadt and Prussia.
PALATINE (from Lat. palatium, a palace). A Comes Palatinvs, or count Palatine,
was under the .vlerovingian kings of France, a high judicial officer, who had supreme
authority in all causes that came under the immediate cognizance of the sovereign.
After the time of Charlemagne a similar title was given to any powerful feudal lord, to
whom a province, generally near the frontier, was made over with jura regalia, or judi-
cial powers, similar to what the counts palatine had received in the palace, and the dis-
trict so governed was called A palatinate or county palatine. There were three counties
palatine in England — Lancaster, Chester, and Durham — which were, no doubt, mad-.:
- i>-'mtc regalitieson account of their respective proximity to the frontier of Wales and to
that turbulent Northumbrian province which could neither be accounted a portion of
England nor of Scotland. In virtue of their regal rights, the counts palatine had their
courts of law, appointed their judges and law officers, and could pardon treasons, mur-
ders, and felonies; all writs and judicial process proceeded in their names, and the king's
writs were of no avail within the bounds of the palatinate. Lancaster seems to have
been made a county palatine by Edward III. Henry, first duke, and John, second duke
of Lancaster, were both invested by him with the dignity of count palatine. Henry VI.
was hereditarily duke and count palatine of Lancaster, and on his attainder, soon after
Edward IV.'s accession, the ducliy and county were forfeited to the crown, and confirmed
on Edward IV. — afterward on Henry VII, and his heirs forever. The queen is now
duchess and countess palatine of Lancaster. There is still a chancellor of the duchy and
county palatine, whose duties are few and unimportant, but the administration of justice
has gradually been assimilated to that of the rest of England. See LANCASTER. Chester
is supposed to have become a county palatine when made over with regal jurisdiction by
William the Conqueror to Hugu* d'Hvranches. In the reign of Henry III. it was
annexed to the crown by letters patent, and since that time the earldom palatine of Ches-
ter has been vested in the eldest son of the sovereign, or in the crown, whenever there is
no Prince of Wales. Durham seems to have first become a palatinate when William the
Conqueror constituted bishop Walcher, bishop and duke of Durham, with power (accord-
Ing to William of Malmesbury) to restrain the rebellious people with the sword, and
Palatine.
1 Q«
reform their morals with his eloquence. The palatinate jurisdiction continued united
\vith the bishopric till 1836, when it was separated by act of parliament, and vested iif
William IV. and his successors as a franchise distinct from the crown, together with alV
forfeitures, mines, and jura regalia. It has since been more completely incorporated with
the crown. Pembroke was at one time a county palatine, but ceased to be so in Henry
VIII. 's time. The archbishop of York also exercised the powers of a palatine in the
county of Hexham in Northumberland, of which he was deprived in the reign of Kli/a-
beth. In veiy early times there were a number of similar privileges in Scotland, the
most important of which was that of the carls palatine of Strathern. In Germany, tiie
P/'alzgraf, or count palatine, exercised a jurisdiction much more extensive than the simple
Graf or count. A considerable district in Germany was long under the jurisdiction of
a count palatine, who was one of the electors of the empire. See PALATJLNATK.
PALATINE, a township of Montgomery co., N. Y. ; pop. '80, 2,786. It consists of
three villages, Palatine Bridge, Palatine Church, and Stone Arabia. Of these the largest
is Palatine Bridge on the n. bank of the Mohawk river, and a station on the .New Yor*.
Central railroad. There is a manufactory of thrashing machines, a foundry, an academy,
and (in the township) 5 churches.
PALATINE HILL, Mons Palatinus, the central hill of the famous seven on which
ancient Koine was built, and, according to tradition, the seat of the earliest Koman set-
tlements. In point of historical interest, it ranks next to the Capitol and the forum. Its
summit is about 160 ft. above the sea. The form of the hill is irregularly quadrangular.
Its north-western slope, towards the Capitoline hill and the Tiber, was called <;< / mains
or Cermahts. The origin of the name is uncertain, although several derivations are given
connecting it with legendary stories. Romulus is said to have founded the city upon
this hill, and on Germalus grew the sacred fig-tree (near to the Lupercal) under which he
and his brother. Remus, were found sucking the she-wolf. Upon the Palatine hill were
the temple of Jupiter S/ator, the temple of Cybele, the sacred square inelosure called
Rama quadrata, and other sacred places and edifices, besides many of the finot houses
in Rome. Augustus and Tiberius had .their residences here whence Tacitus termed it
ipsa imperii arx (the very citadel of government); and at last Nero included it entirely
within the precincts of \\\9 aurea, dornus, which Vespasian subsequently restricted to the
hill. From the time of Alexander Severus it ceased to be the residence of the emperors,
but the name palace (palatium), derived from it, was given to the abodes of sovereigns
and great princes, and has been adopted into modern languages. Recent excavations
have brought to light numerous remains of the palatial and other structures with which
the Palatine hill was once covered; and these are now among the most interesting sights
of the Eternal City.
PALAWAN, or PARAGOA, .one of the Philippine islands (q.v.).
PALAY, Oryptostegia grandiflora, a climbing plant of the natural order aschpiadacecB
(q.v.), common in many parts of India, particularly on the eastern coast of Hindustan.
It yields a very fine strong white fiber, resembling flax, and which can be spun into the
finest yarn. The fiber is obtained from the stalk; the milky juice contains caoutchouc.
Palay is one of the most interesting plants which have recently been recommended to
notice in India.
PALAZZOLO ACREIDE, a t. of Sicily, in the province of Syracuse, 29 m. s.s.w. of
Catania, is situated on the brow o'f a hill, just where it overhangs a deep valley.
Palazzola Acreide are the remains of the ancient Acrce, founded by a colony from byra-
cuse, on the site of a Phenician settlement, 664 B.C. The most curious remains are to
be found in some low cliffs beneath the town to the s., where is a scries of arched niches.
containing figures carved in high relief in the rock. The style of art appears to be
archaic Greek, with somewhat of an Egyptian character. Pop. 9,954.
PALE, in heraldry, one of the figures known as ordinaries, consisting of a perpendic-
ular band in the middle of the shield, of which it is said to occupy one-third. S<
charges of any kind are said to be "in pale" when they stand over each other perpen-
dicularly, as do the three lions of England. A shield divided through the middle by a
perpendicular line is said to \w "parted per pale." The pallet is the diminutive of the
pale, and is most generally not borne singly. Or three pallets gules were the arms of
Raymond, count of Provence. When the 'field is divided into an even number of parts
by perpendicular lines.it is called " paly of" so many pieces. Paly of six argent and
gules, the arms of the family of Rutliven. When divided by lines perpendicular and
bendways crossing, it is called paly bendy. An indorse is a further diminutive of the
pallet, and a pale placed between two indorses is said to be indorsed.
PALE, in Irish history (see IRELAND, HISTORY), means that portion of the kingdom
over which the English rule and English law was acknowledged. There is so much
vagueness iu the meaning of the term that a few \^ords of explanation appear necessary.
The vagueness arises from the great fluctuations which the English authority underwent
in Ireland at various periods, and from the consequent fluctuation of the actual territorial
limits of the pale. The designation dates from the reign of John, who distributed the
Bn-tion of Ireland then nominally subject to England into twelve counties palatine,
ublin, Meath, Kildare, Louth, Carlow, Kilkenny, Wexford, Waterford, Cork, Kerry,
m Palatine.
Paleiicia.
Tipperary, and Limerick. To this entire district, in a general way, was afterwards
given the designation of the Pale. But, as it may be said that the term is commonly
applied by the writers of each age to the actual English territory of the period, and as
this varied very much, care must be taken to allude to the age of which the name Pale
is used. Thus, very soon after the important date of the statute of Kilkenny, at the
close of the reign of Edward III., the English law extended only to the four counties of
Dublin, Carlo \v, Meath, and Louth. In the reign of Henry VI. the limits were still
further restricted. In a general way, however, the Pale may be considered us compris-
ing the counties of Dublin, Meath, Carlow, Kilkenny, and Louth. This, although not
quite exact, will be sufficient for most purposes.
PA LEA (Lat. chaff), a term employed in botany to designate the bracts of the florets
in grasses (q.v.), called corolla by the older botanists; also to designate the small bracts
or scales which are attached to the receptacle of the head of flowers in many of the com-
posite (q.v.). Anv part of a plant covered with chaffy scales is described as paleaceous.
PALE AS TER (Gr. ancient star-fish), a genus of star-fish peculiar to the Silurian period,
which in general appearance resemble the living brittle stars, but when more minutely
examined present so many anomalies that they cannot be referred to any existing family.
Five or six species have been described.
PALEFITS. See LAKE DWELLINGS.
PALEMBANGr', formerly an independent kingdom on the e. coast of Sumatra; now a
Netherlands residency, is bounded on the n. by Djambi, n.w. by Bencoolen, s. by the
Lampong districts, and s.e. by the strait of Bauca, has an area of 61,900 sq.m. ; and a
population amounting, in 187;5, to 577, 085 souls. Much of the laud is low-lying swamp,
covered with a wilderness of impenetrable bush; but in the s. it rises into mountains, of
which Oeloe Moesi (Ulu Musi) is 6,180 feet. Gold-dust, iron-ore, sulphur with arsenic,
lignite, and common coal are found; also clays suited for making coarse pottery, etc.
Springs of pure oil occur near the coal-fields of Bali Boekit (Bukit), and of mineral water
in various places. Rice, cotton, sugar, pepper, tobacco, and, in the interior, cocoanuts,
are grown; the forests producing gutta-percha, giun-elastic, rattans, wax, benzoin, satin-
wood, etc. The rivers abound with fish; and the elephant, rhinoceros, tiger, panther, and
leopard roam the woods, as well as the deer, wild swine, and goats, with many varieties
of the monkey.
In the dry season the thermometer ranges from 80° to 92° F., and in the rainy season
76° to 8CP. The climate is not unhealthy, except in the neighborhood of the swamps.
The natives are descended from Javanese, who in the 16th c., or earlier, settled in Palem-
bang, and ruled over the whole laud. The race, however, has become mixed with other
Malays, and the language has lost its purity. In the n.w. interior is a tribe called the
Koeboes (Kubiis), of whose origin nothing is known, but who are probably the remainder
of the aborigines. They do not follow after agriculture, go about almost naked, and
live chiefly by fishing and hunting. No idea of a supreme "being seems to be possessed
by them, though they believe in existence after death.
PALEMBANGr, the capital of the kingdom and residency, is 52 m. from the Soensang
(Sunsang), or principal mouth of the river Moesi (Musi), in 2° 59' s. lat., and 104° 44' e.
longitude. The city is built on both banks of the Moesi, and other streams which fall
into it, and is 5 m. in length by | m. in breadth. The river is upwards of 1,0 0 ft. broad,
and from 40 to 50 ft. in depth, so that the largest vessels can sail up to the harbor. The
native houses are raised on posts and neatly constructed of planks or bamboos; the
Chinese, Arabians, and Europeans, chiefly living in floating houses called rakits, of
which there are upwards of 500, and holding, communication with one another and with
the natives by boats. The fort is built on the left bank of the river, and behind it are an
institution for the blind and a splendid mosque. There is a school, where 30 European
children are educated, a government elementary school for natives, and several good
Chinese schools. Many of the natives can read and write, and in 1856 a native printing
press was erected by Kemas Mohammed Asahel.
Palernbang is visited annually by upwards of 30,000 boats of various sizes, bringing
produce from the interior, consisting chiefly of rice, benzoin, gum-elastic, gutta-percha,
raw cotton, rattans, tobacco, pepper, wrax, dragon's blood, resin; and gold-dust from the
boundaries of the kingdom of Djambi, now included in the residency. These are
obtained chiefly in exchange for salt, cotton manufactures, earthenware, iron and copper
wares, and provisions. The foreign trade is large, and chiefly carried on with Java,
Banca, Singapore, China, and Siam. The colonial report of ihe Dutcli government, pub-
lished iti 1875, gives the exports from Palembang for 1872 at £227,825, and the imports
at £278,693. The natives of Palembang are good ivory carvers, gold and silver smiths,
jewelers, cutlers, japanners, painters, boat-builders, bookbinders, etc., and expert at all
the ordinary handicrafts. The women, in addition to cotton fabrics, spinning, and dye-
ing, weave silk stuffs embroidered with gold. Pop. 44,000, of whom 100 are Europeans,
3,000 Chiaese, and 2,000 Arabians.
PALENCIA, a province in n.w. Spain, bounded on the n. by Santander, on the e.
by Burgos, on the s. by Valladolid, and on the w. by Burgos; 328 sq.m.; pop. 184,668.
The surface is level, except in the n. where it is mountainous. There are few trees. It
1'iiloncla. I QQ
Paleography.
is watered by the Pisuerga, Carrion, Camera, and other rivers. The soil is fertile and
produces ^heat, hemp, and flax. Other staples are fruit and linseed oil. Minerals
abound, but only coal is mined to any extent. Grain is exported on the canal of Cas-
tile which passes through the province from n. to south. The principal manufacture 13
flour; blankets, baize, and serge also are made. There is a good system of elementary
schools. Capital, Palencia.
PALENCIA (the ancient Pallantla). a city of Spain, in Old Castile, capital of the
modern province of the same name, stands in a treeless, but well-watered and fruitful
plain, on the Carrion, 39 m. n.e. of Valladolid. It is a bishop's see, and is surrounded
by old walls, 36 ft. high and 9 ft. thick, around which are pleasant promenades. The
cathedral, a light and elegant Gothic edifice, was built 1321-1504. Tin- li:.-4 university
founded in Castile was built here in the 10th c., but was removed to Salamanca in lx!;>'J.
Nearly one-third of the population is employed in the manufacture of blankets and
coarse woolen cloths. The position of the town on the Carrion, and on the Castilian
canal, is favorable to the development of commerce. The vine is cultivated, and there
is a good trade in wool. Pop. 13,000.
PALENQTTE, RUINS OF, are on the Rio Chacamas. a branch of the river Usumasinta,
in the state of Chiapas, Mexico. 8 in. s.e. of the village of Santo Domingo de Paienque,
hit. 17° 30' n., long. 92^ 26' west. The ruins extend over a large area, covered \\itn a
dense- tropical forest, and are of difficult exploration. They consist of vast artificial
terraces, or terraced truncated pyramids, of cut stone, surmounted by edifices of pecul-
iar and solid architecture, also of cut stone, covered willi figures in relief, or figures
and hieroglyphics in stucco, with remains of brilliant colors. Most of the buildings are
of one story, but a few are two, three, and sonic may hnve been four stories. The
principal structure, known as the palace, is 228ft. long, 180ft. deep, and 25 ft. high,
standing on a terraced truncated pyramid of corresponding dimensions. It was fared
with cut stone, cemented with mortar of lime and sand, and the front covered with
stucco and painted. A corridor runs around the building, opening into four interior
courts, which open into many smaller rooms: On slabs of stone are carved numerous
colossal figures, and the remains of statues more resemble Grecian than Egyptian of
Hindu art. Other spacious and elaborately ornamented buildings appear to have been
temples of religion. These ruins were in the same condition when Cortex conquered
Mexico, as now, overgrown with a forest, and their site forgotten. They were only
discovered in 1750. Three explorations were made by the Spanish government, but
they were little known until visited by Messrs. J. L, Stephens and F. Catherwofld, and
their account published with plans and drawings. See Stepheus's Incidi utx <>f 7V.
Central America, etc., and Catherwood's Views of Ancient Monuments of ('< Html A/m-nca,
etc. There are in Mexico dim traditions of the existence, at a remote period, of the
capital of a theocratic state, the center of a long since extinguished civilization, of
which the only traces are these wonderful ruins and unexplained hieroglyphics.
PALEOGKAPHY (Gr. palaios, old, and grapM, writing), the science of ancient writ-
ings. It comprehends not merely the art of reading them, but such a critical know-
ledge of all their circumstances as will serve to determine their age, if they happen to
be undated, and their genuineness, in the absence of any formal authentication. For
these purposes, the paleographer needs to be acquainted with the various substances,
such as bark, leaves, skins, paper, etc., which have been used for writing; with the
various manners of writing which have prevailed, and the changes which they have
undergone; with the various forms of authenticating writings, such as seals, signets,
cachets, signatures, superscriptions, subscriptions, attestations, etc., which have been
employed at different times; with the various phases through which the grammar,
vocabulary, and orthography of the language of the writing with which he is dealing,
has passed; and with more or less, as the case may be, of the history, laws, institutions,
literature, and art of the age and country to which the writing professes to beh>ng.
Paleography may be said to have been founded by the learned French Benedictine,
Jean Mabillon, whose De Re Diplomatica, first published in 1681 in 1 vol. fol., reprinted
in 1709, and again in 1789, in 2 vols. fol., is still, perhaps, the most masterly work on
the subject. Along with the Nouvefiu Traite de Diplomatique (Par. 1750-65. 6 vols. 4to)
of the Benedictines of St. Maur, and the Element* de Paleograplne (Par. 1838, 2 vols. 4to)
by M. Natalia de Wailly, it is the great authority for French paleography. English
paleography is perhaps less favorably represented in Astle's Origin and Progress oj
Writing (Lond. 1803) than Scottish paleography in Anderson's and Ruddiman's D/'pio-
mata Scotia (Edin. 1739). Muratori treats of Italian paleography in the third volume
of his great work, the Antiquitates Italicce Medii jffiri; and among later works on the
same subject may be mentioned the Diplomntica Pontifcia (Rome, 1841) of Marino
Marini. The paleography of Greece is illustrated in the Paleograpkia Grarn (Par. 1708)
of Montfancon. Spanish palaeography may be studied in the BibMotheea <l? in /'»'//-
yrnphfa Expanola (Mad. 1738) of Don C. Rodriguez. Of works on German paleography,
it may be enough to name Eckard's Introdnrtio in Hem Diplomnticam (Jen. 1742), Heu-
mann's Commentani de Re Diplsnnntica (Norimb. 1745), Walther's Lexicon Diplomat />//?/»
(Gott. 1745), and Kopp's PaUtogrophia Critica (Manh. 1817). Hebrew paleography has
been elaborated by Gesenius in his Geschichti dor Hebraischen Sprache und Schrift, and
I QQ Palencla.
Paleography.
other works. The great work on paleography generally — one of the most sumptuous
works of its class ever published — isilmPaleographie Universelle(P'dV. 1839-45, in 5 vols.
fol.) of M. J. B. Silvestre. See BLACK LETTER, CONTRACTIONS, PALIMPSEST, PAPYRI.
PALEOGRAPHY. Modern paleography, since the simultaneous reading of the
curieatic Persian by Rawlinson, Lassen, and Burnouf, in 1836, lies at the bottom of all
that exact and laborious criticism which in thirty years enabled the entire history of
antiquity to be rewritten from a linguistic and archaeological point of view. The whole
subject turns on an intimate acquaintance with the most minute points in the history of
whatever people may be under discussion. Back of all is the real living feeling of that
people, as shown in their remains — that is, their inscriptions. Having a series of inscrip-
tions, granted in an unknown alphabet, the first thing is to verify the copies, an exceed-
ingly difficult operation, since every scholar knows it is impossible to correctly copy
writing not understood. Recourse should be had, when reachable, to rubbing with
heel-bail, to squeezes in paper or clay, to casts, and to photography. The approximate
date of each should then be ascertained, the place of its "find," the date of the find, and a
proces-verbal of its exact location, most especially with regard to ground-level or later con-
structions. No duplicates or comparative collations should be made without these, and
they should always be affixed to the original and printed in essays. The Kypriot texts of
Moritz Schmitt are almost useless from neglect of these evident rules, which apply with
equal force to MSS., where the experienced eye notices a hundred details all tend-
ing to approximate the date of fabrication. Next comes the correction of the text. No
man can correct an inscription until he understands the grammar of its language, and
the grammar of a language is tabulated only from a thousand examples. A whole gener-
ation of German scholars battered their brains over the reading of the Malperg glosses,
and utter failure resulted even to Grimm from neglect of the ordinary processes of analy-
sis. The mistakes in a text usually arise from three causes: from dialect; from literal
resemblances; from ignorant copyists. There is an enormous mass of pedantic analysis
wasted on old English and old German spelling, which, on correction by three known
systems— Saxon, Norse, and Gothic — shows differences neither abnormal nor arbitrary. A
letter, like every creation in form, depends upon three things: the intention, the capacity,
and the material. Letters may be successively analyzed asT«, imitative — a picture of the
thing thought of; b, conventional — a change in shape for quickness or convenience
which recalls little or not at all the original picture; c, symbolical — they become signs,
and subject, as puns, metaphors, or similes, to all the turns of human wit or wisdom.
It follows that they get a double meaning to one sound, or a double sound to one mean-
ing; or, new sounds being evolved, new characters are created as, d, explanatory —
generally abbreviations of other characters, or a change, by altering shape or affixing
marks; lastly they become, e, traditional — in which case the original generation is for-
gotten and the character is arbitrarily connected with a given object. They decrease
from signs of words to signs of syllables, to sounds of syllables, to sounds of letters
merely, to silent indications of an extinct letter. The actual form of a sign, in one of
these successive states, depends on the otlier original two conditions — the material and
the tool in use. If in a hard stone they will be chiseled square; if in a soft, rounded,
usually sunk, but occasionally in relief or intaglio-relief. This must have been preceded
by scratching on stone, carving in wood, stamping or picking in clay, and painting or
stenciling on a surface. Many eastern alphabets are written across the fiber of diy, hard
leaves, and are usually minute and crumpled. Characters in soft clay or wax are legible
and rounded. The invention of ink involves a brush, which gives a peculiar flowing
look, or a reed pen, or a quill, whether for square or cursive characters, or the abomina-
tion of the artist — a steel-pen, with all the thick and Ihin lines of modern script.
Stamped letters, for embossing or gilding, naturally led to block type, and they to
separate type. The kinds of type in use in ornamental English printing are almost
100, yet each has a history and a reason. In regard to the method of writing,
letters may go from left to right, direct; or right to left, reverse; or back and forth,
woven; or from top to bottom, in columns. Some few occasionally go above or below
another letter, and many abbreviate by contractions or monograms. The letters may
occur in a syllabary, or in a vowelic syllabary, where each letter adds for a different
vowel a hook or a tail; or they may be alphabetic, with vowels expressed, script io plena,
or with vowels understood, scriptio defectiva. The letters may be all capitals, uncial,
or with small letters (almost always different), minuscles; they 'may be connected by a
bar at top, bottom, or middle, or with each other, cursive. Finally, they may be
accented, pointed, or with hooks attached, apices. Words are not always separated,
and letters often vary in shape when occurring as initial, medial, or final. The earliest
efforts at signs are tallies, still found in the Egyptian and Chinese numbers; the origin
of the Chinese and several American systems is imknown to us; there are two or three
systems known to be self-invented in modern times, and one or two, like the Lepcha or
Ron of the Himalayas, and the running runes of the Danes and Celts (oghams), cannot
be distinctly connected with a known alphabet. With these exceptions all systems
known are traceable to one common center, but so lately has it been possible to assert
this that Lenormant's Spread of the Pkeneciftn Alphabet, first edition in 1868, and the bcsl
authority for the central Asiatic paleography, must be rewritten.
Paleography.
Primitive Picture-writing.
I
Su
Akkra
Old Bab
neri,
n hieratic.
ylouion.
Khittif
1
Eheml,
Esryptmn hi>-rotfl
yphlo.
Ninevite. B
1
ib. Bus an. Persian,
Aklieuienian.
Median.
L
hieratic.
demotic.
Armenian. Old Ass.
1 I
Assyrian. Bab. Kypriot.
B.
Old Phenician.
C. n.
Maeadhi, Koiitic
e. Indian. with Greek alphabet.
D.
At a time so remote as to antedate all remains of Egyptian civilization, a writing of the
true pictorial type seems to have suggested the systems of three different races — Egyp-
tians, who may have been African and Indo-German; the men of the center of Arabia—
She-miles; and the men of the Tigris valley, apparently Uraltaic:. The identity of origin,
necessarily difficult to prove where the deductions result very differently, and when: the
sign has a different meaning in four languages, is inferred from the choice of the same
thing to represent the same metaphor, and from the identity of secondary forms through-
out. The accepted derivation of Pheniciau from XVIII. dynasty hieratic is wrongly
based on a necessary resemblance; both are the conventional representations of the same
thing, but by far-separated routes. For latest collations of cuneatic and JSheinitic, see
Deecke, Z.MbG. The hieroglyphs are true word-pictures, and the language being one-
syllabled they change into alphabetic. The writing is chiseled, direct or columnar,
with always a determinative sign. The hieratic or priests' system, modified about the
time of the Hyksos, is a graphic variety of the same, reversed, written with a brush on
linen or papyrus. The demotic, in another dialect, direct, quickly formed, finally
becomes cursive. The hieroglyphs were still read in Trajan's time, and a bus-
tard demotic was written long after the Arab conquest. The Greeks of Alexandria
introduced a beautiful graphic variety of the- Greek alphabet, and. written direct, with 6
demotic signs added, it served as the vehicle of a living dialect of Egyptian till modern
times. The third race, that best known to us as Accadian, leaves its lir>t records of the
20 c. B.C. (?) in a few names of kings on bricks, on stone, on seals. Very quickly the
character, a singular series of outline pictures, syllabic, direct, with determinative sign*.
appears accompanied by an east Shemitic idiom, the Babylonian; and the signs are com-
posed of many lines each in shape of an arrow or wedc,e, whence the name, cuneiform.
or better cuneatic, for all such inscriptions. Now follow a northern dialect, that of
Nineveh, with fewer lines to the signs and a growing syllabary; the Babylonian contin-
ues: the mountaineers to the north-east, not Shemites nor Aryans, borrowed a distorted
copy, the Susian; and lastly, the Persian or, as we now know it, the Bactrian. makes an
alphabet of forty curtailed and legible characters. Avith almost no determinative signs — an
alphabet thereafter to record the glories of the conquerors of Greece. From the Nine-
vile comes the rude and scanty Armenian of Van, hardly yet enough deciphered to be
classified as to language; the old Assyrian commences, the" tine clear-cut language of the
old inscriptions and gems; the Babylonian soon falls under its power, but still continues
for local use; and from the Susiau, apparently, but with traces of all, is generated si ill a
new system, that of the Uraltaic Medes. AH thus fnr are cuneatic, all are direct, and all
divide their words. The Assyrian, first in glory and spread in the 10th c. i;.< ., is the
first of all Shemitic languages to generate a regular syllabary of twenty-two letters; but
this itself bears traces of a late arrangement, and only thirteen of them appear in full
form. After the fall of the Assyrian empire, the Babylonian character, debased and
with more or less Assyrian influence, continues to be written until the Sassanian era,
changing also in dialect to Aramaic. But from the true standard cuneatic syll-ibary are
gendered, at some date probably long preceding the 10th c. B.C., a new serio of systems
no longer cuneatic, but more or less approaching to the type of our own letter. One of
these, B, the Kypriot, only lately deciphered, has a syllabary of four vowels in combina-
tion with ten consonants, occurs as an antiquated Greek dialect in connection with pure
Greek and Phenician inscriptions, principally in Cyprus, and supposedly as late as the
times of Alexander. It remains to speak of the third or center variety of the three early
types, the
Toktanid Family.
Khitti or Hittite f
Primitive alphabet of Yemen.
Himyari.
I
Old Ethlopic. Libyan.
| I
Ghees. Tamasheq.
Amhflri.
901
Pal eograpliy.
The original inhabitants of the center of Arabia — in Hebrew, B'uai Yuktan; in Arabic
i3eni K:,htan — have long spread from the n.w., touching Palestine as far s. as Nubia,
and w. to Barbary. We have called them doubtfully Khittim or Hittites, though the
Bible name would indicate Cyprus as one of their colonies, and identification is hin-
dered by our not knowing who the Hittites were, nor what language they spoke. At
any rate, Ramses II. found them in Palestine, and they then had scribes. "The curious
inscribed stones of Hamath appear to belong to the center or Himyari variety of letter;
and the western, the Ghassani, has been found mixed with late Moabite legends. The
Himyari, the Musnad of Arabic writers, was supplanted in the s. of Arabia by the
modern Arabic. It adds 6 letters to the Phenician, and is a curious humped kind of
alphabet, written reversed or woven. The Gheez, extinct in the 4th c. A.D., is an
enormous syllabary of 33 letters, combined by differentiation with 6 vowels and with
additional diphthongs. The other divisions are the old and the new systems of the
Barbary tribes. The peculiar vowel treatment of Ethiopia — its fullness, its direct
writing, and an identity of signs, all pointing to an Indian rather than a Shemitic rela-
tion — led Leuormant to derive the old Indian or Magadhi from a supposed primitive
alphabet of Yemen. We follow an apparently conclusive German authority in referring
the Indian D to the cuneatic. But the systems of this whole A family are very
unlike, and there may be a supposition possible. The Libyan may represent a true
Arabic alphabet, rudely formed from the hieratic syllabary, and of which the Himyari
would be an enlargement under outside influence. The Hittites may have been, as
often argued, a foreign race, who made a complicated and flexible syllabary out of the
cuueatic as a basis, and from them the Indians may have obtained their own. rich alpha-
bet, and the forms which vary almost beyond recognition. N
Shemitic Trunk.
C.
Old Phenician.
E. | F.
_ _
Old Hebrew. Sidonian, Indo-German.
Secondary Plienician.
Samaritan.
Cursive Samaritan.
Tertiary Phenician. Old Aramaic.
I
Punic. Bastolian.
jrchaic Phenician, of 22 letters, is the parent of all the alphabets, properly so nsmed
horn their first letters. It is fount in connection, with cuneatic in the 10th c. B.C.;
descends by a regular process of greater and greater curtailment through all the colonies
of that sca-f suing race; mixed with Libyan it formed the script of the rivals of Rome;
and, still further debased, passed over to the Turditani" and the mixed race of Bastulo-
poeni near cape Trafalgar. It is distinguished by its abominable execution. Seldom chis-
eled, usually scratched, often merely smeared or painted, the letters finally become almost
indecipherable, and we see for the first time the quick and careless workmanship of a
race of traders and clerks. . Let it be understood that all inscriptions down to the fall of
Babylon are never Aramaic, or of the northern Shemitic branch; they are all of the cen-
tral band — either western, Kenzani or Yehudith, or eastern, Athmith or Babli. The
Hebrew branch, E, must never then be confounded with the Chaklee jargon of the later
prophets, so often understood by that term; it differs, in company with Moabite, from
the Phenician, only in its being better executed and having a scriptio plenior. After the
captivity the Samaritans retained the old alphabet, which passed through transition down
ito the present Samaritan type-letters and the late manuscript. The Hebrew letters
i were used on the coins of the Maccabees, and again, during the last flicker of independ-
ence, during the revolt of Bar Kokhabas. G, the Aramaic family, like all true Shemitic
alphabets, u written reversed, and in modern times pointed for vowels and precessed
letters.
Aramaic Branch.
G.
Old Aramaic.
Secondary Aramaic.
Aramaic of the Papyri.
H. I. K.
Jewish. Persian.
It varies from a type evidently influenced, by the local cuneatic found on the Babylonian
tablets, to a coarse running style on the demotic papyri. It supplanted all the old alpha-
bets in western Asia by the time of the last Achemenians, and results in
Paleography.
202
H.
Syriac Family.
Palmyrene.
1
Pamphylian.
Hauranltic. Estranghelo,
to hill <•. A.I).
Nabatheaii,
to M o. A.D. Jerusalemite.
Neatoriau.
1
Mandaite,
to 6th c. A.D.
Jezm. |
Pesliitto,
Arabic Family. 2 c. A.D.
L.
Uraltaic Family.
M.
The Mandaite differentiates for vowels; but most Syrian letters are cursive, or bound by
a bottom Hue. Final letters are the rule, and the best differentiate for place in the
word. The Syrians of Malabar have a slightly changed Nestoriau alphabet.
i.
Jewish Family.
Square Hebrew.
!
Rabbinical.
Modern alphabets.
Earliest monuments known are notearlier than the 1st c. B.C. The Rabbinical is a current
handwriting in use till the 12th c. A.D. ; now superseded by the Spanish, the German, and
the beautiful Raschi text. There are several forms of debased modern manuscript. It
should be noticed that there are no Jewish manuscripts older than the 3d c. A.D., and that
no vowels were pointed before the 5th century.
L.
.Arabic Family.
Jezm.
Kuflq. Neskhi.
Moghreb. Persian. Malegassi.
Turk. Hindu.
The modern Neskhi appears on the tomb at Khartoom, in Nubia, of the second generation
after the prophet. The Cutic, the beautiful characters erected upon a long straight bar,
and used in ornamental inscriptions, had originally only the 22 letters of the Phmician,
but they early added six processed letters; yet not in the same order in the JJarhary <ir
Mograb alphabet. The Neskhi turned the letters into a new order, easily memorized by
a mnemonic verse, but based really on their forms, those alike being brought together.
It is current, with some exceptions, reversed, differentiated for four places, and pointed
for vowels. The Curie is handsomer for inscriptions, but, as illuminated with a rccd
pen, it may be questioned whether so graceful an alphabet has ever been invented. Like
all systems of which the letters differ widely in shape, it is not, except when in too fine a
type, tiresome to the eye. There are various forms of more or less cursive shape, known
by different names. The Persian Tazalik reduces the short twists to one long waving
stroke. All foreign nations — and Arabic is the English of the East — make needed letters
by pointing those nearest in Arabic. Such alphabets are the Malay, the Turk, the
Indian, and the Afghan.
Uraltaic Family.
M.
Wigur.
Tartar Samaic.
Mongol.
I I
Kalmuk. Manzhu.
Wigur in 7th c. A.D., Manzhu in the 16th. Some differentiate for place, and connect; all
write in column from above, down, which also appears to have been once true of the
Estranghelo, from which they come. Kalmuk has 7 vowels and 18 consonants, the
arrangement, as in all these alphabets, being arbitrary.
K.
Persian Family.
Persepolitan P. N. E. Indian,
I - Kindii and Multon.
Sassanian P.
.r,
M. 8. Pehlwi.
Zend.
I
Georgian.
203
Paleography.
Eastern Aramaic of Mie Achemenian empire gradually changes, as may be trace*! on
monuments, until it appears on the Sassanian coins. The MS. is exceedingly hard to
read, the 4 vowels and 19 consonants being exceedingly alike, and ligatures "and con-
tractions numerous. The language is a conventional one, containing both Inclo-German
and Shemitic, and exceedingly difficult to understand: writing reversed, and words
separated by a point. Zend is the language of the A vestas, and there may be distin-
guished an older and a newer form. An alphabet of 51 signs, which, like the last, have
the flowing look of Arabic Neskhi, but many of the tails of the letters turn against the
grain: writing disconnected, reversed, with ligatures. The Armenian began in the 5th
c. A.D., till when they used Sassanian or Greek. They have large and small letters,
both in type and cursive. The Georgian is of two types, older and newer. Both have
41 letters; and the Armenian, though undoubtedly Indo-German, appears to have been
influenced to assume many strong explosives and double letters.
Indian Trunk.
Ass. Cuneatlc.
D.
Old Pehlwi. N.
Magadhi,
11. east.
Gupta inscriptions.
Old Sindhi and Multani,
Debased Aramaic. n. west.
Old Kabuli.
Sindhi and Multani.
» Vaidik Family.
Old Pali
d.
Pali Family.
On old coins of Cabul of about 150-22 B.C. are found letters and numerals of an alpha-
bet, evidently debased Aramaic, but more of a Syrian than of a Pehlwi type. It has
neither mother nor daughter that we at present know, and has not been attached to the
Aramaic branch, where it properly belongs, for that reason. The whole of Indian
paleography is unsettled, and for a reason which always causes confusion; the relative
antiquity of its alphabets and cultivation being closely bound up with religion, all native
observations on the subject are puerile or deceptive, nor is the student fitted for
researches which belong to the sphere of the archaeologist. Late discoveries of inscrip-
tions on copper, on stone, and in caves, enable us to correct many extravagant claims
for Indian antiquity, yet there still remain uncertainties and illusions which only critical
research can dispel. It must be remembered that northern India, Brahmani till the 5th
c. B.C., became Buddhi from the 3d c. B c. to the 6th c. A.D., the wave spreading from
the town of Bihar, then Magadha. The Magadhi alphabet is without the band-line above
the letters, but each consonant implies the a vowel, since when several follow without
a vowel they go each below the other. We have inscriptions of king Acoka, 3d
c. B.C.; from Guzerat, 3d c. B.C.; from Allahabad. 5th c. A.D., and several prob-
ably slightly older than any. The difference is hardly so much as might be ex-
pected in so long a time, and all the Sanskrit letters are present, at least in the latest.
Pali, its descendant, easily known by its wanting the baud-line, coming into use in Bud-
dhism just before its final expulsion from hither India, naturally became finally identi-
fied with that religion, and furnished the alphabets for the languages influenced by its
missionary exile. There seems to have beenan.w. center, necessarily Brahmani, which,
thrown into the background by Buddhism, contributed, after the downfall of the latter,
to the formation of a new character, the ancestor of the modern hither Indian alphabets,
and which, as it was used in committing to writing the sacred Brahmauical books, we
may call the Vaidik. Such a supposed type, a floating mixture of old n.e. and n.w.
types, must have existed, for a reciprocal influence is evident between modern Devana-
gari and the Sindhi and Multani.
O. Pali Family.
Nipal
Old Pali.
Branch. Farther Indian Branch.
1
Oceanic Branch.
Kavi.
1
Old Orissa.
New Orissa.
Banzhin Mola.
!
Ranzha. Squar
Kaiti-nagari.
Nevari.
5 Pali. Kambozha Pali.
1
Sunda. Java.
1 (
Bisai
'1
ra,. Lampong.
Pejang. Bat
a.
Burman
Pali.
Burmani.
1
Siamese Laos
Pali. Pali Taga
Mukas,
ir-Bugi.
1- 1
Shyan. Mon.
1 Pegu.
Paleologng.
204
The Nipal branch is particularly interesting as showing a gradual change to a typ«
almost idi.-ntical with Dcvanagari. Tlie square Pali of Bunnali is probably the nearest to
tlie old Pali of any. The Buiman itself being written with a heavy, Slightly rounded
character, painted with a brush, and a round, semicircular type for writing with a
point, which may be taken as the distinctive appearance of most of the transgaugetie
alphabets. The Cambogian is contorted and intricate, and the Javanese cnimnlcd. The
Buddhists arrived in Pegu at the beginning of the 5th c. A.D. There is a kind of scrawl
used in Malabar which ran hardly be placed, and in several instances the arrangement
of Lenormant has been curtailed or altered. The best authority on Pali is the work of
Burnouf and Lassen, corrected by latest essays. From Siam spreads uorth-east the great
family of toned or musical languages, culmiuatiug in Chinese.
P. Valdlk Family.
Pun
Si
abi. Nerbudda an 1 Kistna Thil
Inscriptions. 7th <
Dravidian Family.
>eti, Old Deva
. A.D. lUth C
Old Kashmiri,
10th c.
New Kashmiri
nasrari, Kutila ai
. A. I), lusrf.. ]
,„
id Assam
t'th c.
gall.
in- TeHnga.
Karnati.
Sinhali,
Ceylon.
TamuL
Grantham,
Malabar.
Marathi. Guzhi
ratL Devanagari,
modern.
Ushen. Passepa.
Umin.
Khyugayl.
Buddhism made its way to Ceylon in the 3d c. B.C., and it is yet a question whether
the last examples of the Dravidian family are really based on Pali or old Devanagari;
they are certainly of that round type which is characteristic of the farther Indian alpha-
bets. The modern Devanagari deserves notice from its full alphabet, from its being the
exponent of a whole horde of dialects, and from its expression of the farthest developed
of all the Indo-German languages. It is the only language which still connects (except
certain interrupting letters) a whole sentence, and accents and inwardly changes it as
one concrete expression. But the question for all scholars is, Are there any texts what-
ever, old in date (before the 10th c. A.D.), or, if old in date, without palpable interpo-
lations, glosses, or subsequent precessions?
F. Indo-German Family.
Old Pl>< nician.
Norse]
Asiatic Branch. Gree
1
k Branch.
Italic
Doric.
Branch.
Albanian. Island. Ionic.
Attic. -Eolo-
IOld Latin,
an.
Class. Latin.
1
Lycian. Etruscan. Umbrii
tones.
Q. I Rhaetian.
n. Mar-
Kali-can.
in.
Tudisk Runes. Ogcan
GraflrttL
The oldest Greek inscriptions, of Melos and Thera, date from about 620 B.C. The
old alphabets, besides this group of 23 letters, divide into another of 26, of two marked
types — vEolian, or of Korkyra, and Doric. In many parts of Greece the Ionic, which
may possibly show a derivation from secondary or Sidonian Phenician, replaced these
older types, and the Athenians, adopting the characters for e and 6 about 400 B.C.. make
that variety the representative alphabet of classical Greek. The Italian alphabets have
all an evident primitive air, and they differ from the Greek branch in that, like the Asi-
atic, they do not distinguish v from o. The dates of relics are about — Faliscan, middle
of 4th c. B.C., Oscan the end, Sabellian tlie middle, Etruscan the first half of the r>th
century. That the Etruscan does not belong with the Italic family is an inference which
can hardly yet be considered proved, all this subject being made more difficult by the
perfectly evident borrowing of all these types, one from another, and the perplex ing wny
in which, while striving to make up signs not in the original Shemitic, each different
dialect sets a different value on the very limited stock of new signs common to all.
Everything points to the presence of the fcypriot syllabary on the islands long before
any alphabet through the Phenician arrived there, but no vestiges of any such alphabet
are left; and the resemblances between that syllabary and earlier alphabets are
explainable exactly as were those of Phenician and Egyptian. The Lycian alphabet,
as we now have it, is very late, of the time of the satraps at the earliest;" and it. like all
the others, is distinctly Phenician. It maybe believed that some 13 to 16 letter alpha-
bet once existed; tho universal tradition of antiquity was to that effect; and the incom-
plete alphabet of early Assyrian points out what the letters and signs would naturally be;
20 D Paleologus.
but to find such an one we have to come down to the Norse runes, nearly 2,000 years
to remind the reader that there was a cursive Greek as early as Alexandrian cultivation,
and that Latin, already as much disfigured as Phenician in the careless scrawls on the
walls of Pompeii, had also a distinct cursive as early as ths 3d c. A.D. It is a mistake
to speak of an Irish, Saxon, or Norse mediaeval alphabet. They are simply a beautiful
variety of the usual early Lombardic letters; but the influence of the Greek scribes if
evident in them, and they did not merge into the far uglier, angular, black-letter.
Norse.
1
O. Runes.
Tudisk.
. I
1
Slav ] lunes.
Sa::»n.
Anglo-Saxon,
w. Latin.
Goth. Frank.
1
Meso-Goth, Cyrillic,
w. Greek. w. Greek.
Glagolic,
•w. Copt-Greek.
Vend
runes.
The earliest rune futhark (like the word alpha-bet) is probably of about A.D. 300; it
and all others show acquaintance with the Latin alphabet ; but just as evidently, they ,
are, on close inspection, not derived from that alone. The letters on the bractcate of/
Sco'nen are 23 (is there one lost ?) in number, and correspond closely enough with the
names preserved by Ultilas in his Meso-Gothic; they are, in fact, just the same as the
Markoman alphabet, and the old part of the Anglo-Saxon futhark. The old A orse 1 uthark,
on the contrary, thousrh it does not appear until the 8th c., is much more primitive, and
ori»inally had" 15 characters (staves). These were pointed to represent the needed
sounds in the bediming of the 13th c. by king Waldemar, and then give way before
Christianity and its prejudice in favor of the Latin alphabet While we see the west, pi-
Teutonic system of runes, thus disappearing before an alphabet wholly inadequate to
express the sounds of its dialects, the eastern or Slavonic took advantage of the (com-
paratively) brilliant ingenuity and learning of the Greek church, and, using as a basis a
series of 'runes which unfortunately we do not possess entire, evolved the Moravian, or
Cyrillic bukiviza (equals alphabet) in the 9th c., the Glagolitic, or southern Slavic, in the
13th century. The last is of, probably, 31 letters, and their forms are usually traced to
a Coptic debasement of hieratic signs which equal their meaning in the original Slav.
This is far-fetched. It would suffice that the Dalmatian monk Hieronymus, who
invented them, had been a Copt by birth. The Cyrillic, parent of the modern Slav sys-
tem* shows the influence of the usual rounded Greek Byzantine character. _ It is neces-
sary to sav a few words of Russhn, because it, with Devanagari and Persian JNeskhi
shows a distinct attempt at a phonetic system. It is the only system that ever succeeded
in spelling for Europeans the harsh and convoluted sounds of the Caucasus; it
what small additions would perfect the system, and the additions, generated as they
might be from the original shapes of the runes, would come in well with the present
letters.
PALEOL'OGUS,the name of an illustrious Byzantine family, which first appears in
history about the llth c., and attained to imperial dignity in the person of Michael VIII.
in 1260 This emperor successfully undertook many expeditions to Greece and the
Archipelago and used his utmost endeavors- to heal the schism between the Roman and
Greek churches though with exceedingly little success. His successor on the throne was his
son Andronicus II. (1282-1329), under whose reign the Turks commenced m earnest a series
of a vaults on the Byzantine dominions. Andronicus attempted to oppose them with a force
composed of mercenaries, but his success was very doubtful, as these troops, with per cot
impartiality, attacked both his enemies and his subjects. To pay them he was compelled
to levy such imposts as went far to destroy Byzantine commerce. He associated hie son,
Michael IX., with himself in the government, and was dethroned by his grandson,
Andronicus III. (1328-41), an able warrior and wise ruler, who repeatedly defeated the
Bulgarians Tartars of the Golden Horde, and the Servians, and diminished the oppresiye
imposts of the previous reign. He was, however, unsuccessful against the Catalans 11?
Greece, and the Turks durinar his reign ravaged Thrace as far as the Balkan. was
greatly esteemed' by his subjects, and well merited the title of "father of Jjis coi itry,
which thev bestowed upon' him. His son, John VI. (1355-91), a weak and voluptuous
prince attempted in vain, both by force and bribery, to stop the progress ot 1
at last the pope moved by iiis urgent entreaties, which were backed by a promise t
submit the Greek church' to his (the pope's) supremacy, urged the Hungarians and
Servians to arm in defense of the Greek emperor, but the result was only an additional
triumph to Sultan Amurath. The imbecile emperor was several times deposed, and on
his final reinstatement by the sultan, acknowledged himself as his vassal for the capital and
a small Tact along the Propontis and Black sea. Indeed, so degraded had the Byzan-
tines become that they obeyed the sultan Bajazet's summons to aid him in reducing
Philadelphia the last Greek stronghold in Asia Minor. His son, Andronicus IV.
Paleontology.
( 1 "55-73), who had been associated with him in the government, died in exile. Manuel
II. (1391-1425) pursued the s:ime tactics as las father John VI., and with the same re-ult.
Tht' allied army of the Hungarians, Germans, and French, which he had summoned to
his aid against the Turks, was totally routed at Nicopolisby Baja/et. and Constantinople
itself closely beseiged. The invasion of Asia Minor by Tnniir, however, compelled the
sultan to withdraw his whole force, and his subsequent defeat and capture at Angora in
1402. and the contests among his sons for the supremacy, uave the Greek empire a
breathing-space. Having aided Mohammed I. in his contests with his brothers, Manuel
was, by the grateful sultan, presented with some districts in Greece, Thessalonica, and
on the Euxine. John VII. (1425-49), on being pressed by the Turks, again held out to the
pope the old bait of the union of the Greek and western churches under his sway, and even
presented himself at the council of Florence, where, in July, 1439, the union of the churches
was agreed to. But on his return to Constantinople, the opposition of the Greek ecclesi-
astics to the uuion, supported by the people, rendered the agreement of Florence a dead
letter. The pope, however, saw that it was for his interest to fulfill his part of the agree-
ment, and accordingly stirred up Wladislas of Hungary to attack the Turk
JAOELI.ONS), but this act only hastened the downfall of the Paleologi. John's brother,
Constantino XIII. (1449-53), a heroic scion of a degenerate race, accepted the crown after
much hesitation, knowing his total inability to withstand the Turks, and even then took
the precaution of obtaining the sultan's consent before he exercised the imperial authority;
but some rebellions in ('aramania which now occurred,- baffling sultan Mohammed 11.'.$
efforts to quell them, the emperor was willingly persuaded by his rash advisers that the
time had now arrived for rendering himself independent of the Turks. The attempt,
however, only brought swifter destruction on the wretched remnant of the Byzantine
empire, for Mohammed invested the capital by sea and land, and after a siege, which
lasted from April 6 to May 29, 1453, Constantinople was taken by storm, and the last of
the Paleologi fell fighting bravely in the breach. A branch of this family ruled Mont-
ferrat, in Italy, from 1306, but became extinct in 1533. The Paleologi were connected
by marriage with the ruling families of Hungary, Servia, and the last of the family
married Ivan, czar of Russia — a fact which the czars of Russia have persisted till lately iu
bringing forward as a claim iu favor of their pretensions to the possession of European
Turkey. It is said that direct descendants of the Paleologi exist to the present day iu
France. (For further information see the separate articles on some of the emperors, and
BYZAXTINE EMPIRE.)
PALEONTOL OGY(Gr. science of fossil animals) is that division of geology (q.v.) whose
province it is to inquire into the evidence of organic life on the globe during the different
bygone geological periods, whether this evidence arises from the actual remains of the
different plants and animals, or from recognizable records of their existence, such as
footprints, coprolites (q.v.), etc.
The mctamorphic action which has so remarkably altered the oldest sedimentary
rocks, is sufficient to have obliterated all traces of organic remains contained in iheni.
Fossils are consequently extremely rare in these older paleozoic strata, and indeed it is
only after long search, and within a recent time, that undoubted remains have been
found in the Laurentian rocks. We were unable to record their existence in the article
LAUUEXTIAN SYSTEM; but in the article LIMESTONE, we referred to the existence of beds
of limestone as requiring the presence of animal life for their production. It is true that
in 1852 an organic form resembling a coral was found in the limestone of the Ottawa,
but much doubt was always entertained regarding this solitary discovery. In 1S(J:5. how-
ever, there was detected an organism in the serpentine limestone of Grenville, of true
Laurentian age, which Dr. Dawson describes as that of a foraminifer, growing in large
sessile patches, after the manner of Carpentaria, but of much greater dimension*, and
presenting minute points, which reveal a structure resembling' that of other foramini-
feral forms, as, for example, calcariiia and nummuUna. Large portions of the limestone
appear to be made up of these organisms, mixed with other fragments, which suggest
comparisons with criuoids and other calcareous fossils, but which have not yet been dis-
tinctly determined. Some of the limestones are more or less colored by carbonaceous mat-
ter, exhibiting evidences of organic structure, probably vegetable. In this sinirle fora-
minifer,_and the supposed coral, we have all that is positively known of the earliest inhab-
itants of our globe, with which we are yet acquainted. That these are but the smallest
fraction of the fauna of the period in which they lived, is evident from the undetermined
fragments associated with them, as well as from the extensive deposits of limestone of
the same a^. And that contemporaneous with them, there existed-equally numerous
representatives of the vegetable kingdom, cannot be doubted, when it is remembered that
the animal can obtain its food only through the vegetable, and not directly from inor-
ganic materials. Besides, their remains apparently exist in the limestone at Grenville, a
rock which, from its very nature, rarely contains vegetable fossils.
The Cambrian rocks, though of immense thickness, have hitherto yielded indications
of only a very few animals, but these have a special interest, as they are the oldest fossil
remains yet detected in Britain. They consist of an impression which Salter considers to
be portion of a trilobite, named by him paleopyge, of the burrows and tracks of sea-
worms, and of t-vo species of radiated zoophytes called oldhamia — animals which in this
case also can be nothing more than the most fragmentary representations of the fauaaof
- - • Paleontology.
the period. Xo indications of vegetable life have yet been noticed in the Cumbrian
rocks, for we cannot consider the superficial markings on some of these strata as having
anything to do with t'uci.
'Undoubted representations of the four invertebrate sub-kingdoms early make theil
appearance in the Silurian strata, and the occurrence before the close of the period of sev-
eral fish, adds to them the remaining sub-kingdom — the vertebrata. If we except the
silicious frustules of diatomaceie which are said to have been detected in these rocks, no
satisfactory traces of plants have yet been observed, although extensive layers of
anthracitic shales are common. Of the lower forms of the animal kingdom, some sponge-
like bodies have been found, arid corals are remarkably abundant, chiefly belonging to
the order rugosa, a paleozoic type, the membeis of which have horizontal tabula),
and vertical plates or septa, either four in number, or a multiple of four. Graptolites,
another family of zoophytes, flourished in the dark mud of the Silurian seas, and did
not survive the period. All the great divisions of the molluscaare represented by numer-
ous genera, several of which are not very different from some living forms. A few true
star-fishes have left their records on the rocks, but the most striking feature in the echin-
odennata of the period is the cystideans, or armless sea-lilies, which, like the Grapto-
lites, did not pass beyond the Silurian seas. Tubes, tracks, and burrows of annelids
have been observed; and numerous Crustacea, belonging, with the exception of one or
two shrimp-like species, to the characteristic paleozoic: trilobite, of which the number of
individuals is as remarkable as* the variety of species and genera. It is only in the upper
portion of the group (the Ludlow beds) that the fish remains have been found. These
have been referred to six different genera, and are chiefly loricate ganoids, of which
cephalarpis is the best known.
The rocks of the old red sandstone period supply the earliest satisfactory remains of
plants. The ferns, sigillaria1, lycopodites, and calamites, so abundant in the coal
measures, make their appearance among the newer of these beds, and even fragments of
dicotyledonous wood have been observed. The various sections of the invertebrata are
well represented, but the remarkable characteristic in the animal life of the period
is .the abundance of strange forms of heterocercai-tailed fish, whose buckler-shields,
hard scales, or bony spines occur in the greatest abundance in some beds. The reptiles
and reptile tracks in the red sandstone of Moray, originally referred here, are now univer-
sally considered as belonging to the new red measures.
The striking feature in the rocks of the carboniferous period is the great abundance
of plants, the remains of which occur throughout the whole series, the coal-beds being
composed entirely of them, the shales being largely charged with them, the sand-
stones containing a few. and even the limestones not being entirely without them.
These plants were specially fitted for preservation, the bulk of them being vascular
cryptogams, a class which Lindley and Hutton have shown by experiment to be capable
of lona- preservation under water. They are chiefly ferns; some are supposed to have
been arborescent lycopods. while others (sigillaria, calamites, and asteropfit/ttites) are so
different from anything now known, that their position cannot be definitely deter-
mined, though it is most probably among the higher cryptogams. Several genera
of conifers have been established from fossilized fragments of wood; and some sin-
gular impressions, which look like the flowering stems of dicotyledonous plants, have
been found. The limestones are chiefly composed of crinoids, corals, and brachio-
podous shells. The corals attain a great size, and the crinoids arc extremely abundant,
their remains making sometimes beds of limestone 1000ft. thick, and hundreds of square
miles in extent, y.-.ny new genera of shells make their appearance. The trilobites,
which were so abundant in the earlier rocks, are reduced to one or two genera, and
finally disappear with this period. Fish with polished bony scales are found; and others,
like the Port, Jackson shark, with pavements of flat teeth over their mouth and gullet,
fitting them to crush and grind the shell-protected animals on which they fed. Strange
fisii-' ike reptiles existed in the seas, and air-breathing species have been found on the
continent and in America. The wing-cases, and parts of the bodies of insects, have also
been found.
The perm tan period is remarkable for the paucity of its organic remains, but this may-
arise from our comparative ignorance of ils strata. The plants and animals are on the
whole similar to those found in the carboniferous measures, and a great proportion of
them belong to the same genera. Many ancient forms do not pass this period, as the
tigiUaria among plants, and the prodncla among animals.
The red sandstones of the triassic period are remarkably destitute of organic remains
— the iron, which has given to them this color, seems to have been fatal to animal life.
In beds, however, on the continent, in which the iron is absent, fossils abound. These
fossils present a singular contrast to those met with in the jlder rocks. The paleozoic
forms had been gradually dying out, and the few that were still found in the permian
strata do not survive that period, while in their place there appear in the trias many
genera which approach more nearly to the living forms. Between the organisms of the
permian and triassic periods there exists a more striking difference than is to be found
between those of any previous periods. Looking at this life-character, the rocks from
the permian downwards have been grouped together under the title paleozoic; virile
from the trias upwards the whole of the strata have received the name of neozoic.
Paleoniscus.
Paleosaurus.
The extensive genera of ammonites and bolemnites make their first appearance in the
trias. Several new forms of ccstraeionl fish occur, ami the reptiles increase in number
and variety; among them is the huge bntrachiau labyrinthodon, and the singular fresh-
water tortoise. dicynodon. The bird-tracks .on the sandstones of Connecticut are by
some referred to this age. Small teeth of mammalia, believed to be those of an insec-
tivorous animal, like the myrmecobius of Australia, have been found in the keuper beds
of Germany and Somerset.
In the oolitic series we ha a- an abundance of organic remains, in striking contrast to
the scanty traces in the penman and triassic periods. Many new genera of ferns take
the place of the paleozoic forms, and a considerable variety of conifers make their
appearance, some of which have close affinities with living species, one, indeed, brino
referred to a still existing genus. The same approximation to living types is to be found
in the animal kingdom. Several of the foraminif era . are referred to living genera.
Among the corals, the representatives of two living families make their appearance. N<>
new genera are found among the brachiopoda; but the conchifera and gasteropoda show
a great addition of new genera, some of which are still represented by living species,
while not many new genera .were added to the cephalopoda, though they were individu-
ally very abundant. In some places the lias shale consists of extensive pavements of
i befen) nites and ammonites. The crinoids give place to the increasing variety of sea-
urchins and star-fishes. • Numbereof insects have been found. The cestracionts continue
1 to be represented in the oolitic seas, but with them are associated several true sharks and
I rays; and the homoccrcal-tailed fish become numerous. Labyrinthodont reptiles abound :
; the huge mcgalosaur and its companions occupied the land; while the seas were tenanted
: with the remarkable ichthyosaur and plesiosaur, and the air with the immense bat-like
' pterodactyl. Seven genera of mammalia have been found, all believed to be small
carnivorous or insectivorous marsupials except the stereognathus, which Owen considers
to have been a placental mamir.al, probably hoofed and herbivorous.
In the cretaceous beds, which are chiefly deep sea deposits, the remains of plants
and land animals are comparatively rare. The wealden beds, however, which had a
fresh-water origin, contain the remains of several small marsupials, some huge carnivor-
ous and herbivorous reptiles, a few fresh-water shells, and some firinncnts of drift-wood.
The true chalk is remarkably abundant in the remains of foraminii'ers — indeed, in some
places, it is composed almost entirely of the shells of these minute creatures. Of the
mollusca, the brachiopoda are in some beds very abundant; the c< nchifera introduce
several new forms, the most striking of which is the genus hippurites, which with its
allies did not survive this period; thecephalopodous genera which a] p- ared in the oolite
continue to abound in the chalk, many new forms being introduced: while others dis-
appear with the period, like the bclemnites and ammonites. Sea-urchins become still
more numcroxis. In some beds the remains offish are abundant, and while cartilaginous
species still exist, the bony fishes become more numerous; and among them the family
to which the salmon and cod belong makes its appearance. Reptiles are common in the
wealden, and the flying pterodactyls attained a greater size, and were probably more
numerous than in the former period. The remains of a single bird has been obtained
from the greensand, but with this exception, birds as well as mammals have left n,<*
traces that have yet been found in the cretaceous beds, though doubtless they existed.
In the tertiary strata, the genera are either those still living, or forms very cloM-ly
allied to them, which can be separated only by the careful examination of the accurate
scientific observer. The plants of the eocene beds are represented by dicotyledonous
leaves, and palm and other fruits. Foraminifers are remarkably abundant, whole moun-
tain masses being formed of the large genus nummulites. Brachiopoda are rare, but
conchifera, gasteropoda, and cephalopoda increase in number; the new forms beii
erically almost identical with those now living. The principal living orders o
tiles, and birds are represented in the eocene strata. A considerable variety of
pachydermatous mammals, suited apparently to live on marshy grounds and the borders
of lakes, have been. found in France and England, and associated with them are some
carnivorous animals, whose remains are, however, much rarer. An opossum has been
found at Colchester. The fragments belonging to the supposed monkey are portions of
a small pachyderm, hyraeotherium (q.v.).
Little need be said of the invcrtebrata of the miocene period, beyond remarking their
growing identity in genera with the living forms. Among the mammals, the quadru-
mana make their first appearance. The true elephant and the allied mastodon are rep-
resented by several species; a huge carnivorous whale has been discovered, and several
%carnivora and deer, with a huge edentate animal, have been described. Owen thus
'speaks of these animals: "Our knowledge of the progression of mammalian life during
the miocene period, teaches us that one or two of the generic forms most frequent in the
older tertiary strata still lingered on the earth, but that the rest of the eocene mammalia
had been superseded by new forms, some of which present characters intermediate
between those of eocene'and those of pliocene genera."
In passing upwards through the tertiary strata, the organic remains become more
and more identical with living forms, so that when we reach the pliocene and pleistocene
periods, the great proportion of the iuvertebrata are the same species which are found
occupying the present seas. Among the higher orders of animals the life of a species is
Of)Q Paleonisous.
w " " Paleosaurus.
much shorter than in the lower, and consequently, though the vertebrata approach so
nearly to existing forms as for the most part to be placed in the same genera, yet the
species differ from any of the living representatives of the different genera.
The Suffolk "crags," which are the only British representatives of the pliocene
period, contain the relics of a marine testacca, that differs little from the present tenants
of the European seas, between GO and 7U per cent being the same species. The ear-bones
of one or more species of cetaeea have been found, and at Antwerp, the remains of a
dolphin have been discovered in beds of this age.
The various local deposits which together form the pleistocene strata, the latest of the
geological periods, contain a great variety of organic remains. In the submarine forests
and in beds of peat, the stumps of trees are associated with the remains of underwood
and herbaceous plants of species still living. Nearly all the mollusca and other marine
iuvertebrata still survive. It is among the vertebrata that the most remarkable forms
appear — forms which in the main differ little from the existing race of animals except ia
their enormous size. Elephants and rhinoceroses, fitted for a cold climate by their cov-
ering of iong coarse hair and wool, roamed over the northern regions of both the old
and the new world, and were associated with animals belonging to genera which still
exist in the same region, as bears, deer, wolves, foxes, badgers, otters, wolverines, wea-
sels, and beavers, besides others whose representatives are now found further south, as
the hippopotamus, tapir, and hyena. Contemporary with these, there lived in South
America a group of animals which were types in everything but in size of the peculiar
existing fauna of that continent. Among these were gigantic sloth-like animals, fitted
to root up and push down the trees, instead of climbing to strip them of their foliage,
like the sloth. The armadillo was represented by the huge glyptodou, whose body was
protected by a strong tessellated coat of mail. The species of fossil tapirs and peccaries
are more numerous than their living representatives. The llamas were preceded by the
large inacrauchenia, and the opossums and platyrhine monkeys were also prefigured by
related species. Besides these, there have been found the remains of two mastodons and
a horse, none of which are represented by any indigenous living animal in South
America. The peculiar group of animals confined to Australia were prefigured by huge
marsupials, some having close analogies to the living kangaroos and wombats, while oth-
ers were related to the carnivorous native tiger. The gigantic wingless birds of New
Zealand correspond in type with the anomalous apteryx, now existing only on these
islands.
Associated with the remains of elephants, mastodons, cave-bears, and cave-hyenas,
there have been found in England and France, numerous specimens of flint implements,
which are undoubtedly the result of human workmanship, and show at least that man
was contemporaneous with these extinct animals. If more certain evidence were needed
of this, it has been obtained in the discovery of flint implements, bone implements fash-
ioned and carved by means of the flint knives, the horns of a reindeer, two kinds of
extinct deer, bos primigenius, and other animals, associated with numerous bones of
man, included in the breccia of the cave of Bruuiquel in France. Owen considers the
evidence of the contemporaneity of the various remains as conclusive. The several
human skulls which have been obtained show, acccording to the same authority, no
characters whatever indicative of an inferior or transitional type. There are no certain
data to give probability to the guesses which have been made as to the number of years
which have elapsed since these deposits in which the relics of man occur were formed.
The whole inquiry, moreover, is so recent, and the accumulation of facts is almost every
day going on, that it would be premature to speak dogmatically on the subject.
PALEONISCTJS (Gr. ancient sea-fish), a genus of ganoid fish, with a fusiform body,
covered with rhomboid scales, a heterocercal tail, and moderately-sized fins, each fur-
nished with an anterior spine. The single dorsal fin is opposite to the interval between
the anal and ventral fins. Twenty-eight species have been described from the carbonif-
erous and permian measures.
PALEOPYGE (Gr. ancient rump), a genus of fossil Crustacea, founded on a single
impression from the surface of a bed in the Longmynd, of Cambrian age. Salter believes
it to be the cephalic shield of a trilobite, but it may be only an accidental marking. If
•t be the impression of an organism, it is so distorted and imperfect that little can be
made of it; its peculiar interest arises from its being associated with the earliest forms of
life that have been observed on the globe.
PALEOSAURTJS (Gr. ancient lizard), a genus of fossil saurian reptiles peculiar to the
permian period. The remains of two species occur in the dolomitic conglomerate at
Kedland, near Bristol. The teeth were more or less compressed, and were furnished
with serrated cutting margins. The vertebra were biconcave, and had a remarkable
depression in the center of each vertebra, into which the spinal canal was sunk. The
leg-bones show that the paleosaurs were fitted for moving on the land. Owen thus
exhibits their affinities: "In their thecodont type of dentition, biconcave vertebrae,
double-jointed ribs, and proportionate size of the bones of the extremities, they are allied
to the teieosaurus, but with these they combine a dinosaurian femur, a lacertian form of
tooth, and a crocodilian structure of pectoral and probably pelvic arch.''
L K. XL— 14
Paleotherium. 9 1 A
1'alestiae.
PALEOTHE RIUM (Gr. ancient wild beast), a genus of pachydermatous mammalia
whose remains occur in the eocene beds of England and the continent. At least ten
species have been described, ranging in size from that of a sheep tp that of a lior.se. The
upper eocene gypseous quarries of Montmartre supplied the first scanty materials, which
Cuvier, by a series of careful and instructive inductions, built up into an animal, whose
fidelity to nature was afterwards verified l>y the discovery of a complete series of t '<
In general appearance the paleotherium resembled the modern tapir, and especially in
having the snout terminating in a short proboscis. It had three toes on each foot, each
terminated by a hoof. — The formula of the teeth is the same as that of the hyracothere,
viz.,
. 3—3 1—1 4—4 3—3 _
*-^=3« 6-i=f' P- w"4=4' m- 3=3 ~
but the structure of the molars approaches nearer to the molars of the rhinoceros. It is
supposed that animals of this genus dwelt on the margins of lakes and rivers, and that
their habits were similar to those of the tapir.
PALEOZOIC (Gr. ancient life), the name given to the lowest division of the fossilifer-
ous rocks, because they contain the earliest forms of life. They were formerly, and are
still generally, known as the primary rocks. The strata included under these' titles arc
the laurentian, Cambrian, Silurian, old red sandstone, carboniferous, and permian sys-
tems. Phillips, for the sake of uniformity, introduced mesozoic as equivalent to second-
ary, and neozoic to tertiary rocks.
PALER MO, an archiepiscopal city, important seaport, and the capital of the island of
Sicily; capital also of the province of the same name, and along with Naples, Rome,
Milan, and Turin, one of the five most populous cities in the kingdom of Italy, is situated
on the n. coast of the island, 135 in. by water w. of Messina; lat. 3SQ & n., long. 13*
20' east. It stands in a highly-cultivated and fertile plain called La Cor,ca cTOro (The
Golden Shell), commands a beautiful view of the gulf of Palermo on which ii stands,
and is backed toward the interior by ridges of mountains. In shape the town is an
oblong parallelogram, the direction of its length being from s.w. to n.e. It is divided
into four quadrangular parts by two great streets, the beautiful Via Vittorio Emanuele,
formerly the Via Toledo or Cassava, and the Strada Nuova or Macgueda, which cross
each other at right angles in the middle of the city. It is upward of four m. in circum-
ference, is surrounded by walls pierced with 12 gates and flanked with bastions, and is
defended by several batteries. The houses are balconied, flat-roofed, and have glass
doors instead of windows. The streets, besides the two main thoroughfares already
.mentioned, are generally well laid out, and there are several fine promenades, of which the
famous Marina, extending along the shore, on the line of the ancient fortifications, and
bordered by the palaces of the nobles, is the most magnificent. Palermo contains 60
parish churches; 8 abbeys; 71 monasteries and convents, to which belong from 20,000
to 30,000 monks and nuns; and, besides these, 19 oratories. Under the churches is
counted the cathedral — the church of St. Rosalia. At the intersection of the two princi-
pal streets there is a large octagonal space or piazza, lined with palaces, and adorned
with statues and marble fountains. The royal palace is a huge pile of buildings, with a
splendid chapel, built in 1129, and contains many pillars of rare workmanship and rich
mosaics with Arabic inscriptions. The cathedral is a fine edifice, originally Gothic, but
to which incongruous Greek additions have been made, is adorned with marble columns
and statues, and contains monuments of the emperor Frederick II. and of king Roger,
the founder of the Norman monarchy in Sicily. Among the principal public institutions
of Palermo are the university, an academy of arts and sciences, a medical academy, an
institution for arts and antiquities, a beautiful and extensive public garden, public libra
ries, theaters, etc. Palermo is an archbishop's see, the residence of the governor of
the island, and the seat of the supreme courts. Manufactures of silks, cottons, oil-
cloth, leather, gloves, etc., are carried on. The harbor is formed by a mole, 1300 ft. in
length, on which there is a light-house and battery. Vessels of 700,000 tons enter and
clear the port annually, and the imports amount in value to near £1,000,000, and the
exports to about the same sum. Pop. '71 of Palermo with suburbs, 186,406; of com-
mune, 219,838.
The environs of Palermo are interesting as well as picturesque, and embrace many
pleasant villas and noble mansions. North-west of the city is Monte Pellegrino, the
Eircte of the ancients, an abrupt rocky mass, in which there is a grotto or cave, in which
Santa Rosalia, a young Norman princess, lived a life of religious retirement. In Pal-
ermo, Santa Rosalia is esteemed more highly than even Santa Maria; the festival in her
honor lasts from the 9th to the 13th of July, and is the most important festival he-Id on the
island. During its celebration the city is illuminated, the streets are gay and brilliant,
and there is an immense influx of strangers from the vicinity. But the chief feature of
the festival is the procession to the cave. An immense silver image of the saint is borne
thither on a wagon, 70 ft. long, 30 ft. broad, and 80 ft. high. Its form resembles that
of a Roman galley, with scats for a choir. The wagon is drawn by 56 mules, covered
with the gayest trappings, and driven by 28 postilions.
Palermo, the ancient Panormus, was originally a Phenician colony, but had become
Oil Paleotherium.
Palestine.
a dependency of Carthage before the name occurs in history. With the exception of a
short time about 276 B.C., when it fell into the hands of the Greeks, it continued to be
the headquarters of the Carthaginian power in Sicily, until it was taken by the Romans
during the first Punic war (254 B.C.), when it became one of the principal naval stations
of the Romans. The name Panormus is derived from the excellent anchorage (Gr. /«//•-
I/ton) in the bay; but the Pheuician name found on coins is Machanath, meaning "a
camp." The Vandals, and afterwards the Arabs, made it the capital of the island, and
after the Norman conquest it continued to be the scat of the king of Sicily. It still
remained the royal residence under the Aragonese kings; but the court was removed
after Sicily became united to the then kingdom of Naples. See SICILY.
PA'LES, in Roman mythology the goddess who presided over flocks and shepherds,
and \Tas worshiped with great pomp. Her festival, called Palilia, was celebrated April
21, the anniversary, according to tradition, of the founding of Rome by Romulus. On
this day the shepherds purified their flocks by making them pass round a large fire made
of laurel, pine, and olive branches, sprinkled with sulphur. Milk, wine, and millet,
were then placed on the altar of the goddess, who was entreated to bless the earth and
the cattle with fecundity, and avert injury from both. These ceremonies were fol'
lowed by feasting and rejoicing.
PALESTINE (Pakestina, Philistia}, or the HOLY LAND, a country of south-western
Asia, comprising the southern portion of Syria, and bounded on the w. by the Mediter-
ranean, e. by the valley of the Jordan, n. by the mountain-ranges of the Lebanon and
the glen of the Litany (Leontes), and s. by the desert of Sinai; lat. 31° 15' to 33° 20' n.,
long. 34D 30' to 35' 30 east. Within these narrow limits, not more than 145 m. in length by
45 in average breadth — an area less than that of the principality of Wales — is comprised
the " Land of Israel " or " Canaan," the arena of the greatest events in the world's history.
The principal physical features of Palestine are, (1) a central plateau or table-land, with
a mean height of 1600 ft., covered with an agglomeration of hills, which extend from
the roots of the Lebanon to the southern extremity of the country; (2) the Jordan valley
and its lakes; and (3) the maritime plain, and the plains of Esdra8lon aiid Jericho. On
the e., the descent from the central plateau is steep and rugged, from lake Huleh to the
Doad sea. On the w. k is more gentle, but still well marked, towards the plains of
Philistia and Sharon. The ascertained altitudes on 1his plateau, proceeding from s. to n.,
are Hebron, 3,029; Jerusalem, 2,610; mount of Olives, 2,724; mount Gerizim, 2,700;
mount Tabor, 1'JOO; Safed, 2,775 ft. above the sea. Nearly on the parallel of the sea of
Galilee, the range of Carmel extends from the central plateau n.w. to the Mediterranean,
where it terminates abruptly in a promontory surmounted by a convent. It rises from
(iUO ft. in the w., to 1600 ft. in the e., and is composed of a soft white limestone, with
many caverns. Beyond the 'boundary of Palestine on the n., but visible from the
greater part of the country, mount Hermon rises to 9,381 ft., and is always snow-clad.
From the formation of the central plateau, the drainage is nearly always e. and w., to
the Jordan and the Mediterranean. The streams of the plateau are insignificant, and
generally d"y in summer.
The geological formation of the country consists of Jurassic and cretaceous limestone,
often covered with chalk, and rich in flints, with occasional interruptions of tertiary,
basaltic, and trappean deposits. The upper strata consist of limestone of a white or
pale-brown color, containing few fossils, but abounding in caverns, which, form one of
the peculiarities of the country. The general features of the landscape exhibit soft
rounded hills, separated by narrow glens or valleys of denudation; the strata are occasion-
ally level, but more frequently violently contorted, as seen on the route from Jerusalem
to Jericho, whore the fissures are often 1000 ft. deep, and only 30 or 40 ft. wide. Iron
stone occurs in small quantities; rook-salt, asphaltum, and sulphur abound near the
Dead sea, where, as also near the sea of Galilee, there are many hot springs. Volcanic
agency is evident in the obtruded lava of former ages, and in frequent earthquakes of
modern times. The vast crevasse through which the Jordan flows, and which cleaves
the land from n. to s. , is one of the most remarkable fissures on the surface of the
globe; it is from 5 to 13 m. wide, and of the extraordinary depth of 2,630 ft. at the
bottom of the Dead sea. Through this the river descends at the rate of 11 ft. in a
mile, with a course so tortuous that it travels 132 m. in a direct distance of 64, between
the sea of Galilee and the Dead sea. It is the only perennial river of Palestine, except
the Kishon, which is permanent only in its lower course, and the Lit&ny on its northern
border. See JORDAN. The only lakes of Palestine are in the valley of the Jordan.
Se^ GKNXESA.RET, SEA OF, and DEAD SEA.
The plain of Philistia extends from the coast to the first rising ground of Judah,
about 15 m. in average width; the soil is a rich brown loam, almost without a stone. It
is in many parts perfectly level ; in others undulating, with mounds or hillocks. The
towns of Gaza and Ashdod, near the sea, are surrounded by groves of olives, sycamores,
and palms. This plain is still, as it always was, a vast corn-field, an ocean of wheat,
without a break or fence; its marvelous fertility has produced the same succession of
crops, year after year, for forty centuries without artificial aid. The plain of Sharon is
about 10 m. wide* in the s., narrowing towards the n., till it is terminated by the but
tress of Carmel. Its undulating surface is crossed by several streams; the soil is rich,
Palestra. O 1 O
I'aley.
and capable of producing enormous crops; but only a small portion of it near JY.ff;i is
cultivated, and it is rapidly being encroached on by the sea s;;nd, which, between Jaffa
and Casarea, extends to a width of 3 in. and a height of 800 feet. The famous ancient
cities of this region, Casarea, Diospolis, and Antipatris, have vanished. Jaffa (Joppa)
alone remains, supported by travelers and pilgrims from the w. on the way to Jerusa-
lem. The great plain of EsdraGlon, or Jezreel, extends across the center of the COL
from the Mediterranean to the Jordan, separating the mouritain-raDgea of Carmcl and
Samaria from those of Galilee. Its surface i* drained by the Kishon, which tlows w. to
the Mediterranean at Haifa. The plain is surrounded by the hills of Gilboa and Little
Hermon; the isolated Mount Tabor rises on its n.e. side. It is extremely fertile in
grain where cultivated, and covered with gigantic thistles where neglected. It is riche.-t
in the central part, whifh slopes c. to the Jordan — the battle-field where Gideon tri-
umphed, and Saul and Jonathan were overthrown. It is the home of Avandering Bedou-
ins, who camp in its fields, and gallop over its green -sward in search of plunder. M;:ny
places of deep historical interest are connected with this plain. Shunem. Nain, Endor,
Jezreel, Gilboa, Bcthshan, Nazareth, and Tabor are all in its vicinity. The plain . -f
Jericho is a vast level expanse, covered with the richest soil, now quite neglected.
Around the site of Jericho, "the city of palm-trees," there is not now a single palm; but
a recent experiment proved its capability of producing in abundance all the crop- for
which it was formerly famous. The climate of Palestine is very varied; January
coldest and July the hottest month. The mean annual temperature of the year at J"rii-
ssdera is 65° Fahr., resembling that of Madeira, the Bermudas, and California. The
extreme heat of the summer months is modified by sea-breezes from the n.w. In the
plain of Jericho and the Jordan valley it is extremely hot and relaxing. The «>••
s.e. wind, is often oppressive in early summer. Snow fails in the upland-; in January
and February, and thin ice is often found at Jerusalem, where the annual rainfall i- '•!
inches. Heavy dews fall in summer, and the nights are cold. Violent thunder-storms
occur in winter. In the s., Judah and part of Benjamin, is a dry, parched land: the
bare limestone rock is covered here and there with a scanty soil, and the vast remains of
terraces show how assiduously it must have been cultivated in ancient times to support
the teeming population indicated by the ruins of cities with which every emiii'-iuv is
crowned. To the n. of Judea the country is more open, the plains are wider, lii
richer, and the produce more varied, till at Nablous the running streams and exuberant
vegetation recall to the traveler the scenery of the Tyrol. Even in its desolation, i
tine is a land flowing with milk and honey. There is no evidence of its climate having
changed or deteriorated, nor any reason to suppose that it would fail to support as gre,-it
a population as ever it did, provided the same means as formerly were use.l for its culti-
vation. It has the same bright sun and unclouded sky, as well as the early and '.
rain, which, however, is diminished in quantity, owing to the destruction of trees.
The botany of Palestine is rich and varied, resembling that of Asia Minor. Among
its trees are the pine, oak, elder, and hawthorn in the northern and higher districts, and
the olive, fig, carob, and sycamore elsewhere. The cultivated fruits are the vine, apple,
pear, apricot, quince, plum, orange, lime, banana, almond, and prickly pear. Wh-'.-it,
barley, peas, potatoes, and European vegetables, cotton, millet, rice, mai/e. and BI
cane are among its products. The date now ripens its fruit only in the s. and on th*-
sea-board. The brilliant flowers which in spring enamel the surface and tinge the entire
landscape, comprise the adonis, ranunculus, mallow, poppy, pink, anemone, and geranium.
In the Jordan valley, 900 or 1000 ft. below the sea-level, the vegetation is tropical in i;s
character, resembling that of Arabia; the nubk (spina chrixti), the oleander, and the
small yellow "apples of Sodom" are conspicuous. The most valuable products of the
vegetable kingdom are derived from the vine, fig, olive, and mulberry tree-. Wine for
home use is made in all the central and southern districts; the best is made at Hebron
from the grapes of Eshcol. Olive-oil is a valuable export.
The wild animals of Palestine comprise the Syrian bear in Lebanon, the pnnth-T,
jackal, fox, hyena, wolf, wild boar, gazelle, and fallow-deer; the lion is now unknown.
The domestic animals are the Arabian camel, ass, mule, horse, buffalo, ox. and broad-
tailed sheep. Among 'the birds are the eagle, vulture, kite, owl, nightingale, jay. and
kingfisher — the latter of brilliant plumage — the cuckoo, heron, stork, crow, par1.:
and sparrow. Fish swarm in the sea of Galilee, and bats and lizards abound.
The divisions of Palestine in Old Testament times were into 9i tribes in the w., and
2i tribes in the e. of the Jordan. In New Testament times, on the w. of the Jordrn.
the provinces of Galilee in the n., Samaria in the middle, and Judea in the s. ; on the e.
of the Jordan, Perea and Decapolis. The boundaries of the tribes and provim .
very uncertain. Its modern divisions have changed w ith every new race and dyn
conquerors. Under Turkish rule, Palestine is comprised in the vilayet of Syria, and
contains the two subpashalics of Acre and Jerusalem. The present population is very
mixed, comprising Syrians, Mohammedans, Maronites, Druses, Christians Jews, and
Turks. The Jewrs are all foreigners, almost exclusively inhabiting the four holy cities —
Jerusalem, Hebron, Tiberius, and Safed; their whole number was, in 1871, estimated at
only 10,000. The country is oppressed by Turkish avarice, and overrun by the preda-
tory Arabs. The Palestine exploration has done good work in the identification of
Biblical and classical sites, etc. See SYKIA.
O1 Q Palectra.
* L O Paley.
PALES'TRA, a building for gymnastic spoils.
PALESTEI NA (tlie ancient Pi-dinette), an episcopal city of the present kingdom of
Italy, in the province and 22 in. e.s.e. of the city of Rome, occupies a strong position ou
the- s.w. slope of a high hill, an offset of the Apennines. Besides several interesting
churches, the town contains a castle, once the chief stronghold of the Colcnua, to whom
the town belonged; and the palace and garden of the Barbcrini family. The view across
the Campagna and tow;«'d the Alban hills is magnificent. Pop. 6,000, who manufac-
ture coarse woolen goods.
Palestrina is built almost entirely upon the site and the gigantic substructions of the
Temple of Fortune, one of the great edifices of the former city of Prseneste. This city
was one of the most ancient as well as powerful and important cities of Latium. It
covered the hill (2,400 ft. above sea- level) ou the slope of which the modern town
stands, and was overlooked by a citadel of great strength. The site of this citadel t>n
the summit of the hill is now occupied by a castle of the middle ages, called Castel S.
Pietro; but remains of the ancient walls are still visible. We first hear of Prteneste as a
member of the Latin League; but iu 499 B.C. it quitted the confederacy, and joined the
cause of the Romans. In 330 B.C., the Pnenestiues, having rejoined their ancient allies,
opened a war with Rome; but were completely routed on the banks of the Allia by T.
Quintius Ciuciunatus, and beaten back to their own gates. They took a prominent
part iu the famous Latin war, 340 B.C. Having given shelter to the younger Marius in
the year 83 B.C., this city was besieged by the forces of Sulla, and on its being taken all
the inhabitants were put to the sword. A military colony was then established in their
place, and soon the ciiy began to flourish anew. Its elevated and healthy situation, at no
great distance from the capital, made it a favorite place of resort of the Romans during
summer. Augustus frequented it; Horace often found this city a pleasant retreat; and here
Hadrian builtf an extensive villa. The Temple of Fortune is described by Cicero as an
edifice of great antiquity -as well as splendor, and its oracle was much consulted. The
town became the stronghold of the family of Colouua in the middle ages; but was
given io the Barberini family by Urban VIII.
PALESTRINA, GIOVANNI PXERLUIGI DA, a distinguished musical composer of the
16th century. He derived his surname from the town of Palestrina, in the Roman states,
where he was born in 1524. At the age of sixteen, he went to Rome, and studied music
under Claude Goudimel, afterwards one of the victims of the St. Bartholomew massacre.
In 1551 he was made maestro di capella of the Julian chapel, and in 1554 he published a
collection of masses, so highly approved of by pope Julius III., to whom they were dedi-
cated, that he appointed their author one of the singers of the pontifical chapel. Being
a married man, he lost that office on the accession to the pontificate of Paul IV., in whose
eyes celibacy was a necessary qualification for s duties. In 1555 he was made choir-
master of St. Maria Maggiore, and held that position till 1571, when he was restored to
his office at St. Peter's. In 1563, the council of Trent having undertaken to reform the
music of the church, and condemned the profane words and music introduced into
masses, some compositions of Palestrina were pointed to as models, and their author was
intrusted with the task of remodeling this part of religious worship. He composed three
masse? on the reformed plan ; one of them, known as the mass of pope Marcellus (to
whose rncmoiy it is dedicated), may be considered to have saved music to the church
by establishing a type infinitely beyond anything that had preceded it, and, amid all the
changes which music has since gone through, continues to attract admiration. During
the remaining years of his life, the number and the quality of the works of Palestrina
are equally remarkable. His published works consists of 13 books of masses, 6 books of
motets, 1 book of lamentatations, 1 book of hymns, 1 book of offertories,- 1 book of mag-
nificats, 1 book of litanies, 1 book of spiritual madrigals, and 3 books of madrigals.
Pali si rinu must be considered the first musician who reconciled musical science with
musical art, and his works form a most important epoch in the history of music.
Equally estimable in private life, and talented as a musician, Palestrina struggled through
a life of poverty during eight pontificates; his appointments were meager, and his pub-
lications unrenuinerative. He died in 1594. A memoir of his life and writings has been
written by tLe abbe Baini.
PALES TRO, a village of Piedmont, 8 m. s.e. of Vercelli, famous as the scene of a bat-
tle between the Sardinians and Austrians in May, 1859. On the 30th of that month the
Piedmontesc drove the Austrians from this village, and on the 31st defended it with great
bravery against an Austrian attack. The Piedmontese, in the battle of the 31st, were
assisted by 3,000 French zouaves, and on that occasion the Austrians lost 2,100 men
killed and wounded, 950 prisoners, and 6 pieces of cannon. On June 1st the allies
entered Novara.
PALETTE. See PArNTiKG.
PALEY, FREDERICK APTIIORP, b. England, 1816; educated at Shrewsbury, and
Cambridge. He left the university on account of his conversion to the Roman Catholic
faith. He returned to Cambridge, subsequently, and lived there till 1874, when lie was
called to the chair of classical literature at the Roman Catholic university college at
Kensington. He has been classical examiner at the university of London, and a member
Palcy.
Palgrave.
of the civil service commission. He has done much to promote the restoration of
churches and the advancement of church architecture; and, in this connection, has writ
ten Ihe Eccleziologist's Guide to Churches; The Church Restorers — a Tale; Remarks ui, ///,•
Architecture of Peterborough's Cathedral, etc. He has edited ^Eschylus, Euripides, the lliud,
Theocritus, Propertius, etc., and has translated into English, ^Eschylus, and the'CMx v,\
Pindar, and, in verse, the 5th hook of Propertius. He has also translated Schumann's
book on the assemblies of the Athenians, and has written a number of pamphlets and
articles on classical subjects.
PALEY, Dr. WILLIAM, a celebrated English divine, -was born at Peterborough in 1?4:J.
His father was a Yorkshireman, and not lo.ng after Paley was born returned to his native
parish of Giggleswick, one of the wildest and most sequestered districts in the West
Kiding, to become a master of the grammar-school there. Young Palcy was brought up
among the shrewd, hard-headed peasantry of Yorkshire; and it is probable that lie either
naturally possessed, or insensibly acquired their moral and mental characteristics. At
all events, he soon became conspicuous in the family for his good sense; and when he.
left to enter Christ's college, Cambridge, as a sizar, in his 16th year, his father said:
" He has by far the clearest head I ever met with." At Cambridge. Paley led for the
first two years, a gay, idle, and dissipated life, but thereafter became a severe student,
and took his bachelor degree in 1763 with highest honors. He then taught for three
years in an academy at Greenwich. In 1765 he obtained the first prize for a prose Latin
dissertation — the subject being, " A Comparison between the Stoic and Epicurean Philoso-
phy with respect to the Influence of each on the Morals of a People," in which he char-
acteristically argued in favor of the latter. Next year he was elected a fellow and tutor
of Christ's, and also took- the degree of M.A. In 1767 he was ordained a priest. His
career as a college tutor, which lasted about ten years, was eminently successful; and it
appears to have been during this period that he systematized his principles in moral :;i:d
political philosophy. In 1776 Paley married, af d was of course obliged to give up his
fellowship, but was compensated by a presentation to the livings of Mosgrove and
Appleby in Westmoreland, and of Dalston in Cumberland. Four years later he was col-
lated to a prebendal stall in the cathedral church of Carlisle; in 1782 he became arch-
deacon, and in 1875 chancellor of the diocese. The last of these years wit ness( d tin-
publication of his Elements of Moral and Political Philosophy. In this work he propounds
his ethical theory, which is commonly called utilitarianism, but is really a mixture of
utility and theology. He begins by renouncing the favorite doctrine of the moral sense,
against which he adduces a series of strong objections. He then takes up the question
of the source of obligation, and resolves it into the will of God, enforced by future pun-
ishment, admitting candidly that virtue is prudence directed to the next world. The
will of God, in so far as it is not rendered explicit by revelation, is to be interpreted by
the tendency of actions to promote human happiness; the benevolence of the Deity being
supposed. Objection has frequently been taken to the principles on which Paley n-u«<
his system, but the lucidity and appositeness of his illustrations are beyond all j i
If his treatise cannot be regarded as a profoundly philosophical work, it is at any rate one
of the clearest and most sensible ever written, even by an Englishman: and if it failed to
right of constables," gave extreme offense to George III., but was nevertheless much
admired by not a few of his majesty's subjects, and is now held by everybody to be b
question. In 1790 appeared his most original and valuable work — the Hont Pai/Hntt. or
tiie Truth of the Scripture History of St. Paul evinced by a Comparison of the Epistle* irln'rh
bfar 7iis name with the Acts of the Apostles, and with one another. The aim of this admira-
ble work is to prove, by a great variety of "undesigned coincidences," the improbability,
if not impossibility, of the usual infidel hypothesis of his time— viz.. that th
lament is a "cunningly-devised fable." It was dedicated to his friend John Law. then
bishop of Killala, in Ireland, to whose favor he had been indebted for most of his prefer-
ments. Paley 's next important work was entitled .A View of the Evidences of Christianity,
published in 1794. It is not equal in originality to its predecessor, but the use which the
author has made of the labors of such eminent scholars as Lardner and bishop Do
is generally reckoned most dexterous and effective. Later and keener criticism is ind< < d
anything but satisfied with Paley's "evidences;" but in Paley's own day he was held to
have achieved a splendid triumph over skeptics, and was handsomely rewarded. The
(worth £1200 per annum), in consequence of which he honorably resigned his livii
the diocese of Carlisle. After 1800 he became subject to a painful disease of the kidney.- :
but, notwithstanding, he continued to write, and in 1802 published perhaps the most
widely popular of all his works, Natural Theology, or Evidences of the Existence and Attri-
butes of 'flu; Deity, which, however, is based, and to a large extent borrowed from the
Religion* Philosopher, the work of a Dutch philosopher named Nieuwentyt, an English
translation of which appeared in 1718-19. The plagiarisms are most palpable, but have
Paley.
Palgrave.
been accounted for on the supposition that the Natural Theology was "made ur, " from
his loose papers and notes written when Paley was a college tutor, and that he had for-
gotten the sources from which he derived them. It is also but fair to state that he has
taken nothing which he has not greatly improved; nihil tetigit, quod non ornant. A
somewhat noted edition of this work, enriched, or at least expanded by annotations and
dissertations, is that by lord Brougham and sir Charles Bell (1836-39). Paloy died May
25, 1805. He had a family of four sons and three daughters. A complete edition of his
works was published in 1838 by one of his sons — the rev. Edmund Paley. The best
biography is that by Meadley (1809).
PALFREY, JOHN GOKHAM, D.D..ILL.D; b. Boston. 1796; graduated at Harvard in 1815,
and studied for the ministry. In 1818 he was called to the pulpit of the Brattle square
church (Congregational-Unitarian), Boston, and in 1831, to the chair of sacred literature
at the Harvard divinity school, where he remained till 1839. He was editor of the North
American Review, 1839-43, and in the latter year gave a course of lectures before the
Lowell institute, Boston, on The Evidences of Christianity, which appeared in book form
the next year. He was elected to the Massachusetts legislature in 1842, and secretary of
the commonwealth in 1844. He entered congress as a whig in 1846. He had already
opposed the extension of slavery in a series of articles called The Progress of the Siace
Power; andiu Dec., 1847, he declined to vote for Robert C. Winthrop, the whig candidate
for speaker. This step, with his well-known anti-slavery principles, cost him his seat at
the election of 1848, after a close contest. He soon joined the free-soil party, was one of
the editors of the Commonwealth, the Massachusetts organ of that party, and their candi-
date for governor. He acted with the republican party after its formation; but he did
not again hold office, except from 1861-66, when he was postmaster of Boston. He has
published Lectures on the Jewish Scriptures and Antiquities, 1838-52; Harmony of the Gos-
pels, 1831; Sermons, 1834; Academical Lectures; Remarks on tlie Proposed Constitutional
Amendments; and The Relation Between Judaism and the History of New England, 4 vols.,
1858-78. The latter work is perhaps the best history ever written by an American, so
far as original investigation of sources and impartiality are concerned; but is not bril-
liant in style. An abridgment of this history appeared in 1866,with the title A History of
New Englandfrom the Discovery by Europeans to the Revolution of the /Seventeenth Century,
4 vols. ' He died April, 1881.
PALGRAVE, Sir FKANCIS, a distinguished antiquary and historian, was b. in London
in July, 1788, of Jewish parentage, being the son of Mr. Meyei* Cohen, a member of the
stock exchange. He was educated at home under a Dr. Montucci, and even when a
child showed extraordinary genius. When only eight years old, he made a translation
into French of the Battle of the Frogs and Mice from the Latin version of Beauclerc,
which was printed b}r his father in 1797. In 1803 he was articled as a clerk to a legal
linn, and at the expiration of his articles, continued with the same firm as managing
clerk until 1822, when he took chambers in the Temple, and was employed under the
record commission. He had previously made himself known as a literary antiquarian,
by the publication, in 1818, of some Anglo-Norman chansons, which he edited with
much care. On the occasion of his marriage in 1823, he changed his name of Cohen to
Palgrave, that being the maiden name of his wife's mother. He was called to the bar in
1827, and had considerable practice for some years in pedigree cases before the house
of lords. In 1831 he published a History of England, which formed a part of the
Family Library; and in 1832 appeared his Rise and Progress of the English Common-
wealth; also Observations on the Principles, etc., of New Municipal Corporations. In
that year he received the honor of knighthood, and was subsequently one of the munici-
pal corporation commissioners. In 1835 the commissioners issued their report, which
was signed, however, by only 16 of the members — sir Francis Palgrave being one of the
four dissentients. In the same year he published a " Protest " against the commissioners'
report, in which he called in question several of its statements, views, and arguments.
In 1838, on the reconstruction of the record service, sir Francis Palgrave was appointed
deputy-keeper of her majesty's records, and held that office during "the rest of his life.
Besides the works already mentioned, sir Francis Palgrave edited for the government the
following: Calendars of the Treasury of the Exchequer, Parliamentary Writs, Ciiria Regis
Records, and Documents Illustrative of the History of Scotland. In his private capacity he
produced the Merchant and the Friar, an imaginary history of Marco Polo and Friar
Bacon; also a I Land-book for Trawlers in Northern Italy, and a History of England and
Normandy. Of this last work a' volume appeared in 1851, and a second in 1857: and
the third and fourth volumes were published within three years after their author's death.
Sir Francis Palgrave also wrote numerous articles for 'the Edinburgh and Quarter!'// i
Reviews, principally of an antiquarian character, but some of them purely literary or >
artistic. His great merit, in his historic writings, consists in the extensive use made by
him of original documents, by aid of which he not only himself very much enlarged our
acquaintance with the history and social aspects of the middle ages, but pointed out to
others the advantage to be derived from a careful study of the original sources of infor-
mation now known to abound among our public records. Sir Francis Palgrave died at
Hampstead, on July 6, 1861.
Pal K rave. 9 1 A
Palimpsest.
PALGRAVE, FRANCIS TURNER, b. England, 1824; son of sir Francis Palgrave. He
was educated at the Charterhouse and at Oxford; was for 5 years vice-principal of the
training college for schoolmasters at Kneller hall, and afterward held a position in the
educational department of the privy council. He was for a number of years private
secretary to earl Grauville. He has published Idylls and .S^<//*, 1854; The Golden Tr< •<••<-
ury of Sngtish Songt, 1861; Art Catalogue of the Great Exhibition of 1862; Essays on Art,
1866; Jli/inna, 1867; Lyrical Poems, 1871; and Chrysomela, a Selection from the, Lyri<-al
Poems of Robert Herrick, 1877.
PALGRAVE, WILLIAM GIFFORD, b. England, 1826; son of sir Francis Palgrave,
an English author, educated at the Charterhouse, obtained a scholarship at Trinity
college, Oxford. He served in the Indian army, and in 1847 was commissioned 2d lieut.
in the 8th Bombay native infantry. In 1853 he resigned his commission, and joined
the society of Jesus connected with the Roman Catholic church, and went to the
Jesuit seminary at Laval to study theology, residing most of his time in s. India dur-
ing his engagement with that society, and stayed in Rome two years. He was
ordained priest, resided several years in and near Damascus, acquired a complete
mastery of the Arabic language and Mohammedan theology, and went voluntarily
to join the mission at Syria and Palestine, for which, on account of his knowledge
of Arabic, he was peculiarly fitted. In 1861 he delivered in Ireland a course
of lectures on the massacres of the Christians in Syria. In 1862 he set out on an
expedition from Maaa ou the w. border of the Sherarat desert, and traveled through the
Wahabite kingdoms of central Arabia, disguised as a physician, and subsequently visited
the provinces adjacent to the Persian gulf and Indian ocean. He was shipwrecked on
the coast of Oman, returning to Europe through Bagdad and Aleppo in 1863. In 1864
he abandoned the order of Jesuits at Berlin. He had become so familiar with the Arabs ;md
their language that he was looked upon by them as one of their own leaders and ulu'iklm,
and he took part on several occasions in their religious services. In 18(55-(i(> he was in
Egypt on government business; and returning, was appointed to various consulates. Jn
1864 he published A Personal Narrative of a Year's Journey Through (\ ntrul tin*/ H
Arabia, and was presented with the gold medal of the French geographical society. The
book awakened some curiosity, as the precise object of his wanderings was not made
public. In 1872 his Essays on Eastern Questions appeared, and Hermann Afffta, an Kant-
em Narrative, a novel in 2 vols. In 1875 Alkamah's Cave, a Story of Ntjd, was published;
in 1876, Dutch Guiana, an account of a fortnight's stay there. He has contributed valu-
able papers to the Contemporary Review, is a fellow of the royal geographical and the
royal Asiatic societies, and an honorary member of a number of scientific institutions in
foreign lands.
PALI (a corruption of the Sanskrit Prakrit, q.v.) is the name of the sacred language
of the Buddhists. Its origin must be sought for in one or several of the popular dialects
of ancient India, which are comprised under the general name of Prakrit, and stand in a
similar relation to Sanskrit as the Romance languages, in their earlier period, to La! in.
It has been formerly assumed that Pali arose from the special Prakrit dialect called
Magadhl, or the language spoken in Magadha; but, according to the view expressed hy
Lnssen in his Indische Alterthumskunde, an hypothesis of this kind is not tenable, since
the peculiarities of this dialect are not compatible with those of the Pali language. The
Mine distinguished scholar holds that the Prakrit dialects, called the S'aurasenl and
jMaharasht'rl, have a closer relation to the Pali than any other, and that the origin of the
latter must therefore be traced to the country of western Hindustan, between the Junria
river and the Vindhya mountain- though he observes, at the same time, that the Pali is
older than these dialects, and that the latter are therefore more remote from Sanskrit
than the former. Whether the oldest works of the Buddhist religion were written in
Pali may be matter of doubt. It is more probable, on the contrary, that the language
in which the founder of the Buddhist religion conveyed his doctrine to the people \\as
not yet lhat special language, but a mixture of classical and popular Sanskrit , such as it
still appears in the Buddhistic SQtras. At a laterperiod, however, Pali became the classical
language in which the Buddhists wrote their sacred, metaphysical, and profane works.
The most important historical work written in this language is the Muliii.-iiux'a (q.v.);
other Pali works, which have lately become known in Europe, and deserre especial
mention, are the Dhammapada, on the Buddhist doctrine; and five Jdtiikna, contain-
ing a fairy tale, a comical story, and three fables — both works edited and translated by
V. FausbOll (Copen. 1855 and 1861). Pfili ceased to be a living language of India when
Buddhism was rooted out of it; it was carried by the fugitive Buddhists to other coun-
tries, especially Ceylon, Burmah, and Siam, but in these countries, too, it had to give
way before the native towns, in which the later Buddhist literature was composed.
PALIA'NO, a walled t. of the papal states in the province of Frosinore, 32 rn.
s.w. of Rome; pop. 5.100. It has n large baronial castle which for a long time was the.
residence of the powerful Colonna family, descendants from Pierre Colonna. a vassal of
the pope in the llth c., among whose members were pope Martin V. and many prelates
and generals.
217
Palgrave.
Palimpsest.
PALICT, LAKE OF, or NASSIA, near Catania in Sicily; emitting large quantities of
carbonic gas. It was formerly used as an ordeal for persons accused of crime, who
•were pronounced innocent, if they escaped the mepliitic vapor.
PALIKAO, CHARLES GUILLAUME MARIE APPOLLIXAIRE ANTOLNE COUSIN-
MONTAUBAN, Comte de, 1796-1878; b. France. In 1860 he was made supreme iu
command of the French and English forces sent to China to "conquer a peace" and
witli relatively insignificant force captured forts, gained battles, and entered Pekin on
Oct. 12 of that year. The Chinese government succumbed to the power of his small
army and accepted the terms proposed. Ou his return to France in 1861 Napoleon pre-
sented him with the grand cross of the legion of honor, and gave him the title of count
of Palikao; that being the name of the place where the decisive battle with the Chinese
was fought. In 1870 he succeeded M. Ollivier as premier, and acting war-minister at
the beginning of the German war; and was associated with the misfortunes that followed
the French army. He published a defense of his administration in 1871. Died in Paris.
PALIMPSEST (Gr. palimpsestos, "rubbed a second time"), the name given to parch-
ment, papyrus, or other writing material, from which, after it had been written upon,
the first writing was wholly or in part removed for the purpose of the page being written
upon a second time. "When the MS. had been written with one species of ink employed
by the ancients, which was merely a fatty pigment, composed chiefly of lampblack, and
only coloring the surface, but not producing a chemical change, there was little difficulty
iu obliterating the writing. It was accomplished by the use of a sponge, and if neces-
sary, of a scraper and polishing tool; and, where proper pains were taken, the' erasure of
the first writing was complete. But when the ink was mineral, its effect reached beyond
the surface. In that case a scraping-tool or pumice-stone was indispensable: if these
were hastily or insufficiently applied, the erasure was necessarily imperfect; and thus it
often happens in ancient MStt. that, from the want of proper care on the part of the
copyist in preparing the parchment for re- writing, the original writing may still be read
without the slightest difficulty.
The practice of re-preparing used parchment for second use existed among the
Romans. The material thus re-prepared was of course reserved for the meaner uses. We
meet frequent allusions in the classical writers, as Plutarch, Cicero (Ad Familiares, vii.
18), Catullus (xxii. 115), and others, to the palimpsest, in the sense of a blotter or first
draft-book, on which the rough outline or first copy of a document was written, prepa-
ratory to the accurate transcript which was intended for actual use; and it appears
equally certain that in many cases whole books were written upon re-prepared parch-
ment or papyrus, not only among the Greeks and Romans, but also among the ancient
Egyptians.
Of palimpsests of the classic period, however, it is hardly necessary to say no speci-
men has ever been discovered. It is to the necessities of the mediaeval period that liter-
ature owes the unquestionably important advantages which have arisen from the revival
of the ancient practice of re-preparing already used material for writing. Under the
early emperors, the intercourse with Egypt and the east secured a tolerably cheap and
abundant supply of papyrus (q.v.), which rendered it unnecessary to recur to the expedi-
ent of the palimpsest; and this became still more the case in the 5th and 6th centuries,
when the tax on papyrus was abolished. But after the separation of the e. and w., and
still more after the Mohammedan conquest of Eoypt, the supply of papyrus almost com-
pletely ceased; and from the 7th c. in the west, and the 10th or llth in the east, the pal-
impsest is found in comparatively frequent use; and its frequency in the 15th c. may be
estimated from the fact that some of the earliest books were printed on palimpsest. Some
writers have ascribed the prevalence of its use to the indifference, and even to the hos-
tility of the monks and clergy to classical literature, and have attributed to their reckless
destruction of classic MSS., in order to provide material for their o\vn service-books and
legendaries, the deficiencies in the remains of ancient learning which scholars have now
to deplore. That some part of the loss may have so arisen it is impossible to doubt,
although it is equally certain that we owe to the mediaeval monks and clergy whatever of
ancient literature has been preserved to our day. But the condition in which the exist-
ing palimpsests are uniformly found — for the most part mere fragments of the ancient
Palimpsest.
writers whose works they originally contained — goes far in itself to show that the MPS.
which were broken up by the media- val copyists, for the purpose of being re-written,
were almost always already imperfect, or otherwise damaged; nor i> there anything in
the condition of any single palimpsest which has readied our day to justify the belief,
that when it was taken up for the purpose of rescription. the original work which it con-
tained was in a state at all approaching to completeness. Fortunately, however, there
are many of the relics of ancient learning of which even the mutilated member* have an
independent value; and this is especially true of biblical MSS., particularly under the
critical aspect, and in a still broader sense of all the remains of the ancient historians.
It will easily be understood, therefore, that the chief, if not the sole interest of pal-
impsests MSS. lies in the ancient writing which they had contained, and that their value
to literature mainly depends on the degree of legibleness which the ancient writing .-till
retains. It is difficult to make this fully intelligible to the reader without an actual
inspection, but the facsimile on the previous page will furnish a sufficient idea. The
particular passage selected for the illustration is from page 62 of the Vatican M>., from
which Mai deciphered the fragments of the DC 11 1 -»////< -a. The darker letters are those
of the modern MS. ; the faint lines are, as may be supposed, those of the original codex.
Although so much more faint than the modern writing, they can be read with facility on
account of their greater size. We shall- transcribe both texts in ordinary characters.
The original was as follows:
EST
IQITCR INQTTIT
AFRICANtIS RESP.
(The ordinary contraction for Respublica.)
The corresponding lines of the modern MS., which is from St. Augustine's commentary
on the psalms, are:
homo est quia
et omnes Xpiavi (Christiani) membra sunt Xpi. (Christi)
membra Xpt. quid cantant. Amant
Desiderando cantant. Aliquando.
In this specimen, as very commonly occurs, the original writing is much larger than the
modern; the modern lines and letters do not cover those of the old MS., but they follow
the same order. In other specimens the new writing is transverse; in some, the old page
is turned \ipside down. Sometimes, where the old page is divided into columns, the
new writing is carried over them all in a single line; sometimes the old page is doubled,
so as to form two pages in the new MS. Sometimes it is cut into two or even three
pages. The most perplexing case of all for the decipherer is that in which the new let-
ters are of the same size, and are written upon the same lines with those of the original
MS. Examples of this are rare, and even when they occur, the difference between the
form of the ancient characters, which are ordinarily uncial, and that of the modern, is
in itself a great aid to the decipherer. Some variety, also, is found in the language of
the palimpsests. In those which are found in the western libraries, the new writing
is almost invariably Latin, while the original is sometimes Greek, and sometimes Latin.
In the palimpsests discovered in the east the original is commonly Greek, the new
writing being sometimes Greek, sometimes Syriac, sometimes Armenian; and one palimp-
sest, the material of which is papyrus, is found in which the original was the enchorial
Egyptian language, while the modern writing is Greek.
The possibility of turning palimpsest MSS. to account as a means of extending our
store of ancient literature was suggested as far back as the days of Montfaucon ; but the
idea was not turned to practical account till the latter part of the 18th century. The
first palimpsest editor was a German scholar, Dr. Paul Bruns, who having discov-
ered that one of the Vatican MSS. was a palimpsest, the effaced matter of which wa< a
fragment of the 91st book of Livy's Roman History, printed it at Hamburg in 1773. In
the field of discovery thus opened by Bruns but little progress was made until the fol-
lowing century, when Dr. Barrett of Trinity college, Dublin, published his palimp>est
fragments of St. Matthew, and when palimpsest literature at once rose into interest and
importance in the hands of the celebrated Angelo Mai (q.v.). A detailed account of
Mai's successes will be given hereafter, when we shall enumerate the principal publica-
tions in this curious department of letters; and under his own name will be found the
history of his personal labors. The great historian Niebuhr about the same time applied
himself to the subject, and was followed by Blume, Pertz, Gaupp, and other German
scholars, whose labors, however, were for the most part confined to the department of
ancient Roman law. More recently, the discoveries of Dr. Tischendorf in biblical liter-
ature, and those of Dr. Cureton as well in sacred as in profane literature, have con-
tributed still more to add importance to the palimpsest MSS. which have been supposed
to exist in the monasteries of the Levant. Herr Mono has had similar success in the
department of liturgical literature, and Dr. Frederick Augustus Pertz, son. of the
scholar already mentioned, may be said to have carried to its highest point the interest
which attaches to these curious researches, bv editing from a thrice-written p<tlimp*ext a
very considerable series of fragments of the ftoman annalist, Gaius Grauius Licinianus.
91Q
Palimpsest.
It remains to enumerate briefly the most important palimpsest publications which
have hitherto appeared, distributed according to the language of the effaced original.
I. GREEK PALIMPSHBTS. — Among these, the first place of course belongs to the Greek
biblical palimpsests, the earliest of which was(l) Fragments of the Gospel of St. Mutt hen-,
in facsimile as well as in ordinary type, printed from a palimpsest MS. of Trinity college,
Dublin, by the rev. I. Barrett, D.D. (4to, Dublin, 1801). The original writing appears
to be of the 6th century. Dr. Barrett's transcript of the text has not proved iu all
respects correct, but the original has since been carefully re-examined, and the ancient
writing fully brought out. It is chiefly, however, to a collection of Syriac MSS. brought
from the east that we are indebted for the more recent palimpsest restorations of the
ancient biblical readings. In this line the chief discoverer has been Dr. Constantine
Tischendorf. From his pen we have (2) the celebrated Codex Ephremi or Codex Regius
of the royal library at Paris. This MS. had been early observed to be palimpsest, and
the original Greek text was collated in part by Wetstein and by Kiister. It was still
more carefully examined by M. Hase in 1885; and finally, in 1840, by Dr. Tischendorf,
by whom the New Testament was printed in 1843, and the fragments of the Old in 1845.
The modern writing of this palimpsest consisted of the works of St. Ephrem the Syrian.
(3.) Fragmenta Sacra Palimptesta (4to, Leipsic, 1855), containing fragments of the books
of Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Kings, Isaiah, together with 48 pages of
fragments of the New Testament, the Gospels, the Acts, and the Epistles of St. Paul to
the Corinthians and to Titus. The modern writing of these palimpsests was partly
Greek, partly Armenian, and Arabic. (4.) Fragmenta Ecangelii Lucce et Libri Genesis
(4to, Leipsic, 1857). The fragments of St. Luke's gospel amount to 95 pages. The
volume also contains fragments of St. John's gospel and of Ezekiel and the Third Book
of Kings. The modern writing is partly Syriac, partly Coptic. Along with these bibli-
cal palimpsests (5) may be classed another, the original of which, however, contains not
only some Greek fragments, but also portions of the ancient Gothic version of the Bible
by Ulphilas. The MS. from which this is taken is known from its place in the Wolfen-
biittel library as the Codex Guelpherbytaiius. It was first noticed in 1755 by Knittle, by
whom a portion of the Gothic version was published in 1762. These fragments were
reprinted in 1772, and again in 1805. The modern writing of the MS. consisted of the
Oriye nes of Isidorus Hispalensis. A large addition to the text of Ulphilas was made in
1817 by Mai and Castiglione, from palimpsests discovered in the Ambrosian library at
Milan; and the whole have since been combined into one edition by Dr. Gabelentz, and
finally by Dr. Massmann (4to, Stuttgart, 1855). We may also mention under the same
head some interesting Greek liturgical remains edited by F. I. Hone (Frankfort, 1850),
from a palimpsest discovered at Carleruhe.
In Greek classical literature, also, we owe something to the labors of palimpsest
editors. From one of the Syriac MSS. already referred to, Dr. Cureton has edited large
fragments of the Iliad of Homer, amounting in all to nearly 4, 000 lines; and although nil
these, it need hardly be said, were known before, yet the text is of the utmost value as a
source of criticism, being certainly of much greater antiquity than the very earliest known
MSS. of the Iliad. A still larger and more original contribution to Greek classical
literature was made by Mai in the 5th volume of his Scriptorum Vcterum Nova Collectio
(Rome, 1831-38). From a very large palimpsest discovered in the Vatican library he has
printed in tins volume copious fragments of almost all the Greek writers on Roman his-
tory— from the lost books of Polybius no less than 100 4to pages; 130 pages of Diodorus
Siculus; 64 of Dionysius of Halicarnassus; 100 of Dion Cassius; together with considera-
ble fragments of Appian, lamblichus, Dexippus, Eunapius, and others. This is, per-
haps, after the De Rcpublica of Cicero, the most important accession to the existing
store of classic learning which the palimpsests have hitherto supplied.
II. LATIN PALIMPSESTS. — (1.) The earliest fragment of Latin literature, printed from
a palimpsest original, is the portion of the 91st book of Livy already referred to, pub-
lished at Hamburg and also at Rome in 1773. It was re-edited in a more complete form
by Niebuhr in 1820. (2.) Of the Latin palimpsests edited by Mai, the earliest was some
fragments of lost orations of Cicero from two different palimpsests in the Ambrosiun
library at Milan, in the latter of which, the second writing consisted of the acts of the
council of Chalcedon. These orations were published in two successive volumes in 1814.
(3.) Eight orations of Symmachus (1815). (4.) The comedies of Plautus, including u
fragment of the lost play entitled Vidularia (1815). (5.) The works of M. Corn. FrorTto,
together with the epistles of Antoninus Pius, Lucius Verus, M. Aurelius, and others
(1815). (6.) The celebrated dialogue of Cicero, De Rep^lblica, from a palimpsest of the
Vatican, the modern writing of which is the commentary of St. Augustine on the
Psalms. There is none of Mai's publications which presents his critical abilities in so
favorable a light as this precious volume, which appeared at Rome in 1821. (7.) Soon
after the De Republica he published another volume from palimpsest sources, the moht
important of whose contents were some fragments of ancient Roman lawr, which pre-
pared the way for the more distinguished success of Niebuhr; who, in a palimpsest of the,
library of Verona, recognized a portion of (8) the Institiitiones of Gaius, and procured
an accurate transcript for the press, which was printed at Berliu.in 1820. The latest con-
siderable Latin publication in this department is (9) Gai Granii Licininni An:tnh'un>. f >--ff
tupersunt (Berlin, 1857), edited from a palimpsest of the British museum by the younger
Palindrome. 9 OH
1 'ail urn;,. . &BV
Fertz. This p.ilimpsest, as was already stated, is a thrice written codex, the earliest and
original contents being the Annales of Gaius Graiiins. The second writing was also in
Latin, and the work is a grammatical treatise, of which the clusters De Verio and De
Ad/:i-rbio are sliil legible. The uiost modern writing is Syiiac, written in the cursive
character. Gaius Grauius is a writer named by Macrobius, of whom nothing else is
known,
It will be gathered from the above that the ancient works recovered by means of
palimpsest MSS. are all fragmentary, and one is naturally led to rate at a low value the
result thereby obtained. But it must be remembered that in some of the departments
to which these fragments belong, every scrap, no matter how trifling, has an independent
value. So it is, for example, in biblical remains — a Dingle text may present a valuable
reading, the merest fragment may throw light on an important critical question. In
history, in like manner, a small fragment may disclose an interesting fact, or supply a
significant commentary upon facts otherwise ascertained. And as regards critical uses
especially, it must not be forgotten that the obliterated text of the palimpsest MSS. for
the most part, i'ar exceeds in antiquity the very oldest known codices which we possess,
and is. probably, second only in age to the papyri of Ilereulaneum.
The method of treating palimpsest MSS., with a view to deciphering their contents,
Las been fully described by different editors. Mai, after having washed the palimpsest
with an infusion of galls, exposed it to the light and air, and, generally speaking, found
this sufficient for his purpose. Peyron "washed the parchment in water, afterwards in
dilute niuiiatic acid, and finally in prussiate of potash. A mixture, compounded on
this principle, is called from its inventor, M. Gioberti, ttnefura Gidbertina. Sometimes
the same treatment does not succeed equally well on both sides of the parchment;
the inner surface, from its softer texture, sometimes requiring a more active preparation.
"When the ink contained animal substances, as milk, or the blood of the cuttle fish, Dr.
Moue plunged the parchment in a close vessel filled with oil, which he heated to a tem-
perature of 400° K. In the prefaces of Mai's volumes will be found many amusing and
interesting facts illustrating the difficulties which attend this curious branch of literary
/ labor.
PALINDROME (Gr. paHn, backwards, and dromos, a running), the name given to a
kind of verse very common in Latin, the peculiarity of which is that it may be read the
same backwards as fowards. A few examples will suffice.
Si bene te tua laus taxat sua lante tenebis.
Et nccat eger amor non Roma rege tacente,
Roma fegesuna non anus eger amor.
A Roman lawyer gets the credit of the following:
Si nummi immunis,
which Camden translates:
Give me iny fee, and I warrant you free.
It is said that in the reign of queen Elizabeth a certain lady of rank, haying been com.
pelled to retire from the court on account of some fama, the truth of which she denied,
took for her motto:
Ablata at alba.
Retired but pure.
The English lancniftse has few palindromes, but one at least is inimitable. It represents
our first~pareut politely introducing hinself to Eve in these words:
Madam, I'm Adam.
Compare Henry B. Wheatley's book on Anagrams (1802).
PALIITGENE'SIA (Gr. palm, again, and yrnexit, birth) is a term that appears to have
originated among the Stoics, who employed it to denote the act of the demiurgus, or
creator, by which, having absorbed all being into himself, he reproduced it in a new
creation. The occurrence of the word in the New Testament (Titus, iii. f>. where it
is used to denote regeneration) has given it a place in Christian theology, and divines
have variously used it to express the resurrection of men, the new birth of the individual
soul, nnd the restoration of the world to that perfect state that it lost by the fall- -" the
new heavens and the new earth wherein dwelleth righteousness." Savans have also
applied the term to designate both the great geological changes which the earth has
undergone and the transformations in the insect kingdom, such as of caterpillars into
butterflies, etc
PALINODE, in the law of Scotland, is a peculiar practice by which, in actions for
damages on account of slander or defamation raised in the commissary court, and even
in the" sheriff court, the pursuer 'may conclude not only for damages but for palinode,
i.e., a solemn recantation. On a recent case, the question arose whether this ancient
practice still existed as part of the law of Scotland, and it was held that it did. In
actions, however, in the court of session, damages only are given as the remedy.
901 Palindrome.
^-'L P»liuru8.
PALINU'RTJM or CAPO PALINURO, a promontory of Italy, on the coast of Lucania
in the Tyrrhean sea, n.w. of the entrance to the gulf of Policastro; also called capo
Spartimento. It was named in honor of Palinurus, the pilot of .ZEneas, said to have been
buried here, where some ruined walls bear the name of the tomb of Palinurus. During
the first Punic war, B.C. 253, a large Roman fleet was wrecked on this point, and 150
vessels lost; aud, B.C. 36, a portion of the fleet of Octavius came to wreck by running on
the rocks.
PALISADE, a paling of strong timber, used in fortification. For the mode in which
the palisade is employed see FORTIFICATION, under the head Stockade.
PALISANDER WOOD, the continental name for rosewood (q. v.). By some of the
French cabinet-makers the name bot's de Palisandre is also applied to violet wood aud to
a kind of striped ebony.
PALISOT, AMBROISE MARIE FRANCOIS JOSEPH BEAVOIS DE, 1752-1820; b. France;
educated for the practice of law; receiver-general of the forests and domains of
Picardy, Flanders, aud Artois, and in 1781 made a correspondent of the academy
of sciences for essays on cryptogamous and sarmentose plants. In 1786 he went 10
Africa with a returning negro prince, penetrated to the kingdoms of Oware and Benin,
and made a great collection of strange plants and insects, which were captured and
destroyed by the British. He went thence to San Domingo, became a member of
the colonial government, and in 1791 was sent to Philadelphia to seek aid against the
negroes who were in revolt. On his return he was arrested by them, freed by a uegn-ss
•who had been freed by him, escaped to the United States, where he taught for a living,
and afterwards traveled as a botanist, and returned to France in 1798, where he was
subsequently a member of the institute and of the council of the university. His works,
illustrated, are: Fl>re d' Oware et de Benin, 2 vols., Paris, 1804-21; Insects recueillies c/i
Afriqite et en Amenque, 1805-21, and Mnscologie, on traite stir les mousses, 1822.
PALISSY, BERNARD, a French potter, famous for his glass paintings and beautiful
figured pottery, was b. near Agen, now in the department of Lot et Garonne, France,
about -1510, and at an early age was apprenticed to a potter. He devoted himself to
chemical researches for the improvement of his art, and made many journeys through
France and Germany for the same purpose; at the same time carrying on the business
of a land-surveyor. An enameled cup of " Faience," which he saw by chance, inspired
him with the resolution to discover the mode of producing white enamel. Neglecting
all other labors, he devoted himself to investigations and experiments for the long pcrio.l
of 16 years. He had by this time exhausted all his resources, and for want of money to
buy fuel was reduced to the necessity of burning his household furniture piece by piece;
his neighbors laughed at him, his wife overwhelmed him with reproaches, and his
starving family surrounded him crying for food; but in spite of all these discourage-
ments he persisted in the search, and was in the end rewarded by success. A few vessels
adorned with figures of animals, colored to represent nature, sold for high prices, and
enabled him to complete his investigations, after which he became famous; and though
a Huguenot, was protected and encouraged by the king and the nobility, who employed
him to emb'.-Hish their mansions with specimens of his art. He was lodged in or near
the Tuileries. and was specially exempted by queen Catherine from the massacre of St.
Bartholomew, more from a regard to her own benefit than from kindness. In March,
1575, he commenced a course of lectures on natural history and physics, and was the first
in France to substitute positive facts and rigorous demonstrations for the fanciful inter-
pretations of philosophers. In the course of these lectures, he gave (1584) the first right
notions of the origin of springs, and the formation of stones and fossil slxjlls, and
strongly advocated the importance of marl as a fertilizing agent. These, Along with his
theories regarding the best means of purifying water, have been fully supported by
recent discovery and investigation. In 1588 he was arrested and thrown into the
Bastille as a heretic, but died in 1590 before his sentence was pronounced.
Palissy left a collection of objects of natural history, the first that had been formed in
France. His works are at the present day almost beyond price, and his ornaments :md
arabesques are amongst the most beautiful of the "renaissance." As a sincere, earnest,
and courageous man, he was no less eminent than as an artist.
PALITJ PJJS, a genus of trees and shrubs of the natural order rhamnaccce, nearly allied
to sizyph'tx (see JUJUBE), but very different in the fruit, which is dry, orbicular, and
girded with a broad membranous wing. P. aculeatus is often called CHRIST'S
THORN, and by the Germans, JEWS' THORN (Judendorn), from an imagination that it
supplied the crown of thorns Avith which our Savior was crowned. It is a deciduous
shrub or low tree, with slender, pliant brandies, and ovate 3-nerved leaves, each of wh'cli
has two sharp spines at the base, one straight and the other re-curved. It is a native •>[
the countries around the Mediterranean, of India, and many parts of Asia. It is often
used for hedges in Italy and other countries; its sharp spines and pliant branches
admirably adapting it for this purpose. The fruit has a singular appearance, being J'at
and thin, attached by the middle to the foot-stalk, the middle being raised like the crown
of a hat, whilst the expansion resembles the brim. The seeds are sold by the druggists of
the east, and are used medicinally, but their qualities are doubtful. This shrub is not
Palk.
J'allas.
uncommon in shrubberies in England, being very ornamental when iri flower, but (lie
fruit does not ripen.
PALK STRAIT, or PALK'S PASSAGE, the northern portion of the passive between the
s. coast of Hindustan and the island of Ceylon. This pas.-aire is continued southward l>y
the gulf of Manuar (q.v.). It is from 40 to 80 in. in width, and is NO in. in length. It i*
so shallow — in some places being no more than two fathoms iu depth — that it caunot bo»
navigated in safety by large vessels. In Palk strait there are several pearl fisheries.
FALL (Lat. pallium, also palla, a cloak), the name given in English to two very dif-
ferent portions of the vesture employed in the religious use of the Roman and some other
churches. Due of these is tlm funeral putt, an ample covering of black velvet or other
stuff, which is cast over the coffin while being borne to burial. The ends of iht pall are
held during the funeral procession by the most distinguished among the friends of the
deceased, generally selected from among those unconnected by blood. In its second and
most strictly liturgical use, the word pall is applied to one of the coverings used at the
altar iu the celebration of the mass. Primitively, as appears from Optatus and other
early writers, the altar was covered with a large linen cloth — called by the Latin-
Hum, and by the Greeks eileton — the extremities of which were folded back so as to cover
the bread and wine prepared for the celebration of the eucharist. In later times a sepa-
rate covering was employed for the sacramental chalice, to which latter the name pall
is now reserved in the use of the iioman church. The modern Roman pall i> a square
piece of linen cloth — sometimes limber, sometimes made stiff by inserting pasteboard —
sufficiently large to cover the mouth of the chalice. The upper surjace is often of silk
embroidered, or of cloth of gold. The surface in contact with the chalice must always
be of linen.
PALL, in heraldry, tlie upper part of a saltire conjoined to the lower part of a pale.
It appears much in the arms of ecclesiastical sees.
PALLADIO, ANDREA, a famous Italian architect, was born at Vicenza, Xov. 30, 151S.
After having studied with the greatest care the writings of Vitruvius. and the laonu-
ments of antiquity at Rome, he settled in his native city, and first acquired a reputation
by his restoration of the basilica of Vicenza. Pope Paul III. then invited him to Rome,
designing to intrust him with the execution of the works then going on at St. lv
but, his holiness dying before the arrival of Palladio, the latter had to return home. He
was employ eel 'for many years in the construction of numerous buildings in Vicenza and
the neighborhood, in all of which he displayed the most exquisite taste combined with
the most ingenious and imaginative ornamentation. His style, known as the Palladia;!,
is a composite, and is characterized by great splendor of execution and justness ()f pro-
portion, and it exercised an immense influence on the architecture of Northern Italy.
His principal works are the Rotonda Capra. outside Vic nza; the palazzo Chierieado suid
ihepalazzoTiene, in the city; the palazzo Barbara, atMaserin the Trevigiano, theTeai.ro
Olympico at Vicenza (his last work), the palazzo at Montagnana for Francesco Pisana;
the churches of San Giorgio Maggiore and II Santissimo Redemptore at Venice, the
atrium and cloister at the convent Delia Carita, and the facade of San Francesco della.
Vign a in the same city. Palladio died at Vicenza. Aug, 6, 1580. He wrote a work on
architecture, which is highly prized. The best edition is that published at Vieenza in 4
vols., 1776.
PALLADIUM (symb. Pd, eq. 53 — new system. 106— «pe. grnv. 11.8) is one of th
called noble metals, which in its color and ductility closely resembles platinum. It is
not fusible in an ordinary wind-furnace, but melts at a somewhat lower temperature
than the last-named metal, and when heated beyond its fusing point, it volatilize-; in the
form of a greeti vapor. It undergoes no change in the open air at ordinary temperatures;
but at a low red heat it becomes covered with a purple film, owing to superficial oxida-
tion. It is soluble in nitric and iodic acids, and in aqua regin. It combine- readily
with gold, which it has the property of rendering -brittle and white. ("When it forms 20
per cent of the mass, the alloy is perfectly white.) When alloyed with twice its weight
of silver, it forms a ductile compound, which has been emploved for the construction of
small weights; but for this purpose aluminium is superior. Professor Miller states that.
it " has been applied in a few cases to the construction of graduated scales for astronom-
ical instruments, for which, by its whiteness, hardness, and unalterability in the air,
it is well adapted;" its scarcity must, however, prevent its general use for this purpose.
It was discovered in 1803 by Wollaston in the ore of platinum, of which it seldom
forms so much as 1 per cent Another source of this metal is the native alloy which it
fo.ins with gold in certain mines in Brazil, and Avhich is termed ouro poudra ; and it is
from this alloy that the metal is chiefly obtained.
Palladium forms with oxygen a protoxide, PdO, which is the base of the raits of the
metal; a binoxide, PdO2; and according to some chemist, a suboxide, PdQO. On expos-
ure to sufficient heat, these compounds give off their oxygen, and yield the metal. The
(salts of the protoxide are of a brown or red color.
PALLADIUM, among the ancient Greeks and Romans, an image of Pallas, Avho was
generally identified with Athene, upon the careful keeping of which* in a sanctuary the
public welfare was believed to depend. The Palladium of Troy is particularly cele-
Palk.
Pallas.
brated. According to the current myth, it was thrown down from heaven by Zeus, and
fell on the plain of Troy, where it was picked up by Ilus, the founder of that city, as a
favorable omen. In the course of time, the belief spread that the loss of it would be fol-
lowed by tiie fall of the city; it was therefore stolen by Odysseus and Diomedes. Several
cities afterwards boasted of possessing it, particularly Argot* and Athens. Other accounts,
however, affirm that it was not stolen by the Greek chiefs, but carried to Italy by ^Eneas;
and the Romans said that it was preserved in the temple of Vesta, but so secretly that
even the pontifex maximus might not behold it. All images of this name were some-
what coarsely hewn out of wood.
PALLA DIUS, one of the early Christian fathers, born, as is supposed, in Galatia
about 367. He was distinguished by an intense admiration of asceticism, and, assuming
the garb of a monk, he started on foot at the age of 20 to visit the cells of the most
famous monks in different parts of the Roman empire In 400 he was appointed bishop
of Helenopolis in Bithynia. Here he recorded what he had seen and heard among the
monks, and in 420 the book appeared, addressed to Lausus, a chamberlain at the imperial
court, and hence named the Lint zinc Histoiij. Luring the latter part of his life, he was
bishop of Aspona in Galatia. The date of his death is unknown. The Lauffiac History
in the original Greek, and in an old Latin version, is contained in the Biblwllieca Patrum.
He was an adherent of Origen and an. enemy of Jerome. •
PALLADIUS (SopiusTA), a Greek medical writer who lived at some time between
the 3d and 9th centuries. The only record of him is that he was the author of three Greek
treatises extant: the first, Scholia in Libmm Hippocratts, " De Fracturis;" the second,
In Return (Ilippocratiif) "Epidemivrum" Librum (Jommentarius; the third, De Febriljus
(.'viwi&a Synopsis.
PALLA'DITJS, RUTILIUS TAURUS JEMILIAXUS, a Roman author, who probably lived
in the 4th c. A.D., under Valenlinian and Theodosius. He wrote a work, De Be Rustica
(On Agriculture), in 14 books, the last of which is a poem of 85 elegiac couplets. It is,
from a literary and giammatical point of view, full of faults; but as it was a complete
c: lendar of Roman agriculture, it was very useful for its time, and was much read and
followed during the middle ages. Palladius has borrowed largely from his predecessors.
The best edition is that by J. G. Schneider in his Scriptorcs ltd Rustics Veteres Lahni
(4 vols., Leip. 1794).
PALLAH, ^-Epi/crros melampus, a species of antelope found in s. Africa, having^ long,
branching, and ringed horns. It is of a dark-red color, and by the Dutch is called rodda
Ink. Its flesh, though not very palatable, is eaten by the natives.
PALLANZA, a t. in the province of Novarra, .Italy, on a headland in Lago Maggiore,
nearly opposite the Borromean islands; 32m. n. of Novarra; pop. 3,534. The town is
we'll built, has an ancient massive tower used as a belfry, two convents, a town-house
surrounded by arcades resting on pilasters, and a well-arranged prison. It is quite a
resort for travelers on account of its fine climate and picturesque beauty. The finest
granite quarries in Italy are found in the province; also a fine quality of white marble.
PALLAS. See MINERVA.
PALLAS, PETER SIMON, an eminent traveler and naturalist, was born Sept. 22, 1741,
at Berlin, where his father was a physician. He studied medicine, natural history, and
other branches of science at the universities of Berlin, Gottingen, and Leyden, and was
employed in classifying many -valuable collections of objects of natural history, both in
Holland and England. He gained a high reputation by the publication of his Elcnclm*
Zoophytorum (Hague, 17G6), a work still much valued; Miscellanea Zoolnc/ica (Hague, 1766),
and Xpicikrjin Zoologica (2 vols., Berlin, 1767-1804). The empress Catharine invited him,
in 1768, to St. Petersburg, where he was well received, and had hcnors conferred on
him, and he was subsequently appointed naturalist to a scientific expedition bound for
Siberia, there to observe the transit of Venus. Pallas spent six years on this journey
('708-74'). exploring in succession the Ural mountains, the Kirghis steppes, great part of
lhe Altaian range, and the country around lake Baikal as far as Kiachta, great part of
Siberia, and the steppes of the Volga, returning to St. Petersburg in 1774, with an extra-
ordinary treasure of specimens in natural history, which form the nucleus of t>he museum
of the academy of Stjpctcrsburg. His travels (Reisen durch verschiedene Provinzen des
J.' ' ••••: Raichs) were published at St. Petersburg (1771-76). in 3 vols., and were followed
by his Sammlunc] Mstorischer Nachrichten uber die Mongol. Volkerschaften (2 vols., St.
]'<••: -rsb. 1776-1802), and his Neue nordisclie Beitriif/e zur physikahschen uncl geogrdpjiuchen
Erd-und Vdlke.rbexclireibunrf, Naturgeschiclile und (Jckonomic (6 vols., St. Petersb. 1781-93).
Without positively neglecting any branch of natural history, he now devoted himself
more particularly to botany; and his magnificent Flora Rotsim (St. Peter^o. 1784-88), a
work which, however, he was not able to complete, and his Specie* Axtrafjalfirum (14
parts, Leip. 1800-4), were among the results of his studies. He published also Icones
Inseetorwm preecipue Rossice. Sibiriceque Feculiarium (Erlangen, 1781, 1783, and 1806): and
contributed to a glossary of all the languages of the Russian empire, which was published
at St. Petersburg. As lie wished to live in the Crimea, the empress Catharine presented
him with an estatenn the finest part of that peninsula, where he resided generally from
1796. His Travels in tiie South of Russia were published in 1799 (2 vols., Leip., with
Pallavicino. OOJ.
1'ului. ***
volume of plates). After the death of his wife, he went to Berlin, where he died Sept. 8,
1811. A large and valuable work of his, on the fauna of Russia, has not yet been
published^
PALLAVICI'NO, FKRRAVTE, an Italian, h. at Piaeenza about 1618. He wns well
educated, entered the monastery of the Augustiniau friars at Milan, and joined the house
of his order at Venice. For a few years he bore a high character for piety and learning,
but a love affair led him to desert the monastery, and he gave himself up to a cour-e of
licentiousness, supporting himself for a time by wriiing obsi-ene 'nooks. He wrote a
collection of satirical letters called 2 he Couriu- Rubied <;/'/</.; M<'H, in which he inveighed
bitterly against the Spaniards, but the secretary of the republic declined giving ii his
imprimatur, lie afterwards went to Germany as chaplain to the duke of Amalli. and
on his return resolved vengeance on all who had prevented ihc publication of his _MSS.
Recasting and enlarging his Courier, he induced his bookseller to print it secretly. But
a pretended friend, acting as a spy, informed the pope's nuncio, and the author \\-.\
into prison. Having obtained his liberty, lie wrote a piece called La Buccinata »<-<'r<>
llultirellapcrle uni litirburiiii, satirizing severely his enemies, the Barberini. with a dedi-
cation expressing great contempt to the nuncio Vitelli. The nuncio, in revenge, bribed
a Frenchman to decoy the poet into the hands of a gang of sbirri. lie was taken to '.he
papal territory of Avignon and imprisoned. There was a mock trial, he was condemned
for apostasy "and treason, and beheaded Mar. 5, 1644, at the age of 26. He wrote a
number of small pieces characterized by the grace and genius which appear in his larger
works. His Opcre Pcnnesse, edited by Brusoni, with a life of the author, was published
in 4 vols. in 1GG5.
PALLAVICINO, PIETKO SFORZA, an Italian historian, son of the marquis Alejandro
Pallavicino of Parr.u, was b. at Rome, iNov. 20, 1607. Much to the di>gust of his father.
he took priest's orders, and held several important ecclesiastical appointments during the
pontificate of Urban VIII. In 1637 he became a member of the Jesuit so;-ieiy. and was
created a cardinal in 1657 by pope Alexander VII. He died a! Rome, June 5, ic,(;7.
Pallavicino was a fine scholar, and often presided in the famous Unman academy of the
tTmoristi. The best known of all his writings is his Istoriu del Coin- .' >uic,
1656-57), intended as a reply to the still more celebrated and liberal, although, by
Catholics, deeply suspected, work of Paul Sarpi. Among his other works may be men-
tioned Vindicationes Soc. Jes. (Rome, 1649); Arte dclla Perfezione (Jrix(i;in/i — 1 /•)'-'/ Sacri
(the unpublished MS. is in the library of Parma); Ermenr/ilda, a tragedy (Rome, 1644);
OH Avcertimenti Orammatica.lt (Rome, 1661); Trattato dello Stih c </// ])iuh>yo (Koine,
1662), and Lettere (Rome, 1668).
PALLI, a t. of Rajputana, in Judporc, stands on the right bank of a branch of the
Luni river, in lat. 25' 48' n., long. 73° 24' east. It is an entrepot for the opium sen! from
Malwa to Bombay, and is the seat of extensive commerce. It imports European manu-
factured goods extensively, and is cstimatad to contain about 50,000 inhabitants.
PALLIOBRANCHIA TA. See BuANcmoPODA.
PAL'LISER, JOHN, b. Ireland, 1817; son of lieut.col. Wray Palliser; came to Canada
in early life, passing a number of years among the Indians of the n.w.. exploring that
region to the Pacific ocean. In 1857-60 he was commissioner for the British, to rl
mine the boundary line between the United States and the Hudson's bay lands w. of lak-
Superior, from that lake across the main chain of the Rocky mountains,' thence to i i
coast or Cascade range. The parliamentary papers reporting the progress of the explora-
tions were published 1859, and a detailed account of the geography, agricultural resources,
etc , appeared in 1861. He published also The Isolitary Hunter, or >
tures in the Prairies, 1853. He returned to Ireland and has served as high sheriff of
the co. of Waterford.
PAL'LISER, Sir WILLIAM, b. Dublin, 1830, educated at Rugby, Trinity college,
Dublin, Trinity Hail, Cambridge, and the Staff college, Sandhurst. He entered the rifle
brigade as ensign in 1855, and was transferred to the hr.s-ais in 1858. He retired from
the service in 1871, and was knighted in 1873. He has introduced a number of inven-
tions, among which arc the "Palliser projectiles," used to pierce armor-plated ships, and
of far greater cificieucy than steel shell and shot; improved riflin.^n the heavy wmu.-lu
iron cannon used in iron-clads, and the sea-front of forts; screw irolts for fastening the
armor to the iron-plated defenses of harbors and dockyards; the rilled compound guns
known as " Palliser guns," into which the old smooth-bore cast-iron guns arc converted.
PAL'LIUM, the name given in the Roman Catholic church to one of the ecclesiastical
ornaments worn by the pope, by patriarchs, and by archbishops. Its use is held by
Roman Catholics to descend from a very early peiiod. It is worn by the pope at ail
times, as a symbol of his reputed universal and abiding jurisdiction. By archbishops it
cannot be worn until it has been solemnly asked for and granted by the pope, and even
then only during the solemn service of tke great church festivals, and on occasions of the
ordination of bishops or of priests, and other similar acts of the archicpiscopal order.
The pallium is a narrow annular band of white woolen web, about 3 in. wide, npon
which black crosses are embroidered, which encircles the neck of the archbishop, and from
which two narrow bands of the same material depend, one falling over the breast, the
Pallavicino.
Palm.
other over the back of the wearer. Its material is the subject of much care and cere-
monial. It is made wholly or in part from the wool of two lambs, which are blessed
annually on the festival, and in the church of St. Agnes. During the night of the vigil
of the feast of St. Peter and St. Paul, the pallia made of this wool are placed on the
altar above the tomb of these apostles, and on the feast of St. Peter and St. Paul, are deliv-
ered by the pope to the sulxleacon, whose duty it is to keep them in charge. Within
three months of his consecration, every new archbishop is obliged to apply to the pope,
in person or by proxy, for the pallium; nor is it lawful for him, until he shall have
received it, to exercise any act of what is properly archiepiscpal, as contradistinguished
from episcopal, jurisdiction. Thus, he cannot, for example, call a provincial synod. The
pallium cannot be transferred from one archbishop to another, but must be received
direct from the pope. On the archbishop's death, his pallium is interred with him. Its
use is held to symbolize the office of the " good shepherd" bearing the lost sheep on his
shoulders, and is connected by some writers with the vesture of the Jewish high-priest
in Exod. xxviii. 4. In the mediaeval church, the granting of the pallium to archbishops
was one of the chief occasions of the tribute which was paid by the national churches to
the support of the great central office and dignity of the papacy. In some sees, as, for
instance, those of the great prince-bishops of the Rhine, the tribute was as much as
20,000 florins. Roman Catholics, kowever, maintain that this tribute was not a ptii/uiaut-
for the pallium, but an offering to the holy see, made oil occasion of the grunt of that
emblem of jurisdiction.
PALL MALL. See MALL.
PALM, a measure of length, originally taken from the width of the hand, measured
across the joints of the four ringers. In Greece, it was known as palaiste, and was reckoned
at 3 in., or £ of a cubit, which was their standard unit. The Romans adopted two
measures of this name — the one was the Greek palaiste, and was called palm us minor;
the other, which was not introduced till later times, was called palmus major, or palma,
and was taken from the length of the hand, being therefore usually estimated at three
time.s the length ot the other. At the present day, this measure varies in a most arbitrary
manner, being different in each country, and occasionally varying in the same. The
English palm, when used at all, which is seldom, is considered to be the fourth part of
an English foot or 3 inches. The following is a list of the most common measures to
which the name palm is given:
Value in Eng.
inches.
Greek pa-lniste .............................................. = 8.03375
Roman palinun, or lesser palm ................................ = 2.9124
" palma, or greater palm ............................... = 8.7372
English palm (i of a foot) .................................. = 8.0000
Hamburg palm (J of a foot) , ................................. = 3.7633
Amsterdam " round" palm .................................. = 4.1200
" diameter" palm ................................ = 11.9687
Spanish palm, or palmo major ................................ = 8.3450
" " or palmo minor .............................. = 2.7817
Portuguese palm, or palmo de Craveira ....... .............. — 8.661(5
In Germany and the low countries the palm is generally confined to wood-measurement,
while in Portugal it used to be the standard of linear measure.
PALM, JOIIANN PniLipp, a book-seller of Nuremberg, who has acquired an historic
celebrity as a victim of .Napoleonic justice in Germany. He was born at Schorndorf
in 1768. and succeeded his father-in-law, Stein, as a book-seller in Nuremberg, the old
name of the firm being rrtnined. In the spring of 1808, a pamphlet, entitled Deutsclikmd
in seiner ticfsten S/rniedrigung (Germany in its deepest humiliation), which contained
some bitter truths concerning Napoleon,- and concerning the conduct of the French
troops in Bavaria, was sent by this firm to a book-seller in Augsburg in the ordinary
course of trade, and, as Palm to the last moment of his life averred, without any regard.
on his part, to its contents. Napoleon's police traced it to the shop in Nuremberg, and
an investigation was ordered, from which nothing resulted. Palm was in Munich, and
perhaps escaped imprisonment there because his name was not the same with- that of the
firm; but supposing all safe, he returned to Nuremberg, and was there taken prisoner,
and examined before marshal Bernadotte. whose adjutant represented his arrestment as
the consequence of direct orders from Paris. An extraordinary court-martial, held at
Brunau, to which he was removed, condemned him to death, without, any advocate
being heard in his defense. All intercession on his behalf was in vain. Gen. St. Hilaire
declared that the orders of the emperor were positive; and the sentence was executed at
two o'clock on the same day on which it was pronounced. Subscriptions were raised for
the family at St. Petersburg, to which the emperor and empress of Russia personally
contributed; in England, and in several German towns, as Berlin, Leipsic, Dresden,
and Hambuig. Some French writers have endeavored to throw the blame of this
murder on marshal Berthier, instead of Napoleon.
U. K. XI.— 15
Pal ma. 9OA
Palmer.
PALMA. See CANARIES.
PALMA, the capital of the island of Majorca (q.v.) and of the province of Baleares, is
situated oil the s.w. coast of the island, on the gulf of Pahna. which, lietween capes
Figuera and Blanco, is IS m. long, and sweeps 12 in. inland. Tin; ciiy is surrounded
by orange plantations, and is •walled and fortified. The houses, sonic of which are built
of marble, are mostly in the Moorish style of architecture, and a number of !he streets
are wide and regular. It is the see of a bishop, and contains a Gothic cathedral, simple
but beautiful in style, and with a spire which, from the delicate and airy character of its
construction, is called the Angel's tower. Besides other ecclesiastical edifices the town
contains an exchange — a beautiful and ornate structure in Germano-Gothic — the govern-
or's palace, an academy of medicine and surgery, and a large number of excellent edu-
cational institutions, including three eolegios. In the port, a mole, 500 yds. in length,
runs out from the bastions facing the s. ; and on each side of it are ship-building yards,
for the construction of the swift lateen vessels so well known in the Mediterranean*. The
port is small. The first railway in Majorca was opened from Palina to Inca in 1875.
Wool, silk, and the cordage for the Spanish navy are manufactured. Though one of
the chief marts of Europe in the 13th c., Palma* now carries on but little commerce.
Pop. 50,000.
PALMA, or PALMA m MONTECHIARO, a t. of Sicily, in the province of Girgenti, 14
m. s.e. of the t. of Girgenti, near the s.w. coast. It is entirely a modern town, its foun-
dation dating only from 1637. There is a trade in almonds, dried fruits, soda, wine,
and sulphur. Pop. '71, 13,458.
PALMA, JACOPO, the elder, an eminent Italian painter, was b. near Bergamo about
the beginning of the 16th century. Imitating the grace of Titian, and the clear expres-
sion and lively coloring of Giorgione. he is distinguished by elaborate refinement and a
harmony of tints. Among other great pictures he painted "Santa Barbara Formosa" at
Venice, and a "Madonna" for San Slefano di Vicenza. He is also the supposed artist of a
portrait which Vasari eulogizes as "a performance of astonishing perfection and singu-
lar beauty." His pictures are found in the galleries of Dresden, Vicenza, Venice.
Vienna, and other European towns.
PALMA CHRISTI. See CASTOR-OIL PLANT.
PALMARO'LI. PIETRO, 1750-1828; b. Italy; the first to transfer frescos from the
wall to canvas. The first work which he transferred in this manner was the " Descent
from the Cross," by Daniele da Volterra, in the church of Trinita de' Monti in Rome, i
v.as in 1811, and the work still remains, though not in the chapel where it was pninten.
This transfer created great interest throughout Italy. Palmaroli afterwards transferred a
number of famous works in Rome and Dresden.
PALMAS, CAPE. See CAPE PALMAS.
PALMBLAD, VILHELM FREDRICK, a Swedish writer of considerable merit, and one
of the most earliest and most zealous promoters of the literature of his native country,
was b. in 1788 at Liljested, in East Gotland, where his father held a post under the
government. While still a student at Upsala, Palmbald purchased, in 1810, the univer-
sity printing-press, and immediately entered 'upon the publication of several literary and
scientific periodicals, which, being the first of the kind that had ever appeared in the
Swedish language, attracted considerable notice, and by their intrinsic merit, con-
tributed materially to the diffusion of general information and the creation of a taste
for learning among the general Swedish public. The earliest of these were the J'/t«.«-
phortt*. a mixed literary journal ; the Poetisk Kalender, an annual; and the .</•///. «/• Litie-
ratur Tiding, a literary review, which lasted till 1824. The Swedish wriiers Atterbom
tuid Hammarskjold were associated with Palmblad in the management of these journals.
and, like him, directed all their efforts to supplant the pseudo-classical school of litera-
ture, in faror of the romantic style, and to counteract the false French taste of that
period, which, under Gustavus III., had been universally followed in Swedish literature
and art. Palmblad successively occupied the chairs of history and geography and of
Greek literature in the university of Upsala; and at his death in 1852 he left the charac-
ter of having been of the most industrious and influential Swedish writers of his daj .
His principal works are — Minntstafla ofner Sveriges Ifrf/en1er(l83l); iMrobok i nyare Ilis-
torien. (Ups. 1832); Hnndhok i phy&ixka og politixkn Geoffraphien (1S37); Lin-oboki Oco-
gmpJiicn (Orebro, 1847); Grektsk Formkunskab (Tips. 1845); and in addition to these
purely instructive works, among his various novels we may instance his Vaini'(,' „ /•//.'/.•-
enxrard (Orel). 1844); Aurora Kdninqsmark (Orcb. 1846), which rank among the best of
their class in Swedish literature. Palmblad was the editor of the great Swedish biogra-
phy. Namnkunnige Swemka Man (Stock. 1835-52); and besides being an active coadju-
tor in the direction of the Swedish literary society, for which he wrote numerous
papers, he was an active contributor to various German works of celebrity, asErschand
Grubcrs AUgcmeine Encyklopadie, the Conversations- lexicon, etc.
PALME, or PALMT, a royal city of South Italy, in the province of Reggio-Calabria,
20 m. n.n.e. of Reggio, on the coast of the bay of Gioja. The town, by means of its
port, carries on an active trade. Pop. 13,500.
Palm a.
I'almor.
PALMELLA'CEJS, a family or group of A?g(e, of the order or sub-order Confertacece.
In organization, they are among the lowest of plants; they are, however, universally
regarded as vegetable, and do not, like the Diatomaceas, oecupy a somewhat doubtful
position between the animal and vegetable kingdoms. The pahnellacese all grow on damp
surfaces, but some under the influence of fresh water, and some of salt. Some appear
ns a mere powdery layer, the granules of which have little adherence to each other, as
. red snow (q.v.); some of them assume the form of a slimy film or gelatinous mass, as
gory dew (q.v.); and some are more firm and membranous, so as to have something of
the character of a frond. The pahncllaceaB bear so great a resemblance to the early
stages of plants higher in organization, that doubts are entertained of their right to a
distinct place in the botanical system, particularly as their mode of reproduction is not,
yet well understood. Conjugation has been observed in some of them. They propa-
gate with great rapidity by gemmation, or something like it, some of them sending forth
tubular filaments from their cells, the extremities of which dilate into new cells, after
which the connecting tube closes, aad ceases to exist; whilst in others the multiplication
of cells takes place by division or segmentation (see MONAD), and the young plants
exhibit remarkable powers of motion for a short time, like zoospores, being furnished
with vibratile cilia, by which their motion is produced. Ere long, however, their
motion ceases, and the process of segmentation is ready to begin anew. The motile
organs and powers of some of the palmellacea^in the earlier part of their existence, have
led to their being mistaken for animalcules.
PALMER (Lat. palmifer, a palm-bearer), the name 9f one of those numerous classes
of PILOHIMS (q.v.), whose origin and history form one' of the most interesting studies in
in the social life of medheval Europe. The Palmer, properly so called, was a pilgrim
who had performed the pilgrimage to the HOLY SEPULCHER (q.v.), and had returned, or
was returning home after the fulfillment of his vow. The Palmers were so called from
their carrying branches of the oriental palm, in token of their accomplished expedition.
On arriving at their home they repaired to the church to return thanks to God, an:l
offered the palm to the priest, to be placed upon the altar. The palms so offered were
frequently used in the procession of palm Sunday. Even after the time of his return,
the religious character of the Palmer still continued; and although his office might be
Supposed to have ceased with the fulfillment of his vow, many Palmers continued their
religious peregrinations even in their native country. They were thus a class of itinerant
monks, without a fixed residence, professing voluntary poverty, observing celibacy,
and visiting at stated times the most remarkable SANCTUARIES (q.v.) of the several coun-
tries of the west. Their costume was commonly the same as that of the ordinary
PILGIUM (q.v.), although modified in different countries.
PALMER, a t. in Hampden co. , Mass., on the Chicopec river, at the junction of the
New London, Northern, and the Boston and Albany railroads, and at the southern termi-
nus of the Athol and Enfield and Ware River railroads, 15 in. e. of Springfield; pop.
'80. 5,505. It has carpet, carriage, and straw-hat manufactories; an iron foundry and
machine-shop*, and several churches.
PALMER, ANTHONY, d. 1749; came from the West Indies to Pennsylvania in 1708.
He was acting governor of that state 1747-48
PALMER, CHRISTIAN VON, 1811-75; b. at WinnenoVn, near Stuttgart, Wurtem-
berg; educated at Tubinjren, attending the lectures of Steudel, Baur, and Schmidt;
became dean of the Tubingen diocese and minister at Tubingen in 1851; in 1852 was
appointed professor in the university, and lectured on liturgy, the history of ecclesiasti-
cal music, and New Testament exegesis. The same year lie was ennobled by his sove-
reign. In 1869 he was elected vice-president of the synod, and in 1870, by the city of
Tubingen, its representative in the diet. His theology was evangelical and favored
progress. His works, which have been widely circulated, are: Eranyelische Homilctil;;
KcanffeliscJie Kateclwtik; Emngelische PMagogik; Emngelische Pasioralffieoloffie; Die
Moral des Chrislenthums; Evangetische Casualreden; Euangelische llymnologie ; 'Preditften
aus neuerer Zeit. He wrote several essays and articles for the Jahrbiiclier fur Dentkche
Theolor/ie, of which review he had been one of the editors from 1856, and for Herzog's
Real-Eitcyldopadie.
PALMER, EDWARD HENRY, b. Cambridge. Eng., 1840; graduated at the university
of Cambridge in 1867; accompanied the Sinai survey expedition of 1868-69. and explored
the land of Moab and other regions of the east in 1869-70 in behalf of the Palestine
explorati6n society; became professor of Arabic at Cambridge in 1871. He is the author
of The Neyah or South Country of Scripture, and the Dwrt of El-lih; The Desert of f^e
'Exodus; of a Persian- English and English-Persian Dictionary; and some translations
from and into Persian.
PALMER, ERASTUS Dow, b. N. Y., 1817; early manifested a talent for carving,
learned the trade of a joiner, removed to Albany and commenced cameo-cutting 1846.
and in 1852 devoted himself to the art of sculpture, producing first an ideal bust of the
infant "Ceres.". Other works are: "An Indian Girl contemplating a Crucifix," "The
Whito Captive," 'The Sleeping Peri," and "The Landing of the Pilgrims," containing
15 statues, and intended for the capitol at AVashington. His works in busts and bas-
Palmer.
Paltuerston.
reliefs number over 100, some of them illustrative of American history and social life,
many of them interesting classical subjects — groups of allegorical and mythological
figures carefully and poetically treated. He has produced portrait-bu-ts 'of Erastus
Corning, coin. M. C. Perry, gov. E. D. Morgan. Alex. Hamilton, Washington Irving,
etc. In 1873 he went to Paris and modeled a statue of Robert 11. Living-ton for the
state of New York, cast in bronze in Paris, and placed in position in ]8»5 in the old hall
of representatives at Washington.
PALMER, INXIS N., b. Buffalo, N. Y., about 1825; graduate of West Point, 1846;
entered the mounted rifles; served in the Mexican war and on the frontier; brevctted 1st
lieut. and brevetted capt. for bravery at Contreras, Churuhuseo. and Cliapultepec; was
wounded at the latter place. He was made 1st lieut., 1853: capt. 2d cavalry, Mar. 3,
1855. In the war of the rebellion he was appointed maj. 5th cavalry, Aug. 3, liif];
brig.gen. of vols. in the September following; transferred to North Carolina, Dec.. 1862.
He was promoted to lieut. col. 2d cavalry, Sept. 23, 1803. He was made brig. gen. of
vols., Sept, 23, 1861; was in the peninsular campaign commanding a brigade in th
corps; commanded a division in the 4th corps in ISortli Carolina; commanded delinks
at New Berne, 1863-64; commanded the district of North Carolina, 1^04-65. lie partici-
pated in the movements of gen. Sherman; was brevetted brig.gen., lbt>5. In June, 1S08,
he attained the rank of col. of the 2d cavalry, and served on the frontier after the war.
PALMER, JAMES S., 1810-67; b. N. J. ; entered the U. S. navy as midshipman at
the age of 15; made lieut. in 1JB36, and two years later served on the (.'i>/////,/V</ in the
Sumatra battles of Quallah Battoo and Mushie. He also took part in the Mexican war,
commanding the blockade schooner Flirt, and was promote;! to the rank of commander.
1855. On the outbreak of the rebellion he was in command of the Iroquwx, then in the
Mediterranean squadron, but was at once recalled and attached to admiral Dupnnt'.s
blockading fleet. In 1862 he was made a capf., and distinguished himself in the pa»a^e
of thf; Vicksburg batteries and in the fight with the A>'i:n.i/xiit-; a confederate rain. lie
was Farragut's flag capt. at Mobile and New Orleans, and displayed great pcr.-onal •-: •}-
lantry and skill in handling his ship. He was appointed rear-admiral in ISlili. and v\as
in command of the North Atlantic squadron from 1865 till his death from yeliow-i'ever
in St. Thomas, "NY. I. «
PALMER, JOHN McCAtJLEY, b. Ky., 1817; received an ordinary education: removed
to Illinois in 1832, and in 1840 was admitted to the bar. He was successful in practice,
was prominent in political life, and in 1852 was elected state senator; was a delegate to
the first republican national convention at Philadelphia in 1856. and to the peace con-
vention at Washington, Feb. , 1861. At the beginning of the rebellion he was <riven com-
mand of the llth 111. vol., took part in gen. Fremont's Springfield expedition, and soon
afterward was made brig.gen. He was present at the battles of New Madrid, "island
No. 10, and Farmington, and at Stone river commanded the 1st brigade, 1st division, of
the army of the Mississippi. In Nov., 1862, he was made a maj. gen., and in Sherman's
campaign of 1864 in Georgia had command of the 14th corps. Later lie was in command
of the military department of Kentucky, resigning in I860. In 18G8 he was elided
governor of Illinois by the republican party and served two terms, lie took part in ll;x>
"liberal republican" movement which resulted jn the nomination of Horace C,ne!ey at
Cincinnati, and has since that time acted with the democratic party. His name was
prominently mentioned in connection with the democratic nomination for the presidency
in 1880.
PALMER, JOSEPH, 1718-88; b. Mass.; represented his district in the provincial con-
gress of Massachusetts, 1774-75: a member of the committee of safelv. In the i< \nlii-
tionary war he was col. of a militia regiment on duty near the coast 1775-?tj, and B
in the Rhode Island campaign 1777, having attained the rank of brig.gen.
PALMER, RAY, B.D., b. R. I., 1808: graduated at Yale college in 1S30: studied the-
ology at New Haven; after teaching in New Haven became pastor of the Congregational
churches at Bath, Me., in 1835, and at Albany in 1850, and secretary of the American
Congregational union in 1866. He has published M<-m'nr» <ni<l & '. ••' /.'• main -
Pond; How to Live, or Memoirs of Mrs. C. L. Watwn; Doctrinal Text-linol1; >/<V//'^//
Improvement; Hints on the Formation of Religious Opinions; 7,'r ///<////>-/• M<\ •
Communion; Hymns and Sacred Pieces; /'< 'miii !>•<•> »<'<••< of Our Work for Fifteen Year*:
Home, or the Unlost Paradise; Ilyjnns of My /////// Ifm/i'*; al.-o many discourses and
addresses, and papers in reviews. Of his hymns and sacred poems the best known and
most widely used, though not equal to some others of his hymns-., is " My Faith Looks up
to Thee." A complete edition of his poetical works was published in 1880.
PALMER, ROTTXDELL, Lord SEI.BOUXK. D.C.L., b. Eng.. 1812: educated at Rugby
and Winchester schools, and at Oxford, where he gained the prize- for Latin and for
English verse. He was called to the bar in 1837, and soon attained a large practice in
chancery. In 1849 he was made a queen's counsel, and elected a bencher of Lincoln's
inn. In 1847 he was returned to parliament for Plymouth, where he acted as a liberal
conservative, opposing the endowment of the Roman Catholic clergy, and favoring the
extension of free trade. He was defeated in the election of 1S52, \\as returned in 1853,
and held his seat till 1857. In 1SG1 he became solicitor-general in lord Palmerston's
O9Q Palmer.
•"*?*' Pulmei-ston.
administration, and was soon afterward knighted, and made M.P. for Richmond. In
18G-5, on the death of sir William Atherton, lie was appointed attorney-general. He
wi nt out of office with lord John Russell's second administration in 1866. When Mr.
U.ad^tone formed a cabinet in 1868, sir Rouudell. Palmer was .offered the chancellorship,
but refused it on account of the divergence of his views on the Irish church question
from those of the administration. He agreed with the cabinet as to the disestablish-
ment of the Iris-h church, but disagreed with them on the question of the disem!o\vinent.
He supported Mr. Gladstone's government, however, on most other public questions. In
1871 he acted as counsel of the British government before the arbitration commission
at Geneva. The next year he succeeded ford Halherly as lord chancell ir, and was rais< (1
to the peerage as baron Selborne, of Selbornc, Hants, He went out of office in 1S74,
and returned in 1880. His attitude on the Irish land question is not entirely in accord-
since with that of other members of the present (1881) Gladstone cabinet. He was chosen
lord rector of the university of St. Andrews in 1877. He edited in 1862 the Hook of
Praise, from tJte best English aymnWriters, and published in 1878 Notes on Some Passages
in the Liturgical lliatory of the liiformtd English Church. He has made a critical and
historical study of hymns.
PALMER, WILLIAM, b. Eng., 1811; brother of lord Selborne. He was educated at
Rugby and Oxford, took holy orders, and traveled in the east, where he attempted to
bring about a closer connection of the English and oriental churches. He has published
; at-iitoity of Anglican Doctrine with that "of the Chvrche of the East, 1844; The Patriarch
t,»J the Tsar, translated from the Russian, 1871; and a Commentary on theBook of Daniel,
1 '- < •,!.
PAIMEKSTON, Viscount, HENRY JOHN TEMPLE, an English politician, was born at
ll-.e.f .iiiily mansion, Broadlauds, near Romsey, Hants, Oct. 20, 1784. The Temples are
<-f Saxon .origin, and the family claim descent from Edwyn, who was deprived of the
c.ridom of Mercia by the Conqueror, and lost his life in defending himself against the
Aormans in 1071. Sir W. Temple, the diplomatist and patron of Swift, was a member
( f this i'ainil}-, which removed to Ireland in the time of Elizabeth. The family w;is
ennobled 17^2, when Henry Temple was created a peer of Ireland with the dignities of
l.aron Temple and viscount Palmerston. His grandson, the scond viscount, father of
the present peer, superintended his son's education &t Eroadlands, anel then sent him to
Harrow. Palmerslon afterwards went to the university of Edinburgh, where he attend-
ed the prelections of Bugalel Stewart and other professors. He next matriculated at St.
John's .college, Cambridge, whence he was summoned to attend the deathbed of his
fa! her, on whose decease, in 1805. Palmerston succeeded to the title. His eminent
abilities were early recognized, for he was scarcely of age when the Tory party in tire
university selected him (1806) as their candidate to succeed Mr Pitt in the representation.
The late marquis of Lansdowne was the Whig candidate; anel lord Byron, then at Cam-
bridge, in his Ilonrs of Idlentns, evinces the interest he took in the election. Palmerston
was unsuccessful, and again in 1807. He entered parliament, however, in the same
year for the borough of Newport, his colleague being Arthur Wellesley, then chief f-ec-
retary of Ireland. In 1811, he exchanged Newport for the university of Cambridge,
enjoyed the distinction of representing his alma inaier for 20 years, and only lost his seat
when he became a member of the Grey administration, and supported the reform bill.
For the last two years of the unreformed parliament, he sat for the now extinct borough
of Bletchingly. At the first election after the reform act he was returned for South
Hampshire, but lost his seat at the general election of 1835. He immediately afterwards
found a seat for the borough of Tiverton, which be promised never to leave as king as
the electors would permit him to represent them. Having traced his representative, we
now turn to his official career. Palmerston entered life as a member of the Tory party,
and accepted the office of secretary at war in the duke of Portland's administration in
1S09. This office he held during the successive governments of Mr. Perceval, the earl
of Liverpool, Mr. Canning, lord Goderich, and the duke of Wellington — a period extend-
ing from 1809 to 1828. There was, ample scope at the war-office for Psdmerston's admm-
iMralive talents and activity. Our military system swarmed with abuses, and the labor
thrown upon the secretary at war during the peninsular campaign was prodigious. In
1817, an attempt was made to assassinate Palmerston by an insane army-lieutenant,
named Davis, who fired a pistol at him as he was entering the Horse guards, the bullet,
however, only inflicting a slight wound. Palmerston early attached himself to the Can-
ning section of the Liverpool administration, and lie accepted a seat in the cabinet of
Mr. Canning. His official connection with the Tory party ceased in 1828, when the
"great duke" insisted on accepting Mr. Huskisson's resignation, which was followed by
Palmerston's retirement. The duke's government was swept away in the reform flood
of 1830; and earl Grey, who became prime minister, offered the seals of the foreign
office to Palmerston. The European horizon was so disturbed at this crisis that a great
political authority declared that if an angel from heaven were in the foreign office, he
could not preserve peace for three months. Palmerston falsified the prediction. Louis
Philippe then filled the throne of France; and for the first time on record, England and
France acted in concert, and without jealous}', under Palmerston's foreign ministiy. He
took a leaeliug part in effecting the independence of Belgium, and in establishing the
Palmer-worm.
Palius.
thrones of queen Isabella of Spain and queen Maria of Portugal on a constitutional basis.
In 1841 Palmerston went out of office with tin- Whigs on the qi.< '-ticui of free trade in
corn; but on their return in 1846, he resumed the seals of the foreign office. His second
foreign administration furnished various-subjects of hostile party criticism, among which
may be mentioned the civil war in Switzerland, the Spanish marriages, the European
revolutions in 1848. the rupture of diplomatic relations between Spain and Great Britain,
and, finally, the affair of Don Pacifico and the quarrel with Greece. A vote of censure
on the foreign policy of the government was, in 1850, carried in the house of lords on the
iiioiion of lord Stanley (afterwards earl of Derby). A counter-resolution, approving the
foreign policy of the government, was thereupon moved by Mr. Roebuck in the lower
house. The debate lasted four nights. In a speech of five hours' duration — "that
speech," said sir Robert Peel, "which made us all so proud of him" — Palmersimi
entered upon a maulyand dignified vindication of his foreign policy; and Mr. Roebuck's
motion was carried by a majority of 46. In December, ISol, the public were startled at
the news that Palmerston was no longer a member of the Russell cabinet. He had
expressed his approbation of the coup d'etat of Louis Napoleon, without consulting
either the premier or the queen; and, as explanations were refused, her majesty cxer-
cUeil her right of dismissing her minister. Pahnerston avenged himself, as soon as
parliament met, by shattering the Russell administration to pieces on a comparatively
trifling question regarding the militia. He refused an offer from the earl of Derby to
join Uie government which he was commissioned to form, but accepted the post of home
secretary in the coalition administration of the earl of AlR-rdeen in 1852. The fall of
this government, on Mr. Roebuck's motion fora Sevastopol committee, placed Palmer-
ston in his 7lst year in the position of prime minister, to which he was unanimously
c died by the voice of the nation. He vigorously prosecuted the Russian war until
S •!> is'opol v.as tak"ii, and peace was made. His government was defeated in March,
1S57, ou Mr. Cobden's motion, condemnatory of the Chinese war. Parliament was dis-
solved, and Palmerston met the house of commons with a large majority. But his
a (ministration fell in Feb., 1858, upon the conspiracy bill, intended to 'protect the
French emperor against the machinations of plotting refugees. A short conservative
administration followed; but in June, 185!), Palmerston was again called to the post of
fir>t lord of the treasury, which lie continued to fill up to his death. It was his ambition
to be considered the minister of a nation rather than the minister of a political party;
and his opponents have 'been constrained to admit that he held office with n.ore general
acceptance than any English minister since the time of the great lord Chatham. As an
orator, he was usually homely and unpretending, but always sensible and practical, lie
was a dexterous tactician, and a read}', witty, and often brilliant debater. He was popu-
lar as a minister, because he was thoroughly English in his ends and aims. Even his
robust health, manly bearing, and physical vigor were elenientsof his popularity, because
they were regarded as a glorification of the English sports, which he was never ashamed
to patronize. He desired nothing so ardently as to promote the wealth and grandeur of
Great Britain, and his national character and' national spirit were thoroughly appreciated
by his countrymen. He married, in 1839, the widow of the fifth earl of Cowper,
daughter of the first viscount Melbourne. As he died without issue, and his only
brother died unmarried, the title became extinct on Palmerston's decease, Oct. 18. 1H!5.
See Life of Palmerston by sir Henry Lytton Bulwer (Lord Dalling), continued by Evelyn
Ashley.
PALMER WORM, a name given to many large kinds of grub, the larvae of coleopter-
ous insects, destructive to vegetable substances of various kinds. It is used in the Eng-
lish version of the Old Testament as the translation of the Hebrew gazam, rcn
knmpe by the Septuagint, which modern Hebrew writers and others very generally
regard as a kind of locust, although more probably it is either the grub of a coleop-
terous or the caterpillar of a lepidopterous insect, — See Kitto in Pictorial Bible, on Joel i. 4.
Palmer-flies are much used by anglers on the English streams, and are at certain
seasons excellent lures for trout, etc.
PALMETTO, Sabal palmetto or Cham&rops palmetto, a species of palm, a native of
maritime parts of North America, as far n. as lat. 353, which is further n. than any oilier
American species of palm is found. It attains a height of 40 to 50 ft., and has a crown
of large palmated leaves, the blade from one foot to 5 ft. in length and breadth, and the
footstalk long. The flowers are small, greenish, and in long racemes; the fruit black,
about as long as a pea-pod, and uneatable. The leaves are made into hats. The terminal
bud or cabbage is eaten. The wood is extremely porous; but is preferred to every
other kind of wood in North America for wharfs, as it is very durable, and not liable to
be attacked by worms. — The chamasrops (q.v.) humilis of the s. of Europe is also called
palmetto.
PALMETTO-LEAVES, the leaves of the palmyra (q.v.) palm, borasstis fabeltifornm,
which grows extensively in India and Polynesia. The leaves have great value as -.\
material for the manufacture of hats, mats, etc., and for this purpose are frequently
imported into Europe. In their native country, they are used as thatch, and for a great
variety of other useful applications.
Palmer-worm.
Palms.
PALMIP EDES, or WEB-FOOTED BIRDS, also called NATATORES, or SWIMMERS, an
order of birds, tae anseres of Linnaeus, very natural and universally recognized by orni-
thologists, having the feet specially formed for swimming, and the toes webbed, i.e., con-
nected by a membrane, at least those which are directed forwards. In swimming, the
feet are contracted when drawn forwards, the toes being brought together, and expanded
to their utmost extent in the backward stroke. In accordance with their aquatic habits,
the palmipedes are further characterized by a boat-like form, calculated to move through
the water with litlle resistance; and by a dense and polished plumage, oiled by a secre-
tion from certain glands near the tail, very impervious to water; whilst warmth is fur-
ther secured by a clothing of down, more or less abundant, beneath the feathers. They
are remarkable for the length of the breast-bone (sternum), and the neck is often longer
than the legs, a thing very unusual in birds, so that they can plunge the head far down
in search of food, "flie length of the wings differs very much in different sections of
the order, pud with it the power of flying; as does also the power of diving, which some
possess in a high degree, and others, 'even of the same family, in a very inferior degree.
To this order belong geese, swans, ducks, divers, auks, guillemots, puffins, penguins,
petrels, albatrosses, gulls, terns, shearwaters, noddies, pelicans, cormorants, frigate-birds,
gannets, darters, tropic-birds, etc.
PALMITIC ACID (HO,C32H31O3) is one of the most important of the fatty acids,
represented by the general formula HO,CnHn ,0« (see OILS AND FATS). In a pure state,
when crystallized from alcohol, it occurs in the form of beautifully white acicular crys:
tals arranged in tuft-like groups. These crystals are devoid of odor or taste, communi-
cate a fatty feeling to the linger, fuse at 143.6°, and solidify on cooling in the form of
crystalline scales. This acid is lighter than water, in which it is perfectly insoluble; but
it dissolves freety in boiling alcohol and in ether, and the solutions have a distinctly acid
reaction. In small quantities it may be distilled without decomposing, if the heat be
carefully regulated. The neutral palmitates of the alkalies constitute soaps, and are
soluble in water; if, however, their solutions are largely diluted with additional water,
they are decomposed, an insoluble acid salt being precipitated, while a portion of the
base remains in solution. The addition of chloride of sodium (common salt) to a solu-
tion of an alkaline palmitate produces a similar effect. The other most important com-
pounds of palmitic acid are those which it forms with glycerine and with cetylic ether.
With glycerine this acid forms three compounds, viz., a triglyceride or tripalmitate
(constituting the ordinary PALMITIXE of chemists), a diglyceride, and a monogryceride. In
addition to its existence in the form of palmitine, palmitic acid is found in a free state in
old palm oil. In combination with cetylic ether, or of oxide of cetyl, whose composi-
tion is represented by the formula C32H33O, it is the main constituent of spermaceti
(q.v.), which is in fact essentially a paimitate of oxide of cetyl (CsaHsaO.Cs^HaiOs); and
as a palmitate of oxide of melissyl — a substance which will be noticed in the article WAX
— it is the chief ingredient of bees-wax.
PALMITINE is a white fat, usually occurring, when crystallized from ether, in the
form of a mass of small scaly crystals. According to Duffy, it occurs like the allied fat
stearine in three modifications, each of which has a different melting-point — viz., 114.8°,
143°, and 145°. On cooling, it solidifies into a wax-like mass, of lower specific gravity
than water, and insoluble in that fluid, but readily soluble in ether and i^ boiling alcohol.
It is a constituent of almost every kind of fat, and is the preponderating ingredient in
those of a semi-solid consistence, and in many oils. It receives its name from the abun-
dance in which it occurs in palm oil, and it may readily be obtained from this source by
removing the liquid portion (the oleine) by pressure, and purifying the remaining palmi-
tiiic by crystallization from ether, or a mixture of ether and alcohol. It has been stated
in the article.on glycerine (q.v.) that the composition of that substance maybe repre-
sented by the formula CeHsOs.SHO. When palmitic acid unites with it to form a
triglyceridc (or the substance usually recognized as palmitiue), three atoms of the anhy-
drous acid expel and replace the three atoms of water in the glycerine, and the resulting
compound, palmitine, is consequently represented by the formula C6HiOs -f- 3 (CS2H3i-
O3), or Cio»H9SO,2.
PALM OIL. See OIL PALM.
PALMS, PahiUK or Palmacece, a natural order of endogenous plants, not excelled in
importance by any order in the vegetable kingdom except grasses. They are generally
tall and slender trees, often of gigantic height, without a branch, and bearing at the
summit a magnificent and graceful crown of very large leaves. The stem is sometimes,
however, of humble growth, and more rarely it is thick in proportion to its height; some-
times, but rarely, it is branched, as in the doom (q.v.) palm; and sometimes, as in rattans
(q.v.), it is flexible, and seeks support from trees and bushes, over which it climbs in
jungles and dense forests, clinging to them by means of hooked spines. Some of the
species with flexible stem attain a prodigious length, ascending to the tops of the high-
est trees, and falling down again. Rumphius asserts that they are sometimes 1200, or
even 1800 ft. long. Whatever the form or magnitude-of the stem of a palm, it is always
woody, and the root is always fibrous. It is only towards its circumference, however,
that the stem is hard, and there in many species it is extremely hard; but the center is
soft, often, containing, when YOUUS. a creat quantity of starch (sayo), and sometimes
Palm. OQO
Palmyra.
filled, when old, with a mas? of fibers which can IK- separated without difficulty. Con-
cerning the structure of the- stein, see ENDOHKNOIS PLANTS. The stem is generally
marked externally will) lings <>r sears, where former leaves have been ;t; (arhcil; .x.,me-
timcs it is rough with the remaining bases of the leaves, and part of it is sometimes
covered with their fibrous appendages. No other plants have leaves s<> large as many of
the palms; the largest of all are those of some of the fan-leaved palms, i,ut there are
palms with pinnate leaves 50 ft. long and 8 ft. broad, and undivided leaves arc to i>
80ft. long by 4 or 5 ft. broad. There are. however, also small palms, and palms with
lltxible stems, which have small leaves. The number of the large leaves which form
the crown of even the most magnificent palm is never gn at. Whatever ihe size or form
of the leaves, they are always stalked, the stalk being often in dimen-' I to a large
hough of a great oak or other such tree. The leaves are commonly pinnated, the num
her 01 pinnules or leaflets being often very great; but about one-sixth of the whole num-
ber of known species of palms have fan-shaped leaves, and a few species have undivided
leaves. The leaves are in all cases persistent, only falling off in .-ucec»ion as the palm
advances in growth, and new ones are formed at the summit. The flowers me M -mi-limes
hermaphrodite, sometimes unisexual; the same tree having sometimes ma'.e, female, and
hermaphrodite flowers, whilst other species are monoecious and others (iio-cioi;s. The
perianth has six divisions, three outer and three inner: there are generally MX. rarely
three stamens; the ovary is composed of three carpels, distinct or united, each with one
cell containing one ovule. The flowers are small, but are often produced in dense r
6f very striking appearance. Humboldt reckons the number of flowers on a single palm
(Affoiitia amygdaliita) as about 600,000, and every bunch of the Scje palm of the Orinoco
consists of about. 8,000 fruits. The flowers are produced on scaly spadices, often much
branched, and inclosed, before expanding, in leathery or woody spathes, often v.-iy
large, and sometimes opening by bursting with a loud explosion. The llowers of some
palms emit a very powerful odor, which attracts multitudes of insects. The fruit is
sometimes a kind of berry, sometimes a drupe, cither with a fleshy or fibrous covering;
and sometimes contains a very hard and bony nut. The fruit is sometimes only of the
size of a pea or a cherry; sometimes, notwithstanding the smallness of the flowers, it is
of very large size, of which the cocoa nut is a familiar example.
Palms are mostly natives of tropical countries, being found almost even where within
the tropics, and forming, perhaps, the most striking characteristic of tropical vcgi tation.
The tropical parts of America, however, particularly abound in them, producing a far
greater number of species than any other part of the world. A few species are found
in temperate regions; one species only, cfiameerops huiHi'lis, being a native of Europe, ar.d
extending as far n. as lat. 44°, whilst the northern limit of palms in Asia is about lat.
34°, and in North America, lat. 35°. In South America, the southern limit of palms is
lat. 36=; in Australia, it is lat. So3; in Africa, no native species is found further s. than
lat. 30° ; but in New Zealand, one species extends as far s. as lat. 38° 22'. Some of the
species, however, which arc found in tropical America grow in mountain regions b or-
dering upon the limits of perpetual snow. Some palms have very narr. --hical
limits; the cocoa-nut palm is by far the most extensively distributed spi < ;
like the cocoa-nut, grow in maritime, others in inland districts. Some grow on dry
and sandy ground, others in the richest alluvial soil, and some in swampy situations;
.*omc in open districts, others in dense forests. Some species are generally found singly,
some in groups; some even cover tracts of country in which no other tree anp
The uses of palm are many and various: there is almost no species which is not capa-
ble of being applied to some" use. Tribes in the lowest grade of civilization depend
almost entirely on particular species of palm, as the cocoa-nut palm, for the supply of
all their want's. The fruit of some species is eaten; sometimes the fleshy part of the
fruit, sometimes the kernel of the nut. The importance of the date and the c
nut needs only to be alluded to; but in this respect they far excel the fruits of all other
palms. A grateful beverage is made from the fruit of some palms - A.SSAI) <
ing simply of a mixture of the pulp with water: but a kind of wine can be obtained
also by fermentation (see DATK). A kind of beverage more gi m rally used i< the sap of
palm-trees, either fresh or fermented (palm-irine or toddy), from which also a kind of
spirits called arrack (q.v.) is obtained by distillation; whilst from the fresh sap. boiled
down, sugar is obtained — the j(tf/ffcrif of the East Indies. The sap of various ^ ( ,
palm is collected and used for these purposes, and that of many others is probably not
less suitable. The pulpof the fruit of some species, and the kernel of others, yield bland.
fixed oil, useful for various purposes. See OIL PAI.M and COCOA-NVT. The soft and
starchy center of the stem of some palm affords a very important and abundant article
of food. See SAGO. The terminal bud, or cabbage, of some species is boiled for the table;
and although the taking of the bud is death to the inc. this is little regarded where
vegetation goes on with a rapidity and luxuriance unknown in the colder parts of the
world. The young sprouts arising from the seeds of palm, when they have begun to
vegetate, are another esculent of tropical countries. From the stems of some species of
palm, as the wax palm (q.v.) of tlie Andes, and from the leaves of some, as the Carna-
hiiba palm (q.v.), wax is obtained, which is used for the same purposes as beeswax.
The wood of palm is used in house-building, and for many other purpose-; some afford-
ing very Hard and beautiful wood for ornamental work, whilst others are suitable only
0 -^ o Palm.
-*-0' Palmyra.
for coarse purposes. The great leaf-stalks are also used for some of the purposes of
liinbcr. The stems of the moat slender species are used for walking-sticks, etc., and,
split or unsplit, for wicker-work. See RATTAX. The leaves of many palms are used
for thatching hou-'.-s. The spathes of some species are used as vessels or bags. "Xhe
libers of the leaf, the fi'xT.s connected with the leaf-stalk, the libers of the -rind of the
fruit, and the libers of tho stem of different kinds of palm are used for making cordage,
mats, nets, cloth, etc. The most important of these fibers are Coir (q.v.), or cocoa-nut
fiber, Gomuto (q v. ), or Ejoo liber, and piassaba (q.v.). The coarsest libers are employed
as bristles for making brushes, etc. Stripes of the delicate epidermis of the young
unopened leaves of some South American palm- are twisted, and so used for making a
kind of thread; hammocks made of which arc highly valued. See ASTROCAUYUM.
The leaves of the Palmyra palm and Talipot palm are used iu some parts of the e. for
writing upon, an iron slyle being employed instead of a pen. One of the kinds of the
resinous substance called" Dmyon'a Blood is obtained from the fruit of a palm. The Betel
(q.v.) nut, abounding in catechu, is the fruit of a palm. The fruit of many palms is
very acrid. The ashes of the fruits of some American speck s are used by the Indians
as a substitute for salt, probably on account of polash, or some salt of potash, which
'I'u-y coiiiain; and much potash maybe obtained from the stems and leaves of palms.
V 1 itabie ivory (q.v.) is the kernel of the fruit of a palm; and somewhat similar to it iu
q;;i!i;y is the coquilla-nut (q.v.). But a complete enumeration of the uses to which
lAilni ;>:id their products are applied is almost impossible.
Some of the more important species of palm are noticed in separate articles.
About 500 species are known; but it is probable that many are still undescribed.
The most complete work on palm is the monograph by Martins, Genera ct Species Palnut-
riiia (8 vols. large folio, Munich, 1823-45), a magnificent work, with 219 colored plates;
but many new species have been discovered since its publication.
The cultivation of palm iu hot-houses is attended with great expense. Separate
houses are devoted to them in a few gardens, of which the greatest is that at Kew. A
very line palm-house has been erected in the botanic garden of Edinburgh. Palms are
cultivated in hot-houses merely as objects of interest, and for the gratification of a
relined taste, never for the sake of their fruit or any other product.
PALM SUNDAY (Lat. Dominica Palmarum, or Dom. -in Palmis), the last Sunday of
Lent, is so called from the custom of blessing branches of the palm tree, or of other
trees substituted in those countries in which palm cannot be procured, and of carrying
tiie blessed branches in procession, in commemoration of the triumphal entry of our Lord
into Jerusalem (John xii.). The date of the origin of this custom is uncertain. The first
writer in the west who expressly refers to it is Venerable Bede. The usage certainly
existed in the 7th century. A special service is fojind in the Roman missal, and al.-o in
the Greek euchologies, for the blessing of " branches of palms and olives;" but in many
countries, other trees, as in'England, the yew or the willow, and in Brittany, the box.
are blessed instead. A process! >n is formed, the members of which issue from the
church carrying branches in their hands, and singing a hymn suited to the occasion, of
very ancient origin. In the Greek church, the book of the gospels is borne in front.
In some of the Catholic countries of the west, a priest, or, occasionally a lay figure, was
led at the head, mounted upon an ass, in commemoration of our Lord's entry into the
city — a usage which still exists in Spain and in Spanish America. Before their return
to the church, the doors have been closed, and certain strophes of the hymn are sung
alternately by a choir within the church, and by the procession without, when, on the
sub-deacon's knocking at the door, it is again thrown open, and the procession re-enters.
During tin; singing of the passion in the solemn mass which ensues, the congregation
, hold the palm branch in their hands, and at the conclusion of the service it is carried
•home to their respective houses, where it it preserved during the year. At Rome, the
i procession of the palms, in which the pope is carried, is among the most striking of the
picturesque ceremonies of the holy week. In England, Palm Sunday anciently was cel-
ebrated with much ceremonial ; but the blessing and procession of the palms was dis-
continued in the Church of England, together with the other ceremonies abolished in
the reign of Edward VI.
PALM-WIXE, a beverage made of the juice which flows from the wounded spathes
of the cocoa-nut tree, and some other species of the palm, in India, where it is called
toddy. It is obtained also from the oil-palm. Palm-wine is extensively used in India
and Chili, and is almost the only fermented liquor made in Africa.
PALMY HA, the name given by the Greeks to a great and splendid city of upper
Syria. Its original Hebrew name was Tadmor, which, like tlie Greek word, means
"city of palms." It was built according to the writers of Kings (Book I. chap. ix.
verse 18) and Chronicles (Book II. chapter viii. verse 4), by Solomon in the 10th c. B.C. ;
but it is more probable that he only enlarged it. It occupied a fertile oasis, well watered,
and abounding in palm trees. Barren and naked mountains overlook it from the w.,
and to the e and s. stretches the illimitable sandy desert. Palmyra was, in the Solo-
omonic age, a bulwark of the Hebrew kingdom against the wandering hordes of Bedouins;
but its early history is obscure and insignificant. After the fall of Selucia, it became a great
center of commercial intercourse between the e. and the w. of Asia. Its commercial
.Palmyra.
Palpitation.
importance, wealth and magnificence greatly increased after the time of Trajan, who
suhj'.-rtrd the whole country to the Roman empire. In the yd c., Odenalhus; u Syrian,
founded here an empire, which, after his murder, rose to great prosperity under bis wife,
Zenobia (q.v.), and included both Syria and Mesopotamia; but iliis was not of long dura-
tion, for tiie* Roman emperor Aurelian conquered it in the y. ar 2 To, and the city was soon
nfter almost entirely destroyed iu revenue for the .-laughter of a llonian garrison. It
never recovered from this blow, although Justinian foriil'ud it anew. 'I he Saracens
destroyed it in 744. A village called Tedmor, inhabited by a few Arab families, now occu-
pies the site. The ruins of the ancient ci;y, white and da/./ling in the Syrian sun. excite.
at a little distance, the admiration of all beholders; but when examined in detail, they are
said lobe far from imposing, though in regard to this latter point opinions dill'er. They
were visited by English merchants resident at Aleppo in 1691, and again by Mc.-srs. "\Vood
and Dawkins in 1751, and since then by a vast number of travelers. The ruins of a tem-
ple of Baal, the sun god, are, however, confessedly magnificent. The language of anci< nt
Palmyrene appears, from inscriptions which remain, to have been an Aramaic language.
See Murray's or Baedeker's Handbook far Syria and Palestine; \ogue's
PALMYRA, the seat of justice of Marion co., Mo., on the Hannibal and St. Jo-e-.h
railroad, 6 in. e. of the Mississippi river, and 15 m. n.w. of Hannibal. Pop. '70, 2,615.
It has a court-house, a national bank, a savings bank, and St. Paul's college (Prot. E.)
organized in 1848; flour mills, and wagon and farming-tool manufactories. Agricultural
interests are prominent.
PALMYRA PALM, Borassus flabelliformis, a species of palm with a magnificent crown
of fan-shaped leaves, a native of the East Indies. The stem attains a height of 25-40,
or even 60 ft., and tapers slightly upward. The leaves are about four feet long, wiUi
stalks of about the same length, the stalks spiny at the edges; each leaf having 70-80
rays. The fruit is somewhat triangular, about the size of a child's head: having a thick.
fibrous, and rather succulent yellowish-brown or glossy black rind, and containing three
seeds each as large as a goose's egg. The Palmyra palm is the most common palm of
India, growing spontaneously in many districts cultivated in others, and reaching as
far n. as hit. 80°. It is of slow growth; and the wood near the circumference of the
stem in old trees is very hard, black, heavy, durable, susceptible of a high polish, and
valuable, easily divided in a longitudinal direction, but very difficult to cut acro>s. The
Palmyra palm abounds greatly in the n. of Ceylon, forming extensive forest;-; and the
timber is exported to the opposite coast of India, being of superior quality to that \\ hich
is produced there. It is much used in house building. The stalks of the leaves arc
for making fences, etc. The leaves are used for thatching houses; for making b;,
mats, hats umbrellas, and large fans;. and for writing upon. Their fibers are employed
for making twine and small rope; they are about two feet long, and very wiry. A line
down found at the base of the leaf stalks is used for straining- liquids, and for stanching
wounds. The Palmyra palm yields palm-wine, and of course also arrack and
(jitgyery). It furnishes great part of the palm-wine, sugar, and arrack of India. See
ARRACK. The fruit. is. cooked in a great variety of ways, and used for food. The
are jelly-like, and palatable when young. A bland fixed oil is extracted from the fruit.
The young plants, when a few inches high, are esteemed as a culinary vegetable, being
boiled and eaten generally with a little of the kernel of the cocoa-nut; and sometimes
they are dried and pounded into a kind of meal. Multitudes of the inhabitants of the n.
of Ceylon depend almost entirely on the Palmyra palm for the supply of all their wants.
In the "Palmyra regions" of the southern Dekkan vast numbers of the people subsist
chiefly on the fruit of this palm.
The Dcleb palm (q.v.). so important to the inhabitants of central Africa, is believed
to be nearly allied to the Palmyra palm.
PALMYKA WOOD. Properly this name applies only to the wood of the Palmyra
palm (Bnrrts*n* flabclliformi*), but it js generally used for all hinds of palm- tree wood
imported into this country, amongst which very much is the wood of the cocoa nut
palm (coco* nucifera), and the allied species C. plumosa. These woods are also called
njxckled wood and porcupine wood by the dealers — the former name being applied to those
veneers cut transversely, and showing the ends of numerous black filters mixed with the
lighter colored portions; and the latter to longitudinal sections, in which the mixed black
and white fibers much resemble porcupines' quills.
PALO ALTO, a co. in n. Iowa; drained by a branch of the Des Moines river, and
containing several small lakes; 576 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 4,131 — 3,118 of American birth.
The surface is mostly prairie and the soil very rich; oats, wheat, and hay, are the chief
products. Co. seat, Emmettsburg.
PALO ALTO, BATTLE OP, in s. Texas, between point Isabel and Matamoras, about
9 in. from the latter place. On May 8, 1846, the Americans numbering 2.300, under
gen. Taylor, defeated 6.000 Mexicans under gen. Arista; American loss, 4 killed. 40
wounded; Mexican loss, 100 killed. On May 1st gen. Taylor set out on the march from
fort Brown, near Matamoras. leaving maj. Brown, 7th inf., in charge, to point Isabel to
save some stores which were in danger of being taken by the Mexicans. He arrived
safely, and having attended to the commissaries, started back to relieve maj. Brown
Palmyra.
Palpitation.
•whom he was advised had been attacked at fort Texas. The enemy made an attempt
to cut him off from fort Brown. The engagement commenced with an artillery fire and
a cavalry charge from the Mexicans, which was met and forced back by the Americans,
who steadily advanced and caused the retreat of the Mexicans after 5 hours' fighting.
PALO BLANCO, Flotovia diganthoidcs, a large tree, a native of Chili, the wood of
which is white, and very useful and durable. It is remarkable as one of the few large
trees belonging to the natural order Composites.
PALO LO, or BALOLO, Palolo viridis, a dorsi-branchiate annelid, allied to the lug-
worm, extremely abundant at certain seasons in the sea above and near the coral reefs
which surround many of the South Sea islands, as the Samoa islands and the Fiji
islands. The body is cylindrical, slightly tapering at both ends, divided into nearly
equal joints, each joint with a small tuft of gills on each side. In thickness, the palolb
resembles a very fine straw; it is about three inches long, generally of a greenish color,
with a row of round black spots; but the color varies to red, brown, and white. These
annelids make their appearance in great multitudes, apparently rising out of the coral
reefs, and with a periodical regularity which is very remarkable. They are eagerly
sought after by the islanders, who are on the watch for their appearance, and go out in
canoes early in the morning to take them by means of nets; but they often occur in such
numbers that the water seems to be full of them, and they may be grasped by handfuls.
They are a delicacy of which the Soutli Sea islanders are* very fond. To prepare them
for use, they are wrapped in bread-fruit leaves, and cooked ior twelve or eighteen hours
in an oven.
PALO PIXTO, a co. in n.w. Texas, drained by the Brazos and Palo Pinto rivers;
960 sq. m. ; pop. '80,5,885 — 5,676 of American birth. The surface is in part woodland
and in part prairie, and well adapted for cattle raising, which is the main industry.
Predatory bauds of Indians are found. Co. seat, Palo Pinto.
PALOS, a t. in the province of Huelva, Spain, on the Rio Tinto, near the Atlantic;
pop. 11-45. Columbus sailed from the bay of Palos, on his first voyage. Aug. 3, 1492,
and returned to it Mar. 15, 1493, after the discovery of America. Near by is the con-
vent where he asked for alms, and the prior of which, Juan Perez de Marchena, used
his influence at court to further the undertaking of the voyage.
PAL'PI (from the Lat. -palpo, I touch) are organs occurring in insects, crustaceans,
and arachnidans. In insects, one or two pair of jointed appendages bearing this name
are attached to the maxilhe, while one pair is attached to the labium; and in the higher
crustaceans, similar appendages are attached to the mandibles and foot-jaws. In both
these classes, the palpi probably serve, through the sense of touch, to take cognizance of
the qualities of the substances which are employed as food. In the arachnidans, the
palpi are attached to the maxilla; only; and vary exceedingly in form and functions. In
the scorpions, for instance, they are extremely developed, and terminate in pincers
which resemble the chelae (or pincers) of crabs and lobsters; while in the spiders, they
terminate in a single movable claw in the. female, and in the male the last joint is
dilated, and acts as an accessory generative organ.
PALPITATION is the term used to signify inordinately forcible pulsations of the
heart, so as to make themselves felt, and frequently to give rise to a most troublesome
and disagreeable sensation. It may be either functional or a symptom of organic dis-
ease of the heart. Here we shall merely consider it as a functional disorder. Although
it may be persistent, it far more frequently comes on in paroxysms, which usually ter-
minate within half an hour, recurring afterward quite irregularly, sometimes daily or
several limes a day, and sometimes not till after a long interval. The attack often comes
on under some mental or physical excitement, but sometimes when the patient is quite
composed, or even asleep. If the paroxysm is a severe one, the heart feels as if bound-
ing upward into the throat; and there is a sensation of oppression over the cardiac
region, with hurried or even difficult respiration. Excluding organic diseases, the
causes of this affection are either (1) an abnormally excitable condition of the nerves of
the heart, or (2) an unhealthy condition of the blood.
1. Amongst the causes of disturbed innervation may be especially noticed the abuse
of tea (especially green tea), coffee, spirits, and tobacco. Any irritation of the stomach
and intestinal canal may be reflected to the heart; and hence palpitation may frequently
be traced to flatulence, undue acidity, and intestinal worms, especially tape-worms.
Everything that causes pressure on the heart, such as tight-lacing, abdominal dropsy,
or an enlarged uterus, is also liable to occasion this affection.
2. If the blood is abnormally rich and stimulating it may give rise to palpitation, as
in plethora (q.v.); but the opposite condition, known as anremia (q.v.), is a much more
common cause of this affection. In anaemia the blood is watery and deficient in fibrine,
and (far more) in red corpuscles; and being thus in an unnatural state, it acts as an
unnatural -timulant. and induces frequent, although not usually strong pulsations. In
cases of this kind, singular murmurs (not unlike those which are heard when we apply
certain shells to the ear) are heard on applying the stethoscope to the neck over the
course of tin.' givat jugular veins.
The age at which palpitation most usually comes on is from 15 to 25 years< and the
P:.lsy.
1'iiu.
affection — especially if it arise from aruvmia — is very much more common in the female
than in the mule sex.
The t:v:i(Mieiil of palpitation mu^t entirely depend upon its cause. The use of all
ii-TViius stimulants (tea, coli'ee, alcohol, and tobacco) should be suspended or abandoned.
If the p ilient is clearly plethoric, with a full strong pulse, he should Lake saline cathar-
tics an 1 live upon comparative!}' low diet (including little animal food) until tiiis con-
dition is removed. When, on the other hand, the palpitation is due to MI ana-mic,
condition, the remedies are preparations of iron, aloetie purgatives, an abundance of
animal food, bitter ale, the cold shower bath, and exen i>e. >hort of producing positive
la'.igue. in a pure bracing air. In the paroxysms, relief will often be afforded by the
tidministration of a diffusible stimulant, such as ammoiiiated tincture of valerian, aro-
matic spirit of ammonia, etc.
PALSY. See PATCALYSIS.
PALY. Sec PALE.
PAMIKUS, at. of France, department of Ariege, capital of the arrondissement of
Pamier-; 0:1 the right bank of the Arieige, 11 m. n. of Foix; pop. 8.000. It is in a beau-
tiful district, rich in corn, fruit, and pasturage. It contains a cathedral surmounted by
an ancient gothic brick tower, several other churches, a convent, bishop's palace, a col-
lege, seminary for the education of the clergy, several schools, a court liou.se, and a large
hospital. It lias manufactures of hardware and woolens, paper, flour and sa\v-miils, and
a thriving trade in corn. There is a chalybeate spring in the neighborhood.
PAMLICO, a co. in e. North Carolina, bordering on Pamlico sound; drained by the
Ne'use; about 30!) sq.m. ; pop. "80, 6,324— 6,315 of American birth. LMlU colored. The
surface is swampy and covered with forests of cypress, pine, and other trees. Indian
corn and pork are the chief products. Co. seat, Stonewall.
PAMLICO RIVER. See TAR RIVER.
PAMLICO SOUND, a large bay on the coast of North Carolina, separated from the
ocean i>y long, narrow islands of sand, an angle of the largest forming cape Haiteras,
and connected with the ocean by narrow passages, the chief of which is Ocraeoke inlet,
and on the n. with Albemarle sound; it is 80 m. long, and from 10 to 30 in. wide, and
receives the Neuse and Pamlico rivers.
PAMPAS (in the Quichua tongue, a "valley" or "plain"), is a term employed in a
general sense as a designation of southern American plains, in contradistinction to the
"prairies" of North America, and in this sense it is frequently employed by geographers.
It is also used in Peru as a general designation of tracts of level land cith '-oast
or among the mountains, and in this sense occurs as a component of many proper names,
being then transformed into ba/nbn. The chief pampas in Peru are those of the Sncra*
mento. But in Us more special and proper signification, the word pampas is given to the
immense and partly undulating plains bounded by the Uio N'evro of Patagonia, the La
Plata an i Paraguay, and the base of the Cordilleras. These plains durinir the we!
son afford abundant pastures to the many herds of wild oxen and horses which roam
over them, but they become rapidly parched under the burning heat of the sun. except
in the low-lying tracts, or along the banks of rivers. The most fertile of the pampas lie
westwards towards the Cordilleras. From the rapid alternation of vigorous growth with
parching drought, the growth of trees is impossible, and their place is accordingly sup-
plied by spirse groups of stunted shrubs. The soil, which is in gen- ral poor, is a" dilu-
vium composed of sandy clay, and abounds in the bones of extinct mammals. Strips m"
waterless de -erf, known as tmvenias, stretch across the pampas, these Ira- - c-i-is are desti-
tute of all vegotation with the exception of a few bushes, and are markedly distinct in
geological character. The soil of the pampas is more or less impregnated with salt, and
s;d:pe.'er abounds in many places. The wild animals of the pampas are hoi es, oxen
(both introduced by the Spaniards), nandous, and guanacos. The skins of \\w i
and oxen, and the flesh of the latter, form n most important item in the tiv.d" of this
region. The half-white inhabitants of the pampas are called Guachos(q.v.). The whole
area of the pampas has been estimated at about 1,500,000 sq.miles.
PAMPAS GRASS, Gynerium argenteum, a grass which covers \\\e pampas in the s. of
Brazil and more southern parts of South America, and has been introduced into Britain
as an ornamental plant. It is quite hardy, and its tufts have a splendid Appearance.
The leaves are 6 or 8 ft. long, the ends hanging gracefully over; the flowering stems lO
to 14 ft. high; the panicles of flowers silvery white, and from IS in. to 2 ft. long. The
herbage is too coarse to be of any agricultural value. The male and female flowers are
on separate plants; in panicles; the spikelcts 2-llowered, one floret stalked, and the
other sessile; the paleae of the female florets elongated, awn-shaped, and woolly. —
Another species of the same genus, G. saccharoides, al.so a Brazilian grass, yields a con-
siderable quantity of sugar.
PAMPELU'NA, or PAMPLO'NA, a fortified city of Spain, capital of Navarre, of which
It is tho key. occupies an eminence not commanded by any neighboring height, on the
left bank of the Arga, a tributary of the Ebro, 111 m. n.n.w. of Sarago-sa by railway, and
200 m. n.o.e. of Madrid. The citadel, overlooking the river and commanding the plain, is
Palsy.
Pan.
a regufar pentagon, each side being 1000 ft. in extent, and is connected with the city by
an esplanade or glacis. Magnificent views of the Pyrenees on the n. are obtained from
the citadel, and there are several very pleasant promenades. The atenai (plain) of Fain-
peluua is about 80 m. in circumference; and although the climate is somewhat chilly and
damp, the gardens are fruitful and the meadows verdant. The city is well buiit and
clean; water is brought from hills about 9 m. distant, by means of an aqueduct built
alter the solid Roman style by Ventura Rodriguez, and a portion of which, 2,300 ft. in
length, is supported on 97 arches, 35 ft. in span and G5 ft. in height. The town contains
a number of squares with fountains, a theater, and the regular plaza de toroa — bull arena
' — capable, it is said, of containing 10,000 people. Agriculture, the wine trade, and the
manufacture of linens and leather are the only noteworthy branches of industry. Pop.,
before the ruinous Carlist blockade in 1874, about 23,'000.
Pampeluna was called by the ancient PompeiopoKs, from the circumstance of its hav-
ing been rebuilt by the sons of Pompey in 68 B.C. It was taken by the Goths in 4(50, by
the Franks under Childebert in 542, and again under Charlemagne in 778. Il was sub-
sequently for a time in possession of the Moore, who corrupted the name PompeiopoJia
into Ijiiuibilnniik, whence the modern Pamplona. In later times It was seized by the
.French in 1808, and held by them till 1813, when it fell into the hands of the allies under
the duke of Wellington.
PAM'PHILUS, b. at Amphipolis in the 4th c. B.C., and studied painting at Sicyon,
under Eupompus, whom he succeeded as the head of the Sicyouian school. The char-
acteristics of this school were a stricter attention to dramatic truth of composition, and .
also the acquisition of all sciences relating directly or indirectly to painting. The length
of the course was extended over 10 years, and the art of delineation was made funda-
mental in the education of all who were free-born. This school was the most famous of
all the schools of ancient painting. The fee of admission was a talent, or about £216.
Among the pupils at this school were Apelles and Melanthius. We have an account of
only four of the pictures of Pamphilus, "The Heraclido:"; "The Battle of Phlius";
" L lysses on the Raft," and " Coguatio, or Relationship."
PAM'PHILUS, a Christian writer said to have been b. at Berytus in the latter half of
the 3d c. ; studied under Pierius of Alexandria, and spent most of his life as a presbyter
at Ce-an:ea in Palestine. He founded a theological school, and established a valuable
ecclesiastical library, which became celebrated. He multiplied copies of the Scriptures,
and supplied them to the poor. He welcomed any also to his library or his school. He was
the author of an Apology for Origan in five books, continued by his pupil and admirer,
Eusebius. JTe prepared, in conjunction with Eusebius, an edition of the Septuagint
from the text in Origen's Ilejeupln., which was generally used in the eastern church.
During the persecution of the Cl.ristians by Diocletian he suffered martyrdom in 309 for
refusing to sacrifice to the gods.
PAMPHLET (variously derived from Spanish papaleta, slip of paper on which any-
thing i< written, and pagina jUata, threaded page), a small book consisting of a sheet of
paper, or a few sheets stitched together, but not bound. It generally contains a short
treatise on some subject, political or otherwise, which is exciting public attention at the
time of its appearance. The word is of considerable antiquity, as it is to be met with
in Chaucer; but it was not till about the middle of the 16th c. that pamphlets began to
be of common use in political and religious controversy in England and France. Under
the second French empire, political pamphlets appeared from time to time which were
' generally believed to be written under imperial dictation, and either to speak the senti-
ments of the emperor, or to be feelers of public opinion.
PAMPHYLIA, anciently a country on the s. coast of Asia -Minor, with Cilicia on the
e. and Lycia on the w. It was originally bounded on the inland or northern side by
mount Taurus, .but afterward enlarged so as to reach the confines of Phrygia. Pam-
phylia is mountainous, was formerly well wooded, and had numerous maritime cities.
The inhabitants — a mixed race of aborigines, Cilicians. and Greek colonists — spoke a
language the basis of which was probably Greek, but which was disfigured and corrupted
by the infusion of barbaric elements. Their coins show that they had adopted to some
extent the religion, arts, and games of the Hellenic race. Its political history is unim-
portant. Along with Phrygia and'Lycia it fell to the share of Antigonuson the partition
of the Macedonian empire. It afterwards passed successively into the hands of the
Graeco Syrian princes, the Icings of Pergarnus, and the Romans.
PAN, among the Greeks, the chief god of pastures, forests, r.tid flocks. The later
rationalixing mythologists, misconceiving the meaning of his name, which they con-
founded wi;h 1f> pan, "the whole," or "the universe," whereas it is more probably con-
nected witli poo (Lat. pawo), " to feed," " to pasture," represented him as a personification'
of the universe, but there is absolutely nothing in the myth to warrant such a notion.
Pan, neither in his genius nor his history, figures as one 'of the great principal doilies,
and his worship became general only at a comparatively late period. He was, according
to the most common belli f. a son of Hermes (Mercury) by the daughter of Dryops; or
bv Penelope, ilie wife (.f Ulysses; while other accounts make Penelope the nether, but
Ulysses himself the father — though the paternity of the god is also ascribed to the num-
Pana.
J'aiu-kouoke.
tjrous wooers of Penelope in common. The-ori-rina] scat of his worship wa«= the wild hillv
and wooded solitudes of Arcadia, whence it gradually spread over the rest of Greece hut
was not introduced iuto Athens until after the battle of Marathon. Homer does' „
mention him. From his very birth his appearance was peculiar, lie came into the world
with horns a goats beard, a crooked nose, pointed ears, a tail, and goat's feet; and so
frightened his mother tnat she ran off for fear, but his father, Hermes, earned him t,
Olympus, where all the gods, especially Dionysus (Bacchus), were charmed with the
little monster. V hen he grew up he had a jrrim shaggy aspect, and a terrible voice.
Wlucfa bursting abruptly on the ear of the traveler in solitary places— for pan was fond of
making a great noise— inspired him with a sudden fear (whence the word ,„,„/,•) It i*
even related that the alarm excited by his blowing upon a shell decided I'l.o victory of
the gods over the Titans. He was ihc patron of all persons occupied in the care of cattle
and oi bees, in hunting and in fishing. During the heat of the dav he u>ed to take a nan
in the deep woods or on the lonely hillsides, and was exceedingly wroth if his slumber
was disturbed by the halloo of the hunters. He is also represented as fond of music and
01 dancing with the forest nymphs,.and as the inventor of the syrinx or shepherd's rime
also called Pan s pipe. Cows, goats, lambs, milk, honey, and new wine v, ' re offered to
him Die fir-tree was sacred to him, and he had sanctuaries and temples in various parts
Of Arcadia at Iroezene, at Sicyon, at Athens, etc. The Romans identified the Greek
± an with their own Italian god Inuus, and sometimes also with Faunu* Bee PAI .\
When, after the establishment of Christianity, the heathen deiiies \V(-re degraded bv'the
church into fallen angels, the characteristics of Pan— viz., the horns, thegoak's heard t:
pointed ears, the crooked nose, the tail, and the goat's feet— were transferred to the devil
Himself, and thus the "auld hornie" of popular superstition is simply Pan in disguise.
PANA a t. in Christian co., 111. ; about 40 m, s e. of Springfield; the junction of the
Indianapolis and St. Louis, the Ohio and Mississippi (Springfield branch) and the
Illinois Central railroads; pop. '70, 3,500. There are 3 grain elevators, several machine
shops and foundries, 2 banks, and 2 weekly newspapers.
PANAMA', a city and sea-port of the republic of Colombia, in South America capital
of the ''state" of the same name, at the head of the bay of Panama, on the southern
shore of the isthmus of the same name, in lat. 8° 56' n., long. 79° 81' west It occupies
a tongue of land which extends some distance out to sea in shallow waters. The harbor
is safe, but vessels of more than 80 tons -burden cannot approach within 2 m of the
shore Large vessels anchor at a distance of 3 m., near the island of Perico. Th" impor-
tant edifices of the city include a beautiful cathedral, a college, and several convent* all
of which, however, are falling into decay. There is considerable trade with Europe in
pearls, mother-of-pearl, shells, and gold-dust, obtained in the vicinity. Panama is eln fly
important, however, as the Pacific terminus of the Panama railway. This railway -was
completed in 1855, is about 48 m. in length, and connects Panama on the Pacific with
Aspmwall colony on the Atlantic. By means of it the route to California was much
shortened, and mails were carried over it till the completion of the Pacific railway Pop
70, 18,378. The former city of Panama, the seat of the Spanish colonial government
established in 1518, stood 6 m. n.e. of Panama, and is now a heap of ruins.
PANAMA CANAL. See LXTEROCEANIC SHIP CANAL.
PANAMA, ISTHMUS OF, is that portion of the narrow ridge of mountainous country
connecting Central and South America which is bounded on the w. by the frontier of
Costa Rica, and on the e. by the surveyed interoceanic route from the bay of Caledonia
on the_ n. to the gulf of San Miguel on the s. or Pacific side. It exiends in lcn»-
from ,1 to 83° west. The "state" of Panama, one of those which form the United
btates of Colombia, is co-extensive with the isthmus of the same name. Ana -J'.i ir>i.\
Pop. '70, 220.542. Panama contains the provinces of Panama, A/uero. Chiriqui and
Veraguas. The isthmus is traversed throughout by a chain of mountains form hi" the
barrier between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, and of which the highest peak is'~that
of Picacho (7,200 ft.) in the west. Numerous streams, the largest of which U the
Imra (162 m. long, and navigable for 102 m.), fall into both oceans. On the Pacific
shores are numerous beautiful islands, among which Las Perlas, so called from their
pearl fisheries, and the island of Coiba, are the chief. On the n. coast the principal
harbors are the Chiriqui lagoon, San Bias, and Caledonia; on the s. shore Darna* in
the island of Coiba, the bay of San Miguel, and Golfo Dulce. Gold, which in ancient
times Avas obtained here in great quantities, is still found, and mines of salt copper
iron, coal, etc., are worked. The climate is unhealthy, except in the interior and on
the flanks of the mountains. Almost all the plants of the ton-id zone mav be raised
here, but maize, rice, plantains, etc. (grown for the purpose of supplyinir the transit)
are the chief crops. The total imports in 1872 amounted to £500,000', and the exports
to the same value. The latter consisted of cotton, india-rubber, cloth and »-rass ham-
mocks, grass (Panama) hats, matting, etc. Commerce is Ihe chief employment
In 1855a railway across the isthmus, from Aspinwall city on the Atlantic to Panama
on the Pacific, was opened. The summit of the railway is 250 ft. above the level of the
5?iai: nnnn n™e arXera?e value of the SOOfls Uiat annually pass over it is estimated at
ill, 000,000. Ihe isthmus has frequently been surveyed with the object of finding a
OQG Pana.
-0< Panukoucke.
route for an interoceauic canal. The name isthmus of Panama is generally used as
interchangeable with the isthmus of Darien (q.v.).
PANATHENJE'A, the most famous festival of Attica, celebrated at Athens in honor
of Athene, patron goddess of the city, and intended to remind the people of Attica of
their union into one community by the mythical Theseus. Before the time of Theseus,
or — to speak more critically — before the formation of the Attic confederacy, this festival
was only for the citizens of Athens, and was called simply AtJieruza. According to tra-
dition, the Athemea owed its origin to king Erichthonius about 1506 or 1521 B.C. The
later Panathenaea appears to have been a double festival. All writers who mention it,
speak of a lesser and greater Pauathenaea, the former held annually, the latter every
f.iurth year. Both took place in the month Ifecatoihbceon (July), and lasted several days.
The lesser Panathenaea was celebrated with gymnastic games, musical competitions,
declamations, and a torch race in the evening, the whole concluding with the sacrifice
of an ox. The prize of the victors was a vessel Tilled with oil from the sacred tree on
the Acropolis. The greater Pauathenaea only differed from the lesser in being more
solemn and magnificent. Rhapsodists sang the Homeric poems: dramatic representa-
tions were given'; and a splendid procession took place to the temple of Athene Polias
on the last day of the festival, to present the goddess with a pcplua or embroidered robe,
of crocus color, woven by the maidens (ergastinai) of the city. Not alone the Athenians,
but the whole population of Attica poured forth on this occasion. The procession is
grandly sculptured on the frieze of the Parthenon by Phidias and his disciples.
PANAX. See GINSENG.
PANAY. See PHILIPPINE ISLANDS, ante.
PANCAKE. This article of food is prepared by pouring a rich batter of flour, eggs,
and milk into a frying-pan., so as to cover it about half an inch in thickness; the pan having
been previously heated and well supplied with butter, lard, or olive oil. A quick fire is
necessary to cook it well, and when the under side is done, a dexterous cook by jerking
the frying pan manages to reverse the cake, so as to bring the upper side downward to
bo cooked in its turn. It is now a common practice to make pancakes rather smaller
than the bottom of the pan, and frequently to add minced apples and other materials to
vary and flavor them; these are, however, better known under the name of fritters.
This dish is particularly associated with Shrove Tuesday, but the origin of the con-
nection is by no means clear. Perhaps it is the relic of a heathen custom. The Saxons
called February Solmonath, " which," says a writer in Notes and Queries (first series, vol.
v. p. 491), "Dr. Frank Sayers, in his Disquisitions, says is explained by Bede, Mensis
P'niTiili'ruiii, and rendered by Spelman, in an inedited MS., 'pancake mouth,' because,
in the course of it pancakes were offered by the pagan Saxons to the sun."
PAtTCHATANTRA (literally, the five books) is the name of the celebrated Sanskrit
fable-book of the Hindus, whence the Hitopadcx'a (q.v.) was compiled and enlarged. Its
authorship is ascribed to a Brahman of the name of Vishn'us'arman. who, as its intro-
duction in a later recension relates, had undertaken to instruct, within six months, the
unruly sons of Amaras'akti, a king of Mahilaropya or Mihilaropya, in all branches of
knowledge required by a king, and for this purpose composed this work. If the latter
part of this stor5" be true, it is more probable, however, as prof. Bcnfey assumes, that
Vishn'us'arman was merely the teacher of the princes, and. that the existing work itseif
was composed by some other personage; for an older recension of the work does not
speak of his having brought his tales into the shape of a work. The arrangement of the
Piinchatantra is quite similar to that of the Jlitopadcs'a. The fables are narrated in
prose, and the morals drawn from or connected with them are interwoven with the nar-
rative in verse: many such verses, iffiot all, being quotations from older works. — On
the history of the Pauchatantra and its relation to the fable-books and fables of other
n.uions. see the excellent work of prof. Theodor Benfey, Panchntantra: funf Backer
! "i.i-i'h<:r Fabcln, Mdrchen und Erzahlnngen (2 vols. Leip. 1859), the first volume con-
tahiing his historical and critical researches on, and the latter his literal translation into
German of, the Panchatanlra.
PANCKOUCKE, CHARLES JOSEPH, 1736-98; b. in Lisle, France; son of a noted pub-
lisher of French Protestant works; died in Paris. He continued the business and became
enrinent as an editor as well as publisher. He edited Buffon's works, published Lo
Grand r/-w/////V///v,! Fi-niK-ni--; Le Repertoire de Jurisprudence; and Le Voyagcnr
Andrieux, and Regnier. of the Monifeur.
PANCKOUCKE, CHARLES Louis FLEURT, 1780-1844; b. in Paris; son of Charles
Joseph, publisher and editor; educated to the law, but became associate and successor in
the publishing business of his father. Among his issues are the Dictionaire den Sciences
Medicate*, 60 vols., 1812; BiograjphieM^ica^; and Flore. Medica'e; the latter illustrated by
his wife; besides a great number of works on general subjects. He wrote a few small
works, among which is the Budget 6Yr"';V//V///^ ,/'///, Editor, 1837. His wife was an artist
of skill, and the translator of a prose edition in French of the poems of Goethe. The
Paneoast.
Pandects.
Bibliotlieqitc Lniine-Fm.nci'iisc in 174 volumes, 1828, was from this house, which has since
maintained its reputation under the direction of Ernest Panckoucke, sun, b. 180(5, and long
a director of the Mvniteur.
PANCOAST JOSF.PU, h. N.J., 1805; educated at the university of Pennsylvania,
where he took his decree in medicine, 1828. In 18151 he became instructor of surgery
and anatomy; and in is:!4 \vas chosen pliysician-in-chief of the Philadelphia and Chil-
dren's hospitals. In 1801 he was made professor of anatomy in the Jeffcr-on medical col-
lege, where for many year.-, previous lie had given instruction in surgery. From 1838 to
1843 he was visiting surgeon of the Philadelphia liospiial. lie has made many contribu-
tions to the medical and scientific periodicals, has edited Wistar's A/int<»ny and other
text books, and is the author of a work on, Operative Surgery.
PANCBEAS (from the Gr. pan, all, and krtas, flesh) is a conglomerate gland, lying
transversely across the posterior wall of the abdomen, varying in length from six to
eight in., having a breadth of about an inch and a half, and a thickness of from half an
inch to an inch. Its usual weight is about three ounces. The head of the pancreas lies in
the concavity of the duodenum.
The secretion of this gland, or the pancreatic fluid, is conveyed from its various parts
by means of the pancreatic duct to the duodenum. This gland is found in all mammals,
birds, reptiles, amphibians, and osseous fishes, and in some cartilaginous fishes.
The physical and chemical characters of the pancreatic fluid, and its uses in the
animal economy, are sufficiently noticed in the article DICKS-HUN.
The diseases of the pancreas are few, and do not signify their existence by any very
marked symptoms. The presence of undigested fat in i he stools has been frequently
observed in cases in which after death the pancreas has been found to K1 diseased; and
if Bernard's views regarding the saponifying power'of the pancreatic juice on fatty mat-
ters (described in the article already referred to) be correct, the reason why the fat should
appear in the evacuations in these cases is sufficiently obvious. The most common form
of disease is cancerous deposit in the head of the gland, which frequently induces jaun-
dice by obstructing the common biliary duct near its opening. An accurate diagnosis of
disease of this organ is extremely difficult, but fortunately is of comparatively little
importance, as it cannot lead to efficient treatment; all that can be done in these cases
being to palliate the most distressing symptoms.
The pancreas of ruminating animals is a favorite article of food under the name of
sweetbread. That of the calf is most highly esteemed, but that of the lamb is often sub-
stituted for it. Dr. Edward Smith questions whether the very high price often paid for
calf's sweetbread is warranted by its nutritive qualities, or even by its flavor; although
he allows that the flavor is perhaps the most delicate of any meat we are acquainted with.
It is either boiled or fried. The thyroid and subliugual glands are also u id as sweet-
bread.
_ PANCRE'ATINE, a proteid substance forming the active principle of the- pancreatic
juice. This secretion as obtained from health}' animals is a viscid, slightly opaline fluid
having an alkaline reaction and a very slight peculiar animal odor and taste. Bernard
found its specific gravity in a good specimen taken from a dog to be 1.040. It cor,!;
large amount of organic matter, and completely solidifies on the application of heat, this
property distinguishing the normal fluid from* that which has undergone change. The
following is the composition of the pancreatic juice of a dog, according to Bernard.
Water 900 to 920; organic matter (pancreatine) precipitable by alcohol, and always con-
taining a little lime 73.6 to 90; chloride of sodium, chloride of potassium, carbonate of
soda, and phosphate of lime, in all, 6.4 to 10 in 1000 parts. The chemical prop ni^s of
the organic principle of the pancreatic juice are characteristic. Like albumen, i. H •
ulated by heat, mineral acids, and alcohol, but its dried alcoholic precipitate will mli<-
solve in water and retain all its physiological properties, while the precipitated albumen
will not redissolve, Bernard further ascertained that pancreatine is coagulated by an
excess of sulphate of magnesia, which will also coagulate caseine, but no* .-.Ibumcn.
This is an important distinction, as it is necessary sometimes to be able to distinguish
between a fatty emulsion made with pancreatic secretion or with albumen, each having
the property of forming emulsions with fats. Pancreatic juice, although normally alka-
line, does not lose its peculiar digestive properties when rendered acid, a- it usually is
when the partly digested contents of the' stomach are emptied into the duodenum. There
are, apparently, no distinctive properties given it by its inorganic accompaniments. ;yid
Bernard has shown that the organic principle, or pancreatine alone, when extracted from
the secretion and dissolved in water is capable of performing the same physiological
work as the natural secretion. See PANOUCAF. PIGKSTIOX, ante.
PANCSOVA, an active trading t. of Austria, in the Servian military frontier, 70 m.
s.s.w. of Temesvar, and close to the mouth of the Tcmcs in the Danube, which is
here a mile wide. It is a military station, contains several churches, a high school,
and a quarantine establishment. Silk-spinning, brandy-distilling, and an active trade
in cattle, pigs, and corn are carried on. Pop. '69, 13,408.
PANDA, Ailnrus fulgen*, a quadruped of the family vrsidce (see BEAR), a native of
the Himalayas, the only known species of its genus, which has a very short muzzle,
small rounded ears, a moderately long tail, covered with long hair, semi-retractile
Pancoast.
Paiidects.
claws. The panda is about the size of a large cat. It dwells chiefly in trees, prey-
ing much on birds, but it also eats small quadrupeds and large insects. It has a
thick, fine, woolly covering, adapting it to a cold climate, concealed by long, soft
glistening, and richly colored hair, mostly chestnut brown, which passes into black
on the sides and legs, and into white on the head. The panda is said to excel all
other animals in the brilliancy of its fur, which, however, has not yet acquired a^ny
commercial value.. The soles of the feet are thickly covered with woolly hair. The
panda is also called wah and cJiit-wa, from a peculiar cry which it utters.
PANDANACEJ3, a natural order of endogenous plants, constituting a remarkable
feature in the scenery of many tropical countries, but unknown in the colder regions
of the globe. They are trees or bushes, often sending down adventitious roots, some-
times weak and decumbent, or climbing. There are two sections of the order, one
(pandanece) including the genera pandanus, freydnetia, etc., having long, simple, imbri-
cated leaves, usually spiny on the back and margin, their base embracing the stem, their
spiral arrangement often notably visible; the other (eydanthecu) containing the genera
cydanthus, nipa (q.v.), carludomca, pliytelephas, etc., having pinnate or fan-shaped
leaves, and in general appearance much resembling palms, with which they have been
often ranked. The two sections, however, are very similar in their flowers and fruit,
in which they not a little resemble the humbler nraeece and typhacea'. The flowers are
mostly unisexual, naked, or with only a few scales, arranged on a spadix, and wholly
covering it. The stamens are numerous; the ovaries usually clustered, one-celled, each
crowned with a stigma; the fruit consists of fibrous, one-seeded drupes, collected or
almost combined, or of berries with many seeds. — There are not quite 100 known species.
Some are valuable for the fiber of their leaves, some for their edible fruit, etc. See SCREW
PINE, KIEKIE, and NIPA. The unexpanded leaves of Carludomca palmata furnish the
material of which Panama hats are made. The tree which yields vegetable ivory (q.v.)
Ls another of the palm-like section of this order.
PAN'D AVAS, or the descendants of Pan'd'u (q.v.), is the name of the five princes whose
contest for regal supremacy with their cousins, the Kurus, the sons of Dhr'itarSsht'ra, forms
the foundation of the narrative of the great epic poem, the MaJidbharata (q.v.). Their
n&Taes&reYudhisht'hira, BMma,Arjuna, Nakula, and Sahadeva — the former three being tlie
sons of Pan'd'u, by one of his wives, Pr'itha; and the latter two by his othsr wife, Madd.
But though Pan'd'u is thus the recognized father of these princes, the legend of the
Mahdbhdrata looks upon him, in truth, merely as their father by courtesy; for it relates
that Yudhisht'hira was the son of Dharma, the god of justice; Bhima, of Vayu, the god
of wind; Arjuua, of Indra, the god of the firmament; and Nakula and Sahadeva, of the
As' wins, the twin-sons of the sun.
J PANDECTS (Gr. Pandecton, all -receiving; from pan, all, and decTiomai, I receive), one
of the celebrated legislative works of the emperor Justinian (q.v.), called also by the
name Digest-am, or Digest. It was an attempt to form a complete system of law from
the authoritative commentaries of the jurists upon the laws of Rome. The compilation
of the pandect. was undertaken after that great collection of the laws themselves
which is known as the Codex Justinianeus. It was intrusted to the celebrated Triboni-
anus, who had already distinguished himself in the preparation of the Codex. Triboni-
anus formed a commission consisting of 17 members, who were occupied from the year
530 till 533 in examining, sheeting, compressing, and systematizing the authorities, con-
sisting of upwards of 2,000 treatises, whose interpretation of the ancient laws of Rome
was from that time forward to be adopted with the authority of law. A period of 10
years had been allowed them for the completion of their work; but so diligently did
they prosecute it that it was completed in less than one-third of the allotted time; and
some idea of its extent may be formed from the fact that it contains upward of 9,000
separate extracts, selected according to subjects from the 3,000 treatises referred to
above.
The Pandects are divided into 50 books, and also into 7 parts, which correspond
respectively with books 1-4, 5-11, 12-19, 20-27, 28-35, 3G-44, and 45-50. Of these
divisions, however, the latter (into parts) is seldom attended to in citations. Each book
is subdivided into titles, under which are arranged the extracts from the various jurists,
who are 39 in number, and are by some called the classical jurists, although olhtr writers
on Roman law confine that appellation to five of the number, Papinian, Paulus, Ulpian,
Gnius (q.v.), and Modestinus. The extracts from these indeed constitute the bulk of the
collection; those from Ulpian alone making one-third of the whole work, those from
Paulus one-sixth, and those from Papinian one-twelfth. Other writers beside these 39
are cited, but only indirectly, i.e., when cited by the jurists whose works form the basis
of the collection. The principle upon which the internal arrangement of the extracts
from individual writers was made had long been a subject of controversy. The question
seems now to be satisfactorily solved; but the details of the discussion would carry us
beyond the prescribed limits. Of the execution of the work it may be said that although
not free from repetition (the same extracts occurring under different heads), and from,
occasional inaptnnss of citation, and other inconsistencies, yet it deserves the very highest
commendation. In its relations to the history and literature of ancient Rome it is invalu-
able; and taken along with its necessary complement, the Codex, it may justly be
U. K. XL— 16
Pamlerpoor.
IMuini.
regarded (having been the basis of all the mediaeval legislation) as of the utmost value to
the study of the principles not alone of Roman, but of all European law.
PANDERPOOR', a t. in British India, in the presidency of Bombay, on the river
Bima; pop. 20,000. It has a celebrated temple of Vishnu.
PAN'OLA, a co. in n.w. Mississippi, intersected centrally by the Mississippi and
Tennessee railroad, crossing the Tallahatehee river at Panola in the eeirter of the county;
720 sq.m.; pop. '80, 28,353—28,238 of American birth, 18,834 colored. It is drained by
the Tullahatehee and its branches, one of which forms its s.e. boundary, lis surface is
diversified by small lakes, groves of cypress, magnolia, and dm, and forests of good build-
ing timber. Its soil is fertile, and adapted to the raising of live stock and the production
of grain, cotton, tobacco, and .swc.it potatoes. Its principal manufactures are leather and
flour. Co. scat, Sardis.
PAN'OLA, a co. in e. Texas, having the state line of Louisiana for its e. boundary,
drained by the headwaters of the Sabine river; 750 sq.m.; pop. '80, 12,218 — 1:2,20.") of
American birth, 4,034 colored. Its surface is generally level, a large proportion covered
with dense forests of pine, oak, and hickory, ash, and walnut trees. Its soil is fertile,
adapted to stock-raising, and the production of grain, cotton, sweet potatoes, fruit, and
dairy products. Co. seat, Carthage.
PANDORA (i.e., the "All-endowed"), according to Grecian myth, was the the first,
woman on the earth. When Prometheus had stolen fire from Jupiter, Zeus instigated
HcphiEstus to make woman out of earth to bring vexation upon man by her graces.
The gods endowed her with every gift necessary for this pvirpose, beauty, boldness, cun-
ning, etc. ; and Zeus sent her to Epirnetheus, the brother of Prometheus, who forgot his
brother's warning against receiving any gift from Zeus. A later form of the myth
represents Pandora as possessing a vessel or box filled with winged blessings, which man-
kind would have continued to enjoy if curiosity had not prompted her to open it. when
all the blessings flew out, except hope.
PANDOTJRS, a people of Servian origin who lived scattered among the mountains of
Hungary, near the village of Pandour in the county of Sohl. • The name used to lie
applied to that portion of the light-armed infantry in the Austrian service which is raised
in the Slavonian districts on the Turkish frontier. The Pandours originally fought
under the orders of their own proper chief, who was called HarCin Basha, and rendered
essential service to the Austrians during the Spanish war of succession, and afterward
in the Seven Years' war. They originally fought after the fashion of the "free lances"
and were a terror to the enemy whom they annoyed incessantly. Their appearance was
exceedingly picturesque, being somewhat oriental in character, and their arms consisted
of a musket, pistols, a Hungarian saber, and two Turkish poniards. Their habits of
brigandage and cruelty rendered them, however, as much a terror to the people they
defended as to the euemv. Since 1750 they have been gradually put under a stricter
discipline, and are now incorporated with the Austrian frontier regiments. The name is
now obsolete.
PAN'D'U, literally, "white," is the name of the father of the PSn'd'avas (q.v.). nnd
the brother of Dhr'itarfisht'ra. Although the elder of the two princes, he was rendered
by his "pallor" — implying, perhaps, a kind of disease — incapable of succession, and
therefore obliged to relinquish his claim to his brother. Heft retired to the Himalaya
mountains, where his sons were born, and where he died. His renunciation of. the
throne became thus the cause of contest between the Pan'd'avas, his sons, and the Kurus.
or the sons of Dhr'itarfcht'ra.
PANEL (through Fr. from Lat. pannus, a piece of cloth, a patch), a space or compart-
ment of a wall, ceiling, woodwork, etc., inclosed by beams, moldings, framing, and so
forth. It is generally sunk under the plane of the surrounding styles. In woodwork,
panels are thinner parts used to fill in strong framing, as in doors, shutters, etc. These
are sometimes highly ornamented with tracery, shields, etc. In late Gothic architecture,
the panel is very often carved into the "linen pattern." Paneling is a style of orna-
ment greatly used in Elizabethan architecture. The ceilings and walls are covered witli
it, and evej-y piece of furniture is cut up into panels of every variety of form. Panels
are said to be "fielded " when the center of the panel is raised with moldings, etc.
PANEL (properly the slip or "pane" of parchment on which the names of the jur"r~
are written) is, in the practice of the English law, used to denote the body or set of juror-;,
consisting of 12 men, who try a cause, civil or criminal. In Scotch criminal law the
prisoner is usually called the panel.
PANGE LINGUA (Lat. "Proclaim, O Tongue"), one of the most remarkable of the
hymns of the Roman breviary, and like its kindred hymn, Lauda, Sion, a most character-
istic example as well of the mediaeval Latin versification as of that union of theology
with asceticism, which a large class of these hymns present. The Pange Lingua is a
hymn in honor of the eucharist, and belongs to the service of the festival of Corpus
Clvristi. It is from the pen of the great angelic doctor, Thomas Aquinas (q.v.), and con-
sists of six strophes of verses in alternate rhyme. Besides its place in the office of the
breviary, this hymn forms part of the service called benediction with the blessed sacra
Panclerpoor.
Paniiii.
mctit, and is sung on all occasions of the exposition, procession, and other public acts of
eucharistic worship.
PANGOLIN, or PENGOLIN, a name sometimes extended to all the species of mania
(q.v.), but originally belonging to M. pentadactylu, also called SHORT-TAILED MAMS,
and in some parts of India SAJJEHKEIT; this species being a native of most parts of the
East Indies, and pangolin, its 'Malayan name, derived from a word which signifies to
roll up; the animal having the habit of rolling itself up, on apprehension of danger, into
;i compact ball, the head in the center, and its muscular mail-covered tail enfolding all.
The food of the pangolin consists chiefly of ants, and like the rest of the genus, it is
entirely destitute of teeth, and has a round, extensile tongue. Its claws are long and
strong; it doubles them up like the American ant-caters when it walks. It resides in
burrows, which it excavates to the depth of 7 or 8 ft. in the ground. It is capable of
climbing trees, aud tlie tail is prehensile. The whole length of the animal, including the
tail, is almost 5 ft., the tail being not quite half the length of the body. It is a gentle
animal, easily tamed, and of an affectionate disposition.
PANIC is where fear, whether arising from an adequate or inadequate cause, obtains
the mastery over every other consideration and motive, and urges to dastard extrava-
gance, or hurries into danger or death. An inexplicable sound causes a rush from a
church, a vague report in the market-place causes a run on a bank, and precipitate the
very events that are dreaded. This emotion either differs from natural apprehension,
or presents so intense and uncontrollable a form of the feeling, that it is propagable
from one person to another, and involves alike the educated and ignorant — tiiose who
act from judgment as well as those who act from impulse. There are, besides this fea-
ture, several grounds for believing that such manifestations of involuntary terror are of
morbid origin, and should be regarded as moral eoidemics. They have generally arisen
daring, or have followed, seasons of scarcity and physical want and disease, the ravages
of war, or periods of great religious fervor and superstition. The dancing mania, the
retreat of the French army from Moscow, and recent aud familiar commercial panics
afford illustrations of certain of these relations. The most notable instance of'universal
panic, and that which demonstrates most aptly the connection here indicated, is tlie
dread of the approaching end of the world which pervaded all minds, and almost broke
up human society in the 10th century. The empire of Charlemagne had fallen to pieces;
public misfortune and civil discord merged into misery and famine so extreme that can-
nilialism prevailed even in Paris; superstitious and vague predictions became formalized
into a prophecy of the end of all things and universal doom in the year 1000. .This
expectation suspended even vengeance and war. The "truce of God" was proclaimed.
Enormous riches were placed upon the altars. Worship and praise never ceased. The
fields were left uncultivated; serfs were set free; four kings and thousands of nobles
retired to the cloister; and all men, according to their tendencies, prepared to die.
It is worthy of note that during all pestilences there have arisen epidemic terrors, not
PO much of the devastations of disease, as of plots and poisonings directed by the rich
against the poor. Even where these epidemic terrors are fcgitimately traceable to local
;;:id physical causes, as in the case,of the singular affection timoria, which occurs in the
marshy and unhealthy districts in Sardinia, the tremor and trepidation, and other phe-
nomena, are ascribed to the magical influence of enemies. For the origin of the name,
see PAN. •
PANICLE, in botany, a mode of inflorescence (q.v.) in which the floral axis is not only
divided, but also subdivided more or less frequently. The panicle may thus be regarded
as a raceme (q.v.), of which the branches (or flower-stalks) are branched. The panicle is
a very common kind of inflorescence. Most of the grasses exhibit it, and many other
plants, both endogenous and exogenous. The common lilac affords a good example of
it. The panicle, variously modified as to its form, and the arrangement and relative
lengths of its branches and branchlets, becomes a cyme (q.v.), Thyrsus (q.v.), etc.
PANICUM. See MILLET.
PAN INI, the greatest known grammarian of ancient India, whose work on the San-
skrit language has up to the present day remained the standard of Sanskrit grammar. Its
merits are so great that Panini was ranked among the Rishis(q.v.). or inspired seers,
and at a later period of Sanskrit literature, was supposed to have received the fundamen-
tal rules of his work from the god Siva himself. Of the personal history of Panini noth-
ing positive is known, except that he was a native of the village Salatura. situated n.w.
of Attock, on the Indus — whence he is also surnamed Salfituriya — and that his mother
was called Dakshi, wherefore, on his mother's side, he must have been a descendant of
the celebrated family of Daksha. A tale-book, the Kathdsaritsdgara (i. e., the ocean for
the rivers of tales), gives, indeed, some circumstantial account of the life and death of
Panini; but its narrative is so absurd, and the work itself of so modern a date — it was
written in Cashmere, at the beginning of the 12th c. — that no credit whatever can be
attached to the facts related by it, or to the inferences which modern scholars have drawn
from them. According to the views expressed by Goldstiicker (Panini, his Place in San-
skrit Literature: London, 1861), it is probable that Panini lived before Sakyamuni, the
founder of the Buddhist religion, whose death took place about 543 B.C., but that a more
Paiilput. 94.4.
Funuuh.
definite date of the great grammarian has but little chance of ascertainment in the actual
condition of Sanskrit philology. The grammar of Puuini consists of eight Adhyayas, or
books, each book comprising lour padas, or chapters, and each chapter a number of Sutras
(q.v.), or aphoristical rules. The latter amount in the whole to 3,996: but three, perhaps
four, of them did not originally belong to the work of Panini. The arrangement of the>e
'rules differs completely from what a European would expect in a grammatical work, for
it is based on the principle of tracing linguistic phenomena, and not concerned in the
classification of the linguistic material, according to the so-called parts of speed). A
chapter, tor instance, treating of a prolongation of vowels, will deal with such a fact
wherever it occurs, be it in the formation of bases, or in conjugation, declension, com-
position, etc. The rules of conjugation, declension, etc., are, for the same reason, not
to be met with in the same chapter or in the same order in which European grammars
would teach them; nor would any single book or chapter, however apparently more sys-
tematically arranged — from a European point of view — such as the chapters on aflixcs or
composition, suffice by itself to convey the full linguistic material concerned in it, apart
from the rest of the work. In a general manner, Panini's work may therefore be called
a natural history of the Sanskrit language, in the sense that it has the strict tendency of
giving an accurate description of facts, instead of making such a description BUbeerviea*
to the theories" according to which the linguistic material is usually distributed by Ku'-j-
pean grammarians. "Whatever objections may be raised against such an ;,rnMi<.":iyent,
the very fact of its differing from that in our grammars makes it peculiar'}- insfMctive
to the European student, as it accustoms his mind to survey language from ".nother point
of view than that usually presented to him, and as it must induce hir", too, co question
the soundness of many linguistic theories now looked upon as axi^mati^ t ruths. As the
method of Panini requires in a student the power of comhinnig many rules scattered all
over the work, and of combining, ateo, many inferences to bf drawn from these rules, it
exercises, moreover, on the mind of the student an effect analogous to that Avhich is s,up-
posed to be the peculiar advantage of the study of mathematics. The rules of Panini
were criticised and completed by Katvayana(q.v ), **;ho, according to all probability, was
the teacher,' and therefore the contemporary, of ^ttaujali; and he, in his turn, was criti-
cised by Patanjali (q.v.), who sides frequently with Panini. These three authors are
the canonical triad of the grammarians of J'adia; and their Avorks are, in truth, so
remarkable in their own department, that the;* exceed in literary merits nearly all, it' not
all, grammatical productions of other nation?, so far as the two classes are comparable.
The rules of Panini were commented on by many authors. The best existing commen-
tary on them is that called the Kdsikdvrittr, "ay Yfimana Jayaditya, which follows these
rules in their original order. At a later neviod, attempts were made to arrange the rules
of Panini in a manner which approaches more to the European method; the chief work
of this category is the Siddhdnta-Kaunudi, by Bhattoji-dikshita. Panini mentions, in
his Sutras, several grammarians who preceded him, among others SakatSyana. .Manu-
scripts of a grammar ascribed to a grammarian of this name exist in the library of the
India office in London, and in the library of the board of examiners at Madras. On the
ground of a few pages only of "the latter an attempt has been very recently made to prove
that, this grammar is the one referred to by Panini, and therefore older than the work of
the latter. But the facts adduced in proo'f of this hypothesis are so ludicrously weak,
and the reasoning upon them so feeble and inconclusive, whereas the evidence in favor
of the comparatively recent date of this work is so strong, that no value whate*>r can lie
attached to this hasty hypothesis. For the present, therefore, Panini's work still remains
the oldest existing grammatical work of India, and probably of the human rate. The
Sutras of Panini, with a modern commentary by two native pandits, and with extracts
from the Vdritika* of KatySyana and the MahdbndsTiya of Patanjali, were edited at Cal-
cutta in 1809. This edition, together with the modern commentary, but writh garbled
extracts from the extracts mentioned, was reprinted at Bonn in 1839-1840 by Dr. O.
Boehtlingk, who added to it remarks of his own and some idices. For the literature
connected with Panini, see Colebrooke's preface to his Grammar of the Sanskrit Language
(Calc. 1805), and Goldstilcker's Panini, etc., as mentioned above.
PANIPUT', the chief t. of the district Kurnal. in the division of Dehi, Punjab, is
situated 54 m. (by road 78 m.) n. by w. from Delhi, in a fertile tract, the resources of
which are largely developed by artificial irrigation. Pop. '68, 25,276. Being a sta-
tion on the great military road between Afghanistan and the Punjab, and to some
extent an outpost of Delhi, it has been at various times the scene of strife between the
inhabitants of India and invaders. The first great battle of Paniput was fought in I.Yjr,.
and gained by Mirza Baber, the ex-ruler of Ferghana, at the head of 12,000 Mongols,
over Ibrahim the emperor of Delhi, whose unwarlike array numbered 100,000 men,
with 1000 elephants. This victory seated Baber on the throne of Hindustan as the first
of the "Great Mogul " dynasty. The second great battle was fought in 1556, by the
Mongols under Ak'bar, grandson of Baber, and third of the Mogul emperors, against
Hermi. an Indian ptince who had usurped the throne of Delhi. Hemn's army was
defeated with great slaughter, and himself slam. The third battle was fought on Jan.
14, 1761. between Ahmed Abdalli. ruler of Afghanistan, and the till then invincible
Mahrattas. The Jats, who had been forced to join the Mahrattas, deserted to the
Paniput.
Pannah.
Afghans at a time when victory seemed to be declaring for the former; and this act of
treachery, together with the loss of their leaders, threw the Mahrattas into confusion,
an«l in spite of their most resolute valor the}' suffered a total defeat. They left 50,000
slain oa the field of battle, including all their leaders except Holkar, and 80,000 men
wi-re killed in the pursuit, which was continued for four days. The Mahrattas never
recovered this crushing blow. It was at Kurnaul, a town a little to the n of Pauiput,
that Nadjr Shah of Persia, in 1739, won the celebrated battle over the Mogul emperor,
which placed n.w. India at his feet.
PANIZZI, Sir ANTONIO, principal librarian of the British museum from 1856 to 1866,
b. Sept. 16, 1797, at Brescello. in the ci-devant duchy of Modena. For his education
lie was sent first to the public school of Keggio, and afterwards to the university of
Padua, where, in 1818, he took the degree of doctor of laws, with a view to practicing
at the bar. Early in life his sympathies were enlisted on behalf of the friends of Italy,
as opposed to domestic tyranny and foreign intrusion, and when, in 1821, the popular
revolution broke out in Piedmont, the young advocate became one of its leaders. The
attempt, however, failed; and Panizzi, who had been denounced by a pretended friend,
was arrested at Cremona. Having by some means contrived to escape, he took refuge
in Lugano, and from thence in a short time found his way to Geneva. Meanwhile, dur-
ing his absence, he was tried at home per contumaciam, as it is called, and sentenced to
death, with confiscation of property. Nor was he allowed to remain at Geneva. The
governments of Austria and Sardinia demanded from the Swiss confederation the expul-
sion of all concerned in the recent outbreak, and among these Panizzi was obliged to
depart. Forbidden to pass through France, he reached England by way of Germany
and tlie Netherlands. He now restded for about a month in London, whence he pro-
ceeded to Liverpool, with an introduction from Ugo Foscolo to'Roscoe the historian, who
received him with the utmost hospitality. At Liverpool, where he was introduced into
the best circles by Mr. lioscoe, he taught Italian, and continued to reside in that town
until 1828, when lie came to London again, and was chosen professor of Italian in the
university of London, just then opened for students. In 1831, through the instrumen-
tality of lord Brougham, he was appointed one of the assistant-librarians in the British
museum; and upon the retirement of the rev. Mr. Baber, in 1837, from the office of
keeper of the printed books, Panizzi was appointed his successor. In the previous
year there had been a parliamentary committee on the state of the British museum,
before which Panizzi gave valuable evidence, and likewise urged the adoption of meas-
ures for the improvement and augmentation of the library, which, upon becoming
keeper, he was in a still better position to advocate. In 1838 he superintended the
removal of the printed books from the old suite«of rooms in Montague House to the new
library; and in the same year, in conjunction with some of his assistants, he drew up
the well-known 91 rules for the formation of a new catalogue of the library. These
rules were approved by the trustees, and the first volume of a catalogue framed after
them was printed and published in 1841. No other volume has been since published,
and Panizzi, before a royal commission of inquiry into the museum in 1847, justified
tiie suspension of the printing until the whole catalogue should be finished. In 1845,
Panizzi drew up an elaborate report of the deficiencies existing in the library, in conse-
quence of which the trustees applied to the lords of the treasury for " an annual grant
of £10,000 for some years to come, for the purchase of books of all descriptions." This
grant having been obtained, the library rapidly increased in numbers, to such a degree
that in 1849 the books amounted to 435,000, as compared with 235,000, the ascertained
number in 1838. The number of volumes is now estimated at considerably over 1,000,-
000. Upon the resignation of sir H. Ellis, in 1856, Panizzi was appointed to the post of
principal librarian of the British museum, an office he held ten years. In a literary
capacity, Panizzi is known by an edition of the Orlando Innamorato di Boiardo, and
Orlando Fitrioso di Ariosto: with an Essay on the Romantic Narrative Poetry of the Ital-
ians, Memoirs and Notes, by A. Panazzi (9 vols. Lond. 1830-34). He has also edited
the Sonetti e Canzone of Boiardo (Lond. 1835), and a collection of reprints of the firsf
four editions of the Divina Commedia, printed at the expense of lord Vernon (Lond.
1858). He is also the author of a privately printed pamphlet, Chi era Francesco da,
Boloyna, tending to prove the identity of the type-founder employed by Aldus, and the
inventor of the well-known Aldine or Italic type, with the painter Francesco Fraucia.
Panizzi is also understood to have written articles for some of the quarterly reviews.
Panizzi retired on a pension in 1866. In 1869 he received the order of K.C.B.
PANJIM. See GOA.
PANNAH, or PUNNAH, a decayed t. of India, in the district of Bundelcund, stands on
the north-eastern slope of a plateau, 115 m. s.w. of Allahabad. It was formerly a large,
thriving, and well-built town; but whole streets are now desolate, or are tenanted only
by monkeys, which, posted on the roof or at the windows, view the towns-people with-
out jdarm. The palace of the rajah is a beautiful building, surmounted by elegant kiosks,
but is in many places ruinous. The source of the former prosperity of Pannah was its
rich diamond mines. Owing to the diminished value of the gem, however, and the
increased tax upon the produce of the mines, this branch of industry has much fallen off.
The diamonds are generally tinted with color; very few of them being of first-water, or
Pannels. OJ.A
Fantagraph.
completely colorless. This town is the chief place of a territory of the same name, which
is bounded on the n. by the British district of Bauda, and on the s. by the British district
of Nerbudda. See BUNDELCUNIX
PANNELS, in artillery, are the carriages upon which mortars and their beds are con-
veyed on a march. .
PANNO NIA, a province of the ancient Roman empire, bounded on the n. and e. by
the Danube, on the w. by the mountains of Noricum, and on the s. reaching a little way
across the Save; and thus including part of modern Hungary, Slavonia, parts of Bosnia,
of Croatia, and of Caruiola, Styria, and lower Austria. It received its name from the
Panuouians, a race of doubtful origin, but who at first dwelt in the country between the
Dalmatian mountains and the Save, in modern Bosnia, and afterward more to the s.e. in
Moesia. The Roman arms were tirst turned against them and their neighbors, the lapy-
des, by Augustus in 35 B.C., and after the conquest of Segestica or Siscia (Sisxek) he sub-
dued them. An insurrection took place in 12 B.C., which Tiberius crushed after a long
struggle; and a more formidable one of the Dalmatians and Panuonians together in t>
A.D., which was suppressed by Tiberius and Gerrnanicus, but not till 8 A.D. Fifteen
legions had to be assembled against the Panuonians, who mustered 200,000 warriors.
Hereupon the Pannonians settled *in the more northern countries, which received their
name, and of which the former inhabitants, the Celtic Boii, had been in great part
destroyed in Csesar's time. The country was now formed into a Roman province, which
was secured against the inroads of the Marcomanni and Quadi by the Danube, and on its
other frontiers had a line of fortresses. Military roads were constructed by the conquer-
ors, who also planted in the country many colonies and municipia, and thus gave it a
roush coating of civilization. Great numbers of the Pannonian youth were drafted into
the Roman legions, and proved, when disciplined, among the bravest and most effective
soldiers in the imperial army. Pannah was subsequently divided into upper (or western)
and lower (or eastern) Pannonia, and under Galerius and Constantine underwent other
changes. Upper Pannonia was the scene of the Marcomaunic war in the 2d century. In
the 5th c. it was transferred from the western to the eastern empire, and afterward given
up to the Huns. After Attila's death, in 453, the Ostrogoths obtained possession of it.
The Longobards under Alboiu made themselves masters of it in 527, and relinquished it
to the Avari upon commencing their expedition to Italy. Slavonian tribes also settled
in the south. Charlemagne brought it under his scepter. In the reigns of his success-
ors, the Slavonians spread northward, and the country became a part of the great Mora-
vian kingdom, till the Magyars or Hungarians took it in the end of the 9th century. In
the time of the Romans, Siscia (Sisze£), Vindobona (Vienna), Caruuntum (near Ilaim-
burg), and Arrabo (Raab), were among its principal towns.
PANORAMA (Gr. pan, all, orama, a view), a pictorial representation of the whole sur-
rounding landscape as seen from one point. The invention of the panorama is claimed
by the Germans for prof. Breisig of Dantzic, but it does not appear that he ever con-
Wructed one. The real inventor was Mr. Barker, an ingenious artist of Edinburgh, to
whom the idea occurred while takin"- a sketch of the city from the top of Art Inn-
After surmounting numerous difficulties — one of which was the invention of a new kind
of perspective for the horizontal lines — he succeeded in producing an effective panoramic
view of Edinburgh, which was exhibited in that city in 1788, and in London in the fol-
lowing year. The next panorama executed by Barker was a view of London from the
top of the Albion mills. A large building was now erected in Leicester square for the
exhibition of such views. On Mr. Barker's death in 1806, he was succeeded by his son, in
partnership with a pupil, Mr. Burford, the painter of the chief modern panoramas. The
first step in the construction of a panorama is to obtain sketches of the entire region to
be represented; each sketch is a representation of a portion of the landscape in the form
of a sector of a circle, with the sketcher's position as a center, and the horizon for cir-
cumference. The canvas to which the sketches are to be transferred is hung round the
Bides of a circular room, and forms the surface of a cylinder, on the inside of which the
panorama is painted. The canvas, brushes, etc., are of the finest description manufac-
tured, and the painting and coloring are elaborated in the most careful manner, in order
to render the optical illusion — which every one who has seen a good panorama must
•have experienced — as complete as possible. The stage from which the picture is viewed
is placed in the center of the room, about 30 ft. on every side from the picture; the
picture itself is fastened above to a strong circular hoop, and. hanging down, lias its
lower edge fastened to a similar hoop, which is heavily weighted to keep the picture
steady. The light is admitted by an aperture in the roof, which is concealed by an awn
ing from the spectators on the stage. Notwithstanding important defects in the pano-
rama, one of which is that the light more strongly illumines the upper than the lower
parts of the picture — thus throwing the foreground comparatively into shade — many
cases are on record of spectators being for the time completely under the influence of
mental illusion. One of the best instances of this occurred during the exhibition 01 the
third panorama in London. Part of the view consisted of a representation of the wreck
of a ship's boat, with sailors struggling in the waves; and at sight of this, a dog belong-
ing to one of the spectators at once leaped over the handrail to the rescue of the sup-
9 J- 7" Pannels.
w"*' . Pautagraph.
posed drowning men. Panoramas, thotigli frequently exhibited in France, Germany,
and other European countries, have met with little success out of Great Britain. The
most popular panorama ever executed was that of the battle of Waterloo, the exhibition
of which brought in £10,000. There are many modifications of the panorama, but that
above described is the most important.
PANORMUS. See PALERMO, ante.
PANSLAVISM. This term is applied to the movement lately set on foot, and gen-
erally ascribed to Russian influence, for the amalgamation of all races of Slavonic
descent into one body, having one language, one literature, and on/? social polity. The
writings of Adam Gurowski and Kollar, and the anonymous pamphlet which appeared
at Leipsic in 1887, under the title of Die Europcmche Penturchic, have exercised a very
widespread influence in this direction among all the Slavonic people of the German
states; and although the other nations of Europe have hitherto had no reason to antici-
pate any practical results from a movement towards Panslavism, the Slavonians of the
Austriau empire have always taken occasion to show that they regarded themselves as
standing apart from German interests in times of public disturbance. Thus, in 1848,
instead of taking part with their fellow -citizens in the election of representatives to the
German parliament at Frankfort, the leading promoters of Panslavism summoned a
Slavonic congress at Prague, which was attended by Slavonians from Bohemia, Moravia,
and Silesia, and by Slavonic Poles, Croats, Servians, and Dalmatians, who appeared iu
their national costumes. The impracticability of the grand schemes promulgated in
the manifestoes of the conclave had been sufficiently shown ere the congress was inter-
rupted by a democratic rebellion, which wr.s suppressed with much bloodshed. Since
1860, when questions of nationality began to come more into the foreground, Panslav-
ism has exercised some direct influence on Austrian affairs: both northern and southern
Slavs tending toward united action in opposition to the centralistic and dualistic aims of
Germans and Magyars respectively. In 1867 a great Slavonic congress was held at Mos-
cow without result. Panslavistic tendencies contributed to the great changes that took
place in 1877-78 in the Balkan peninsula.
PAN-SY. See VIOLET.
PANT'AGRAPH (Gr. panta, all, graphein, to delineate), an instrument by the aid of
which any engraving may be copied on paper, though its use is in practice restricted to
the copying of maps and plans. The copy can be drawn to any scale. The instrument
consists of four rods, AB, AC, DF, and EF, jointed together, as in the figure: the points
D and E are so taken that AD is equal to EF, and AE to DF, and consequently ADEF
is always a parallelogram. If C be a determinate point near the end of the rod AE,
and any line, CHB, be drawn cutting the other three rods, the triangles BAG and BDII
are similar; so that when the point B is fixed, the points C and H, which can, from the
structure of the instrument, move in any direction, will describe similar figures differ-
ent in size; that described by C being to that described by H in the proportion of CB
to HB. The practical working of the instrument is as follows: The points H and B
are determined by the ratio BH to BC, which is the proportion the scale of the copy
bears to that of the original; a socket, which slides along the arm, is fastened exactly
at B on the under side; below this is placed a heavy weight, with a stalk fitting into
the socket, thus rendering B the center of mo-
tion of the instrument, if the weight be heavy
enough. A pencil is fitted into another socket
at H, and a rod of metal with a sharp point,
called the tracer, is fastened at C, and the in-
strument is fitted with castors at various points
underneath, to allow of its being moved freely.
The operator then passes the tracer over the
outline to be copied, and simultaneously the
pencil at H makes the copy on the required
scale. If a copy on a scale nearly as large as
the original be required, the fulcrum must be
placed in DF, and the pencil in DB; while, if
a magnified copy be required, the pencil and
tracer must exchange the positions assigned
them in the first case. Tiie defects of this in-
strument are its weight and the difficulty of
rendering it perfectly mobile, both of which
prevent that steady motion of the tracer which
is necessary for making an accurate copy.
To remedy these defects, the pantagraph has
been constructed in a variety of forms, all of which, however, like the one described,
depend upon the principle that the two triangles which have for their angular points,
the fulcrum the pencil-point and a, joint, and the fulcrum the tracer-point and a joint,
must always preserve their similarity.
Pantellarla.
I'uutomimc.
PANTELLA'BIA, a volcanic Wand in the Mediterranean, 36 m. in circumference,
and lying 60 in. s.w. of the Sicilian, coast. The chief products are wine, oil, cotton,
and fruit.
PANTHAYS, a Mohammedan community occupying the province of Yun-nan in the
s.w. of China, who asserted their independence in 1853. In 1859 they captured Talifoo.
the second city of the province, and in 1858, the capital. Their leader Weu-soai (king
Suleiman) established his authority over about 4,000,000 of people, of whom nut above a
tenth were Mohammedans. In 1866 the Chinese government recognized the independ-
ence of the Paiithays, and in 1872 their king sent his son Hassan on a mission to
Europe. Meanwhile, the Chinese again attacked the Pauthays, defeated them utterly,
and finally suppressed their empire. Pauthays is an anglicized form of Pan-si, the name
by which the Mohammedans called themselves.
PANTHEISM (Gr. pan, all, and tJieos, God), the name given to that system of specula-
tions which in its spiritual form, identifies the universe with God (akosmism), and, in its
more material form, Go'd with the universe. It is only the latter kind of pantheism that
is logically open to the accusation of atheism (q.v.); the former has often been the
expression of a profound religiosity. The antiquity of pantheism is undoubtedly great,
for it is prevalent in the oldest known civilization in the world — the Hindu. Yet it is a
later development of thought than polytheism (q.v.), the natural instinctive creed of
primitive races, and most probably originated in the attempt to divest the popular system
of its grosser features, and to give it a form that would satisfy the requirements of
philosophical speculation. Hindu pantheism, as akosmism, is taught, especially by the
Upanishads (q.v.), the Vedanta (q.v.), and Yoga (q.v.) philosophies, and by those poet-
ical works which embody the doctrines of these systems; for instance, the Bhagavagltfi,
which follows the Yoga doctrine. It is poetical and religious, rather than scientific, at
least in its phraseology; but it is substantially similar to the more logical forms devel-
oped in Europe. The Hindu thinker regards man as born into a world of illusions and
entanglements, from which his great aim should be to deliver himself. Neither sense,
nor reason, however, is capable of helping him; only through long-continued, rigorous,
and holy contemplation of the supreme unity (Brahma) can he become emancipated
from the deceptive influence of phenomena, and fit to apprehend that he and they are
alike but evanescent modes of existence assumed by that infinite, eternal, and unchange-
able spirit who is all in all. Hindu pantheism is thus purely spiritual in its character;
matter and (finite) mind are both alike absorbed in the fathomless abyss of illimitable and
absolute being.
Greek pantheism, though it doubtless originated in the same way as that of India, is
at once more varied in its form, and more ratiocinative in its methotl of exposition. The
philosophy of Anaximander (q.v.), the Milesian, may almost, witli equal accuracy, be
described as a system of atheistic physics or of materialistic pantheism. Its lending idea
is, that from the infinite or indeterminate (to apelron), which is "one yet all," proceed
the entire phenomena of the universe, and to it they return. Xenophanes (q.v.), how-
ever, the founder of the Eleatic school, and author of the famous metaphysical >H"(, //'.«
nihilo, nihilfit, is the first classical thinker who promulgated the higher or idealistic form
of pantheism. Denying the possibility of creation, he argued that there exists only an
eternal, infinite one or all, of which individual objects and existences are merely illusory
modes of representation ; but as Aristotle finely expresses it — and it is this last conception
which gives to the pantheism of Xenophanes its distinctive character — " casting his eyes
wistfully upon the whole heaven, he pronounced that unity to be God." Heracleitus
(q.v.), who flourished a century later, reverted to the material pantheism of the Ionic
school, and appears to have held that the "all" first arrives at consciousness in man,
whereus Xenophanes attributed to the same universal entity, intelligence, and self-
existence, denying it only personality. But it is often extremely difficult, if not impossi-
ble, to draw or to see the distinction between the pantheism of the earlier Greek philoso-
phers and sheer atheism. In general, however, we may affirm that the pantheism of the
Eleatic school was penetrated by a religious sentiment, and tended to absorb the world
in God, while that of the Ionic school was thoroughly materialistic, tended to absorb
God in the world, and differed from atheism rather in name than in fact. But the most
decided and the most spiritual representatives of this philosophy among the Greeks wen*
the so-called "Alexandrian" Neoplatonists (q v.), in whom we see clearly, for the first
time, the influence of the east upon Greek thought. The doctrines of emanation, of
ecstasy, expounded by Plotinus (q.v.), and Proclus (q.v.), no less than the fantastic
Daemonism of lamblichus (q.v.) point to Persia and India as their birthplace, and in fact
differ from the mystic teaching of the Vedanta only by being presented in a more logical
and intelligible form, and divested of the peculiar mythological allusions in which the
philosophy of the latter, is sometimes dressed up.
During the middle ages, speculation was, for the most part, held in with tight reins
by the church, and in consequence we hear little of pantheism. Almost the only philos-
opher who advocated, or who even seems to have thought about it, is John Scotus
Erigena (see ERIGENA), who was probably led to it by his study of the Alexandrians, but
his speculations do not appear to have been thought by him incompatible with a Chris-
tian faith; and in point of fact there are several profoundly mystical expressions
Pantellari».
Pantomime.
employed in the New Testament, especially in the epistles of John, in "which the soaring
spiritualism of Christianity culminates in language that has at least a pantheistic form;
e.g., "God is love; jftid he that dwelleth in love dwelleth in God, and God in him."
Erigena is regarded as the link that unites ancient and medern pantheism. We find
him now a reflection of the east and of Greece, and now a foreshadowing of the doc-
trines of Schelliug and Hegel. His opinions were, with some scholastic modifications,
introduced, in the 12th and loth centuries, into theology by Amalric or Amaury de
(Jhartres (a disciple also of Abelard), and his pupil David de Dinaut, who were con-
demned as heretics by a council held at Paris.
Modern pantheism first shows itself in Giordano Bruno (q.v.), burned at Rome for his
opinions in 1600. In Bruno reappear the speculations of the Eleatics and of the Neo-
platouists, but with a still more definite recognition than we meet with in them of an
absolutely perfect supreme spirit. The universe, in the eyes of the unfortunate Italian,
is not, properly speaking, a creation, but onl}' an emanation of the infinite mind — the
eternal expression of its infinite activity; and hence the infinite mind penetrates and fills,
with different degrees of consciousness, all the heights and depths of the universe. To
see God everywhere, to realize that he alone is, and that all else is but a perishable phe-
nomenon or passing illusion — that there is but one intelligence in God, man, beast, and
what we call mutter — this should be the aim of all true philosophy. Spinoza (q.v.)
comes next among pantheists in the order of time, but he is perhaps the greatest, cer-
tainly the most rigorous and precise, of the whole class that either the ancient or the
modern world has seen. His system is based, like the geometry of Euclid, on certain
definitions and axioms, and he claims to have given it as conclusive and mathematical a
demonstration as the latter. None will deny the keenness and cogency of his ratiocina-
tion. But human beings will not be forced into pantheistic convictions by any mere
logical goad, however sharp; and the system, impregnable as it seems, has never had a
formal adherent. The principal result at which, after a long, firm-linked chain of
reasoning, Spinoza arrives, is, that there is but one substance, infinite, self existent,
eternal, necessary, simple, and indivisible, of which all else are but the modes. This
substance is the self-existent God. To call Spinoza an atheist is ridiculous. The extrav-
agant phrase of Schleiermacher, "a God-intoxicated man " (tin Gott-trunkentr manri)',
would be greatly nearer the truth, for no human system of philosophy whatever exhibits
such an all-controlling and even overwhelming sense of the omnipresent God. Many
critics have said that he was far more of an old Hebrew in his system than he dreamed.
Although he had no direct followers; he exercised great influence on the development
of metaphysical speculation in Germany, where, with the exception of Kant (q.v.), the
three greatest philosophers of recent times — Fichte(q.v.), Schellmg (q.v), and Hegel (q.v.)
— have all promulgated systems of a thoroughly pantheistic and ideal character. Neither
England, France, nor America has produced a single great pantheistic philosopher (unless
Mr. Emerson be regarded as such) ; but there is an immense amount of pantheistic sentiment
floating about in the poetry, criticism, theology, and even in the speculative thinking, in
these and all European countries in the present age. This is attributable to the ravages
made by biblical criticism, and the progress of the physical sciences in the region of
religious beliefs. M Ititudes of men are puzzled what to think and what to believe.
They do not like to face the fact that they have actually lost faith in revelation, and are
no longer relying for help and guidance on the spirit of God, but on the laws of nature;
so the)' take refuge from the abhorred aspect of the naked truth, that they are "atheists,"
in a cloud of rose-colored poetical phrases, which, if they mean anything, mean pan-
theism.
PANTHEON, a Greek or Roman temple dedicated to all the gods. The "pantheon"
of Rome, now the church of Santa Maria Rotondu, is the only ancient edifice in Rome
that has been perfectly preserved. The pantheon is lighted through one aperture in the
center of its magnificent dome. It was erected by Agrippa, son-in-law of Augustus,
27 B.C.
PANTHER, Fells pardus, one of the largest felidce, now supposed to be identical with
the leopard (q.v.), or a mere variety of it, differing only in its larger size and deeper
color. Cuvier distinguishes the panther from the leopard, but without stating any
characters other than those of color. The name panther (vulg. " painter") is given to the
puma (q.v.) in America. '
PANTHER, in heraldry, is borne gardant, and incensed, i.e., with fire issuing from
his mouth and ears.
PANTICAP^EUM. See KERTCH, ante.
PANTOMIME, among the ancient Romans, denoted not a spectacle but a person.
The pantomimes were a class of actors who (as the name implies) acted not by speaking,
but wholly by mimicry — gesture, movements, and posturings — corresponding therefore
pretty clcsely to the modern ballet-dancers. When they first made their appearance in
Rome cannot be ascertained; probably the histrioncs (Etrusc. Muter, a dancer) brought
from Etruria to Rome 364 B.C. were pantomimes; but the name does not once occur
during the republic, though it is common enough from the very dawn of the empire.
Augustus showed great favor to this class of performers, and is consequently supposed
Paoli.
Papal.
by some writers to have been himself the inventor of the art of dumb acting. The most
celebrated pantomimes of the Augustan age were Bathyllus (a freedman of Maecenas),
Pylades, and Hylas. The class soon spread over all Italy and the provinces, and became
so popular with the Roman nobles and knights (who used to invite male and female per-
formers to their houses to entertain their guests), that Tiberius reckoned it necessary to
administer a check to their vanity, by issuing a decree forbidding the aristocracy to
frequent their houses, or to be seen walking with them in the streets. Under Caligula
they were again received into the imperial favor; and Nero, who carried every unworthy
weakness and vice to the extremity of caricature, himself acted as a pantomime. From
this period they enjoyed uninterrupted popularity as long as paganism held sway in the
empire.
As the pantomimes wore masks, no facial mimicry was possible; every thing depended
on the movements of the body. It was the hands and lingers chielly that >poke; hence
the expressions, manus loquacissinue, diyiti clamosi, etc. To such perfection was this art
carried, that it is said the pantomimes could give a finer and more precise expression to
passion and action than the poets themselves. The subjects thus represented in dumb
show were always mythological, and consequently pretty well known to the spectators.
The dress of the actors was made to reveal, and not to conceal, the beauties of their P.T-
sou; and as, after the 2d c., women began to appear in public as pantomimes, the ( -licet,
as may easily be supposed, of the aesthetical costume was injurious to morality. Some-
times these pantomimic actresses even appeared quite naked before an audience — a thing
which could never have happened had the Roman communities not become thoroughly
base, sensual, and. impure. It was quite natural, therefore, that pantomimic exhibitions
should have been denounced by the early Christian writers, as they even were by pagan
moralists like Juvenal.
Under HAKLEQUIW is described the character of the modern pantomimes, which wind
denotes not the performers, but the pieces performed. A few additional facts an here
given to complete that notice. The Christmas pantomime, or harlequinade, is, in its
present shape, essentially a British entertainment, and was first introduced into this
country by a dancing-master of Shrewsbury named Weaver, in 1702. One of his pan-
tomimes, entitled The Loces of Mars and Venus, met with great success. The arrival,
in the year 1717, in London of a troupe of French pantomimists with performing dogs
gave an impetus to this kind of drama, which was further developed in 1758 by the
arrival of the Grimaldi family, the head of which was a posture-master and dentist.
Under the auspices of this family, the art of producing pantomimes was greatly culti-
vated, and the entertainment much relished. Joseph Grimaldi, the son of the dentist,
was clever at inventing tricks and devising machinery, and Motlier Goose, and others of
his harlequinades, had an extended run. At that time the wit of the clown was the
great feature; but by and by, as good clowns became scarce, other adjuncts weir sup-
plied, such as panoramas or dioramic views; and now the chief reliance of the manager
is on scenic effects, large sums of money being lavished on the mine en scene. This is
particularly the case as regards the transformation scene — i.e., the scene where the char-
acters are changed into clown, harlequin, etc. — as much as £1000 being frequently spent
on this one effort. In London alone, a sum of about £40,000 is annually expended at
Christmas time on pantomimes. The King of (he Peacocks, a pantomime produced at the
London Lyceum theater during the management of Mine. Vestris, cost upwards of
£3,000. Even provincial theaters, such as those of Manchester or Edinburgh, consider
it right to go to considerable expense in the production of their Chri>tmas pantomime.
FA'OLI, PASCAL, a famous Corsican patriot, was born in 1726 at Morosaglia, in Cor-
sica. His father, having taken a leading part in the unsuccessful insurrection of the
islanders against the Genoese and their French allies, was obliged to return to Naples in
1739, taking his son with him. Here Paoli received an excellent education. In July,
1755, he was summoned by the supreme magistracy to Corsica, and was elected capt.gcn.
of the island, and the chief of a democratic government, possessing all the power of a
king, but without thettitle. He energetically and successfully applied himself to Ihe
reformation of the barbarous laws and customs of the island, and at the same time to
the expulsion of the Genoese, who, notwithstanding the aid they received from an
influential section of the islanders, were deprived of nearly all their strongholds, their
fleet was defeated, and they were finally obliged to seek help from France. After the
withdrawal of the French troops, they were again speedily deprived of the places they
had recaptured, and in 1768 they ceded the island to France. Paoli refused all the
advantageous offers by which the French government sought to bribe him, as he had
before refused those of the Genoese, and continued to struggle for the independence of
his country, but he was signally defeated by the comte de Vaux, at the head of the
French troops, and the French became masters of the island. After one year's struggle.
Paoli was compelled to take refuge on board of a British frigate, in which he .sailed for
England, where he was treated with general sympathy. Twenty years afterwards, the
French revolution of 1789 recalled him to Corsica, and as a zealous republican he entered
into the schemes of the revolutionary party; but during the anarchy of France in 1792-93
he conceived a scheme for making Corsica an independent republic. Until this time he
had been on the best terms with the Bonaparte family, but they now joined the Jacobin
party whilst he allied himself with Britain, favored the landing of 2,000 British troops
0~1 • PaoJI.
Papal.
in the island in 1794, and joined them in driving out the French. He then surrendered
the island to George III., but becoming dissatisfied with the government, he quarreled
with the British viceroy, whilst many of his countrymen were displeased with the course
he had adopted in allying himself with the British. He therefore retired from the isiaud
in 1796, and spent the remainder of his life in the neighborhood of London. Paoli died
near London, Feb. 5, 1807.
PAOLO, FKA, or PAOLI SARPI. See SARPI, ante.
PAOLO, VERONESE. See CAGLIARI PAOLO, ante.
PAPA, a large market t. in the w. of Hungary, stands in a beautiful district on the
Tapolcza, an affluent of the Marczal, 60 m."s.s"e. of Presburg. It contains a stately
castle, with a beautiful garden, handsome Catholic and Lutheran churches, a Catholic
gymnasium, reformed college, and a hospital. Stoneware, cloth, and pipes are manu-
factured, and a trade in wine is carried on. Pop. '69, 14,223.
PAPA, the Latin form of the title now, in the western church, given exclusively to
the bishop of Rome. Originally, however, meaning simply " father," it was given indis-
criminately to all bishops. Tertullian (De Pudidtia, cxiii ) so employs it. Dionysius, a
priest of Alexandria, calls his bishop papa Heraclias. St. Cyprian, in the letters of his
clergy, is addressed beatissimo papa Cypriano. The same form is employed towards
him by the clergy of Rome itself. Even Arius so addresses his own bishop Alexander.
In the next century, St. Jerome addresses the same title to Athauasius, to Epiphanius,
and most of all to Augustine. Indeed it would appear certain that down to the time of
Gregory of Tours it was used not uncommonly of bishops in the western church. And
there are evidences of its being occasionally applied to the inferior clergy, for whom,
however, some adjunct was employed, in order to distinguish them from bishops. Thus
Ave sometimes read of papce pittttni, minor popes; and the tonsure was called by the
name of papa letra. In the Greek church, as is well known, whether in Greece proper
or in Russia, papa is the common appellation of the clergy. The circumstance of its
having been originally of general application is acknowledged by all learned Roman
Catholic controversialists and historians.
PA'PACY. See. POPES.
PAPACY, THE. See ROMAN CATHOLIC CHTJKCH, ante.
PAPAGOS, an Indian tribe of the Pima family living in Arizona, where they occupy
a reservation of 70,000 acres on the Santa Cruz river, allotted them in 1874. In the
early history of the country they were friendly to the Spaniards, who established mis-
sions among them, at first under the control of the Jesuits, and, on the suppression of
that order, under that of the Franciscans. They expelled the Spanish in 1694, but peace
was soon made between them, and the tribe has remained Roman Catholic. They were
long at war with the Apaches, with whom they made peace only a few years ago; and
they suffered much from their attacks about 1820. When Arizona was annexed to thy
United States they were actually citizens of Mexico ; but their rights were not recognized,
and settlements were made upon their land without any attempt to secure a cession by
treaty. They continued, however, upon good terms with the whites. Finally, an agency
was organized among them under the care of the Roman Catholic church. They culti-
vate small farms, own a considerable number of cattle, and are fairly prosperous. They
have good schools under the care of the sisters of St. Joseph. Their present number is
about 5,000. Their own name for the tribe is Papapootam.
PAPAL INFALLIBILITY. See INFALLIBILITY, ante.
PAPAL STATES (Italian, STATI DELLA CHIESA, or STATI POXTIFICI), a territor\r, or
rather group of states in central Italy, formerly united into one sovereignty, with the
pope for its head. It was of an irregul?.r form, resembling the letter Z. the upper por-
tion lying to the e. of the Apennines, the lower to the w. of that range, these two being
connected by a third strip, which crossed the peninsula from e. to west. The pnpal
states were bounded on the n. by the Po, on the s. by Naples, on the e. by the gulf of
Venice and Naples, and on the w. by Modena, Tuscany, and the Tyrrhenian sea.
Detached portions, as Benevento and Pontecorvo, lay within the Neapolitan territory.
The country is traversed by the Apennines, which attain their highest elevation in the
monte della Sibilla, which is about 7,402 ft. above sea-level. Owing to this range, which
traverses the peninsula in the direction of its length, lying so much nearer the e. than
the w. coast, the streams to the e. of it have a short course and little volume, being, in
fact, mere mountain torrents; while on the w. side a few of the rivers are of considerable
size. Of the latter the Tiber (q.v.) is the largest. The eastern coast is bold and rugged,
and destitute of proper harbors, that of Ancona alone excepted; towards the n., at the
mouth of the Po, it gradually subsides into a low, level, marshy tract, with numerous
laguues. The country w. of the Apennines is traversed by ranges of hills parallel 1o
them, and gradually decreasing in elevation as they approach the sea. The coast itself
is almost wholly fiat, sandy, or marshy, with no deep bays and few good harbors besides
Civita Vecchia. There are numerous small lakes, principally in the northern portion of
the country, the chief of which are lake Bolsena, lake Perugia, and lake Bracciano, the
last an old crater, situated almost 1000 i't. above sea-level.
The country was divided for administrative purposes into 20 districts, as follows: 1
Papal.
Comarca, including Rome and the Argo Romano; 6 legations, Bolognn, Ferram, Forli
Ravenna, Urbiuo, Vellctri; and 13 delegations, Ancona, Ascoli, BeueveUo, C'amcrino,
Civita Vccchia, Fermo, Frosinoae, Macerata, Orvicto, Perugia, Spolcto, Rieli, Viterbo;
with a total area of 15.774 English sq.ni., and a population of above :!. 000,000. The
legations of Bologna, Ferrara, Forli, and Ravenna constituted \\wJlvnKiuiut; Spoletoand
Perugia were known as Urnbria; and Ancona, Ferino. Macerata, and Ascoli constituted
tlie March of Ancona. The inhabitants, with the exception of 10,000 Jews, were of
Italian race, and of the Roman Catholic religion. The only provinces which latterly
remained under the papal ru'c were, Rome with the Comarca. the legation of Velletri,
and the delegations of Civita Vecchia, Frosinoue (excepting Pontecorvo). and Yiter'no,
with a total area of 4,493 English sq.m., and a population of about 700,000. The chief
eiaes and towns in the territory were, Rome (the capital), Viterbo, Velletri, Alatri, and
Civita Vecchia.
Climate and Products. — The climate of the papal states is one of the finest in the
world, and the heat of summer is tempered by the mild and cooling sea brec/es: but in
the flats s. of the Po and in the campagna of Rome, the noxious atmosphere produced by
the exhalations from the marshes is most destructive of human life. Fever and ague arc
very prevalent among the inhabitants of the neighboring districts, and notwithstanding
the attempts to remedy the deadly influence of the marshes by drainage and cultivation,
it lias hitherto been undiminished (see MAREMMA). Violent siroccos are occasionally
experienced on the w*. coast. The northern portion, from its elevation, is expo.-cd to
severe cold during winter. The soil of the papal states is in general extremely fertile;
but the higher mountain districts are either quite barren, or only adapted for pasture;
and not more than one-third of the whole surface is under cultivation. The practice of
agriculture is in its most primitive state, notwithstanding the fact that agriculture, as a
science, originated here, and was practiced for many centuries before it was introduced
into the other countries of Europe; but the many political changes and revolutions which
have convulsed the country, have acted as a bar to all enterprise. It must, however, be
mentioned, that the present pope has, by salutary enactments, and by the establishment
of agricultural societies, done much for the improvement of this branch of industry.
The products are similar to those of the rest of Italy. The manufactures are compara-
tively unimportant— silks, woolens, and leather are the chief ; but plate-gla>s. ropr, :-ai]-
cloth, cotton goods, paper, artificial flowers, wax-candles, soap, stoneware, etc., are also
manufactured in various places. The fisheries are important. The chief minerals are
alum, vitriol, saltpeter, sulphur, coal, rock-salt, marble, and alabaster.
Many of the manufactured goods, and wine, olive oil, wool, hemp, tobacco, bread-
stuffs, catgut, etc., were exported, the total exports amounting to about £2.600.000,
while the imports reached nearly £14,000,000. The statistics were latterly very unreliable,
but the fact that the papal states are now no more, renders details of trade under pon-
tifical rule a matter of little importance. Indeed, no information on such topics was
issued under the latest years of the political power of the pope.
Government. — The pope possessed absolute and unlimited power, but the members of
the college of cardinals, who elected him, generally kept the chief offices of state in their
own hands, and assisted the pope in the government of fris states, as well as in the affairs
of the church. The secretary of state was at the head of political affairs, and was nomi-
nated by the pope. He presided over both the ministerial council and the council of
state. The former council, which consisted of five or more ministers, heads of depart-
ments, selected by the pope, had a voice in legislation, and also the right of authorita-
tive interpretation of the laws; the latter, which consisted of 13 members, also nominated
by the pope, had, in matters of legislation and finance, only the right of giving advice;
but it settled any question of competency that might arise between the various branches
of the administration. After 1850 there was also a separate finanz-consulta for the regu-
lation of financial affairs. The Comarca, which was more directly under the central
government, was ruled by a cardinal-president; the legation was ruled by a cardinal-
legate, aided by a provincial chamber of deputies. There were civil and criminal courts
in all the provinces, minor courts in the communes, with courts of appeal in all the chief
cities, and a central tribunal at Rome. All the proceedings of these courts were public,
except trials for political offenses.
The papal army, which formerly amounted to 20,000 men, in June, 1863, numbered
only 8,513 men. infantry, cavaliy, artillery, etc., included, and a considerable portion of
the papal territory was garrisoned by French troops, without whose aid the pope's power
could not have been maintained.
The income and expenditure for 1859, the last year of the entirety of the papal states,
were respectively 14,453,325 scudi (£3.126,028). and 15,019,346 scudi (£3,248,038); but
the three succeeding years showed a widely different result, the expenses being largely
increased by the cost of the war, while from the rebellious provinces scarcely any taxes
were collected. The income and expenditure for these three years were nearly as
follows :
Expenditure. Income.
1860 £4.720,809 £1,716,658
1 86 1 4, 29 1 , 644 1 , 7 1 6 , 658
1862 2,145,822 1,072,911
253 Papal.
The finances continued in the same deplorable condition, and the national debt amounted
to about £17,000,000. The tax known as " Peter's pence," which was collected from all
the Roman Catholic countries, had produced at the beginning of 1868 about ,€1,080,000.
History. — During the rule of the Goths and Lombards in Italy, the inhabitants of
Rome and all who desired to live free from the barbarian yoke, feeling that the Greek
empire was incapable of protecting them, and at the same time observing the pertinacity
and energy with which the pope asserted the importance and dignity of Rome, naturally
looked up to him as in some sort a protector; and it is to the gradual growth and
spread of this feeling that the important position subsequently taken by the popes as
authorities in temporal matters is chiefly due. About 720 A.D., Gregory III., having
quarreled with the emperor Leo the Isaurian, declared the independence of Rome. la
7:20 Pepin le bref compelled the Lombard king to hand over Ravenna, Rimini, Pesaro,
Fano, Cesena, Urbino, Forli, Comacchio, and 15 other towns, to the pope, who now
assumed the state of a temporal sovereign. Pepin's example was followed by his son
Charlemagne ; but, notwithstanding, the pope's sovereignty was more nominal than real,
as the towns were not in his possession, and he only obtained a small share of their
revenues. In the llth c. the Normans greatly aided to increase the papal temporal
authority, and in 1053 the duchy of Benevento was annexed. In 1102 the countess
Matilda of Tuscany left to the pope her fiefs of Parma, Mantua, Modena, and Tuscan}',
but these were immediately seized by the German emperor, and of this magnificent
bequest only a few estates came into the pope's hands. Between this period and the end
of the loth" c. the popes succeeded, often by unscrupulous means, in obtaining from
many of the free towns of Italy an acknowledgment of the superiority of the Roman see
over them; and in 1278 the emperor Rudolf I. confirmed the popes in the acquisitions
thus obtained, defined authoritatively the boundaries of the papal states, and acknowl
edged the pope's exclusive authority over them by absolving their inhabitants from
their oath of allegiance to the empire. The papal states at this time included Perugia,
Bologna, Bertinoro. the duchy of Spoleto, the exarcby of Ravenna, and the march of
Ancona; but many of the towns were either republics or hereditary principalities, and
in none did the pope possess real authority. Sixtus IV., in the end of the 15th c., man-
aged to annex the Romagna to his dominions; in effecting which he is accused of having
employed intrigue,. perjury, and murder. His successors, Alexander VI. and Julius II.,
increased the papal states by the addition of Pesaro, Rimini, Faenza, Parma, Placentia,
and Reggio. By the victory of the French at Marignan (1515), the very existence of the
papal power was threatened; but the able policy of Leo X. averted the threatened dan-
ger. In 1545 Paul III. alienated Parma and Placentia, and erected them into a duchy
for his son, Pietro Luigi Farnese; but this loss was partly made up by the acquisitions
of Gregory XIII. In 1598 the possessions of the Tiouse of Este, viz., Ferrara, Comacchio,
and a part of the Romagna, were seized by pope Clement VIII. ; and the papal states
received their final additions in Urbino (1623), Ronciglione, and the duchy of Castro
(1650). The Romagna was seized by Napoleon in 1797, and incorporated in the Cisalpine
republic; and in the following year Rome was taken by the French, and the papal states
erected into the Roman republic. Pius VII., in 1800, obtained possession of his states,
but they were almost immediately retaken by the French, and finally (1809) incorporated
with France, Rome being reckoned the second city of the empire. In 1814 the pope
returned to his dominions, and was formally reinstated by the treaty of Vienna, mainly
through the exertions of the non-Roman Catholic powers, Russia, Prussia, and Britain;
but the clerical misgovernment contrasted so strongly with the liberal administration of
France that in 1830 the people, of Ancona and Bologna rose in rebellion. They wer3
put down by the aid of an Austrian army, but the abuses in the administration were so
flagrant that even Austria urged the necessity for reform. Her remonstrances, however,
were not attended to, and the Bolognese again rebelled. This second revolt supplied
Austria with a pretext for occupying the northern legations, and the French at the same
time garrisoned Ancona. Occasional risings took place from time to time up to 1846,
when the present pope, Pius IX., assumed the tiara, and burst upon the astonished
world in the new -character of a reforming pope. His projects were of a most liberal
character, and were put in force with great energy, despite the opposition of Austria;
but, alamed at the spread of revolution in Europe during 1848, he halted in his career,
just at the critical moment when to halt was to be lost. The people rose, and Pius IX.
fled to Gaeta, whilst Rome was proclaimed a republic. He was restored, and his sub-
jects reduced to submission by the arms of France, Austria, Naples, and Spain. The
Austvians held the legations in subjection to the pope's authority till 1859; and the
French occupied Rome in his behalf for 10 years more. In July, 1859, the four northern
(legations (the Romagna), taking advantage of the withdrawal of the Austrian troops,
'quietly threw off the papal authority, and proclaimed their annexation to Sardinia,
which was formally acknowledged by Victor Emmanuel in Mar., 1860. The pope 7iow
raised a large body* of troops, appointing Lamoriciere, an eminent French gen., to com-
mand them,' for the purpose of resistipg any further encroachments on his dominions;
but the news of Garibaldi's success in Sicily and Naples produced revolt in the legation
of Urbino and in the marches, the people proclaiming Victor Emmanuel. The Sardin-
ians accordingly marched into the papal states, defeated Lamoriciere in two encounters,
and finally compelled him to retire into Ancona, where, after a siege of seven days, he
Fapaveraceae.
1'aper.
was compelled to surrender with Ins -whole army. The revolted provinces of Umbrla,
Urbino, and the marches were immediately annexed to Sardinia; and the isolated prov-
inces of Bencvento and Pontecorvo (a part of Frosinone), which were .-ittiatcd wiiliin the
kingdom of Naples, shared tin- same fate. In Oct., 1870, the French having withdrawn,
the remnant of the- papal states voted for annexation to the kingdom of Italy.
PAP AVERAGES, a natural order of exogenous plants, herbaceous or half shrubby,
usually with a milky or eolored juice. The leaves are alternate, without stipules; the
tl were on long one-flowered stalks. The fruit is pod-shaped or capsular; the seeds
n microns. The order is distinguished for narcotic properties. Opium (q. v.) is its must
important product. The juice of Celandine (q.v.) is \ery acrid. A numiier of species
ar • used in their native countries for medicinal purposes. The seeds yi. Id rixed oil,
which. witJi the exception of that obtained from Argemone M<-.i n-n nn, is quite bland.
S •>• POPPY. The flowers of many species are large and showy, most frequently white or
yellow, sometimes red. Several kinds of poppy and eschscholtzia are frequent in our
gardens. There are in all about 130 known species, natives or all quarters of the world,
a. id of tropical and temperate climates, but they abound most of all in Europe.
PAPAW, Carica Papaya, a South American tree of the natural order 7''/<",v</'w* — of
which order about 30 species are known — which h.is now been introduced into many
tropical and subtropical countries. It grows to the height of 15 — 30 ft., with leaves
only at the top, where also the fruit grows close to the stem. The leaves are 20 — 30 in.
long. The fruit is of a green color, very similar in appearance to a small melon, and
with a somewhat similar flavor. It is eaten either r^.v or boiled. The seeds are round
and black, and when chewed, have in a, high degree the pungency of cresses. The
powdered seeds and the juice of the unripe fruit are most powerful anthelmintics. A
constituent of this juice isfibrine, otherwise unknown in the vegetable kingdom, except
in the fungi. The milky juice of the tree is very acrid. The leaves are use.l by negroes
instead of soap to wash linen. The juice of the fruit and the sap of the tree have the
singular property of rendering the toughest meat tender in a short time. Even the
exhalations from the tree have this property; and joints of meat, fowls, etc., are hung
among its branches to prepare them for the tab!::. It is a tree of extremely rapid growth,
bears fruit all the year, and is exceedingly prolific. The fruit is of, en cooked in various
ways. The Champuru (G. digitntit), another species of the same genus, a native of Brazil,
is remarkable for the extremely acrid and poisonous character of its juice, and the dis-
gusting sterconiceous odor of its flowers. In the middle and southern states of America
the name papaw is given to the Uoaria (or Asim/na) triMxi, a small tree of the natural
order Anonaccce, the fruit of which, a large oval berry, 3 in. long, is eaten by ue:
but not generally relished by others. All parts of the plant have a rank smell.
PAPENBTJEG, a small t. of Hanover, in the bailiwick of Osnnbriiek. on a ennnl navi-
fable for sea-going vessels, 27 m. s.s.e. of Emden, on Dollart bay, by the Emden and
[anover railway. It originated in a small colony which sprung up here, and was sup-
ported principally by peat-cutting, an employment for which the fens and moors of the
vicinity afford abundant facilities. The town is cleanly built, after the Dutch model;
its louses stretch along the banks of the canal. It possessed, in '74, 185 ships, and car-
ries on manufactures of sail-cloth and ropes. Its commerce is considerable. Pop. '?•>,
6,819.
PAPER. This well-known fabric is usually composed of vegetable fibers minutely
divided and recombined in thin sheets, either by simple drying in contact, or with the
addition of size or some other adhesive material. Probably the earliest UM> of puper was
for the purpose of writing upon, and its earliest form was the papyrus (q.v.) of the
Egyptians. The stems of the papyrus plant, which are often 8 or 10 ft. long, an
and green, externally like the common rush; and the interior consists of a compact cel-
lular tissue or pith. " At the bottom of each stem the portion immersed in the mud and
water is whiter and more compact; and under the outer skin a number of thin pellicles
lie one above the other. These were renfoved, and laid side by side with their edires
overlapping each other, and crosswise upon these was placed one or more similar 1:
until the sheet was sufficiently thick; pressure was then applied for a time, and after-
wards the sheet was dried in the sun. The width of such sheets, of course, depended
upon the length of the portion of papyrus stems taken; but they could be made any
length by joining a number of the squares end to end by glue or any other adhesive
material. The scaptts, or. roll, usually consisted of about 20 of them.
Owing to the fact that the various layers of the papyrus decrease in thiekii"ss a^ they
are nearer to the center of the stem, the makers were enabled to produce papers of dif-
ferent qualities, and in the time of the Romans many varieties were known, which
differed as to the quality of the material, and the size of the pieces of which '.he .-beets
were composed. The finest quality was made from the innermost layer of membrane,
and was called hteratica, or paper of the priests. This was made for the' Egyptian
priests, who interdicted its sale until covered with sacred writing. In this state it was,
however, an article of trade, and The Romans found a means of removing the writing,
and sold the palimpsest sheets in Rome under the name of Augustus paper, used as a
Latin equivalent for its former Greek name of hieratiea. It was, however supposed by
Papaveracese.
Paper.
many that it was named after the emperor 'Augustus, and in consequence a second
quality was called after his wife, Livinia ; and the original name of the first quality catne
,;ne to be applied to the third quality. The next quality was c:.!ii-;l Am-phiiheatrica,
*„ is supposed, from its having been made- in the vicinity of the Alexandrian amphi-
theater. Tliis last, when imported to Rome, was partly remanufactured by Q. Remmius
Faunius Paliemon, the schoolmaster and paper-maker, who, by a peculiar process of his
own, reduced its thickness, and rendered it equal to the first quality, when it was sold
under the name of Fanniana. There were other inferior qualities, of which one called
Ein;«m'ti?(i was used as shop paper.
Pliny, from whom we get these very interesting particulars, tells us that all these
kinds were manufactured in Egypt, and required the Nile water for their formation, lie
s.iys, that ''when it is in a muddy state it has the peculiar qualities of glue, and tiie
v.irious kinds of paper are made on a table where they are moistened with this water.
The leaves or sheets of membrane are laid upon it lengthwise, as long indeed as the
papyrus will admit of, the jagged edges being cut off at either end; after which a cross
layer is placed over; the same way, in fact, that hurdles are made. When tiiis is done,
the leaves are pressed together, and dried in the sun." The idea of the adhesive quality
of the Nile water is erroneous, but it is very probable the Egyptian manufacturers
encouraged the error. It is obvious the whole merit consisted in using the membranes
fresh, whilst iheir own natural gum was in proper condition to make them adhere
together.
In India and China, the art of writing with a style or sharp point upon dried palm
and other leaves, and also some kinds of bark, is common even at the present day, espe-
cially in Ccj'lon, where we iind it common to employ the leaves of the talipot and other
palms as paper. Perhaps it was from the employment of these materials, or it is even
possible from watching the operations of the paper-making wasps and other insects, that
the manufacture of larger pieces, by pulping the materials and spreading them out to a
greater extent, was suggested. Whatever was the true origin of the art, it is now lost in
the vista of time.
It is known that the Chinese were acquainted with the art of making paper from pulp
artificially prepared as early as the commencement of the Christian era; and it is thought
that they used the bark of various trees, the soft parts of bamboo stems, and cotton. In
the 7th c., the Arabians learned the art of making it of cotton from the Chinese, and the
finst manufactory was established, about 706 A.D., at Samarcand. From thence it was
transplanted to t-fp:;iu, where, under the Moors, paper was made not only of cotton, but
it is thought also of hemp and flax. The exact time of the introduction of paper made
of linen rags is very uncertain ; but the best evidence is offered by the Arabian physician
Abdollatiph, who writes, in an account of his visit to Egypt in the year 1200, " that the
cloth found in the catacombs, and used to envelop mummies, was made into garments,
or Mild to the scribes to mate paper for shopkeepers ; " and as there is no doubt that these
mummy-cloths were linen, it proves that the use of this material is of no mean antiquity.
Of the use of linen rags in Europe, the earliest proof is in the celebrated document found
by Ichwandner in the monastery of Goss, in Upper Styria, which purports to be a man-
date of Frederick II., emperor of the Romans, and is dated 1242. It is written on paper
which has been proved to be made of linen. The practice of making a distinctive water-
mark on the paper, by means of an impression on the fine sieve of threads or wires upon
which the floating pulp is received (fig. 4), was also of very early date, as MMS. as old as
the 18th c. bear it. But there is really no satisfactory information respecting the exact
time or place of the introduction of paper-making into Europe; by some it is supposed
that Spain was the first to receive ithe art, and that thence it spread to France and Hol-
land, and afterwards to England It is quite certain that England was a longtime behind
these countries. As a proof of this, we find that the first patent for paper-making was
taken out in 1665, by one Charles Hildeyerd, but it was for "The way and art of mak-
ing blew paper used by sugar-bakers and others." The second was in 1675, by Eustace
JJarneby, for " The art and skill of making all sorts of white paper for the use of writing
and printing, being a new manufacture, and never practiced in any way in any of our
kingdoms or <'« -ninions." This, then, was the first commencement of the making of
writing and priming paper; but that it did not equal the manufactures of other countries
Is shown by the specification of anothc-r patent, taken out by John Briscoe in the year
1685, which is thus expressed: "The true art and way for making English paper for
writing, printing, and other uses, both as good and as serviceable in all respect*, a nd especially
ax >rhilv <ixiii<!/ French or Dutch paper."1 As a general rule, it was the custom of paper-
makers to employ linen rags for fine papers, but a great variety of other materials have
been in use from its first introduction; for, as early as 1680, Nathaniel Bladon took out
a patent for " An engine method and mill, whereby hemp, flax, lynnen, cotton, cordage,
silke, woolen, and all sorts of materials " might be made into paper and paste board; and
from that time innumerable efforts have been made to prepare other materials than cot-
ton and linen rags for the manufacture of paper. The following is a summary of the
patents which have been taken out in Biltain for making paper from various materials,
with the dates, which will show to those engaged in this investigation in what directions
the inquiry has been previously conducted. The arrangement is alphabetical, and con-
sequently not in the order of dates:
Paper.
256
MATERIALS. NAMES OF IXVENTOHS AND DATES OF PATENTS.
Aloe Fiber Berry, 1838; D'Harcourt, 183S; Small, 1833; May, 1&J2; Burke, 1855.
Asbestos Maniere, is.vi.
Bagging or Sacking Stiff, 1853; Wheeler & Co., 1854; Rossiter & Co., 1854; Smith & Co.,
1JS55.
Banana Fiber Berry, 1838; Lilly, 1854; Jullion, IR^S; Burke, 1855: Hook. 1S57.
Barks of various kinds Koops, 1800; Balmano. 1^ 1846; Coupler. l-.V.'; Johnson,
is.-,;,; Kelk, 1855; LoLtori, 1855; Niven, 1850; Broad, 1857; LI .IK- &
Co., IS.)?.
Bass or Bast Ruck & Touche, 185G: Touche. 1857.
Bean-stalks, etc D'Harcourt, 1838; Brooniaii, 1<<>.~>.
Caue (Sugar) Berry, 1838; Coupler. ]So:>; Johnson, 1855; Jullion, 1855; Ruck &
Touclie, IcS^O: Hook, l.»57.
Cocoa-nut Fiber Newton. 1852; Holt <fc Forster, 1854.
Cocoa-uut Kernel Diaper, 1 854.
Clover Ooupland, 1851: Holt & Fraser. 1854; Plunkett. 1W7.
Cotton Blauen, 168:3 ; Williams, 1833 ; Coupler, 1852 ; Crossley, 1854 ; Siblet,
1857.
Dung Jones, 1805; Zander, 1839; Lloyd, 1852: Hill, 1854.
Esparto or Alfa Routledge. 185C.
Flax Blarlen, 1082; Koops, 1800; Jones, 1805; Ball, 1817; Berry, 1838;
Gibbs. 1833: De la Garde, 1825: Coupler, 1855; Collins. 1853; Pownal,
1852; Coupland, iK5t: Broad.
Flax, New Zealand Berry, 1838: Gibbs, 1833 and 1857; Gillman, 1854.
Fresh- water Weeds Archer. 1 .sV>.
Fur Williams, 1833.
Grasses Stiff, 1853; Evans, 1854; Clift, 1854; Coupland, 1854; Jeyes, 1854;
Crossley, 1854; Jackson. 1854; Johnson, 1855; Fraser, 1855; Gilbee,
1855; Holt & Fraser, 1854; Pariset, 1856.
Gutta-percha Hancock, 1846.
Hair Williams, 1833.
Hay Koops, 1800: Castelain, 1854; Pariset, 1856.
Heath Crossk-v, 1«54.
Hemp Bladen, 1682; Hooper, 1790; Koops, 1800: De la Garde, 1825; Gibbs,
1832; Coupler. 1852: Collins. 1853: Bargnano, 1853; Jackson, 1854;
Helin. 1854; Broad, 1857; Ball, 1817.
Hops and Hop-lines De la Garde, 1825; D'Harcourt, 1838: Balmano, 1838; McGuaran,
1&39; Sheldon, 1843; Barling, 1854; Crossley, 1S54; Holt & Fraser,
1854: Taylor. 1854; Broad, 1857.
Husks of Grain Wilkinson', 1852.
Jute Calvert,1846: Nerot. 1846; Coupler, 1852: Heliu, 1854; Jackson, 1854;
Smith & Hollingworth. 185.5.
Leather Hooper. 1790; Trappes, 1854; Ocks, 1856; Van den Hout, 1S56; Lich-
tenstadt, 1857.
Leaves Balmano. 1838: Warner. 1853; Vivien, 1853; Johnson, 1855; Moll,
1855; Ruck & Touche, 1857.
Maize, Husk, and Stems D'Harcourt, 1838; Balmano, 1838; Ruck & Touche, 1857.
Manilla Kemp or Plantain Fiber. .Newton, 1P52.
Moss Nesbitt, 1824: Bellford. ia54: Johnson. 1855.
Nettles Jones, 1805: De la Garde, 1825; Clift, 1854.
Old Writing-Paper Koops, 1800.
Pea-stalk D'Harcourt, 1838.
Peat or Turf Ley. 1852: Clarke, 1853; Lallemande, 1853; Crossley, 1854; Hem-
ming, 1857; Westerman, 1858.
Roots of various kinds .*.... .Balmano, 1&38: De la Bertoche, 1855; Johnson, 1855; Ackland, 1854;
Barling. 1855; Dubus, 1857.
Sawdust Wilkinson, 1852; Johnson. 1855.
Seaweeds Martenoli de Martonoi, 1ST 5: Archer. 1855.
Silk Bladen, 1682; Bull. 1817: Williams. 1833.
Straw Koops, 1800: Lambert, 1824; Zander, 1839; Coupier. IW: Ptiff. 1853;
Poole, 1853; Helin, 1854: Fraser, 1855; Chanchard, 1856; Castelain,
1854: Broad. 1857: Wheeler, 1H57.
Tan (Spent Bark) Crossly. 1854: Jeyes. 1&>4; Holt & Forster, 1854; Horton, 1855;
Rossiter & Bishop, 1854.
Thistle down Bellford, 1854.
Thistles Koops. 1800; Lord Berridale, 1854; Lilie, 1854..
Tobacco-stalks Adcock, 1854.
Wood Koops. 1801; Desgrand, 1888; Brooman. 1853; Swindells, 1854: New-
ton, 1852: Johnson. 1855: Kelk. 1855: Martin. 1*.V,: Pn><lev;ii.
De Frontnr, 1855; Chanchard. 1S50; Amyot, 185(i; Newton (Voelter),
iar>7; Poisat. 1857; Coupier, 1852.
Wool Bladen. 10S2: Williams, 1833; Dickeuson, 1807; Crossley, 1854.
Wrack Grass or Zostera Spooner, 1857.
But whatever the material employed, the process for nearly nil is the same. The
rags, bark, libers, or other substance," have to be reduced with water into a fine smooth
pulp. This, in the early stages of the manufacture, was accomplished by macerating
and boiling the material, until, in the case of bark, fibers, or other raw material, the
i fibers could be drawn out from the cellulose matter, after which it was beaten with mal-
' lets, or with pestles m mortars, or stampers moved by some power. Water is ^mcrally
used, but in Holland wind-mills do this work. The beating is continued until the
material is reduced to a very smooth pulp. The pulping, in our machine paper-mills,
is much more rapidly accomplished by boiling the linen or cotton rags, or other material.
in a strong lye of caustic alkali. Tliis effectually cleans the raps, and other vegetable
fibers are softened and separated in a remarkable manner by it; they are then put into a
machine called the washing-machine which washes out dirt and everything but the pure
vegetable fiber. This machine is a large cast-iron vessel, usually about 10 ft. in length, 4^
ft. in width, and 2$ ft, in depth. In the middle, occupy ing about two-thirds of its length,
is a partition, always cast with it, called the mid feather, to support the axle or driving-
257
Paper.
shaft. This turns the cylinder which has a large number of teeth or ridges running
across it, which grip and tear the rags, or other materials, as they are drawn under it by
the current formed by its revolutions. In order to facilitate this, a peculiar form is given
to the bottom of the part in which the cylinder works, as seen* in fig. 1. Thve rise, a, is
ealled the the backfall, and the materials are
drawn up to, and through the narrow space at
b. by the current; then, as they pass over the
ridged surface, c, they come in contact with
the ridged surface of the cylinder, and are
thus violently ground and drawn through the
stream carrying them round and round until
they are thoroughly washed and partly pulped;
or, as it is technically called, broken in. The
•yrashing-machine is supplied with a continued
flow of clean water, and the soiled water as
regularly escapes through a fine gauze screen,
in the ends of the cylinders, in which is an **• *•
ingenious arrangement for raising it and carrying it away through the axis, which is hollow.
The contents of the washing-machine are then allowed to flow though a large valve, open-
ing downwards into the draining-chest. Here the water is drained away, and the stuff
is then placed in the bleaching vats, which are made of stone, and each calculated to
contain a hundredweight of stuff, which is here submitted to the action of a strong solu-
tion of chloride of lime for about 24 hours, and frequently agitated; after which it is
transferred to a hydraulic press, and pressed so as to remove the greater portion of the
liquid and chloride of lime. It is then placed in another washing-engine, and for an
hour is submitted to the same process as in the first; by which all vestiges of the bleach-
ing materials are removed, and the stuff so much more broken down as to be called
half-stuff. From this engine it is let out by a valve, and finds its way into the beating-
engine, which is placed at a lower level so as to receive it. Here the arrangement is
nearly the same as in the washing and intermediate engines; but the ridges on the
bars below the cylinder, and on the cylinder itself, are much sharper, and the disinte-
gration of the fibers is carried on with great rapidity until they are quite separated ; and
the flow of the water in a rapid current, as it passes the cylinder, draws them out and
arranges them in the water in much the same way as wool or cotton is laid on the carding-
cylinders of a carding-machine. This operation takes about five hours, at the end of which
time the materials have been worked up with the water into an almost impalpable pulp.
This is then let out into the pulp vat, where it is kept continually agitated by a wooden
wheel revolving in it, called a hog, and from this the hand-workman or machine is
supplied.
We will now suppose the pulp formed and ready for use in the vat, and will first
describe the process of hand-making, as formerly practiced in all countries, and still in
use, more or less, in all paper-making countries. The workman or vatman takes an
implement called a mold, which consists of a sheet of very fine network, attached to a
frame. In Europe, this network was always made of very "fine wire; hut in India, China,
and .Japan, it is usually made of fine fibers of bamboo, which the workmen of these
countries split and weave with remarkable skill. There are usually two kinds of molds
employed. In one the wires are woven across each other, forming a very fine gauze,
and paper made with them is known as wove. In the other, there are several cross-bars in
the frame, and straight wires are laid from side to side, and about four or five to eacli half
sheet are laid across them lengthwise, to keep them in position ; the transverse wires are
about twenty to the inch; the longitudinal ones area little more-than an inch apart.
Paper made on such molds is called laid, and is easily known by the impression of the
wires upon it. Whichever kind of mold is used, another implement called the deckle is
required. It is a thin frame, which exactly corresponds to the frame of the mold, and
the workman first places the deckle on the mold, and then dips them into the pulp; the
deckle forms a ridge which retains just enough of the liquid pulp for the sheet of paper.
The water of the pulp speedily drains through the wire gauzd| and after it has stood in
an inclined position for a few minutes, another workman,. called the coucher, applies the
face of the sheet of pulp to a piece of felt or flannel cloth stretched on a board, called
the couch, and the sheet thus pressed, leaves the mold, and is left on the co"c7i. Every
successive sheet is similarly treated, and they are piled one on another, with a sheet of
felt between each, until from four to eight quires, or a post, as it is called, is formed,
Each post is put in a press, and under pressure parts with nearly all the moisture in the
sheets of paper. The felts are then removed, and after several pressings, and other
minor operations, the paper is hung on hair ropes, called fribbles, in the drying-loft; and
"when dried, resembles blotting-paper, and cannot be 'written upon. This is remedied by
dipping it in a weak solution of hot size, sometimes tinged with color, after which it is
pressed, dried, folded, and made up into quires. Hot pressing and glazing are done by
passing the sheets through hot and polished iron rollers.
In Britain very little paper is now made by hand, the paper-machine having changed
the character of the manufacture. It is usually stated that Louis Robert, a Frenchman,
invented the paper-machine, and that it was brought to this country by Didot of Paris
U. K. XI.— 17
Paper.
258
•4-
COtTCHlNO i
BOLLS.
1ST PRESS ,
BOLLS.
2D PRESS
ROLLS.
SMOOTHING,,
BOLLS.
ClLENDIiKS,
. 8.
in an imperfect state, but received improvements from
Fourdriuier. But it must not be overlooked that Bruinuh
took out a patent in 1805, rather more than a year before
Fourdrinier, for very similar improvements to those de-
scribed in Fourdrinier's specification. The object of all
was to cause an equal supply of the pulp to flow upon an
endless wire-gauze apron, which would revolve and carry
on the paper until it is received on an endless sheet of felt,
passing around and between large couching cylinder*.
These machines have now been brought to such perfection,
that paper can be made in one continuous web of any
length; and, before leaving the machine, is sized, dried,
calendered, hot-pressed, and cut into sheets. Different
engineers have contrived variations of constructions in
the paper-machine, but the general principles of all are
the same. We therefore select for illustration the machine
•which was exhibited by Mr. George Bertram of Edinburgh,
and which was universally acknowledged to be by far the
most complete and perfect which was presented in the in-
ternational exhibition of 1862. Since then no very impor-
tant improvements have been made in the main part of
the machine, but the drying portion has been greatly ex-
tended.
Fig. 2 is a side view of the machine. The principle of
the machine is very simple; it. contains a pulp vat, A,
witli a hog or wheel inside to agitate the pulp and an
arrangement for pouring the pulp over the wire-gauze
mold, B, B, B, B, which instead of being in single
squares, as in the hand process, is an endless sheet mov-
ing round two rollers, a, b, which keep it stretched out
and revolving when in operation. Under the part which
receives the pulp there is a series of small brass rollers,
d, these, being nearly close together, keep it perfectly
level, which is a most necessary condition ; besides which,
there is a shallow trough, ee, called the save all, which
catches and retains the water, which always escapes with
some pulp in suspension; and an -arrangement of suction
boxes and tubes, f, f, f, worked by air-pumps, which draw
much of the water out as the pulp passes over them. The
pulp is kept from running over the sides by straps called
the deckles, which are also endless bands, usually of vul-
canized India-rubber, carried round moving rollers, so*
that they travel with the wire-gauze, and therefore offer
no resistance to it. In addition to all this, the frame-work
on which the surface of the wire-gauze rests has a shog-
ging motion, or side-shake, which has an important effect
in working the fibers together before the pulp finally set-
tles down. When it reaches the couching roll.*, which presa
out most of the remaining moisture, and cany it forward
to the first and second series of press-rolls by means of an
endless web of felt which passes round them, the speed of
these rollers and the traveling sheet of felt, CO, is nicely
calculated, so as to prevent a strain upon the still very
tender web of paper. Sometimes the upper rollers of
these two series are filled with steam, in order to com-
mence drying the web. The paper is now trusted to itself,
and passes on, as indicated by the arrows, from the second
press-rolls to the first set of drying cyliners, D, where it
again meets with a felt sheet, which keeps it in close con-
tact with the drying cylinders, which are of large size,
and filled with steam. Around these it passes, drying as
it goes; is then received between the two wnoothiny i"l'.«,
or damp calenders, which press both surfaces, and remove
the marks of the wire and felt, which are until then visi-
ble on the paper. This is necessarily done before the
drying is quite completed; and from the smoothing-rolls
it passes to the second series of drying cylinders, HI,
where the drying is finished, and thence to the calenders,
which are polished rollers of hard east-iron, so adjusted
as to give a considerable pressure to the paper, and at the
same time a glossiness of surface. For writing papers,
the paper passes through a shallow trough of six.e after
leaving the drying cylinders, and then passes over another
Paper.
series of skeleton cylinders, with fans moving inside, by which it is again dried without
heat, and afterwards passes through the calenders. 'Printing and other papers are
usually sized by mixing the size in the pulp, in which stage the coloring materials —
such as ultramarine for the blue tint of foolscap — are also introduced. Still following
the paper web in the drawing, it is seen to pass from the calenders to another machine, F;
this slits the web into widths, which are again cross cut into sheets, the size of which
is regulated at will. The water-mark is impressed on machine-made paper by means
of a line light-wire cylinder with a wire-woven pattern : this is placed over the wire-
gauze sheet upon which the pulp is spread, but near the other end of it, so that the
light impression of the marker may act upon the paper just when it ceases to be pulp,
and this remains all through its course. There are many other interesting points about
the paper-machine, but their introduction here would rather tend to confuse the reader.
Its productive power is veiy great; it moves at a rate of from 30 to 70 ft. per minute,
spreading pulp, couching, drying, and calendering as it goes, so that the stream of pulp
flowing in at one end is in 2 minutes passing out finished paper at the other. It has been.
Computed that an ordinary machine, making webs of paper 54 in. wide, will turn out
4 miles a dav, and that the total production of all the mills in Britain is not less than
6,000,000 of yards, or 3,400 miles daily.
For very obvious reasons, the manufacture of paper has been localized on the
banks of streams that afford an abundant supply of pure water for washing and pulping.
Kent is celebrated for its paper-mills and for" the tine quality of its paper, and is. the
chief county in this respect. Next follow Hertfordshire (where it was first commenced
in England in 1490 by John Tate of Stevenage, of whom it is said in a book printed by
Caxton,
Which late hathe in England cloo make thya, paper thynne,
That now iu our Englyssh thys booke is printed inne;
and the same John Tate is mentioned in Henry VII. 's household book, under dates May
25, 1498 and 1499, "for a rewarde geven at the paper-mylne," and "geven in rewarde
to Tate of the mylne, 6s. 8d."), Buckinghamshire, Oxfordshire, and Lancashire. It was
introduced into Scotland in the year 1695, when a company was formed for carrying it
on under " articles" signed at a general meeting held in Edinburgh, which articles are
now in the librarv of the British museum. It has become a very important branch of
manufacture; and not only is paper of a very fine quality made from rags and the new
material, esparto, alfa, or Spanish grass (the tygeum sparteum of botanists), but also the
manufacture of paper-machines is carried on most successful!}" both for foreign and
home use. Both of these manufactures are carried on in the immediate neighborhood
of Edinburgh. Since the introduction of the penny postage, penny papers, and other
economical measures, especially the abolition of the excise-duty, an enormous impetus
has been given to this branch of our home-manufacture, and considerable difficulty has
been found in supplying the makers with raw material: this difficulty has been much
increased by the export" duties laid by other countries upon the export of rags. The
greatest relief has been experienced by improved methods for preparing paper pulp
from straw, and from the introduction of the esparto, which yields half its weight of
paper. Of this material our imports have risen to 140,000 tons per annum, which repre-
sents 75,000 tons of paper. The imports of rags, notwithstanding the foreign impedi-
ments, are also very large. During the five years endinsc in 1875, they were as follows:
1871, 26,868 tons; 1872, 23,254 tons; 1873, 16,151 tons; 1874, 17,232 tons; 1875, 15,879
tons. In 1877 the 17,130 tons imported were valued at £256,489. Judging from good
data, this manufacture has more than trebled since the abolition of the paper-duty, at
which time it was very nearly 100,000 tons, a quantity so vast, that it will remove all
surprise at the difficulty of supplying the raw materials.
The following are the principal varieties of ordinary paper, and the sizes of the sheets
given in inches:
1. Writing and Printing Papers. — Pot (so named from its original water-mark, a tank-
ard), 12i by 15; double pot, 15 by 25. Foolscap, 16| by 13|; sheet-and-third do., 22*
by 13i; sheet-and-half do., 22i by 13J; double do., 27 by 17. Post (so called from its
use in letter-writing; one of its original water-marks was a postman's horn), 18f by 15j;
large do., 20f by 16|; medium do., 18 by 22|; double do., 30£ by 19. ' Copy, 20 by 16*.
Double crown, '20 by 30. Demy. 20»by 15; printing do., 22| by 17f; medium do., '22
by 17*; medium printing do., '23 by 18|. Royal, 24 by 19; printing do., 25 by 20;
super-roval, 27 by 19 ; super-royal printing, 21 bv 27. Imperial, 30 by 22. Atlas, 34
by 26. "Columbicr, 34i by 23*. Elephant, 28 by "23; double do., 26| by 40. Antiqua-
rian, 53 by 31 : this is generally, if not always, hand-made.
These sizes are somewhat lessened by plowing and finishing off the edges previous
to sale.
2. Coarse Papers for wrapping and other purposes. — Kent cap, 21 by 18: bag-cap, 19*.
by 24; havon-cap, 21 by 16; imperial cap, 22* by 29. Double 2-lb., 17 by 24; double
4-lb., 21 by 31; double 6-lb., 19 by 28. Cartridge, casing, and middle-hand, etc., 21 by
16. Lumber-hand, 19| by 22*; royal-hand, 20 by '25; double small-hand, 19 by 29.
Purple papers of a soft texture, unsized, are used in very large quantities by sugar-
refiners, of the following sizes: Copy -loaf, 16f by 21f ; powder-loaf, 18 by 26; double-
Paper. O(>f)
Paphos. wl-M
loaf, 16} by 23; single-loaf, 2H by 27; lump, 23 by 33; hambro', 16J by 23; titler, 29 by
35; Prussian, or double-lump, 32 by 42.
Blotting mid Wltr.riny Paper. — This is unsized paper, made of good quality, and
usually colored pink or red, and of the same si/.e as demy.
Besides these, which are well-known trade definitions, there are very many others,
amounting, if we include paste and mill boards, to at least 12 or 15 hundred, so that even
paper-manufacturers require the aid of a treatise upon the subject of the sizes, qualities,
etc., and such a treatise is in common use.
Even as regards materials, varieties are endless. In an old German book by Jacob
Christian Sch&ffers, published at Regensburg in 1772, there are no less than bl samples
of different kinds of paper bound up and forming part of the book, and innumerable
others have been made since.
Rice paper is a beautiful material imported from China, about which numberless
errors have been written. It is now known to be formed of thin slices of the pith of the
plant called aralia papyrifera. This pith can be obtained from the stems in beautiful
cylinders, from 1 to 2 in. in diameter, and several inches in length. The Chinese work-
men apply the blade of a sharp, straight knife to these cylinders of pith, and, turning
them round dexterously, pare them from the circumference to the center, making a
rolled layer of equal thickness throughout. This is unrolled, and weights arc j
upon it until it is rendered perfectly smooth and flat. Sometimes a number are joined
together to increase the size of the sheets. It will be seen that this more nearly i>
bles the ancient papyrus than modern paper; but it is more beautiful than the former,
being a very pure pearly white, and admirably adapted to the peculiar style of painting
of the Chinese.
The ordinary papers of the Chinese, Japanese, and East Indians have much re>< m-
blance to each other, which arises from the manufacture and material being similar; the
bark of the paper mulberry (bronssonetia papyrifera) being chiefly used. The Chinese
and Japanese are the most skillful paper-makers in the world, and some of the East
Indian papers surpass the European manufactures completely.
Some useful kinds of paper are the result of manipulations subsequent to the paper-
maker's work. Thus:
Lithographic Paper is prepared from good printing-paper by laying on one side of the
sheets a preparation consisting of six parts of starch, 1 of alum, and 2 of gum-arabic
dissolved in warm water, and applied whilst hot with a proper brush.* Generally a little
gamboge is added, to give it a slight yellow color.
Copying Paper, for manifold writers, is made by applying a composition of lard and
black-lead to one side or both of sheets of writing-paper; and after leaving it on for a
day or so, it is carefully and smoothly scraped off and wiped with a soft cloth.
Tracing Paper is good printing-paper rendered transparent by brushing it over with
a mixture of Canada balsam and oil of turpentine, or nut oil and turpentine. In either
case it must be carefully dried before using.
There are two distinct classes of colored papers. In one, the color is introduced into
the pulp, and is consequently in the body of the paper; in the other, the colors are mixed
with size, and applied to the surface. There have been many ingenious and tasteful
inventions for decorating the surface of paper, such as by .giving it a marbled and even a
beautiful iridescent appearance, but they are too numerous for the limits of this article.
Paper is subject to much adulteration. China-clay and gypsum are generally used
for the white sorts, and the heavy ferruginous ochers for the coarse and brown kinds.
PAPER (ante}. The manufacture of paper in the American colonies was not under-
taken until 1609, about 50 years after the introduction of printing. The first mill was
established in the vicinity of Philadelphia bv "William Rittenhausen, a native of Ger-
many; and among the others that came into existence during the next 80 years was one
established in the town of Milton, near Boston, in 1730, by Daniel Henchman and Peter
Faneuil; one in Norwich, Conn., in 1768, by Christopher* Leffingwell; and others here
nnd there in New Jersey, Delaware, and Pennsylvania. In 1810 the number of mills in
the United States was estimated to be 185, of which 7 were in N. H., 38 in Mass.. 4 in
R. I., 17 in Conn., 9 in Vt., 28 in N. Y.. 60 in Penn., 4 in Del., 3 in Md., 4 in Va.. 1 in
S. C, 6 in Ky., aqd 4 in Tenn. The Fourdrinier machine was the one chiefly in use
and the bulk of the manufacture was from white rags. The mills produced at that date
about 50,000 reams of newspaper annually; 70,OOOTeams of book paper; 111,000 reams
of writing paper; and 100,000 reams of wrapping paper, together valued at about
$800,000. After 20 years the business had increased so extensively that the manufac-
turers began to import rags in large quantities from Italy and Austria; and in 1852 the
consumption of paper in the United States was equal to that of England and France
together. -By the census of 1870 there were in the United States, exclusive of paper-
hanging manufactories, 669 establishments, principally manufacturing printing, writing.
and wrappinsr paper, with a capital of $34,365,014, and producing paper annually valued
at $48,676,935. Of these manufactories 174 in N. Y. produced $10,301,563; 65 in Ma<s.,
$6,661.886; 75 in Penn., $5,176.646; 43 in Ohio, $3,799,505; and 60 in Conn., $2,715,630.
PAPER-BOOK, in English law, is the name given to the pleadings on both sides in an
action at law, when the issue is one, not of fact, but of law.
Paper.
Paphos.
PAPER-HANGINGS. This name is applied to the webs of paper, papiers peints of the
French, usually decorated, with which interior walls are often covered. Previous to the
invention of the paper-machine, sheets of paper of the size called ekphant, 22 by 33
inches, were pasted together, to make 12-yard lengths, before the pattern was imprinted;
but this is now rendered unnecessary by the facility of making webs of any length.
Upon the paper it is usual first to spread a ground-color, with proper brushes, taking
care to produce a perfectly smooth surface. The colors employed are opaque, and are
mixed with size, ancl sometimes also with starch, and most of the ordinary pigments are
used. In the early stages of the art, it was usual to have the patterns stenciled (see
STENCILING) on the ground-color. The stenciling plates were usually pieces of paste-
board, one being required for every differently colored portion of the pattern. After-
wards, wooden blocks were adopted, similar to those used in calico-printing, made of
pear or poplar wood, generally the width of the paper, forming, indeed, huge wood-
cuts, on which the pattern is in high relief. As many blocks are required as there are
colors in the pattern, each bearing only so much of the pattern as is represented by the
color to which it is assigned. Of course, the whole beauty of the work depends upon
the nice adjustment of one portion of the pattern to another; and this is determined by
guide-pins in the blocks, which are so managed as not to disfigure the surface with their
points. The pattern-block, being coated with its particular color from the color-tub, is
laid on the paper, which is stretched out for the purpose on a table, and a lever is
brought to bear upon it with sufficient pressure to make the whole of the block bear
equally upon the paper. When one block has been printed the whole length of the
paper by a succession of impressions, the piece is taken to the drying-room, and dried,
previous to receiving the next color; and it often happens that the same operations have
to be repeated a dozen different times before the pattern is completed. This process is
now being rapidly superseded by the cylinder printing-machines, which are of the same
kind as are used in printing textile fabrics. In these machines, the pattern is engraved
on a series of copper cylinders, and each part or color has a separate cylinder, and an
arrangement for keeping it constantly supplied with color when working. The cylinders
are so arranged as, by the sum of their revolutions, to make the pattern complete; so that
as the web of paper passes the first, it receives the color for one portion of the pattern,
and reaches the second in exact time to have the next color applied in the right places.
In this way the entire piece only occupies a few seconds in receiving the complete dec-
oration. N
The polished or glazed papers have the ground prepared with gypsum or plaster of
Paris, and the surface dusted with finely-powdered steatite, or French chalk. When per-
fectly dry, this is rubbed hard with a burnishiug-brush, until the whole is evenly polished.
This is generally done before the pattern is printed, but in some cases pattern and ground
are both polished. In making the flock-papers, the printing is done in the same way as
in the block-printing, only, instead of colored material, a composition called encaustic is
printed on. It consists of linseed-oil, boiled with litharge, and ground up with white
lead ; sufficient litharge is used to make it dry quickly, as it is very adhesive. The
flock is prepared from the shearings of woolen cloths from the cloth-mills, by washing
and dyeing the shearings to the various colors, then stove-drying and grinding them in
a peculiar mill, which, in their brittle state, after leaving the stove, breaks them short.
After this they are sifted, to obtain various degrees of fineness. By nice management,
the prepared flock is so sprinkled over the whole of the printed surface as to coat the
encaustic, and adhere evenly and firmly to it. The same adhesive material is used for
printing in gold and other metals. The pattern being printed with the encaustic, gold or
other metallic leaf is applied, and when it is properly fixed, the loose metal is brushed
away with a hare's foot or other soft brush. Some of the finest French papers have much
of the pattern actually painted in by hand, a process which, of course, renders them very
costly.
PAPEE MULBERRY. See MULBERRY.
PAPER NAUTILUS. See ARGONAUT.
PAPHLAGO NIA, anciently a province of Asia Minor, extending along the southern
shores of the Black sea, from the Halys on the e., to the Parthenius on the w. (which
separates it from Bithynia), an island "on the s. to Galatia. Its limits, however, were
somewhat different at different times. The Paphlagonian mountains were covered with
forests, and the inhabitants were famous as hunters. Croesus made Paphlagonia a part
of the kingdom of Lydia, and Cyrus united it to Persia; it subsequently became part of
the empire of Alexander the Great, and afterwards of the kingdom of Pontus, was
included in the Roman province of Galatia, and in the 4th c. of the Christian era was
made a separate province by Constantine. Its capital was Sinope. The Paphlagonians
are supposed to have been of Syrian, or at least of Semitic origin, like the Cappadocians.
They were proverbially rude, coarse, and deficient in understanding, but this probably
refers only to the country-people in the interior.
PA'PHOS, anciently the name of two cities in the isle of Cyprus. The older city,
sometimes called Palaipaphos (now Kuklos or Konuldia), was situated in the western part
of the island, about 1J m. from the coast. It was probably founded by the Phonicians.
and was famous, even before Homer's time, for a temple of Venus, who was said to have
Papia*.
Fapinianns.
here risen from the sea close by, whence her epithet Aphrodite, " foam-sprung, " and
who "was designated the Paphian goddess. This was her chief residence, and hither
crowds of pilgrims used to come in ancient times. The other Paplios, called Aoy/o^/W
(now B&ffa\ was on tlic 9ea-coaat, about 7 or 8 m. n.w. of the older city, and was the
place in which the apostle Paul proclaimed the gospel before the proconsul Sergius.
PAPIAS, bishop of Hierapolis in Phyrgia. was a Christian writer, who flourished in
the 2d century. According to Irenaeus, he wras a disciple of the apostle John; but Kuse-
bins, who quotes (Hwtoria Ecclesiastica*, chap. 39) the words of Iremvus, immediately
subjoins a passage from Papias himself, in which the latter distinctly states that he did
not receive his doctrines from any of the apostles, but from the " living voice'' of such
followers of theirs as "are still surviving." He was, however, an "associate" of 1'nly-
carp, a bishop in the same province of proconsular Asia; and as the latter was a disciple
of the apostle John, it is probable that Irena3us — a somewhat hasty writer — inferred that
his companion must have been the same. The Paxchul or AlexandHnn Chronicb -tales
that- he suffered martyrdom at Pergamus, 163 A.D. Eusebius describes Papia- as " \\ell
skilled in all manner of learning, and well acquainted with the Scriptures;" but a little
further on he speaks of him as a man "of limited understanding" smikrw on l!m /nn'/n),
and a very credulous chronicler of "unwritten tradition," who had collected "certain
strange parables of our Lord and of his doctrine, and some other matters rn1hi-r t-,,>f,il>n-
lous." The work in which these were contained was entitled Logidn K>'ri<ik»n, /:'.>
Biblia E. (Five books of commentaries on the sayings of our Lord). It is now lost, but
certain fragments of it have been preserved by Irenaeus, Eusebius, Maximus Confe>^or,
and other writers. These fragments are extremely interesting, because of the light which
they throw on the origin of the New Testament Scriptures, and their importance may be
estimated from the fact, that they contain the earliest information which we possess on
the subject. It is Papias who is our authority for the statement, that the evangelist
Matthew drew up a collection of our Lord's sayings and doings (to logid) in the Hebrew
(probably Syro-Chaldaic or Aramaic) dialect, and that every one translated it as he was
able. There can be no doubt that this is a perplexing statement, suggesting as it does
the delicate question: " If Papias is correct, who wrote our present Matthew, which is
in Greek, and not in Hebrew?" (For a consideration of this point, see MATTIIKW.)
Papias also tells us, either on the authority of John the presbyter, or more probably on
that of one of his followers, that the evangelist Mark was the interpreter (Hermem tiles)
of Peter, and wrote "whatsoever he [Peter] recorded with great accuracy." But the
passage is far from implying that Mark was a mere amanuensis of Peter, as some have
asserted, but only, as Valesius has shown, that Mark listened attentively to Peter's
preaching, culled from it such things as most strictly concerned Christ, and so drew up
his gospel. Papias, it remains to be said, was an extreme millenarian. See MILLEN-
NIUM.
PAPIEE-MACHE (Fr. mashed or pulped paper). This manufacture has certainly been
in use for more than a century in Europe; "but it is not improbable that it was first s_ug-
gested by some of the beautiful productions of Siude and other parts of India, wnere it is
employed in making boxes, trays, etc., as well as in China and Japan. Its iir.st appli-
cation, as far as we know, was to the manufacture of snuff-boxes by a German named
Martin, in 1740, who learned it of a Frenchman named Lefevre; but the French say that
he learned the art in England. Properly speaking, paper-mache is paper-pulp molded
into shape, and it has been used, not only to make small articles, such as boxes, trays,
etc., but in the interior decoration of houses for cornices, ceilings, etc. The ceilings in
Chesterfield house, and some other fine Elizabethan structures, are made of this material,
•which at one time, owing to a combination of the stucco-workers to raise the price of
their labor, took the place almost entirely of stucco in house ornamentation. At pn sent
a combination of both stucco and paper is similarly employed underthename of Carfon-
pierre. From the extension of the applications of papier-mache to the manufacture of a
number of light and useful articles, modifications have taken place in its composition, and
it is. now of three kinds — 1st, the true kind, made of paper-pulp; 2d, sheets of paper
pasted together after the manner of pasteboard, but submitted to far greater pressure;
and 3d, sheets of thick millboard cast from the pulp are also heavily pressed. The term
papier-mache is in trade held to apply rather to the articles made of the pulp than to the
pulp itself; and a vast manufacture has sprung up during the present century, particu-
larly in Birmingham, in which a great variety of articles of use and ornament are made
of this material. They are coated with successive layers of asphalt varnish, which is
acted upon by heat in ovens until its volatile parts are dissipated, and it becomes hard,
and capable of receiving a high polish. Mother-of-pearl is much used in their decoration^
for which purpose, when several layers of the varnish still remain to be applied, thin
flakes of the shell of the form of the pattern are placed on the varnish, and are covered
by the succeeding layers, giving rise to elevations where they are hidden by the coats of
varnish. The surface is then ground down smooth and polished, and the minding down
brings to light the pieces of mother-of-pearl shell, which thus present the appearance of
inlaid patterns. The fine surface which can be given to the asphalt varnish also permits
of burnished gilding and other decorative applications with excellent effect.
PAPILIO. See BUTTERFLY.
Papias.
Papiiiianug.
PAPILIONA CE.ZS, n suborder of the natural order of plants generally called legumi-
••nos(e (q.v.). — The plants of this suborder are the only plants known which have flowers
of the peculiar structure called vapilionaceoua, and of which the pea and bean afford
familiar examples. The name is derived from Lat. papilio, a butterfly. Papilionaceous
flowers have five petals, imbricate'! in estivation (bud), one of which, called the vexillum,
or standard, is superior, turned next to the axis, and in estivation folded over the rest;
two, called the alee, or wings, are lateral; and two are inferior, which are often united
by their lower margins, forming the carina, or keel. The number of the papilionacese is
very great, about 4,800 species being known. They are found in all parts of the world,
Abounding in the tropics. Many have superb and beautiful flowers; many are plants of
beautiful form and foliage, trees, shrubs, or herbaceous plants; many possess valuable
medicinal properties; and many are of great importance as furnishing food for man
and for domestic animals, others as furnishing dyes, fiber, timber, etc. See BROOM,
LABURNUM, CLOVER, BEAN, PEA, LUCERNE, LIQUORICE, INDIGO, SANDAL-WOOD, etc.
PAPILLJE. This term is applied by anatomists to minute, elongated, couical pro-
cesses, projecting from the surface of the true skin into the epidermis, highly vascular
«nd nervous in their character, and takiijg an active part in the sense of touch. Their
form and structure are described in the article SKIN. The mucous membrane of the
tongue also contains three varieties of papillae, which are described in the article TASTE,
ORGAN, AND SENSE OP.
PAPIN, DENIS, a celebrated French physicist, was b. at Blois, Aug. 22, 1647, and
studied medicine, where, after receiving his degree, he practiced for some time as a
physician. He now became acquainted with Huygens, an incident which strengthened
in him an original predilection for physical science; and from this time he devoted him-
self almost exclusively to his favorite study. Before Papin's time, the intense force
which can be generated in water, air, etc., under the action of heat, was well known,
but he was one of the first to indicate the principal features of a machine by which this
property could be made of practical utility. He soon acquired a wide reputation, and
on visiting England was received with open arms by the philosophers of that country,
:and became a member of the royal society in 1681. While in England, Papin and
Boyle (q.v.) together repeated their experiments on the properties of air, etc.; but in
1687 Papin was called to the chair of mathematics in the university of Marburg in Hesse-
Cassel, the duties of which office he discharged with zeal and success for many years.
He died at Marburg about 1714. The French academy of sciences, withholding from
Papin the honor of " associate," enrolled him among its " correspondents" — a proceed-
ing on the part of the academy which has, with reason, excited the astonishment of F.
Arago. To Papin undoubtedly belongs the high honor of having first applied steam to
produce motion by raising a piston ; he combined with this the simplest means of pro-
ducing a vacuum beneath the raised piston, viz., by condensation of aqueous vapor; he
is also the inventor of the " safety-valve," an essential part of his " digester" (q.v.). By
this latter machine Papin showed that liquids in a vacuum can be put in a state of ebulli-
tion at a much lower temperature than when freely exposed, to the air. Papin's sagacity
Jed him to many other discoveries; he discovered the principle of action of the siphon,
improved the pneumatic machine of Otto de Guericke (q.v.), and took part against
Leibnitz in the discussion containing "living" and " dead" forces. Unfortunately for
science, Papin's numerous writings have not yet been collected, but many of them will
be found in the Philosophical Transactions, Acta Eruditorum, and the Recueil de Diverses
Piece*. He published two works, one being an explanation of the construction and uses
of his " digester" (Lond. 1681), afterwards (1682) translated into French, and his experi-
ments entitled Nouvelles Experiences du Vide (Paris, 1674). It was not till nearly a
.century after that the great value Of Papin's discoveries was perceived.
PAPINIA'NTJS, ^EMILIUS PAULLUS, the most celebrated of Roman jurists, was b.
towards the middle of the 3d c. ; and during the reign of the emperor Severus (q.v.), whom
he succeeded as adwcatm fad, and whose second wife is said to have been Papinianus's
relative, he held the office of libellorum magister, and afterwards that of prcefectm prcetorio.
After the death of Severus, his son and successor, Caracalia, dismissed Papinianus from
his office, and soon afterwards caused him to be put to death on various pretexts, the
real reasoiu however, appearing to be that the emperor was afraid the influence of a
man so able and upright would be dangerous to his power. Papinianus's works consist
•chiefly of 87 books of Quastiones, 19 of Responsa, 2 of Definitiones, two works, De Adul-
teriis, and a Greek fragment; and from these works there are in all 595 excerpts in the
digest (q.v.). The pupils of Papinianus include the most famous names in Roman ju-
risprudence, such as Ulpian, Paullus, Pomponius, Africanus, Florentinus, and Modesti-
nus, but the master stands superior to them all. The high reputation he enjoyed among
his contemporaries and successors may be gathered from the epithets prndentissimus,
•consultixsimus, disertissimus, bestowed upon him by various emperors, and from the first
book of the Codex Theodosii, De Responses Priidentum, in which, after declaring the
worke of Papinianus, Paullus, Caius, Ulpian, Modestinus, and four others, to be authority
for a judge's decision, it is declared that should these jurists be equally divided in
•opinion, that opinion which was maintained by Papinianus was to be considered right;
while his commentator, the celebrated Cujacius (q.v.), goes so far as to declare "that
Papinean. OAJ.
Papua. ^u
Papiniamis was the first of all lawyers who have been, or are to be," and that "no one
ever will equal him." His high reputation as a jurist was much enhanced by the strong
moral feeling and stern unbending honesty which were equally characteristic of him,
and which have stamped his works with an ineffaceable impress. 1'apinianus's works
wen- studied both before and after Justinian's time by Unman legal students of the third
year, who were for this reason denominated Papiuianista;. The fragments of Papinia-
nus's works which now remain are somewhat obscure, and the excerpts from them in
the digest are in general so brief that the aid of a commentator is required.
PAPINEAU, Louis JOSEPH, 1789-1871; b. Montreal, educated at the seminary of
Quebec, studied law, was repeatedly elected member of the Canadian parliament, waS"
speaker of the lower house and leader of the radical party, and appointed by lord Dal-
housie one of the executive council. In 1827, when he was again member of parliament,
he was elected speaker, but lord Dalhousie adjourned parliament to prevent his taking his
seat until the following year. He prepared the list of demands and grievances known as
the 92 resolutions. He did not countenance the rebellion of 1837, advocating peaceful
resistance, and refused to join in any attempts at redress by force of arms, lie was
nevertheless suspected of complicity and accused of high treason, but escaped to the
United States, and went to France in 1839, living in Paris 8 years. He returned in 1847,
under the general amnesty of 1840, and was once more elected to parliament. In 1854
he retired to private life.
PAPIST (Lat. papista, an adherent of the pope) is a name applied, generally with some
admixture of contempt, to members of the Roman church. Of itself, it implies nothing
more than that they are adherents of the pope; but in its popular use it includes all the
distinctive doctrines of Roman Catholics, and especially those which are supposed to l>e
peculiarly cherished by the supporters of the papal authority. It is therefore in many
cases held to be synonymous with the profession of the extremes! opinions permitted in
the church of Rome, and even those which are popularly regarded as superstitious.
Understood literally, no consistent Roman Catholic would disclaim it; but in the imputed
signification explained above, it is held to be offensive.
PAPPENHEIM, GOTTFRIED HEINRICH, Count von, an imperial gen. of great note in
the thirty years' war, was b. at Pappenheim, in middle Franconia, Bavaria, May :>!»,
1594, of a very ancient Swabian family, in which the dignity of marshal of the empire
became hereditary about the 13th or 14th c., and many of whose members had greatly
distinguished themselves in the wars of the middle ages. When about 20 years of age,
Pappenheim went over to the Roman Catholic church, and thenceforth signalized him-
self by his fiery zeal in its cause. After serving under the king of Poland in his wars
with the Russians and Turks, Pappenheim joined the army of the Catholic league, and
in the battle of Prague (1620) stayed the flight of the Austrian cavalry, and by a well-
timed and furious charge turned the tide of battle against the Bohemians. In 1623 he
received from the emperor the command of a cavalry regiment of the famous " Pappen-
heimer dragoons;" and in 1625 became gen. of the Spanish horse in Lombardy; but in
1626 re-entered the Austrian service, and after suppressing a dangerous revolt of the
peasants of Upper Austria, in which 40,000 of the peasants perished", hejoined the army
which was opposed to the Protestant league, and, in association with Tilly, carried on
many campaigns against the Danes. Swedes, and Saxons. It was Pappenheim who
urged and induced Tilly to take Magdeburg by assault, and himself led and directed the
attack. Moreover, it is he. rather than Tilly, who was to blame for the ferocious mas-
sacres which followed. His reckless bravery involved Tilly, against his will, in the dis-
astrous battle of Breitenfeld; but to some extent he retrieved his character by his siren-
nous efforts to remedy the loss, and protect the retreat of the army. After Tilly's death,
he was associated with Wallenstein, who detached him with eight regiments to protect
Cologne, but on hearing of the advance of Gustavus, sent an urgent order for his return.
Pappenheim arrived at Ltitzen at the moment when Wallenstein's army was on the point
of being completely routed, and at the head of his cuirassiers, charged the left wing of
the Swedes, throwing it into confusion, and almost changing the fortune of the battle
by his extraordfnary bravery. He was mortally wounded in the last charge, and died a
few hours afterwards at Leipsic, Nov. 7, 1632, with a smile on his countenance, after
learning that Gustavus Adolphus had died before him. " God be praised!" he said: " I
can go in peace, now that that mortal enemy of the Catholic faith has had to die before
me."
PAP PUS, in botany, an appendage of the fruit of plants belonging to certain natural
orders, of which the great natural order composite is the chief. It consists either of
simple or feathery hairs, sessile or stalked, arising from the summit of the fruit, and is
produced by a development of the tute and limb of the persistent calyx. Its object
appears to 'be to waft the ripened seed to the new situation in which it is to grow.
Thistle-down is the pappus of the thistle. — The pappus is sometimes represented by mere-
teeth or scales.
PAPPUS of Alexandria, one of the later Greek geometers, of whose history nothing
is known; he is said by Snidas to have lived during the reign of Theodosius the great,
emperor of the east (379-395). Some writers are of opinion that he lived two centuries.
Papineatu
Papua..
earlier, but the former is much the more probable opinion. The chief work of Pappus
is his Mathematical Collections, of which the last six, out of eight books, are extant. The
Collections, as their name implies, are an assemblage into one book of scattered problems
and theorems, the work of Apollonius, Archimedes, Euclid, Theodosius, etc.. to which
he has joined his own discoveries. The first two books are supposed (on insufficient
grounds) to have treated of arithmetic and arithmetical problems, but only a small frag-
ment of the second book is extant: the third book is a collection of problems, mostly of
solid geometry: the fourth treats of curves other than the circle, according to the method
of pure geometry ; the fifth contains problems of maxima and minima : the sixth treats
of the geometry of the sphere; the seventh, which is by far the most important to mod-
ern geometers, as it is almost the sole authority we possess on the subject of the history
and methods of the Greek geometrical analysis, treats principally of analysis; it also
contains the proposition now known as ''Guldinus's theorem," which was plagiarized
from Pappus by father Guldin; the eighth and last book treats of machines. Pappus
was the author of several other works which are lost, excepting only a fragment of his
Commentary on Four Books of Ptolemy's Syntaxis. Pappus, as an independent investiga-
tor, enjoys a high reputation, and is considered by Descartes as one of the most excel-
lent geometers of antiquity. Some of iiis problems have been looked upon with hiirh
interest by all succeeding geometers. The Mathematical Collections have been published
in whole or part, at various periods, but the only complete editions are the two Latin,
versions, the tirst by Commaudine (Pisa, 1588), and the second by Manolessius (Bologna,
1660), and the Greek edition of H. J. Eisenmann (Paris, 1824). The portion of the
Greek text of the second book, which was wanting in Commandine's MS., was published
(1688) in London by Dr. Wallis.
PAPUA, or NEW GUINEA, is, with the exception of Australia, the largest island on
the globe. It lies in lat. 0° 30' to 10° 40' s.,>and long. 131° to 150° 30' e., and is about
1300 m. in length. In outline the island is very irregular, the western part being nearly-
insulated by Geelvink bay, on the n., and M'Clure's inlet from the west. The head of
Geelvink bay is separated from the s. coast by an isthmus only 35 m. in breadth. East-
ward from this, the island increases in breadth from 200 to 360 m., and terminates in the
s.e. , in a long and narrow peninsula of lofty mountains.
There is probably no region of the globe so little known as Papua; the coast has not
even been visited in some parts, and the maps published to this day show unsurveyed
portions. It is not known with certainty who discovered Papua. It is attributed to a
Spaniard, Alvaro de Saavadra. To him the first detailed notice of the island is due, and
it was he who first noticed the resemblance of the inhabitants to African negroes, and
for that reason gave the country the name of New Guinea. In 1606 the Spanish frigate
La Almiranta, capt. Luiz Vaes de Torres, made the island, and sailed along the southern
shore to the strait that bears his name. In 1676 the Dutch captains, Schouten and Le
Maire, landed on the island to obtain freshwater They were unexpectedly attacked
by the natives, who killed 18 of their men. M. De Bougainville, in 1768, also made the
south coast of the island, and worked to windward along it. The English navigators,.
Cook in 1770, and Forrest in 1774, Edwards in 1791, and the following year capt. Bligh,
of Bounty notoriety, saw portions of the south coast. Flinders, in 1799, visited the
island, and added a few facts to our scanty information. In the course of the voyage
of the French ship Astrolabe, under the command of J. Dumont d'Urville, the distin-
guished naturalists, Quoi and Gaymard. studied the natural history of the island, and
more especially its zoology. A Dutch expedition in 1828 added to the information of
the western coast. In 1845 capts. Blackwood and Owen Stanley, of her majesty's ships
Ply and Bramble, surveyed part of the southern coast; and, between 1846 and 1850, the
last-named officer surveyed the southern shores of the eastern peninsula. In 1858 the
Dutch government sent a surveying expedition in the steamer Etna to the north
and n.w. coasts. In 1869 attention was called to our lack of information on Papua,
and to the fact that so little had been done to explore this great and fertile island,
which lay almost within sight of Australia, and might be looked on as belonging to that
continent. Sir Charles Nicholson especially directed the attention of our Australian
colonists to the importance of their becoming acquainted with the island, lying as it does,
on the highway to India and China, and believed to be rich in minerals and commercial
products. The importance of exploring the island was generally admitted. In 1871
the Russian steam corvette, the Vitiaz, left on the n.e. shores the naturalist, Mik-
louka Maclay, who undertook to penetrate westward into the Dutch territory. The
Italian travelers, Messrs. Beccari and D'Albertis. and the Italian corvette Vittor Pisani,
also visited the island. Early in 1873 H.M.S. Basilisk, capt. Moresby, was sent to sup-
press the system of kidnaping natives in the neighborhood of Torres strait; and this
being accomplished, capt. Moresby employed his time in continuing the survey of the
eastern coasts commenced by capt. Owen Stanley. He found the eastern part of the
island different in form from the representations as given on our maps, inasmuch as a
considerable portion of the eastern promontory consisted of islands with deep channels
between, instead of being a continuous line of coast. But little is known of the geogra-
phy of the island beyond the coast. The northern side is hilly and densely covered with,
wood, while such portions of the southern coasts as have been visited are low. and
Papulae.
apparently swampy, but still densely wooded. A range of mountains, the Charles Louis
mountains, commences on the south coast near Geelvink bay, and extends due east,
rising gradually to a height of nearly 17,000 fl., where it is lost sight of at a distance of
100 in. from the coast; but. it is not improbable that this range continues through, and
subdivides the island until it joins the high land of the eastern peninsula, where a suc-
cession of mountains, from 14,000 to 5,000 ft. high, continue to the ea>teru extreme. A
large island, Frederick Henry island, 100 in. long by about 50 broad, on the s.w.
coast, was supposed to be part of the mainland until lieut. Kool, of the Dutch navy,
passed through the strait that separated it. The London missionary society's agents, in
their steamer the Ellangowart,, have also lately found that what was considered the south.
cape of Papua is detached from the mainland, and have called it Stacey island. The Fly
river has been ascended 160 miles by the same parties. The whole of the south-eastern
coast to the eastern extreme of the island, and continuing to the Louisiade archipelago
beyond, is fringed with dangerous coral reefs, and, as during the monsoons the currents
acquire great velocity, the danger of navigating is considerable. Capt. Moresby has dis-
covered a new passage at the s.e. poiut of the main island, China strait, which is
navigable for large ships, and apparently free from dangers; it is considered that this
discovery will lead to more rapid communication between China and Australia. The
tides, however, at springs, run at the rate of 5 or 6 knots, but more careful and elaborate
surveys will doubtless render navigation more safe and expeditious in these waters.
There cannot be a doubt that in an island of such vast extent as Papua, not only does
the character of the human family greatly diverge, but there may possibly exist several dis-
tinct races. With our little knowledge, two distinct races are admitted, viz., the Papuans,
so called from the Malayan "frizzled hair," and the Haraforas. The Papuans are said
to resemble the Australian aborigines, but, as a rule, are stouter. The Haraforas are
distinguishable from the Papuans by lighter color and straighter hair; they also exhibit
greater activity of body. ,
Except in the swampy districts, the climate is not unhealthy, though the temperature
varies greatly, the thermometer sometimes indicating 95° Fahr. by day, and falling to 75°
by night. On the s.w. coast, the east monsoon or rainy season begins about the middle
of April, and ends in September; the dry season is from September to April, and on the
11. coast they are just reversed.
The island is everywhere clothed with the most luxuriant vegetation, cocoa-nut,
betel, sago, banana, bread-fruit, orange, lemon, and other fruit-trees lining the shores;
while in the interior are abundance of fine timber trees, as the iron-wood, ebony, canary -
wood, the wild nutmeg, and the massooi, the fragrant bark of which is a leading article
of export from the s.w. coast. In the districts of the Arfak and Amberbakiu mountains
the sugar-cane, tobacco, and rice are cultivated.
The natural history of the western part of Papua has been recently examined by Mr.
Wallace. This naturalist established the fact that a deep channel in the bed of the
ocean, running w. of Celebes, and e. of the great islands of Java and Borneo, now
known as Wallace's line, separates two regions, in which the islands rise from shallow
waters, and which are totally unlike each other in their botany and zoology. The
islands on either side of this line he supposes to be the relics of subn.erged continents.
Those on the west, or the Great Malay islands, belong to the continent of Asia, and have
its plants and animals. Those to the east of the line, on the other hand, including
Papua, have a flora and fauna resembling those of Australia. The latter island has a
dry climate and stunted vegetation. Papua, on the contrary, has a warm and moist
climate, pre-eminently fitted to produce a varied, luxuriant vegetation; and it is clothed
from end to end with magnificent forests. Insect life is, as might be expected, abundant
and varied; the Papuan species being remarkable for fine forms and beautiful colors.
Still more interesting to the naturalist is the variety of birds, of which 120 speeies are
singers, 30 parrots, and 38 pigeons. Those of land species which have been examined
belong to 108 genera. 29 of which are found exclusively in Papua. The beautiful birds
of paradise are peculiar to the island, and distinguish it from all other regions. In con-
trast to this variety of birds is the small number of mammals. The great pachyderms
and quadrumana of the Malay islands are wanting, and the mammals are 2 bats, 1 pig,
10 marsupials, 1 cetacea, and 1 carnivora. There is one true kangaroo similar to those
of Australia. The climbing kangaroos take the place of the monkeys of the Asiatic
area. It is believed that Wallace's line, or one nearly coincident with it, separates two
varieties of the human race, the Malay's and the Papuans, or rather areas in which one
of these races predominates.
Mr. Alfred Wallace, in his Malay Archipelago, says of the Papuans: " There has been
much difference of opinion about the races of the Oceanic region, but it is generally
admitted that they belong to four different types — those of (1) the Malays; (2) the
Negritos or Papuans; (3) the Polynesians; (4) the Australians. The most distinguished
of recent ethnologists class the Malays with the Mongols; the Negritos or Papuans, and
the Polynesians, with the negroes of Africa; and distinguish widely the Australians
from both. They do not recognize any fundamental distinction between the dark
Papuans and the light-complexioned Polynesians. The western parts of the island are
inhabited by the former, the eastern parts by the latter. 'The Papuans are well made,
have regular features, intelligent black eyes, small white teeth, curly hair, thick lips,
267
Papulae.
jin d large mouth; the nose is sharp, but flat beneath, the nostrils large, and the skin
dark brown. They are," Mr. Wallace says, "superior in stature to average Europeans,
but have long and thin legs, and the splay foot of the negro." He thinks the Papuans
superior to the Malays in intelligence. In the western parts, they are divided into small
distinct tribes, frequently at war with each other. The men build the houses, hollow
the trunks of trees into canoes, hunt and tish; while the women do all the heaviest work,
cultivating the fields, making mats, pots, and cutting wood. Their food consists of
maize, sago, rice, fish, birds, the flesh of wild pigs, and fruits, etc. "They are copper
colored, of a light active build, o"f ten- with very good features, which they paint ; but the
men's teeth and mouths are much disfigured by constant use of betel-nut. The hair is
usually worn frizzled out into a huge mop. The women's hair is always cut short.
Their weapons appear to be shears, swords, clubs, and stone hatchets, but no bows and
arrows were seen amongst them. Occasionally human jaw and spinal bones are worn as
bracelets and ornaments. They appeared to take pleasure in making us understand that
they had eaten the original owners of the bones; but these bones, as well as the few
skulls exhibited in their villages, appeared to be of an ancient date. The houses are
built after the Malay fashion, on poles raised 5 or 6 ft. above the ground, and consist of
one large apartment." The natives of Humboldt's bay have a temple in every village,
though nothing is known of their religion.
In the eastern part of the island, the negro type of the inhabitants passes into that of
the Polynesians. Captain Moresby says of them, that they have the light complexion
and in all respects the appearance of the Polynesians, typically represented by the New
Zealanders, that they are a friendly and intelligent people, and gladly received the Eng-
lish seamen at their villages, where they mixed freely with them. They practice several
useful arts, such as pottery, and possess extensive, well-fenced plantations. In the
north-eastern part of the island, their villages are terraced and cultivated to a great
height, in a manner which a Chinaman might envy. Captain Moresby believes them to
be a fine, promising race, and thinks that, with the aid of civilizing influences, a pros-
perous future is in store for them.
The Dutch scientific expedition of 1858 appended to their report a vocabulary of the
Myfore language, of about 1,200 words, collected by Ottow and Geisler, missionaries at
Doreh,' on the w. of Geelviuk bay. It is, however, known to differ greatly from lan-
guages spoken in other parts; and natives of the South Sea islands have a facility in
communicating with the Papuans on the Torres Strait. The London missionary society
lias therefore begun to Christianize them through Samoan teachers directed by British
missionaries. The first chapel, on Murray Island, was opened in 1875.
The population of Papua and the immediately adjacent islands has been estimated at
800,000, but no correct estimate of the numbers can be formed. The exports are masooi
bark, trepang or be"che-demer, tortoise-shell, pearls, nutmegs, birds of paradise, cro\vn-
pigeons, ebony, resin, slaves, etc.
The inhabitants seem to be divided into a great number of petty tribes, quite inde-
pendent of each other. No native government is known to extend over a great part of
the island. The Dutch acquired the rights of their tributary, the sultan of Tidore, and
it was partly to assert them that an expedition was undertaken in 1828. At this time,
the Dutch built a fort called Du Bus, in Triton bay, 3° 46' s. lat., and 134° e. long., and
declared the whole island w. of a line running from cape Bonpland in the n., along 141°
•e. long., to Torres Strait, to belong to the Netherlands, but the settlement was aban-
doned. In 1858 the Dutch made another attempt to establish a colony. The Etna was
fitted out for that purpose. The expedition visited a great part of the north-western
coast. Recent attempts of parties of miners to tap the metallic treasures of Papua have
not as yet met with success.
That a great future is open to this vast territory is undoubted. Rich in natural prod-
ucts and mineral wealth to an extent of winch we can have no conception, situated in
«uch close contiguity to one of our largest possessions, and between it and China, Japan,
and India, it is of immediate consequence to England; and if we are to profit by inter-
course and trade, no time should be lost in detaching a strong surveying expedition,
furnished with scientific explorers, to complete the survey of the coasts, and to ascertain
its capabilities.
See De Zuid-West kust van N. Guinea, door J. Modern (Haarlem, 1830); N. Guinea
onderzocht en beschreven, door eene Nederlandsche Commissie (Amsterdam, 1862); De
Papoewa's van de Geelvinksbaai, by A. Goudswaard (Schiedam, 1863) ; The Malay Archi-
pelago, by A. R. Wallace; Neu Guinea und seine Bewohner, by Otto Finsch (Bremen,
1865); Dall' Italia alia Nuova Guinea — Viaggio della Corvetta " Vittor Pisani " (Florence,
1873); Paper on "Beccari's Exploration of Papuasia,'1 by Prof. H. H. Giglioli, in Ocean
Highways for Dec., 1873; Discoveries and, Surveys in New Guinea and the J)' Entrecasteaux
Islands, by Captain Moresby (1876); Chronicle of London Missionary Society for 1876.
PAP TJL2E AND PAPULAR DISEASES. Papulae, or pimples, constitute one of the
eight orders of Bateman and Willan's classification of cutaneous diseases. They occur
as little elevations of the cuticle, of a red color, containing neither pus nor any other
fluid, and ending usually in a scurf. They are generally supposed to denote inflamma-
tion of the papillae of the skin; but Erasmus Wilson believes that they represent an
268
inflammatory condition of the secretory orifices, whether sudoriferous or sebaceous.
The diseases regarded as papular are strophulus, lichen, and prurigo; but there are other
diseases in which the first external symptom is a papular eruption, as, for example,
small-pox, in which the papula speedily develops itself into a pustule.
PAPY'EI. Rolls made of the paper of the papyrus plant are commonly known as-
papyri, corresponding to the Greek biblia. These rolls are of a very remote antiquity,
some of the still remaining Egyptian papyri being certainly as old as tb.3 sixth dynasty,
and valuers as old as the twelfth, or from about 2,000 B.C. This is owing to their mode
of preservation, and to the peculiarly dry character of Egypt. These rolls have been
found deposited in different ways, those of a religious nature being placed upon the
bodies of mummies, at the feet, arms, or even in the hauds, sometimes, indeed, packed
or laid between the bandages, or even spread over the whole bandages, like a shroud.
At the time of the nineteenth and twentieth dynasties (1320-1200 B.C.), they were often,
deposited in hollow wooden figures of the god Ptah Socharis Osiris, or of the god Osiris,
which were placed near the mummies. Papyri of a civil nature were deposited in jars
or boxes, which were placed near the mummies, or have been found in the remains of
ancient libraries. The following are the principal kinds of Egyptian papyri: I. Hiero-
glyphical papyri, always accompanied by pictures or vignettes, and consisting of "three
classes: 1. Solar litanies or texts, and pictures relating to and describing the sun's pas-
sage through the hours of the night, when that luminary was supposed to enter the
Egyptian hades or hell. 2. Books of the empyreal gate, or heaven, with vignettes of
deities, and other representations referring to the genesis of the cosmos or universe. 3.
The so-called ritual, consisting of a series of sacred or hermetic books, some of a very
remote antiquity, accompanied with rubrical titles and directions as to their efficacy and
employment, and comprising various formulas ordered to be placed on the coffins, amu-
lets, and other furniture of the dead, for the better preservation of the souls of the dead
and of the mummies in the future state. In this book, chapters giving an account of
the future judgment, of the makhenu, or boat of the dead, of the Elysian Fields, and of
the halls through which the dead had to pass are also found. The work was considered
by the Egyptians themselves mystic, and parts were supposed to be written by the god
Thoth himself. A copy more or less complete, according to the wealth of the deceased.
was deposited with all the principal mummies; and from the blank spaces left for the
name, which were afterwards filled up, it is evident that they were kept ready made. —
II. Hieratic papri, written in the hieratic or cursive Egyptian hand, comprising a more
extensive literature than the hieroglyphic papyri. This handwriting being used for
civil as well as religious purposes, the papyri found in it differ considerably from one
another, and comprise rituals of the class already mentioned, principally in use about
the 26th dynasty, or the 6th c. B.C., but found also on some few papyri of a remote
period; a book called the Lamentations of Isis; magical papyri, containing directions for
the preparation of charms and amulets, and the adjuration of deities for their protection;
civil documents, consisting of the examination of persons charged with criminal oflV
the most remarkable of which are that of an offender charged with the practice of magic
in the 19th dynasty, another of a criminal charged with various crimes, in the reign'of
Sethos I., the examination of a conspiracy in the palace of Rameses II., and the proces-
verbal of an offender charged with violating the sepulchers of the kings in the reign of
Rameses IX. Besides these, there are several letters of various scribes upon subjects
connected with the administration of the country and private affairs; laudatory poems
of Egyptian monarchs, one describing the campaign of Rameses II. against the Khita or
Hittites; historical documents, the journeys in foreign parts; the endowment of temples
by Rameses III. ; works of fiction, one of the adventures of two brothers, the death of
the younger, owing to the false accusation of the wife of the elder, his revival, and
transformation into a bull and a Persea tree; another, the story of a doomed prince, and
the adventures of different persons. Works on plants and medical subjects, books of
proverbs, lists of kings, historical accounts, are amongst these documents. — III. The
last class of Egyptian papyri, those written in the demotic or enchorial character, consist
of rituals, contracts for the sale of mummies and lands, accounts and letters, and mis-
cellaneous documents. These papyri are often bilingual, sometimes accompanied with
hieratic or Greek versions. Many of these papyri have been translated by de Rouge,
Chabas, Heath. Goodwin, Birch, and others. Many Greek papyri have been found
belonging to the archives of the Serapeion, referring to the administration of that
temple, the-orations of Hypereides, and some of the books of Homer. At all times iu
the history of Egypt, libraries of papyri seem to have existed, and, under the Ptolemies,,
are said to have contained as many as 700,000 rolls.
Another class of ancient papyri, those of Pompeii and Herculaneum, are of con-
siderable interest, as showing the condition and arrangement of a Roman library. The
papyri of Herculaneum are from 8£ to 12f in. wide, and are rolled up in a cylindrical
roll, wlumen, upon a stick or inner roll, bacittus, umbilicus, having a stud at the end,
cornu. They had their titles written on a strip, lorum, in red letters, and the writing
was either on blind lines, or else on lines ruled with lead. About 1800 papyri were dis-
covered at Herculaneum in 1753, in the library of a small house, charred to a cinder,
and some of these, by the greatest skill and care, have been unrolled by a very laborious
269
/
process at Xaples. Unfortunately, they have not answered the literary expectations
formed of them, consisting of the works of philosophers of the Epicurean school, which
the proprietor of the library seems to have collected. Some of the papyri were in Latin,
.and more difficult to unroll. Many of them have been published. They are only
written on one side. When a small number were required, they were placed in a cylin-
drical bronze chest (cista), packed tightly in a perpendicular position, and were taken
out single, aad read by unrolling from one end. These papyri were of various prices; old
ones, like old books, being of immense value, but those containing the works of con-
temporary authors were not dearer, perhaps, than modern books. Many extensive pri-
vate and public libraries existed in Greece and Rome, but all have perished except those
exhumed from Herculaueum.
Wilkinson, Man. and Gust. iii. 62, 147, 188, v. 482; Winckelmann, ii. Bd. i. 1; Cha-
bas. Pup. d' Harris (Chalon, 1860); Papyrus Hieratiques (Svo, Chalon, 1863); Voyage
dun E;/yptien (1866); Pleyte, Papyrus de Turin (1869-74); Cambridge Essays (1858), p.
227; De Rouge, Rev. Contemp. xxvii. p. 389; Devena, Papyrus Judicionede jp<m'/i(1868);
Trans. Soc. Bibl. Arch. (1874).
PAPY ETTS, a genus of plants of the natural order cyperacece, of which there are several
species, the mosf important, being the EGYPTIAN PAPYRUS or papyrus of the ancients (P.
•antiquoruin, cyperus papyrus of Linuseus); a kind of sedge, 8 to 10 ft. high; with a very
strong, woody, aromatic, creeping root; long, sharp-keeled leaves; and naked, leafless,
triangular, soft, and cellular stems, as thick as a man's arm at the lower part, and at
their upper extremity bearing a compound umbel of extremely numerous drooping
spikelets, with a general involucre of 8 long filiform leaves, each spikelet containing
6-13 florets. By the ancient Egyptians it was called papu, from which the Greek
fi(i/\>/)'iis is derived, although it was also called by them byblos or deltas. The Hebrews
railed it gome, a word resembling the Coptic gom, or volume; its modern Arabic name
is berdi. So rare is the plant in the present day in Egypt, that it is supposed to have
been introduced either from Syria or Abyssinia; but it has been seen till lately in the
vicinity of the lake Menzaleli, and specimens sent to England ; and, as it formerly was
-considered the emblem of northern Egypt, or the Delta, and only grown there if intro-
duced,-it must have come from some country lying to the north of Egypt. It has been
found in modern times in the neighborhood of Jaffa, on the banks of the Anapus, in the
pooN of the Liane, near Syracuse, and in the vicinity of lake Thrasymenus. It is repre-
^ Mit;-d on the oldest Egyptian monuments, and as reaching the height of about 10 ft.
It was grown in pools of still water, growing 10 ft. above the water, and 2 beneath it,
and restricted to the districts of Sais and Sebennytus. The papyrus was used for many
purposes both ornamental and useful, such as crowns for the head, sandals, boxes,
boais. and cordage, but principally fora kind of paper called by its name. Its pith was
<b.>iled and eaten, and its root dried for fuel. The papyrus or paper of the Egyptians
•\v;i< of the greatest reputation in antiquity, and it appears onfhe earliest monuments in
the shape of long rectangular sheets, which were rolled up at one end, and on which the
scribe wrote with a reed called hash, with red or black ink made of an animal carbon.
The process of making paper from the papyrus is described in the article PAPER.
When newly prepared, it was white or brownish white and lissom; but in the process of
time, those papyri which have reached the present day have become of a light or dark
•brown color, and exceedingly brittle, breaking to the touch. While papyrus was com-
monly used in Egypt for the purposes of writing, and was, in fact, the paper of the
period, although mentioned by early Greek authors, it does not appear to have come
into general use among the Greeks till after the time of Alexander the great, when it
was extensively exported from the Egyptian ports under the Ptolemies. Fragments,
indeed, have been found to have been used by the Greeks centuries before. It was,
however, always an expensive article to the Greeks, and a sheet cost more than the
value of a dollar. Among the Romans, it does not appear to have been in use at an early
period, although the Sibylline books are said to have been written on it, and it was
cultivated in Calabria, Apulia, and the marshes of the Tiber. But the staple was no
doubt imported from Alexandria, and improved or adapted by the Roman manufactu-
rers. So extensive was the Alexandrian manufactory that Hadrian, in his visit to that
city, was struck by its extent; and later in the empire, an Egyptian usurper (Firmus,
272 A.D.) is said to have boasted that he could support an army off his materials. It
continued to be employed in the eastern and western empire till the 12th c., and was used
amongst the Arabs in the 8th; but after that period it was quite superseded by parch-
ment. At the later periods it was no longer employed in the shape of rolls, but cut up
into square pages, and bound like modern books.
As a matter of scientific interest, experiments on the manufacture of paper from the
papyrus have been made in recent times by Landolina, Seyffarth, and others. — Another
species of papyrus (P. corymbosus or P. Pangorei) is much used in India for making
mats. See IXDIAX-GUASS MATTING.
PAR, or PARR, a small fish, also called BRANDLING and FINGERLING in different
parts of Britain, inhabiting rivers and streams, and at one time believed to be a distinct
species of the genus salmo, but now almost universally regarded as the young of the
salmon. The question will be noticed ha the article SALMON. It may here, however, be
Para.
IMrabolani.
mentioned, that it is difficult to discriminate the young of different species of this genus.
The pur rises with extraordinary readiness to the artificial fly; and until it began 1 1>
receive protection as the fry of the salmon vast numbers were killed both by youthful
and adult anglers.
PARA , the name of the s. arm of the Amazon, forming an outlet for that river iuto>
the Atlantic; on the southern side of the island of Marujo (q. v.). It is 200 in. in length,
is 20 m. broad opposite the city of Para, and is 40 m. broad at its mouth, it
important affluent, and the source whence it draws, perhaps, the great mass of its
-•volume of waters, is the Toeantins. Formerly, the name Para, which is >,-iid to signify
"father of waters," was applied in a general way to the river Ama/.on. At the time of Hie
spring-tides, the bore rushes up the river with enormous force, forming a wave 15 i't.
high.
PARA , an important province of the empire of Brazil, in the extreme n. of the coun-
try, is bounded on the n. by Guiana and the Atlantic, on the e. byMaranhao and Goya/,
on the s. by Matto Grosso, and on the w. by Amazonas. Area, 400,000 sq.m. ; pop. "72,
280,000. It is one of the' largest provinces of Brazil— having an area nearly twice the
extent of Austria — is watered by the Amazon and iis great affluents the Tapajos. Xingu,
and Tocantins; and forms a portion of a district — the Ama/.on valley — which has been
described by the most thorough explorer of this region as unequaled for richness of
table production and fertility of soil. The surface of the country is level, and con-
sists of great plains, intersected by rivers, and covered with primeval forests, and in
some cases with rich pasture. The climate, though warm, is not unhealthy. The
precious metals, with diamonds, iron, and coal, are found, but are not worked. The
timber is valuable, and the chief crops raised upon the very limited area as yet brought
under cultivation are coffee, rice, millet, and cotton.
PARA', or BELE'M, a thriving city and seaport of Brazil, capital of the province of
the same name, siands on the e. bank of the river Para, 80 m. from its mouth. Lat. 1*
28' s., long. 48° 28' west. The .harbor is formed by an abrupt curve or inlet of the chan-
nel of the river, which is here 20 m. broad. Vessels of the largest size are admitted; ilie
anchorage is roomy, safe, and easy of access. The streets are paved and macadami/.cd;
the houses, like those of most Brazilian towns, have whitened walls and red-tiled roofs.
Among the principal buildings are the palace of the president, the cathedral and the
churches, all ample in size, and imposing in structure. There are also numerous public
squares, a college, and a beautiful botanic garden. The city is supplied with water by
water-carts that perambulate the streets. The "Amazon navigation company, "a Bra-
zilian association, has erected large workshops, coal depots, and wharfs; and steam navi-
gation is rapidly extending. In 1865 the total number of ships which entered and cleared
the port of Para was 96, witli 39,709 tonnage; and in 1867, 160 of 58,798 tons. The
exports in 1870 amounted tn value to $7,643,895; $6,000,000 of which were for india-rub-
ber. The imports are principally cotton manufactures, wheat and flour, cutlery and
hardware, wool, gold and silver wares, coins, and wine. The exports are india-rubber,
coffee, s'.srxr, raw cotton, hides, tobacco, diamonds, and cocoa. Pop. 35.000. Para is
the mart through which passes the whole commerce of the Amazon and its affluents.
The c'.iy was the seat of revolution during the whole of the year 1835. when a ureat
number of lives were lost and houses destroyed, and grass grew in streets that previously
had been the center of business. It is only since the year 1848 that the city can lie said
to ha^e fairly entered upon the path of orderly commercial progress; and since that
period, its advance has been continuous and rapid.
PARA , a coin of copper, silver, or mixed metal, though most generally of copper, in
use in Turkey and Egypt; it is the 40th part of a piaster, is divided into 3 aspers, and
varies much in value, owing to the debased and complicated condition of the Turkish
coinage. Pieces of 5 paras are also in use. The para is equal to about ^th of a penny
sterling in Turkey, and ^th of a penny sterling in Egypt. See PIASTER.
PARABLE, (Gr. parabole, a comparison) was originally the name given by the Greek
rhetoricians to an illustration avowedly introduced as such. In Hellenistic and New
Testament Greek, it came to signify an independent fictitious narrative, employed for
the illustration of a moral rule or principle. This kind of illustration is of eastern origin,
and admirable examples are to be found in the Old and New Testaments, particularly
in the discourses of our Lord. It is no less interesting than curious to learn that many
of Christ's parables, or at least much of his parabolic imagery, are to be found in the
writings of Hillel, Shammai, and other great rabbis, as, for example, the parables of the
Pearl of Great Price, the Laborers, the Lost Piece of Money, the Wise and Foolish Vir-
gins, etc. Among modern writers, the German divine Krummacher (q.v.) has greatly
distinguished himself in this species of composition. The parable differs from the fable
(q.v.) in the probability or verisimilitude of the story itself, and agrees with it in the
essential requisites of simplicity and brevity. In the course of time, the word parable
came to lose its significance of figurative speech, and to mean speech generally. From
the parabola of the Latin Vulgate, came the mediaeval Latin parabolare, whence the mod-
ern French pnrler and parole. An excellent work on the parables of the New Testament
— probably the best in the English language — is that by archbishop Trench.
O >7 1 Para.
* •*• Parabolani.
P ARAB OLA, oiie of the conic sections, is produced by a plane not passing through
the vertex, which cuts the cone in a direction parallel to that of a plane touching the
convex surface of the cone. A little consideration will show that a section so produced
cannot be a closed curve, but its two branches, though continually widening out from
each other, do not diverge so rapidly us in the hyperbola (q.v.). The nearer the cutting
plane is to that which touches the cone, the less do the two branches diverge; and when
the two planes coincide, the branches also coincide, forming a straight line, 'which is
therefore the limit of the parabola. It may otherwise be considered as a curve, every
point of which is equally distant from a fixed straight line and a given point; the fixed.
straight line is called the directrix, and the given point the focus. Thus (see fig.) PAP'
is a parabola, any point P in which is equally distant
from the focus S and the directrix CB, or PS = PD.
If, from S, a perpendicular, SE, be drawn to the direc-
trix, and produced backward, this line, AO, is the axis
or principal diameter of the parabola, and the curve is
symmetrical on both sides of it. As A is a poiut in the
parabola, AS = AE, or the vertex of a parabola bisects
the perpendicular from the focus to the directrix. Al]
line.s in a parabola which are parallel to the axis cut the
curve in only one. point, and are called diameters. All
lines, such as PP', which cut the curve in two points,
are ordinates, and the diameter to which they are ordi-
nates, is that one which bisects them ; the portion of
this diameter which is intercepted between the ordinate
and the curve, is the corresponding abscissa. From the
property of the parabola that PS = PD, the equation
to the curve may be at once deduced; for PS = PD =
EN, therefore PS2 (which = PN2 + NSS) = EN'2; hence
PN* = EN2 - KS* = (ES -f SN)2 - NS2 = ES2 -f 2
ES.SN = (since ES = 2AS) 4AS2 + 4AS.SN = 4AS
(AS +SN) = 4AS.AN; and calling PN, the semiordi-
nate, y; AN, the abscissa, x; and AS, a; the equation to the parabola becomes y* = 4ax,
•where a (the distance of the vertex from the focus) remains the same for all points in the
same curve. It is evident from the equation, as well as from the geometrical derivation
of the parabola, that it must have two, and only two branches, and that the further it is
extended the nearer its branches approach to the condition of straight lines parallel to
the axis, though they never actually become so. The parabola has no asymptotes, like
the hyperbola, but it possesses many properties which are common to it with that curve
and the ellipse. In fact, the parabola is nothing more than an ellipse, whose major axis
is infinitely long.
If parallel rays of light or heat fall upon the concave surface of a paraboloidal (see
PABABOLOID) mirror, they are reflected to the focus, and conversely, if a light be placed
in the focus of a paraboloidal reflector, its rays wyill be reflected in parallel directions,
and would appear equally bright at all distances did light move without deviation, and
unabsorbed. Also, if a body be projected in a direction not vertical, but inclined to the
direction of gravity, it would, if undisturbed by the resisting force of the atmosphere,
describe accurately a parabola whose axis is vertical, and whose vertex is the highest
point reached by the body (see PROJECTILES).
The term paraboja is used in analysis in* a general serffee, to denote that class of curves
in which some power of the ordinate is proportional to a lower power of the abscissa.
Thus, the curve we have just described, and which is distinguished as the common or
Apollonian parabola, has the square of its ordinate proportional to its abscissa; the cubi-
cal parabola has the cube of its ordinate proportional to its abscissa; and the semicubical
parabola has the cube of its ordinate proportional to the square of its abscissa.
PARABOLA'NI (Gr. parabolos, a desperate person), a class of functionaries in the early
church, by some M»iters reckoned as members of the clergy, and included in the ranks
of the minor orders, but more probably religious associations, whose duty it was to assist
the clergy, especially in the more laborious and the menial offices of religion or of charity.
The etymology of the name is somewhat curious.being derived or applied from that of those
desperate adventurers of the arena who hired themselves for the wild-beast fights of the
amphitheater. The chief duty of the parabolani was the tending of the sick, whether
in ordinary diseases or in times of pestilence. By some, the association is believed to
have originated at Alexandria, and perhaps to have been peculiar to that church; but
although the parabolani were certainly very numerous at Alexandria, amounting to some
500 or 600, it is beyond all question that they were also enrolled in other churches. We
find them at Ephesus, at the time of the council in 449. They held the same place in
regard of ministrations to the living, that the fossores of Rome or the ktrpiatai of the
Greeks did in relation to the burial of the dead. The parabolani are made the subject
of formal legislation by Theodosius the younger. At first they were subject to the pre-
fect us Augustalis, but a later decree placed them directly under the authority of the
bishop.
Psrbcoloid.
O7O
A ' A
The name parabolani must not be confounded -with the epithet parabolarius, which
the pagans applied to the Christian martyrs, from the recklessness with which they gave
their lives for their faith.
PARAB OLOID, a solid figure traced out- by a parabola (q.v.) revolving round its prin-
cipal axis. Sections of this solid parallel to the principal axis are parabolas, and 'those
perpendicular to it, circles. The term "paraboloidal,"-for which "parabolic" is fre-
quently but improperly substituted, is applied either to bodies having the i'onn of a para-
boloid, or to concave surfaces which seem to have taken their peculiar hollow shape
.from the impress of a paraboloidal body.
PARACEL'SUS. About the end of the loth c. there lived in the smalltown of Marien-
Kinsedeln, near Zurich in Switzerland, William Bombast von Hohenheim, a physician
and chemist; he was married to the lady-superintendent of the hospital attached to the
convent of Einsedeln; they had an only son, Philip Aureolus Theophrastus. born, it is
thought, about 1493. The name Paracelsus, by which he is now known, i.s a rude ren-
dering into Greek and Latin of his patronymic. It seems doubtful if he ever attended
any regular school, but he received from his father the rudiments of Latin and whatever
•else he could teach. He soon took to roaming, and even pursued his travels into Asia
and Africa. How he maintained himself during his pilgrimage is unknown ; probably by
necromancy and quack cures — that is, proclaiming he had certain specifies, and
"bargaining for the amount he was to receive if he performed a cure. He was a diligent
chemist, investigating the processes of the preparation of metals, and making experi-
ments as to their medicinal virtues; also to discover the philosopher's stone. As a chem-
ist he lived with Sigismund Fugger, one of a family celebrated for its patronage of art
and science. His cures, real or pretended, became noised abroad, and he was called to
prescribe for all the great men of his day. When he was thirty-three, he boa-ted of hav-
ing cured thirteen princes, whose cases had been declared hopeless. He was then at his
zenith and at the recommendation of Ecolampadius was appointed professor of physic
and surgery at Basel. He commenced his academic career by publicly liurnintr Galen's
works, exclaiming Galen did not know as much as his shoe-latchets. " Heading never
made a physician," he said; " countries are the leaves of nature's code of laws — patients
his only books." His class-room at first was full to overflowing, but was soon doerted,
and he fell into habits of excessive intemperance; indeed his secretary asserts he was
drunk every day; never undressed, and went to bed with his famous sword by IIH -ide,
which he would draw, and flourish about the room. The reason of his departure from
Basel was, that a certain dignitary, suffering from gout, in his agony sent for Paracelsus,
and promised to give him 100 florins if he cured him. Paracelsus gave him three limln-
num pills; the canon felt comfortable, and the doctor claimed his fee, but the church-
man refused to pay. Paracelsus took him into court, but the judge decided agam<t the
professor, who lost his temper, and abused the legal functionary in such a manner that
the matter was taken up by the town council, and ended in the expulsion of Paracel-us.
He recommenced his wanderings. Wherever he went he excited the regular faculty to
a state of violent hatred, not wholly undeserved. At Salzburg he had given offense in
the usual way, and the result was, "he was pitched out of the window at an inn by the
doctor's servants, and had his neck broken by the fall.'' This took place in 1541.
That a man whose life was such an incoherent medley should exert an inttuenco for
centuries after his death, may well be a matter of surprise, but he and the age were titled
for each other. He struck the, weak point of the prevailing system of medicine; he
appealed to the public as to whether it were not a false system that could only lead to
failure, and he proposed a system of his own, which, though shrouded in absurdity and
obscurity, inaugurated a new era of medicine. The prominent idea of his system is, that
disease does not depend upon an excess or deficiency of bile, phlegm, or blood, but that
it is an actual existence, a blight upon the body subject to its own laws, and to be oj>
by some specific medicine. See the works of Paracelsus; also of Schulz (1831); Leasing
(1839); Mook (Wurzb. 1876); and Russell (History and Heroes of Medicine, 1861).
PAKACHUTE (Fr. chute, a fall), a machine invented for the purpq§e of retarding the
velocity of descent of any body through the air, and employed by aeronauts a-~ a means
of descending from balloons. It is a gigantic umbrella, strongly made, and having the
outer extremities of the rods, on which the canvas is stretched, firmly connected by
ropes or stays to the lower part of the handle. The handle of the parachute is a hollow
iron tube, through which passes a rope connecting the balloon above with the car (in
which are the aeronauts and their apparatus) beneath, but so fastened, that when the
balloon is cut loose, the car and parachute still remain connected. When the balloon
ascends, the parachute collapses like an umbrella; but when the balloon rope is severed,
and the car begins to descend, the parachute is extended by the action of the air. and
prevents the car from acquiring a dangerous velocity of descent; the final velocity in
those cases where the machine is of a size proportioned to the weight it has to support,
being no more than would be acquired by a person leaping from a height of between
two and three feet. But the slightest derangement of the parachute's equilibrium, such
as might be caused by a breath of wind, or the smallest deviation from perfect symme-
try in the parachute itself, immediately produces an oscillatory motion of the car, hav-
m Paraboloid.
Puratlisiidie.
ing the apex of the parachute as a center, and the oscillations becoming gradually greater
and more rapid, the occupants of the car are in most cases either pitched out or are along
with it clashed ou the ground with frightful force. This defect in the parachute has
been attempted to be remedied in various ways, but hitherto without success. The first
successful experiment with the parachute was made by Blanchard at Strasburg in 1787,
and the experiment has been often repeated by Garuerin aud others; very frequently,
however, with fatal results.
li
to open up
a considerable period almost suspended in the air.
PARADE (from parare) signified in its original sense a prepared ground, and waa
applied to the courtyard of a castle, or to any inclosed and level plain. From the prac-
tice of reviewing troops at such a spot, the review itself has acquired the name of parr.de.
In its modern military acceptation, a parade is the turning out of the garrison, or of a
regiment in full equipment, for inspection or evolutions before some superior officer. It
is Ihe boast of British troops that their line and discipline are as perfect under an enemy's
lire as on the parade ground.
PARADISE. See EDEN.
PARADISE, BIRD OF. See BIRD OF PARADISE.
PARA.DISIID./E, a family of birds very closely allied to the crow family (corvidce).
These birds are particularly numerous in the island of New Guinea, but also inhabit
other islands of the eastern archipelago. They are by common reputation the most
beautiful cf all birds, especially in regard to their plumage. Fiction has had much to do
with them. Among other traditions is one which credits them with passing their entire
existence floating about in the air, " gay creatures of the element" in which they were
supposed to raise their young. Their food was said to be the dews and vapors, a sort of
heavenly ambrosia aud nectar. They were supposed never to touch the earth till the
moment of their death, except that sometimes they suspended themselves from the
branches of trees by the two elongated and gracefully curved feathers which are
appended to the tails of some of the species. This delusion was kept up by the Papuans,
who sold the skins, but in preparing them removed all traces of the feet or lower parts
of the legs, and in most instances the wings also. Their skins were not only valued for
their gorgeous beauty, but eastern princes prized them for turbans, believing that 1 jcv
conferred a charmed life on the wearer. The earliest European navigators who sailed to
the Molucca islands for spices, obtained the dried skins of the birds of paradise which
were called by the natives manuk deicata,, or God's birds. John van Linschoten in 159&
wrote that no one had seen the birds alive, "for they lived in the air, always turning
towards the sun, and never alighting till their death," saying, moreover, that they havo
neither feet or wings. It was a long time before the assertions of sensible observers juul
naturalists would be credited that birds of paradise had legs. Johnston, in 1657, writes
of them: "It is peculiar to them all to be without feet, although Aristotle asserts that no
bird is without feet, and Pigafetta assigns to them feet a hand breadth in length." This
was written after Clusius had exposed the. popular absurdit}', and after the skins or the
birds had been brought to Holland with their feet on, and after the publication of
Tradescant's catalogue, wherein are mentioned among the whole birds of his museum
"Birds of Paradise, or Manucodiata, whereof are divers sorts, some with, some without
leggs." Johnston, however, discredits the stories about their never alighting, and living
on dew, and that their eggs are hatched in a cavity on the back of the male. "Of a
verity," says he, " they must necessarily require rest, and are with ease suspended to
the branches of trees by those threads in their tails." Formerly, many artificial " birds
of paradise" were made up by the Chinese, from parrots and other birds of brilliant
plumage and palmed off on Europeans as genuine, and such imitations have been figured
in books of natural history. The gi'eat bird of paradise (paradinea apoda, of Linnaeus) i#
the largest species, and measures 17 or 18 in. from the beak to the tip of the iail. Its
body, wings, and tail are of a rich coffee brown, deepening on the breast to a very dark
violet purple. The plumage of the head and neck is of the most beautiful and delicate
straw color, the feathers so short and close as to resemble velvet. The lower part of the
throat is of a metallic emerald, and lines extend up to the eyes and across the forehead of
a deeper color. The beak is of a delicate leaden blue, and the feet, which are strong
and finely formed, are of a delicate ash pink, approaching a mauve. A tuft of long,
gorgeous, glossy, orange-colored plumes, often 2 ft. long, arises from each side of the
body under the wings. The bird has the power of erecting these tufts of plumage so ::s
to conceal its entire body. These ornaments are generally possessed only by the males, l h"
female being soberly clad in a suit of unchangeable coffee brown; neither has she the
slender thread-like tail plumes, nor the yellow and green feathers about the head. Dur-
ing tiie first year the young males resemble the females. The first approach to deco-
ration is in the appearance on the head and neck of the yellow and green plumage; then
the two middle tail featliers commence to grow longer than the rest, aud lastly tho
U. K. XL— 18
Parados. 07J.
1'araguay. •" ' "*
gorgeous, golden, orange-colored side-plumage is developed. This wonderful evolu-
tion is accomplished during three successive molting-;. The great bird of paradise is
described by Mr. Wallace as very aeiive and vigorous, being all day in constant motion.
They are also very abundant, and broods of young birds with their mollieiv areconstantly
met with. The lull-plumed males arc also quite numerous, and their cry, irnn/.; imnk,
which maybe regarded as the inverted cry of the common crow, caw, caw, is perhaps the
most familiar sound in the Aru islands. The natives told Mr. Wallace that they had never
seen the egg, and their accounts of the nests were rather unsatisfactory. On one occa-
sion a Dutch olh'cial offered a high reward for an egg, but did not succeed in obtaining
one. The birds molt in January and February: and in May, when they have received
their full plumage the males assemble for the annual dance, or sdcuMi. They congregate
in trees with large spreading branches, but with scattered leaves to allow room for the
play of their plumage. A dozen or more assemble in one tree and perform in an excited
manner the most varied 3volutions, stretching their necks, vibrating their \vings and all
the feathers of the body. They also fly from one branch to another, tilling the air with
reflections of the most gorgeous rainbow colors. It is during this season thai the natives
take the opportunity of shooting them with the bow and arrow, the head of the arrow
being blunt so as only to stun the bird and not to injure its skin or plumage. The lesser
bird of paradise is smaller, of r. lighter brown color, and is not purple on the breast. The
yellow color extends over part of the back and upon the wings, and the side plumes are
of a much paler yellow than those of the great bird, the ends tipped with white. The
curled tail feathers are also shorter. The female is entirely white on the under surface of
the body, and is a more showy bird than the female of the great bird species. The red
bird of paradise is about 14 in. long from beak to tip of tail. Its side plumes are a splen-
did crimson, the ends reaching but about 4 in. beyond the tail, curving downward and
inward, and tipped with white. The two middle tail feathers are in the form ot stiff
black ribbons a quarter of an inch in width, resembling half-cylinders of whalebone.
They are about 22 in. long and have a spiral, graceful curve as they hang downward in
their natural position. A splendid metallic green line passes from the throat along the
side of the neck, meeting and forming a longitudinal line on the back of the head, pass-
ing forward to just behind the eyes, and forming a double erest upon the forehead. The
bill is a rich yellow, and the iris blackish olive. The body of the female is of a nearly
uniform coffee brown, with a nearly black head and yellow neck and shoulders. The red
bird of paradise is entirely confined to the small island of Waigiou, on the n.w. coast of
New Guinea. The three birds thus far described are distinguished from the others by
their larger size, and by their being each confined to its own region; that is, each of the
three keep separate from the other two. To these strictly belong, according to Mr. Wal-
lace, the generic title paradisea. or true bird of paradise. The king bird of paradise (the
paradisea rer/ia of Linnaeus), differs considerably from the three true birds of p:'r;:d'' e, and
has been called cicinnurus regius. The Malays call it Innnxj raja//, or king bird, :.nd the
Aru islanders, (joby-yoby. It isonly about 6£ in. long, owing much to th'- short tail, which
does not reach far beyond the wings. The whole head, throat, and b::ck, are of the most
splendid crimsom color, shading to orange crimson on the forehead, from which the
feathers extend more than half way down the beak. The breast and bell}- are of a pure
white, separated from the crimson throat by a broad band of the richest metallic given;
while above each eye there is a small spot of the same color. The side plumes are about
and inch and a half long, of an ashy hue, tipped with emerald, and bordered with a nar-
row line of buff. These tufts are ordinarily covered by the wings, but at will can be
spread out so as to forma beautiful semicircular fan over each shoulder. The most
singular ornaments, however, belonging to this bird are the two central tail feathers
which are nearly 6 in. long, thread-like, and bearing a coiled disk at their cxtremi;
an emerald green. The bill is orange yellow, and the legs a beautiful cobalt blue. The
femah is so plain that it would not be regarded as belonging to the same species, unless
its habits were watched. The "magnificent bird of paradise,'' the fi7y>////M-'/ev of prince
Bonaparte, so named from the double mantle which clothes the back, is one of the rare
birds. From tlte nape a dense mass of feathers, about H iQ- l°ng, ancl of a beautiful
£lraw color, rises to form a mantle over the upper part of the back. This species is only
found on the mainland of New Guinea and on the island of Mysol. The "superb bird
of paradise." first described by Buff on, and named by Broddaert, parodixm- aim, has
very dark plumage, and is one of the rarest and most brilliant, only known by the. muti-
lated skins sold by the natives. The ground color of the plumage is of an intense black,
bnt the various bronze and other metallic reflections over various parts of the neck and
body are especiallv superb. The whole head is covered with feathers of a brilliant
metallic green and blue. It has a mantle similar to thai of the "magnificent," only
broader and more wing-like, of a velvety black, resplendent with bronze and purple. On
the breast there is also a similar shield, but inverted in position, of a bluish green, and
satin gloss. It inhabits the interior of northern New Guinea only. Mr. Wallace gives a
list of 18 species, 8 of which are confined to the island of New- Guinea, and the scarcely
separated island of Salwatty. See BIRD OF PARADISE, ante.
PARADOS — another name for traverse — is an intercepting mound, erected in various
parts of a fortification for the purpose of protecting the defenders from a rear or ricochet-
fire. See FORTIFICATION.
Parados.
Paraguay.
PARADOX (Gr. para, beside, or beyond, and doxa, an opinion), a term applied to
whatever is contrary to the received belief. Cicero, in his book on paradoxes, states that
the Stoics called by this name all those unusual opinions which contradict the notions of
the vulgar. It follows from this that a paradox is not necessarily an opinion contrary to
truth. "There have been bold and happy paradoxes whose fortune it has been to over-
throw accredited errors, and in the course of time to become universally accepted as
truths. It is, perhaps, even one of the prerogatives of genius to bring such into the
world, and thereby to alter the character of an art, a science, or a legislation;
bat this, the highest form of paradox, which is only another name for originality
of thought, or for novelty of scientific discovery, is rare. The paradox which springs
from a passion for distinction, and which, in its efforts to achieve it, despises good sense
and the lessons of experience, is far more frequent. It may not be at bottom a positive
error in thought, but it is so exaggerated in expression, that if taken literally it actually
does mislead. This is the besetting sin of the brilliant and epigrammatic class of writ-
ers, abundant examples of which are to be found in modern French literature.
PARADOXU'RUS, a genus of carnivorous animals allied to the civet and genet,
and confounded by Buffon with the latter animal. These genera with others belong to
the family viveridoe (q.v.).
PAR'AFFINE is the name given to several closely allied substances, which are coiu-
posed of mixtures of polymeric hydrocarbons, of the olefiant gas series (that is to say, of
the formula C2nFI2n), and are obtained from the dry distillation of wood, peat, bitumin-
ous coal, wax, etc. Paraffine is particularly abundant in beech tar, but, according to
Reicheubach, to whom its name (which is formed from parum affinis, " little allied," in
consequence of its resisting the action of the strongest acids and alkalies) is due, and
who may be regarded as its discoverer; it is also found in the tar of both animal and
vegetable substances. At ordinary temperatures paraffine is a hard, white, crystallin&
substance, devoid of taste or odor, and resembling spermaceti, both to the touch and in
appearance. The paraffine obtained from wood fuses at about 111°, but the varieties
obtained from other substances have considerably higher boiling-points. When care-
fully heated, it sublimes unchanged at, a little below 700°. It dissolves freely in hot
olive-oil, in oil of turpentine, in benzol, and in ether, but it is only slightly soluble in
boiling alcohol, and is quite insoluble in water. It does not burn readily in the air,
unless with the addition of a wick, when it evolves so brilliant and smokeless a flame
that it has been applied to the manufacture of candles, which rival t'.jose made of the
finest wrax. The main supply of the paraffine of commerce is obtained in this country,
from the Boghead caunel-coal, and from the bituminous shale of West Gaidar. See
NAPHTHA. "A bituminous shale near Bonn supplies much of the continental demand.
PARAFFINE OIL is the term applied to the oily matter which is given off in large
quantity in the distillation of Boghead canne1 :oal. By rectification it may be separated
into three portions, one of which remains liquid at very low temperatures, boils at about
420\ and is much used under a variety of names for illuminating purposes, while a
mixture of the two less volatile portions (which may be regarded as composed of
paratline dissolved in a mixture of hydrocarbons of nearly the same composition as
paralline) is largely employed for the purpose :>f lubricating machinery, for which it is
admirably adapted by its power of resisting the oxidizing action of the atmosphere, and
by its very slow evaporation. See NAPHTHA.
PARA GRASS. See PIASSABA.
PARAGUAY, an important river of South America, an affluent of the Parana (q.v.),
rises in the Brazilian province of Matto Grosso, on a plateau of red sandstone, in lat.
13° 30' s., long, about 55° 50' w., 9.535 ft. above sea-level. The sources of the river are
a number of deep lakes, and 8 m. from its source the stream already has considerable
volume. Pursuing a s.w. course, and, after flowing through a level country covered
with thick forests, the Paraguay is joined from the w. by the Jauru, in lat. 16° 30' south.
It then continues to flow s. through the Marsh of Xarayes, which, during the season
when the stream rises, is an expansive waste of waters, stretching far on each side of the
stream, and extending from n. to s. over about 200 miles. The river still pursues a cir-
cuitous but generally southward course, forming from 20° to 22° s. the boundary-line
between Brazil and Bolivia, thence flowing s.s.w. through the territories of Paraguay to
its junction with the Parana, in lat. 27° 11' s., a few m. above the town of Corrientes. Its
chief affluents are the Cuyaba. Tacoary, Mondego, and Apa on the left, and the Jauru,
Pilcomayo, and Vermejo on the right. Except in the marshy districts, the country on
both banks of the river is rich and fertile, and abounds in excellent timber. The entire
length of the river is estimated at 1800 miles; it is on an average about half a m. in
width, and is navigable for steamers to the mouth of the Cuyaba, 100 m. above the town
of Cnrmnba. The waters of the Paraguay, which are quite free from obstructions, were
declared open to all nations in 1852; and "now Brazilian mail-steamers ply monthly be-
tween Monte Video and Cuyaba, on the river of the same name, one of the head-waters
of the Paraguay; and there are several lines of steamers between Buenos Ayres and
Asuncion.
Paraguay. 9*7 (*
Parallax. * ' u
PARAGUAY , a republic of South America. Its frontiers, previous to the war of
1865-70, were uot well defined, Lut on its conclusion were fixed by treat)'. Paraguay
now extends from 22'' to 2?" 3d s. lai., and from ,">•] :}•}' to 58J 40' w. long., forming the
peninsula between the rivers Paraguay and Parana. It is bounded n. and n.e. by Bra-
zil, s.e., a., and s.w. by the Argentine confederation, and n.w. by Bolivia. Its area pre-
vious to the war was about 103,148 sq.m., and is now variously estimated at
from 57,000 to 90,000 sq. miles. Before the war, the pop. was variously estimated at
from 450,000 to 1,300,000, Consisting of whites of Spanish descent, native Indians,
negroes, and a mixture of these several races. In 1873 it had fallen to 221,079; in
1870 it was 293,844. A mountain-chain called Sierra Amambay, running in the gen-
eral direction of from u. to s., and bifurcating to the e. and w. towards il.r southern
extremity, under the name of Sierra Maracayu, divides the tributaries of the Parana
from those of the Paraguay, none of which are very considerable, although they are
liable to frequent and destructive overflows. The northern portion of Paraguay is in
general undulating, covered by low, gently-swelling ridges, separated by 1 .
plains, dotted with palms. There are mountains in the n.e. and n.w. corners. The
southern portion is one of the most fertile districts of South America, consisting of
hills and gentle slopes richly wooded, of wide savannas, which afford excellent
pasture-ground, and of rich alluvial plains, some of which, indeed, are marshy, or
covered with shallow pools of water (only one lake, that of Ypao, deserving special
notice), but a large proportion are of extraordinary fertility and highly cultivated.
The banks of the rivers Parana and Paraguay are occasionally belted with forest; but,
in general, the low lauds are destitute of trees. The climate, for a tropical country, is
temperate, the temperature occasionally rising to 100° in summer, but in winter being
usually about 45°. In geological structure, the southern part belongs generally to the
tertiary formation; the n. and e. presenting greywacke rocks in some districts. The
natural productions are very varied, although they do not include the precious metals or
other minerals common in South America. Much valuable timber is found in the for-
ests, and the wooded districts situated upon the rivers possess a ready means of trans-
port. Among the trees are several species of dye-wood, several trees which yield
valuable juices, as the India rubber and its cognate trees; and an especially valuable
shrub, called the Mate (q.v.), or Paraguay tea-tree, which forms one of the chief articles
of commerce, being in general use throughout La Plata, Chili, Peru, and other parts of
South America. The tree grows wild in the north-eastern districts, and the gathering of
its leaves gives employment in the season to a large number of the native population.
Many trees also yield valuable gums. Wax and honey are collected in abundance, as is
also cochineal, and the medicinal plants are very numerous. The chief cultivated cr^ps
are maize, rice, coffee, cocoa, indigo, mandioc, tobacco, sugar cane, and cotton. Nearly
three-fourths of the land is national property, consisting partly of the lands formerly
held by the Jesuit missions, partly of lands never assigned to individuals, partly of lards
confiscated in the course of the revolutionary ordeal through which the country has
passed. The national estates have, for the most part, been let out in small lencie
at moderate rents. Under the dictator Francia, 1814-40. agriculture made considerable
progress, and the breed of cattle and horses was much improved, and the stock
increased. The few manufactures are sugar, rum, cotton and woolen cloths, and
leather. The commerce of the country is chiefly in the hands of the government, which
holds a monopoly of the export of Paraguay te-i In 1873 the total value of the exports
amounted to £220,032. and the imports to £229,536. The chief exports were :
tobacco, hides, and bark for tanning; imports, cotton goods, haberdashery, gro <
etc. Up till the war of 1865-70. Paraguay had no national debt, but the terrible lo-.-es
Mi on incurred compelled it in 1871-72 to contract obligations amounting to upwards of
$47,000,000. Three millions were contracted in England on the security of the public
lands of Paraguay, estimated at upwards of £19,000,000; but the foreign loans com-
mittee, 1875, reports that payment of interest and sinking fund has censed since ls?l.
The military force, which, during the five years' war, was raised to 60,000 men. has now
been reduced to 2,000. The established religion is the Roman Catholic, the ecclesiastical
head of which is the bishop of Asuncion, Education is very widely diffused; and it is
«aid that there are but few of the people who arc not able to read and write.
The history of Paraguay is highly interesting. It was discovered by Sebastian Cabot
in 1526, but the first colony was settled in 1535 by Pedro de Mendoza, who founded the
city of Asuncion, and established Paraguay as a province of the viceroyalty of Peru.
The warlike native tribe of the Guaranis. however, a people who possessed a ccr'rin
degree of civilization, and professed a dualistic religion, long successfully resisted the
Spanish arms, and refused to receive either the religion or the social usages of the
invaders. In the latter half of the 16th c. the Jesuit missionaries were sent to the aid of
the first preachers of Christianity in Paraguay; but. for a long time they were almost
entirely unsuccessful, the effect of their preaching being in a great degree marred by the
profligate and cruel conduct of the Spanish adventurers, who formed the staple of the
fvrly colonial population. In the 17th c. the home government consented to place in
tlieir hands the entire administration, civil as well as religious, of the province; which,
fr;>m its not possessing any of the precious metals, was of little value as a source of
revenue.; r.ud in order to guard the natives against the evil influences of the bad example
m Paraguay.
Parallax.
of European Christiana, gave to the Jesuits the right to exclude all other Europeans from
the colony. From this time forward the progress of civilization as well as of Christianity
was rapid. The legislation, the administration, and the soeial organization of the settle-
ment were shaped according to the model of a primitive Christian community, or rather
of many communities under one administration; and the accounts which have been pre-
served of its condition, appear to present a realization of the ideal of a Christian Utopia.
On the expulsion of the Jesuits from Paraguay in 1768, the history of which is involved
in much controversy, the province was again made subject to the Spanish viceroys. For
a time the fruits of the older civilization maintained themselves; hut as the ancient
organization fell to the ground, much of the work of so many years was undone; the
communities lapsed into disorganization, and by degrees much of the old barbarism
returned. In 1776 Paraguay was transferred to the newly formed viceroyalty of Rio de
la Plata; and in 1810 it joined with the other states in declaring its independence of the
mother kingdom of Spain. which, owing to its isolated position, it. was the earliest of
them all to establish completely. In 1814 Dr. Francia (q.v.), originally a lawyer, and
the secretary of the first revolutionary junta, was proclaimed dictator for three years; and
in 1817 his term of the office was made perpetual. He continued to hold it till his death,
in 1840, when anarchy ensued for two years; but, in 1848, a national congress elected two
nephews of the dictator, don Alonzo and don Carlos Antonio Lopez, joint" consuls of the
republic. In 1844 a new constitution was proclaimed, and don Carlos was elected sole
president, with dictatorial power, which he exercised till his death in 1862, when he was
succeeded by his son, don Francisco Solauo Lopez, Avhose name has become notorious
in connection with the tragic struggle of 1865-70, in which the Paraguayans made a
heroic but unavailing fight against the combined forces of Brazil, the Argentine confed-
eration, and Uruguay. The war was brought to a close by the defeat and death of Lopez
at the batile of Aquidaban, Mar. 1, 1870. In June, 1870, a congress voted a new consti-
tution, which was proclaimed on Nov. 25. It is modeled on that of the Argentine con-
federation, the legislative authority being vested in a congress of 2 houses, and the
executive in a president, elected for 6 years. Paraguay was till 1876 partially occupied
by Brazilian troops, and was virtually a Brazilian province.
The central department, in which the capital, Asuncion, is situated, contains nearly
one-third of the whole inhabitants; and the capital itself 10, OCO to 20,000. Asuncion is
connected by lailway with Paraguary; The inhabitants of the towns consist chiefly of
whiles, or half-breeds, speaking Spanish. The native population of the provinces are
chiefly Guaranis, speaking the Guaraoi language.
PARAGUAY TEA. See MATE.
PARAHIBA, one of the most eastern maritime provinces of Brazil, bounded on the n.
by liio Grande do Norte, on the s. by Pernambuco, on the w. by Ceara, and on the e. by the
Atlantic. Area, 31,500 sq.m. ; pop. '72, 376,226. It is traversed by a river of the same
name, by a number of smaller streams, and by mountainous ridges, between which are
valleys, "the soils of which are, for the most part, dry and sandy. Cotton of excellent
quality, maudioc, and tobacco are grown; and cotton, sugar, and timber are exported
Capital, Parahiba (q.v.).
"PARAHIBA, a sea-port of Brazil, capital of the province, and situated on the river of
the came name, about 10 m. from the sea. Besides the cathedral, it contains a number
of religious houses, 2 colleges, and other educational institutions. In 1874 106 vessels,
of 34,683 tons, entered and cleared the port. Pop. 15,000.
PARALEPID ID^E, a family of fishes, allied to the salmonidce and scopelidce. There
are two genera, paralepis and »vdi», the first represented in the Mediterranean, off the
shores of Madeira, and Greenland; the latter also in the Mediterranean. The form
resembles that of the pike; it is covered with deciduous scales; lateral line straight; teeth
on thc-jaws as well as palate; branchial apertures very large; branchiostegal rays, seven;
dorsal tin short and far behind; pectorals well developed; ventrals small, inserted in
front of the dorsal.
PARALLAX is the apparent displacement of an object caused by a change of place in
the ob-crver. When an object at M is looked at from P, it appears in line with some
object, S; but after the observer has moved
to E, M has apparently retrograded to a
position in line with S'; this apparent retro-
••\ is denominated parallax. The angle
PME is called the "angle of parallax," or
the " parallactic angle," and is the measure
of the amount of parallax. To astronomers
the determination of the parallax of the Fig. 1.
heavenly bodies is of the utmost importance,
'for two reasons — first, .from the necessity of referring all observations to the earth's
center, i.e., so modifying them as to make it appear as if they had been actually made
at the earth's center; and secondly, because parallax is our only means of determining
Parallel.
Paralysis.
278
Fig. a.
the magnitude and distance of the heavenly bodies. The geocentric or daily parallax —
as the apparent displacement of a heavenly "body, due to its being observed from a point
on the surface of the earth instead of from its
center, is called — is determined as follows: Let P
and P be two stations on the surface of the earth
(fig. 2), E its center, M the object to be observed,
and Z and Z the /en iths respectively of t he observ-
ers at Puud P (points which, if possible, should
be on the same meridian exactly); then at P and
P let the zenith di^no-i*, ZPM and ZTM, be
observed simultaneously, and since the latitudes
of P and P', and consequently their dill'erence
of latitude, or the angle PEP , is known, from
these three the angle PMP' (the sum of the paral-
laxes at P and P') is at once found; and then, by
a trigonometrical process, the separate angles or
parallaxes PME and P'ME. When the parallax
of M, as observed from P, is known, its distance
from E, the center of the earth, can be at once
lound. When the heavenly body is on the horizon, as at O. its parallax is at a maxi-
mum, and is known as the horizontal parallax. The geocentric parallax is of use only in
determining the distances of those heavenly bodies at which the earth's radius subtends
a considerable angle; and as the moon and Mars (when in opposition) are the only such
bodies, the parallax of the other celestial bodies must be determined in a different man-
ner. The parallax of the sun (q.v.) is found by observation of the transit of*Yeuus
across his disk, a much more accurate method than that above d ;scribed. The paral-
laxes of the other planets are easily determined from that of Mars.
In the case of the fixed stars, at which the earth's radius suL ends an infinitesimal
angle, it becomes necessary to make use of a much larger base-line than the earth's radius,
and, as the largest we can employ is the radius of the earth's orbit, it accordingly is mad.-
use of, and the displacement of a star, when observed from, a point in t!ie earth's orbit
instead of from its center, the sun, is called the tut unit! >r lieliocentric parallax. Here the
base-line instead, as in the former case, of being ij^OO i i., is about 95,000,000 in., and the
two observations necessary to determine the paralmctic angle are made from two point.)
on opposite sides of the earth's orbit, at an interval as nearly as possible of half a year.
Yet, notwithstanding the enormous length of the base-line, it bears so small a proportion
to the distances of the stars, that only in three or four cases have they been found to
exhibit any parallactic motion whatever, and in no case does the angle of parallax amount
to 1" (see STARS). The geocentric horizontal parallax of the moon is about 57' 4.2"; that
of the sun, about 8.6"; and of the double star, 61 cygni, the heliocentric parallax ha- been
determined by Bessel to be .348", equivalent to about 15 millionths of a second of geo-
centric horizontal parallax. Parallax affects every observation of angular measurement
in the heavens, and all observations must be corrected for parallax, -or in astrenomical
phrase, referred to the earth's center before they can be made use of in calculation. Th •
position of a body, when noted from the surface of the earth, is called its apparent posi-
tion ; and when referred to the center, its real position.
PAKALLEL FORCES are those forces which act upon a body in directions parallel to
each other. Every body, being an assemblage of separate particles, each of which is
acted on by gravity, may thus be considered as impressed upon by a system of parallel
forces. The following demonstration will exhibit the mode in which the amount and
position of the resultant force are found: Let P and Q be two
parallel forces acting at the points A and B respectively,
either in the same (fig. 1), or in opposite (fig. 2) direction's;
join AP, and in this line, at the points A and B, apply the
equal and opposite forces S and S, which counterbalance each
other, and therefore do not affect the system. Find M and N
(see COMPOSITION AND RESOLUTION OF FOKCES), the result-
ants of P and S, and Q and S respectively, and produce their
directions tHl they meet in D, at which point let the result-
ants be resolved parallel to their original directions; then then-
are two equal forces, S and S, acting parallel to AB, but in oppo-
site directions, and thus, as they counterbalance each other.
they may be removed. Then there remain two forces. P and
'Q, acting at D, in the line DC, parallel to their original directions, and their sum (fig. 1) or
difference (fig. 2), represented by R, is accordingly the resultant of the original foices at A
and B. To find the position of C, the point in AB, or AB produced, through which the
resultant passes, it is necessary to make use of the well-known property denominated the
triangle of forces (q.v.), according to which the three forces S, M, and Pare propor-
tional to the lengths of AC, AD, DC, the sides of the triangle ADC; then S: P:: AC :
CD, similarly Q : S :: DC : CB, therefore Q : P :: AC :BC, and Q ± P or R : P:: AC
± BC or AB : BC, from which proportions we derive the principle of the lever,
9 7 Q Parallel.
Paralysis.
p
P x A C = Q X BC, and also that R X BC = P X AB, whence BC = ^ X AB, and
iV
the point C is found. The failing case of this proposition is when P and Q acting in
opposite parallel directions at different points are
equal, in which case the resultant R = Q — P =
Q — Q — O. In all other cases there is a pro-
gressive motion, such as would be caused by the
action of a single force R(=Q±P) acting at the
point C in the direction CR; but in the failing case,
since R — O, there is no progressive motion, out a
rotiitory movement round the center of AB. See
COUPLE. It is of no consequence whether A and
B be the true points of application of the forces
P and Q, provided their directions when produced
pass through these points, and the point of applica- /t h 6'
tion of ihe resultant need not be in the line joining Fio. 2
the points of application of the component forces,
but its direction must, when produced, pass through C. If there be more than two
parallel forces, the resultant of the whole is found by compounding the resultant of the
first two with the third in the way given above, thus obtaining a new resultant, which
is similarly combined with the fourth force; and so on till the final resultant is found.
The center of gravity is only a special name for the point of application of the final
resultant of a number of parallel forces.
PARALLEL OGRAM, in mathematics, is a quadrilateral rectilineal figure which has its
opposite sides parallel; the opposite sides are therefore equal, and so are the opposite
angles. If one angle of a parallelogram be a right angle, all its angles are right angles,
and the figure is then called a rectangular parallelogram, or shortly, & rectangle; and if at
the same lime all the sides are equal, the figure is a square; otherwise, if is an oblong. If
the angles are not right angles, but all the sides are equal, it is called flunnbus; and if
the opposite sides only are equal, a rhomboid. The two lines which Cv..:~iect the opposite
corners of a parallelogram are called its diagonals; eacl^bisects the parallelogram, and
they bisect each other; the sum of Ihpir squares also is equal to the sum of the squares of
the sidc-s of the parallelogram.
All parallelograms which have equal bases and equal altitudes are equal in area,
whether they be similar in shape or not, and the area of u parallelogram is found by mul-
tiplying its base by the height.
PARALLELOGRAM OF FORCES. See COMPOSITION OF FOKCES.
PARALLELOPI'PED (Gr.), frequently, but. improperly written parallelepiped, is a solid
figure having six faces, the faces being invariably parallelograms, and any two opposite
faces equal, similar, and parallel. If the faces are all squares, and consequently equal,
the parallelopiped becomes a cube. The volume of a parallelepiped is found by multi-
plying the area of one face by its distance from the opposite one
PARALLELS, in military language, are trenches cut in the ground before a fortress,
roughly parallel to its defenses, for the purpose of giving cover to the besiegers from the
guns of the place. The parallels are usually three, with zigzag trenches leading from
one to another. The old rule used to be to dig the first at 600 yards distance; but the
improvements in artillery have rendered a greater distance necessary; and at Sevastopol,
the allie" made their first trench 2,000 yards from the walls. The third trench is very
near to the besieged works, and from it saps and zigzag approaches are directed to the
covertway. — The bearing of parallels in the general conduct of a SIEGE will be found
described under that head.
PARALLELS or CIRCLES OF LATITUDE -are circles drawn round the surface of the
earth parallel to the equator. They may be supposed to be the intersections with the
earth's surface of planes which cut the earth at right angles to its axis. The greatest of
these circles is the equutor. which has the center of the earth for its center, the radius for
its radius, and is equally distant at all points from each pole. It is evident that of the
others, those next the equator are greater than those more remote, and that they become
less and less till at the poles they vanish altogether. The radius of any one circle ifl
evidently equal to the earth's radius multiplied into the cosine of its latitude or distance
from the equator. The rotary velocity of the earth's surface, which is about 17|- m. pet
minute at the equator, is only 8| m. in lat. 60°; in lat. 82-J-0 (the most northerly point yet
reached), is only 24- m. ; and in lat. 89|° (within 35 m. of the pole) is not more than 261
yards per minute.
The most important parallels of latitude are the tropics of Cancer (23° 28' n. lat) and
Capricorn (23° 28' s. hit.), and the Arctic (66° 32' n. lat.) and Antartic circles (66° 32' s.
latitude.)
PABALYSIS (Gr. , a loosing or relaxing), or PALSY, is a loss, more or less complete, of
the power of motion; but by some writers the term is employed to express also loss of
sensation. When the upper and lower extremities on both sides, and more or less of the
trunk, are involved, the affection is termed general paralysis. Very frequently only one-
Paralyses.
280
half of the body laterally is affected, the other side remain in? sound; to this condition
the tor rti li'ini\>l<(iia is given. When. the palsy is confined to all the parts below an imag-
inary transverse line drawn through the body, or to the two lower extremities, the condi-
tion is termed j/ara^'t;//,!. When one part of the body, as a limb, one side of the face,
etc., is exclusively attacked, the affection is known as lm-,,1 ;«/.<//. In some eases the loss
of sensation and the power of motion in the paralyzed part is entire, while in others it is
not so. In the former the paralysis is said to be complete, in the latter -pin-Hal. In most
cases, but not invariably, sensibility and motion are simultaneously lost or impaired.
When motion is lost, but sensation remains unimpaired, the affection ht.s received th«
name of akinesia (Gr. a, not, and kinfsin, motion). ^lore rarely, then- is a loss of sensi-
bility while the power of motion is retained; and to such cases the U rm «i,ii»lL<-xia (Gr.
a, not, and awthesis, sensation) is applied. This affection occurs mo>l frequently in the
organs of sense; as in the tongue, for example, in which the sense of taste may "be lost,
without any defect of movement.
Paralysis is in most cases a mere symptom of disease existing in some other part than
that apparently affected; as, for example, in the brain or spinal cord, or in the conduct-
ing nerves between either of these organs and the palsied organ. Sometimes, however.
it is a purely local affection, depending upon a morbid condition of the terminal extremi-
ties of the nerves. The varieties in the condition of the brain a!id spinal cord which
occasion paralysis are somewhat numerous; as, for example, congestion, hcmorrhagic
and serous effusion, softening, fatty degeneration, illiniums exudation, suppuration,
hy-dat ids, various morbid growths, 'depressed bone from external violence, etc. It is
highly probable, also, that palsy may sometimes result from mere functional disorder of
the nervous centers — a view which is continued by the fact that a post-mortem examina-
tion of a patient who has suffered from this affection sometimes fails to delect any
apparent lesion. Paralysis may originate in a nervous trunk, if it is compres.-td hv a
tumor, or otherwise mechanically affected, or if it is the seat of morbid action tending
in any way to disorganize it; or it may be due to an abnormal condition of the termina-
tions of the nerves, which may be rendered until for receiving impressions either from
the external world or from the brain by prolonged disuse, by continuous or se\ •• re
sure, by exposure to cold, by disorganization of their own tissue, or by the depressing
action of various metallic poisons, especially lead.
We shall briefly notice the symptoms "and causes of the most important forms of
paralysis, before offering any remarks on the general principles of treatment. 1L nu-
pleffia (Gr. hemi, half, plesso, I strike) affects one lateral half vt the body, and is that
form of palsy to which the term paralytic stroke is commonly applied. The parts gener
idly affected "are the upper and lower extremities, the muscles of mastication, and the
muscles of the tongue on one side. In a well-marked case the patient when seized falls
to the ground, all power of motion in the affected arm and leg being lost. The palsy of
the face which accompanies hemiplegia is usually quite distinct from the affection known
as facial palsy, which is an affection of the facial nerve or portio dura. See MKUVOUS
SYSTEM. It is the motor branches of the fifth or trifacial nerve going to the muscles of
mastication which arc generally involved in hemiplegia, and consequently the cheek is
flaccid ;'.nd hangs down, and the angle of the mouth is depressed on the affect id side.
The tongue when protruded points towards the paralyzed side, and there is often imper-
fect articulation, in consequence of the lesion commonly affecting the hypoglossal nerve.
Hemiplegia may arise from lesions of various kinds, as, for example, (1)' from hemor-
rhage, or some other morbid change in the brain, in which case the palsy is on the side of
the body opposite to the lesion, in consequence of the decussation or crossing over
of nervous fibers from one side to the other that occurs at the upper part of the spinal
cord (q.v.); (2) irom spinal disease below the point of decussation just noticed: in this
case the palsy, and the lesion causing it, are on the same side of the body. It is also
sometimes associated with .hysteria, epilepsy, and chorea, but in these cases it usually
disappears in a few hours.
Paraplegia (Gr.) is usually confined to the two lower extremities, but the muscles of
the lower part of the trunk and of the bladder and rectum are sometimes j;ffeetcd.
There are at lest two distinct forms of paraplegia, viz.. (11 paraplegia dependent on
primary disease of the spinal cord or its membranes, and especially on myelitis (q.v.);
and (2) reflex paraplegia, i.e.. paraplegia consequent on disease of the kidneys, bladder,
urethra, prostate, womb, etc. These two forms of paraplegia differ in many of their
phenomena, and the most important of these points of difference have been arranged in
a tabular form by Dr. Brown Sequard in his La-turf* mi Paralysis of the /."<r, /• /:'.i-fr>:tni-
tm, to which we must refer for the best information on this form of palsy. Paraplegia
usually comes on slowly, with a gradual increase of its symptoms. The. reflex form is,
of course, by far the most favorable, as it usually abates spontaneously on the sub-
sidence of the primary disease.
Facial palsy, although locally affecting only a small part of the body, is a disorder of
sufficent importance to require" a definite notice. In this affection there is a more or
less perfect loss of power over all the muscles supplied by the portio dura, or facial
nerve. The following graphic account of the appearance of the patient is condensed
from Dr. Watson's Lectures on the Practice of Physic, From one-half of the counte-
nance ail power of expression is gone; the features are blank, still, and unmeaning; the
Paralysis.
eyelids apart and motionless. The other half retains its natural cast, except that, in
some cases, the angle of the mouth on that side seems drawn a little awry, in conse-
quence of the want of counterpoise from the corresponding muscular fibers of the palsied
side. The patient cannot laugh, or weep, or frown, or express any feeling or emotion
with one side of his face, while the features of the other may be in full play, nor can
he spit or whistle properly. One-half of the aspect, with its unwinking eye, its fixed
and solemn stare, might be that of a dead person; the other half is alive and merry.
To those who do not comprehend the possible extent of the misfortune, the whimsical
nppeuran :e of the patient is a matter of mirth and laughter; while, on the other hand,
his friends imagine that he has had a stroke, and that he is in a very dangerous state.
The nerve may be unable to discharge its duties in consequence of disease within the
cavity of the skull, and in that case there is very serious danger; but in the great
majority of cases the nervous function is interrupted in that part of the portio dura
which lies encased in the temporal bone, or in the more exposed part which issues in
front of the ear; and hence this form of palsy is generally unattended with any danger
to life. It may arise from various causes. Sometimes it is the consequence of mechani-
cal violence, sometimes of tumors pressing on it in the region of the parotid gland, and
it very frequently arises from the mere exposure of the side of the face for some time to
a stream of cold air.
It yet remains to notice certain kinds of paralysis which differ either in their char-
acters, or in their causes, from those which have been already described — vi/,.. shaking
palsy, OT paralysis agitans; and the palsies induced by various poisons. Sht^k'ng palsy
has been deiiued as "involuntary tremulous motion, with lessened muscular power in
parts not in action, and even when supported; with a propensity to bend the trunk
forwards, niid to pass from a walking to a running pace; the senses and intellect being
uninjured." It is chiefly an affection of old age, and often goes no further than to cause
an unceasing nodding and wagging of the head in all directions. Somewhat analogous
to this form of palsy is that peculiar kind of trembling which is often uoiided in parsons
who are much exposed to the vapor of mercury; mercurial tremor, as it is termed by
the phy<kvi;;s. and the trembles, as the patient usually calls it. It consists in a con-
vulsive agitation of the voluntary muscles, especially when an attempt is made to cause
them to act under the influence of the will; a patient with this affection walks with
uncertain steps, his limbs trembling and dancing as if they had been hung upon wires.
When siuiiuv down he exhibits little or no indication of his disease, but on rising he
cannot hold his legs steady, nor direct them with precision; and in severe cases he falls
to the ground if not supported. The arms are similarly agitated, and the tongue is
usually so tremulous as to render the articulation hurried and unnatural. The disease
is especiii'ily common in artisans employed in the gilding of metals, and particularly of
silver, by means of heat; it is also frequent among the workers of quicksilver mines, in
which the crude metal is purified by heat. The time required for the production of the
dis'.-as-j varies extremely in different cases (according to Dr. Watson, from two years to
h've-and-twenty). The duration of the complaint is considerable; it may last two or
three months, or longer, but it is seldom fatal.
The palsy arising from the absorption of lead has been already noticed in the article
LEAD-POISONING.
A. specific form of paralysis of the lower extremities, consequent on the use of flour
from the beans of the lathy r us scttlcus, is common in certain parts of India and in Thi-
bet. Tiie ripe bean is an ordinary article of food when made into flour, but it is gener-
ally used with wheat or barley flour; it is only when it exceeds one-twelfth part that it
is at all injurious, and when it exceeds one-third that the paralysis sets in. Other species
of (iifh'/i'tis have been known occasionally to induce similar symptoms in European
countries.
We shall enter into no details regarding the treatment of hemiplegia and paraplegia,
as the management of these serious affections should be exclusively restricted to the
physician. When a patient has an attack of hemiplegia (or a paralytic stroke) all that
should be done before the physician arrives is to place him in a horizontal position, with
the head slightly raised, and to remove any impediments presented by the dress to the
free circulation of the blood. Should the physician not arrive in nn. hour or two, it
may be expedient to give the patient a sharp purge (half a scruple of calomel, followed
in a few hours by a black draught, if he can swallow; and two drops of croton oil,
mixed with a little melted butter, and placed on the 'back of his tongue, if the power of
deglutition is lost), and without wailing for its action, to administer an injection (or
clyster) consisting of half an ounce ofoil of turpentine suspended (by rubbing it with
the yolk of an egg) in half a pint of thin gruel; and cold lotions may be applied to the
head, especially if its surface be hot. The question of blood-letting — the universal treat-
ment a quarter of a century ago — must be left solely to the physician. It should, how-
ever, be generally known, that if the patient be cold and collapsed; if the heart's action
be feeble and intermittent; if there be an aneemic state; if the patient be of advanced
age; if there is evidence of extensive disease of the heart or arterial system; or lastly, if
there is reason, from the symptons, to believe that a large amount of heinorrhage has
already taken place in the brain; these singly, and a fortiori conjointly, are reasons why
blood should not be abstracted.
Paramaribo. OQQ
Paraph.
Facial palsy, unless the seat of the disease be within the cavity of the cranium, will
usually yield in the course of a 1'cw week'- to cupping and blistering behind the ear of
the affected side, purgatives, and small doses of corrosive sublimate (one-twelfth of a
grain three times a day, combined with a little of the compound ticture of bark), which
must be stopped as soon as the gums are at all affected. Exposure to cold air must be
carefully avoided during treatment.
Little or nothing can be done to cme paralysis agifaw. In the treatment of mercurial
tremor, the first step is to remove the patient from the further operation of the poison,
while the .second is to remove the poison already r.lxorbed into the system, which is
effected by the administration of iodide of potassium. This salt combines with the
metallic poison in the system, and forms a soluble salt (a double iodide of mercury and
potassium), which is eliminated through the kidneys. Good food and tonics (steel or
quinia, or the two combined) should be at the same time freely given.
The writer of this article has no. personal knowledge of the treatment that should be
recommended in the paralysis produced by the use of Inthyrus Mticn.i, bin
reported which seem to have been, benefited by good diet, tonics, strychnia, and the
application of blisters to the loins.
PARAMARIBO, the capital of Dutch Guiana, is situated on the western bank of
the river Surinam, about 10 in. from its mouth, in 5° 45' u. hit., and 55° 15 w. long. It
forms a rectangle cf nearly a mile and a half in length by three-quarters in breadth.
The streets are broad, covered with shell-sand, and planted on both sides with orange,
lemon, tamarind, and other trees. Near the river, the houses, which are eh icily of wood,
stand somewhat closely together, but in the remoter parts each is surrounded by its own
garden. The rooms are wainscoted with the choicest woods, and elegantly furnished.
In approaching Paramaribo from the .sea fort Zeelandia is first, readied; then the
bureau of finance and court of justice on the government plain, which is surrounded by
stately cabbage-palms; the governor's house, with shady double avenue of tamarind
trees; and lastly, the business streets stretching along the river side. Tiiere are a Dutch
Reformed, a Lutheran, Moravian, two Roman Catholic churches, and two symig
Fort Zeelandia has a large and beautiful barrack, wUh several roomy houses for the
officers. Paramaribo has a neat, pleasant, and picturesque appearance, the while
painted houses, with bright-green doors and windows, peeping out from the shady trees,
and the river being thronged with the tent-boats and canoes which are constantly arriv-
ing and departing.
On Jan. 1, 1875. the population amounted to 21,755. By royal decree of Feb. 6, ls~l.
the flogging of slaves in the Netherlands West Indies w'as forbidden, except through
officers appointed for the purpose, an < the number of lashes was limited. This cheek,
however, was frequently evaded, and the greatest barbarities practiced, so that the feel-
ing in favor of emancipation increased in the Netherlands, and a bill was passed, Aug.
8, 1862, for emancipating the slaves on July 1, 1863.
Paramaribo being the only port, except Nickerie Point, at the mouth of the Oorentyn,
enjoys a considerable trade. In 1874 the total arrivals in Dutch Guiana were 20 i ships,
measuring 26,472 tons, the departures 212, of 27,593 tons. By far the largest number
were British. About a fourth part cleared at Nickerie, a very productive portion of the
colony, in which sugar, molasses, and rum are manufactured in large quantities.
The climate of Dutch Guiana is not healthy. From this and other causes the deaths
annually exceed the births. In 1874 there were 1548 births and 3,364 deaths. Of the
births 1198 were not in wedlock. In Curacao, Aruba, St. Martin, St. Kustatitis. and
Saba, there were 1439 births and 658 deaths. Of the births 1058 were illegitimate.
During that year 1405 coolies arrived in the colony, of whom 1384 were from British
India. Among these laborers the average death-rate was 13.85 per cent, and on three
plantations 47.70; while that of the Creoles averaged 5.70. Elephantiasis arabum and
fepra are fearfully prevalent among the black population of Paramaribo and neighbor-
hood.
The maximum fall of rain is in May, the minimum in September and October. By
observations mado at rive different points during eight successive years, it was found
that the quantity varies much, being smallest at Nickerie, in the w., and lani.
Montbyou in the e. of the colony. The averages of the eight years, from 1817 to 1854,
were: Nickerie, 66.70 in.; Groningen, on the river Saramacca, 90.50: Paramaribo. 99.85;
Gelderland, on the river Surinam. 108.25: and Montbyou, 127.75. In Georgetown,
British Guiana, the average fall is 100.50 inches.
The coast of Dutch Guiana is an alluvial deposit formed by the rivers and equatorial
stream which flows eastwards. Further inland the sdil is diluvial loam, bearing the
finest timber trees; and s. of this line are extensive savannas of white sand, stretching
towards the hills and mountains of the interior, which are chiefly of gneiss and granite.
Exports '74, 24.135,503 Ibs. sugar; 2,435,483 Ibs. cocoa; 127,460 Ibs. cotton; 57,549
Ibs. quassia-wood; 273,159 galls, molasses; 201,780 galls, rum, etc.
PARAHAT TA is a light worsted twilled fabric for female dress. It was invented at
Bradford, in Yorkshire, and has become an important manufacture of that place. The
weft consists of combed merino wool, and the warp of cotton. It resembles in texture
the Coburg and Orleans cloths.
O Q Q Pavam arlbo.
-°' Paraph.
PARAMATTA, a pleasantly situated t. of Xew South Wales, stands near the w.
extremity of port Jackson, on a small river of the same name, and is 15 m. by land
w.n.w. of Sydney, with which it is connected both by steamer and railway. The houses
are mostly detached, and the streets are wide and regular, the principal one being about
a mile in length. The institutions comprise churches, schools, an orphan and a lunatic
asylum, and a prison. There was formerly an observatory here, but it was removed to
Svdney in 1858. " Colonial tweeds," "Paramatta cloths," and salt are manufactured.
Pop. "71, 6,103.
The town of Paramatta, formerly called Rosehill, is, with the exception of Sydney,
the oldest in the colony. The first grain raised in the colony was grown here, and the
first grants of land made.
PARAM ETER, or LATUS RECTUM, a term used in conic sections, denotes, in the case
of the parabola, a third proportional to the abscissa of any diameter and its correspond-
ing ordinate; in the ellipse and hyperbola, a third proportional to a diameter and its
conjugate. The parameter of any diameter is, in the case of the parabola, the same as
the double ordinate of that diameter which passes through the focus, and is four times
as long as the distance between the diameter's vertex and the directrix. The term
parameter was also at one time used to denote any straight line about a curve, upon
which its form could be made to depend, or any constant in its equation, the value of
which determined the individual curve; but its employment in this sense is now discon-
tinued, except in the theory of homogeneous differential equations, where the constants,
for the purpose of aiding the solution, are supposed to vary; and the method is conse-
quently denominated the "variation of the parameters." In the application of this
method to determine the orbital motions of the planets, the "seven necessary data" (see
ORBIT) were called parameters, but for this the term "elements" is now substituted.
PARANA', an important river of Brazil, rises in the province of Minas Geraes, about
100 in. n. w. of Rio de Janeiro. It flows w. for upwards of 500 m., through the provinces
of Minns Geraes and Sao Paulo. In the latter it is joined by the Parnahiba, after which
its course alters, and it flows s.s.w. to Candeiaria. Passing this town,, it flows w. for
200 m. to its confluence with the Paraguay (q.v.), and ihcn bending southward passes
Santa Fe, below which its channel frequently divides and incloses numerous islands.
After passing Santa Fe, it rolls onward in a s.e. direction and unites with the Uruguay
in forming the Rio de la Plata. Entire length about 2,400 miles. It draws a number
of considerable tributaries from the province of Parana (q.v.); and of the others the chief
are the Paraguay, Uruguay, Pardo, Tiele, and Parnahilm. For vessels drawing 16 ft. it
is navigable to Corrientes, "upwards of GOO in. from its mouth.
PARANA', a province in the s. of Brazil, is bounded on the n. by the province of Sao
Paulo; on the e. by the Atlantic; s.e. by S-mta Catharina: s. by Rio Grande do Sul; w.
by Paraguay and Matto Grosso. Area stated at 72,000 sq. miles. Pop. '72, 126,722, one-
sixth of whom are slaves. The capital is Curitiba, and previously to 1852 this province
formed a territory called the Comarca of Curitiba, included in the province of Sao
Paulo. It fully commenced its provincial career in 1853. The sea-coast is indented by
several bays, but the chief and almost the only port as yet is Paranagua. A line of
mountains runs parallel to the coast at a distance of about 80 m. inland, and throws out
spurs and branches westward. The streams flowing e. from this water-shed, though
numerous, are inconsiderable; while the rivers flowing westward, into the Parana (q.v.),
which forms the western boundary of the province, are all about or upwards of 400 m. in
length. The principal are the Paranapanema, Ivay, Piquery, and Yguassu. The cli-
mate is unusually healthy; the soil is fertile, and agriculture, rearing cattle and swine,-
and gathering mate, or Paraguay tea. are the chief employments. The capital, Curitiba,
lias manufactures of coarse woolens, and with its agricultural surroundings has a pop. of
12,000. — The chief port, Paranagua, on a bay of the same name, is about 400 m. s. w. of
Rio de Janeiro. It contains about 3,000 inhabitants, and exports mate to the value of
$1,000.000 annually.
PARAPET (Ttal. pnra-pcttn, from pnrare, to protect, and petto, the breast), a wall
raivd higher than the gutter of a roof for protection; in military works, for defense
against missiles from without (see FORTIFICATION): in domestic buildings, churches, etc.,
to prevent accident by falling from the roof. Parapets are of very ancient date. The
Israelites were commanded to build "a battlement " round their flat roofs. In classic
architecture balustrades were u.-cd as p-irapets. In Gothic architecture parapets of all
kinds are used. In early work they are generally plain, but in later buildings they are
pierced and ornamented with tracery, which is frequently of elaborate design, especially
in French flamboyant work. Shields and little arcades are also used as ornaments to
parapets: and the battlements of castles are imitated in the parapets of religious and
domestic buildings.
PARAPH (Gr. para, beside, and Itapto, to touch), an addition to the signature formed
by a flourish of the pen, Avhich, during the middle ages, constituted some sort of pro-
vision against forgery. Its use is not altogether extinct in diplomacy, and in Spain the
paraph is still a usual part of a signature.
Paraphernalia. QQJ.
Parasitic. ~°-
PAEAPHEENA LIA (Gr. para, beside; or beyond; plcrne, dower) is a term borrowed
from* the Human law to denote certain articles of personal adornment and apparel
belonging to a married woman. According to the usual rule in the law of Ei.-laiui, all
the personal property of a woman becomes the property of her husband when the mar-
riage takes place, unless there is a marriage settlement; but there is a a exception as
regards the trinkets and dress of Ihe wife so tar as suitable to her rank in life, and which
she continues to use during the marriage. In such a case the property in the.-e articles
does not vest absolutely in the husband. He cannot bequeath them by his will to a
third person, but if he gave tlrem to the wife, he may pawn, or sell, or give them away,
and they can be seized in execution to pay his debts, except so far as they constitute
necessary clothing. And if he were to die insolvent, they may, except that par; which
is necessary clothing, be taken by the husband's creditors. If the paraphernalia were
given, not by the husband but by a third party before or during marriage, then they are
presumed to be given for the wife's separate use, and the husband or his creditors can-
not in any way" inter fere with them. In the law of Scotland the paraphernalia of a
married woman include not merely personal clothing and trinkets, but a: furni-
ture, such as a chest of drawers. The husband there can neither pawn, nor pledge, nor
give away the paraphernalia, nor can his creditors attach them either during his life or
after his death.
PAEAPHRASE (Gr. para, beside, nnd phrazvin, to speak) is the name given to a verbal
expansion of the meaning either of a whole book, or of a separate passage in it. A para-
phrase consequently differs from metaphrase, or strictly literal translation, in this, that
it aims to make the* sense of the text clearer by a lucid circumlocution, wi'hout actually
passing into commentary. The versified passages of Scripture, forming part of the
psalmody of the Scottish church, are popularly known as ''the paraphrases."
PABAPLE GIA. See PARALYSIS.
PAR'ASANG, a lineal measure still used by the Persians, and often alluded to by the
Greeks. The estimate of its length givfn by Herodotus, Suidas, Hesychius and Xen-
op]ion, and concurred with by modern travelers, is equivalent to about oO Gn
or 3J English miles. The word is thought to be derived from seng (Persian, a stone),
and para (Sanskrit, end), in allusion to milestones. Byzantine writers reckoned it at
21 stiuliu; Strabo reckoned it at 30, 40, and even 60 stadia,. Persian authorities are
divided.
PAEAS ARA. is the name of several celebrated personages of ancient India, met with
in the Mnhd'tluinita (q.v.), the Purdn'as (q.v.), and other works. Of one personage of
this name, the; Maliabk&ratd relates that he was the son of S'akti. who was th- s:m of the
patriarch Vasisht'ha. King Kalmdshapada once meeting with S'akti in a narrow patli in
a thicket, desired him to stand out of the way. The sage refused, on which the raja beat
him wilh his whip, au^l S'akti cursed him to become a rakshasa, or demon. The raja,
in this transformation, killed and ate S' akti, together with the other sons of Vasisht'ha.
S'akli, however, had left his wife, Adris'yanti, pregnant, and she gave birth ro Para, sara,
who was brought up by his grandfather. When he grew up, and was informed of his
father's death, he instituted a sacrifice for the destruction of all the Raksha-^. but was dis-
suaded from its completion by Vasisht'ha and other sages. The same legend is referred to
by the Vishn' it-Pardna, where Parasara is introduced as relating, himself, part of this story,
and adding, that the saint Pulastya, one of the mind-born sons of Brahma, in reward of
the clemency he had shown even toward such beings as the Rakshasas, bestowed on him
the boon of becoming the author of a compendium, or rather the compil.T, of the
Purdn'ax, and of the Vishn' u-Purdna in particular. "This tradition," prof. V.
observes (Vixhn'u-Purdna, ed. Hall, vol. i., p. 10), "is incompatible with the gem ral
attribution of all the Purdn'as to Vyilsa;" but it may perhaps point to a later recension
when, to the native mind, Vyasa would still remain the reputed author of the older
Ptnun'ft't, although, of course, even this assumption has little claim to historical truth.
A Parasara, probably different from the one named, is the author of a celebrated code
of laws; he is mentioned by Yajnavalkya in his standard work, and often quoted by the
commentaries. — A probably third Parasara is the reputed author of a Tanlra (q.v.): and
afourtii the author of an astronomical work. — Paras'aras (in the plural) designates the
whole family to which the different Paras'aras belong.
PAEASI'TA, or ANOPLU'RA, an order of insects, to all of which the name louse is pop-
ularly given. All live as parasites on quadrupeds and birds. The characters of the
order are noticed in the article LOUSE. It remains, however, to be added that the order
is divided into two sections: in the first of which, pediculidta, the mouth is small and
quite suctorial; whilst in the second, nirmidea, it is furnished with mandibles and
hooked maxilhe. The species of the first section are found only on man and mammals;
those of the second section, almost exclusively on birds, although one infests the dog.
The nirmidea show much greater activity than the pediculidea. When a bird dies, the
bird-lice congregate near the beak, and seem disquieted, apparently anxious to change
their abode.
Paraphernalia.
Parasitic.
PARASITE (Gr. from para, beside; sitos, footl: one who eats with another; hence one
who eats at tho expense of another), a common character in the Greek comedies; a low
fellow, who is read\- to submit to any indignity, that lie may be permitted to partake of
u banquet, and who lives as much a^ possible ut the expense of others.
PAEASITIC ANIMALS are numerous. Some of them are entozoa, and some are
epizna. See these heads. They belong to different classes, and even to diil'erent divis-
ions of the animal kingdom; all, however. ;>re invertebrate. Many are of tiie division
-'/•','• '.lota,, and many of the division rarli'ftta. Besides ,rww* of various kinds, there are
among parasite-; not a few crustaceans, as the lerneans, etc., and not a few insects, as
the louse. Tlicse insects constitute the order puraaitu or anoplura. Some of the cir-
rhapods which live in the skin of large marine animals, as whales, can scarcely be
regarded as parasitic animals, but rather bear to them a relation such as epiphyte* do
to parasitical plants, not deriving their food from the animal on which they live.
Tape-worms, a-carides, and other intestinal worms, do not directly draw sustenance
from the animal in which they live, by extracting its juices, but they live at its ex-
pense, by consuming its food, after the food has undergone, in great part, the process
of digestion.
PARASITIC DISEASES constitute one of the recognized orders of disease in Dr. Farr's
classification. See NOSOLOGY. In these diseases, certain morbid conditions are induced
by the presence of animals or vegetables which have found a place of subsistence within
some tissue or organ, or upon some surface of the body of manor of other animals.
Even plants are not exempt from disorders of this nature (see PARASITIC PLANTS). The
forms of animal life giving rise to parasitic diseases are described in articles ASCARTDES,
CI.STOID-WOUMS, ENTOZOA, EPIZOA, GCINEA-WORM, ITCH-INSECT, LOUSE, NEMATELMIA,
STRONG vu;s, TAPEWORMS, TRICHINA, etc. With the vegetable structures which give
rise to special diseases we are less accurately acquainted, in consequence of the limited
knowledge of cryptogamic botany possessed by many writers who have recorded their
experience of tiiese cases. These parasites are eit'ner/««i74 or alga; and are composed of
simple sporules, germs, or cells, or of cells arranged in rows, or groups, which arc so
minute as to require the microscope for their recognition. Fungi are the most numer-
ous of all plants in regard to genera and species, and their growth is associated with
serious injury both to animal and vegetabl • life. It is not, however, always easy to
determine whether they are the direct cause of disease, or whether the diseased tissue has
merely afforded a suitable nidus for their development. "It is certain," says Dr. Ait-
ken, who has entered more fully into this subject than .any other English writer on the
practice of medicine, " that wherever the normal chemical processes of nutrition are
impaired, and the incessant changes between solids and fluids slacken, then, if the part
'•an furnish a proper soil, the cryptogamic parasites will appear. The soil they select is,
for the most part, composed of epithelium or cuticle, acid mucus or exudation. Acidity,
ho'.veviT, though favorable to their growth, is not indispensable, since some of the
vegetable parasites grow upon alkaline or neutral ground, as on ulcerations of the
trachea, or in fluid in tlie ventricles of the brain. Certain atmospheric conditions seem
favorable to the occurrence of these vegetable parasites. For example, tinea ton&urnn*
may be quite absent for years in places such as work-houses, where it commonly exists,
and then for several months every second or third child in the place gets the disease."
There is undoubted evidence from the observations and experiments of Devergie, Yon
Barensprung, and others, that these parasitic diseases may be transmitted by contagion
from horses, oxen, and other animals to man; while conversely, Dr. Fox mentions an
instance of :i white cat which contracted the mange from tinea tomurans (ringworm of
the scalp), which affected the children of the family to which it belonged — the fungus of
the mange in the cat being Ihe same fungus as that of tinea in the human subject, viz.,
the tricojJiyfon (Gr. trie (trie), of a hair, and pliyion. a plant).
The principal vegetable parasites associated in man with special morbid states are
arranged by Aitken (The Science and Prttctke of Medicine, 1863, 2d edit., vol. ii., p. 171) as
follows: 1. The trycophyton tonnnrann, which is present in the three varieties of fii/ea
tondens — viz., T. circinaius (ringworm of the body), T. tonsnra-ns (ringworm of the scalp),
and 1. si/cosis menti (ringworm of the beard). 2. The tricopltyton »porulmdea, which,
together with the above, is present in the disease known as plica potonira . 3. The
ion scJidiilcinu and puccinw fttri. which are present in T.fawva, known also as fircnx
(q.v.), and porriyo scutulafa (the honeycomb ringworm). 4. The micro*poron inentfujro-
phyta. which is present in meatagra. 5. TlK3 microzporon furfur, which occurs in
pityriasu vermcolor. 6. The microsporon tn/omdni, which is present \nporririo decohans.
7. The mycetoma or chionyphc cartf-ri, which gives rise to the disease known as the " fun-
gus foot of India," etc. 8. The oidmm nlbicftn* of diphtheria and aphtha. 9. The rryp-
tococeus ceremncB, or yeast plant, occurring in the urine and contents of the stomach, if
there is saccharine fermentation. 10. The sarcina r/oodserii, or merispmlia rcntrif'ili (oi
Robin), found in vomited matters and in the urine. There are strong gnninds, based
partly on botanical and partly on clinical observation, for believing that the various
fungi already described are mere varieties of two or more species in various phases of
development.
Parasitic. ,.
Partlessus.
We shall conclude this article with a brief notice of the most dangerous of all the
parasitic diseases— ihe fungus foot or/" //,'/«'/* /l^tn», nf India. It occurs in many parts
of India, and the n.e. shores of the Persian gulf, it is a disease which occurs among
natives only, so far as has been yet observed, and is undoubtedly due to the presence of
a fungus which cats its way into the bones of the foot and the lov.< r ends of the tibia and
fibula, penetrating by numerous listulous canals through the tissue of the entire foot, and
tending to cause death by exhaustion, unless amputation is performed in due time. Dr.
Carter has described three forms of this disease, in which both the symptoms and the
fungoid material differ considerably from each other. A few remarks on the first of
these forms will suffice as au illustration of parasitic disease. In this form the bones of
the foot and the lower ends of the leg-bones are perforated in every direction with round-
ish cavities, varying in size from that of a pea to that of a pistol-bullet, the cavities
being rilled with the fungoid matter. The surrounding muscles, and subsequently the
tendinous and fatty structures, are converted into a gelatinil'orm mass, in con>eqi:encc
of which the foot presents a peculiar turgid appearance. Examined under the micro-
scope, the fungoid mass is found to consist of short, beaded, tawny threads or filaments,
arising from a common center, and having at their tips large spore-like cells. For fur-
ther information regarding this remarkable form of disease, the reader is referred to Dr.
Carter's paper iu the fifth volume (new series) of the Transactions of tin: MnHi;tl ,n,d Phy-
sical tfocitty of Bombay, and to the rev. M. J. Berkeley's account of his examination of the
fungus, in the second volume of The Intellectual Ol»erlcr, p. 248.
Further notice of the parasitic diseases of the skin will be found in the articles PITY-
RIASIS (var. vfrstcolor), RIXGWORM, SCALD HEAD, etc.
PARASITIC PLANTS are plants which grow on other plants, and derive subsistence
from their juices; the plants which live parasitically on animal tissues being generally
called eniophytes (q v.), although the distinction between these terms is i.ot always pir-
served. Lpiphytes (q.v.) differ from parasitical plants in not subsisting on the jui'
the plant which supports them but merely on decayed portions of its bark, etc., 01 draw-
ing all their nourishment from the air. Parasitical plants are numerous and very various;
the greater number, however, and the most important, being small fungi, as rust, brand,
bunt, smut, etc., the minute spores of which are supposed, in some cases, to circulate
through the juices of the plants which they attack. Concerning some minute fungi, as
the mildews, it is doubted if they are truly parasitical, or if their attacks are not always
preceded by some measure of decay. But among parasitic plants are not a few phanero-
gamous plants, some of which have j;rccn leaves; and some are even shrubby, as the
mislletce, lorautlms, etc. ; whilst the greater number have brown scales instead f f leaves;
as dodder, broem-rape, lathrsea, etc., and the whole of that remarkable order or el
plants called )/<Kani7iece or rlmogens, of which the genus rajflenia is distinguished above
all other plants for the magnitude of its flowers. Some parasitic plants, as the species
of dodder, begin their existence by independent growth from the ground; but when they
have found suitable plants to take hold of and prey on, the connection with the ground
ceases. Not a few, as broom-rape and latin a?a, are root-parasites, generally attaching
themselves to the roots of trees or shrubs; whilst some, as the eyebright (<•>";>//, vr.vW f>jfj-
cinalis), yellow rattle (rhinanthus crinfa f/alli), cow-wheat (melampyrum arn n*t). etc.. are
parasitical only occasionally and partially, and are chiefly found on neglected grass
lands. Root-parasites generally attach themselves by means of little tubercles, which
bury themselves under the bark.
PARATY', a sea-port t. of Brazil, in the province of Rio de Janeiro, on the w. coast of
the bay of Angra, 90 in. s.w. of Rio de Janeiro city. It has extensive commerce, and
numerous distilleries. Pop. said to be 10,000.
PARAY-LE-MONIAL, a t. of Burgundy, department of Saone-et-Loire, celebrated for
its Benedictine abbey, founded in" 973, which contains the tomb of Mary Margaret
Alocque, the center of recent pilgrimages by the confraternities of the Sacred Heart (q.v.).
Pop. of town and commune (1876), 3,627; of town alone, 2,895.
PARBUCKLE is a mode of drawing up or lowering down an inclined plane any cylin-
drical object, as a barrel or a heavy gun, without the aid of a crane or tackle. It con-
sists in passing a stout rope round a post or seme suitable object at the top of the incline,
and then doubling the ends under and over the object to be moved. This converts the
cask or gun into a pulley in its own behalf, and limits the pressure at each end of the
rope to one-fourth the weight of the object moved, as felt on the incline. By hauling in
the ends equally, the cask ascends, or rica cersd.
PAR'C25 (from the root pars, a part\ the name given by the Romans to the goddesses
of fate or destiny, who assigned to every one his "part" or lot. The Greek name, ino/rce,
has the same meaning (from mero*. a share). They are only once mentioned by Homer,
\vho in every other instance — speak of Fate (Moira) in the singular, and whose Fate was
not a deity but a mere personification, the destinies of men being made by .him to depend
upon the will of the gods; whilst, according to the later Greeks and the Romans, the
gods themselves were subject to the control of the pame or moira*. Hcsiod, however,
•who is almost contemporary with Homer, speaks of three fates, whom he calls daughters
of Night — Clotho, the spinner of the thread of life; Lachesis, -who determines the lot of
m Parasitic.
Pardessus.
life; and Atropos, the in avi table. They were usually represented ns young women of
serious aspect; Clotho with a spindle, Lachesis pointing with a staff to the horoscope
of man 011 a globe, and Atropos with a pair of scales, or sun-dial, or an instrument to
cut the thread of life. In the oldest representations of them, however, they appear as
matrons, with staffs or scepters. They had places consecrated to them throughout all
Greece, at Corinth, Sparta, Thebes, Olympia, etc.
PARCELS, in the law of England, is the technical word for the article in a convey
^nce describing the lands, etc., conveyed.
PAR CENER. See COPARCENARY.
PARCHIM, a t. of the grand-duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, stands on the Elde.
which is here divided into two arms, 23 m. s.e. of Schwerin. It is very old, is irregu-
larly built, surrounded by beautiful gardens, and has a gymnasium and two chv.rches.
Pop. '75, 3.234, employed in agriculture, in the manufacture of tobacco, cloth, leather,
and brandy, and in weaving.
PARCHMENT, one of the oldest inventions of writing materials, was known at least
as early as 5uO yer.rs B.C. Herodotus speaks of books written upon skins in his time.
Pliny, without j.o-xl grounds, places the invention as late as 196 B.C., stating that it was
made at Pergamcs ^hence the name Pergamena, corrupted into Eng. parchment) in the
reign of Eumenius T.i , in consequence of Ptolemy of Egypt having prohibited the expor-
tation of papyrus. Possibly the Pergamian invention was an improvement in the prepa-
ration of skins, which hat1 certainly been used centuries before. The manufacture rose
to great importance in Horn? about a century B.C., and soon became the chief material
for writing on; and its use spreao. all over Europe, and retained its pre-emiaence until
the invention of .paper from lags, which from its great durability proved a fortunate cir-
cumstance for literature.
There are several kinds of parcnmer't, prepared from the skins of different animals,
according to their intended uses. The culinary writing parchment is made from those
of the sheep and of the she-goat; the finer kind, known as vellum, is made from those of
very young calves, kids, and lambs; the thick common kinds, for drums, tamborines,
battledores, etc., from those of old he-goats and s!>e-goats, and in northern Europe
from wolves; and a peculiar kind is made froui asses' skins, the surface of which is
enameled. It is used for tablets, as black-lead vmthig ?an be readily removed from it
by moisture. The method of making parchment is at ?ivt the same as in dressing skins
for leather. The skins are limed in the lime-pit until tho L.MI is easily removed. They
are then stretched tightly and equally, and the flesh side is cL^s^ed as in currying, until
a perfectly smooth surface is obtained. It is next ground by rubb'ng over it a flat piece
of pumice-stone, previously dressing the flesh sid*eo»ly with po-,vdo;\d chalk, and slaked
lime sprinkled over it. It is next allowed to dry, still tightly sirtfd>ed on the frame.
The drying process is an important one and must be rather slowly oa.Ticd on, for which
purpose it mnsi be in the shade. Sometimes these operations have to be repeated several
times, in order to insure an excellent quality, and much depends upon Uie skill with
which the pumice-stone is used, and also upon the fineness of the pumice itself. When
quite dried the lime and chalk are removed by rubbing with a soft lambskin with the
wool on.
PARCHMENT, VEGETABLE. This remarkable substance was made known by Mr./
\V. E. Gaine in 1854, and again by the rev. J. Barlow in 1837. It resembles animal
parchment so closely that it is not easy to distinguish the difference. It is made from
the water-leaf, or unsized paper, by immersing it only for a few seconds in a bath of oil
of vitriol, diluted with one-half its volume of water. The exactness of this dilution is
of the greatest importance to the success of the results. The dilute acid must not be
used immediately after mixing, but must be suffered to cool to the ordinary temperature;
without attention to these apparently trifling points, the operator will not succeed.
The alteration which takes place in the paper is of a very remarkable kind. No
chemical change is effected, nor is the weight increased; but it appears that a molecular
change takes place, and the material is placed in a transition state between the cellulose
of woody fiber and dextrine. Vegetable parchment is in some respects preferable to the
old kind, for insects attack it less, and it can be made so thin as to be used for tracing-
paper, and bears wet without injury. Messrs. de la Eue have the credit of giving prac-
tical effect to the invention.
PARDESSITS, JEAX MARIE, 1772-1853; b. France; educated to the law, and early
distinguished by his facility of expression. He was made associate judge in his native
city at 30, and a few years later a member of the French legislative'assembly. His
Trrnte des Servitudes, published in 1806, established his reputation as a student of equity
in law, and a writer of clearness of diction. It quickly reached 8 editions. In 1809 he
published Truite du Contrat et des Lcttrcs de Change, subsequently published under the
tit'e of Cours de Droit Commercial, which was considered the masterpiece of its time. A
professorship of commercial law was created for him in the law department of the col-
lege of France, where his lectures were notable for their brilliancy and the simplicity
with which he urged equity as the end of law. Thoroughly royalist in his sympathies,
1'ardoe. OQft
I'areja.
nnd j-et thoroughly progressive, ho occupied a pcculinr position in the chamber of depu-
ties under Louis XVlll., being"* republican among royalists and a royalist among
republicans." His lame rests on his works upon the history and practice of law.
PAKDOE, JULIA, 1808-62; b. Yorkshire, England; daughter of niaj. Thomas Pardoe
of the Royal Wa^ou tr.iin. wrote verses at i:> years of age, a romance, at 15, vi-iied
Portugal, anil in I*;};] published '] niltx mul Truilittonx <>J I'm-tiir/nl, 2 vois. ; w<nt lo ('<>n-
stautiuoplc in 1803; and in 18150 published Tlw City of t/«' Sultan, '•> \oi-. In IS!!) she
brought out T/ic Hoimta:-:' <:f i//f Harem, '<> vols. She traveled in Hungary, and in 1S-4U
The City of the Miir/i/ur appeared; in 1855 Reginald /.//<V. and 7'/n- ,//.rV///.v 11V/K She
was the author of several meritorious historical works; among them ./:/'/ //.v/</< .--. »f I'ntn-h
History during the Consulate and the Empire, 2 vols, 1850; the same year she received a
civil list pension of £100 from the British crown.
PARDON", in law, an act of grace emanating from that power in the state intruded
with the execution of the laws, and exempting the individual on whom it is beMowed
from the punishment to which he has been legally sentenced after conviction of crime,
or to which he is by law liable for an offense on which he has not been tried and con-
victed. This is substantially the definition given by Marshall (7 Pet. ICO); and it is to
be observed that the act is one of clemency not of justice, tl^at it presuppo-cs guilt, and
that conviction need not precede the granting of the pardon. But though theoretically
the pardon is an act of grace only, practically, in its more judicious use, it is a means of
repairing wronger hardship committed under, and irremediable, by the ordinary legal pro-
cedure. The pardoning power is an executive one, belongs primarily to the people, and
is usually intrusted to the executive head of the state by constitutional prevision. In
England the pardon may be granted either by the crown through the home secretary or by
act of parliament. The U. S. constitution gives to the president power " to grant reprieves
and pardons for offenses against the United States, except in case of impeachment, "(art.
IF., sec. 2). This power is held to extend to the remission of fines and penalties, and can-
not be interfered with by legislation of congress. The same rule as to legislation applies m
those states where the pardoning power has been conferred absolutely on the governor by
state constitution ; no limitation is possible except by amendment. In many oi' the states.
however, the constitution provides that the power shall be exercised by the governor and
legislature jointly, or by a board of pardons either alone or in conjunction with the
executive. The pardon must be accepted or else is of no effect. The bestowal of the
pardon carries with it the removal of such disabilities as incapacity to hold office or to
vole, but does not restore the recipient to an office forfeited, or invalidate vested rights
acquired by a third party in consequence of his conviction. Where property was con-
fiscated by the United States in the war of the rebellion, as having been used for insur-
rectionary purposes, and the owner subsequently received tr-3 president's pardon, it was
held that the owner was thereby exempted from the forfeiture in so far as the rights
accruing to the government were concerned. The exercise of the pardoning power is
purely discretionary, and, though principles may be laid down as to its proper use, the execu-
tive cannot, be held responsible for its abuse. The pardon may be absolute, or may be
coupled with a condition precedent, as the taking of an oath of allegiance. In the lalier
case proof of performance of the prescrib •(! condition must be presented by the claimant
A general pardon includes all offenders of the same class, and may be implied, as where
a penal statue is repealed. Where the pardon is general it is-not necessary to set it forth
in the pleadings in a subsequent action, but if it be special, profert must be made, and
the grant produced in court and properly verified. For a discussion of the subject see
the works on criminal law of Russell, Wharton, Chitty, and Starkie.
PAKLUBITZ, a t. of Austria, in Bohemia, 61 m. e. of Prague. It has copper, iron,
nud paper manufactures. Pardubitz was the headquarters of the king of Pru. :-ia. JUIK>
7, 1866. Pop. '69, 7,930.
PARE, AMBROISE, a renowned French surgeon, and the father of modern surgery,
was b. about the beginning of the 16th c., at Laval, department of Mayenn", Fiance.
His father, who was a trunk-maker, was unable to afford him a literary education, and
apprenticed him to a barber and surgeon. Pare, after a brief term of service, acquired
such a fondness for surgery and anatomy, that, abandoning his master, he went to
Paris to prosecute his studies. His means for doing so were very limited; he could
afford to obtain instruction from only the more obscure teachers; few books were within
his reach, yet by dint of perseverance and the exercise of a rare discrimination, com-
bined with "the valuable practice in the Hotel de Dieu of Paris, he laid a solid foundation
for future eminence. In 1536 Pare was received as a master barber-surgeon, and joined
in this capacity the army of Marshal Rene de Monte-Jean, which was on the point of
starting for Italy. During this campaign he improved the mode of treatment of gun-
shot wounds, which had up to this time been of this most barbarous kind — namely.
cauterization with boiling ojl. His reputation as well as his skill were greatly heightened
during this campaign, and as he himself says: "If four persons were seriously wounded
1 had always to attend three of them; and if it were a case of broken arm or leg, frac-
tured skull, or fracture with dislocation, I was invariably summoned." In 1589 lie
returned to Paris, whither his high renown had preceded him, and was received with
Par doe.
Pareju.
distinction by the royal college of chirurgory, of which he was subsequently appointed
president. On the war being renewed, he was auain attached to the army, under the
vicointe de Rohan, afterwards under Antoine de. Bourbon, duke of Vendome. It was
during this campaign that he cured Francois, the second duke of Guise, of the wound
which conferred upon him the sobriquet of Bulafre, and that he substituted ligature of
the arteries for cauterization with a red-hot iron after amputation. The idea of this
mode of repressing hemorrhage had long been in existence, but he was the first to show
that it could safely be applied to practice. Many other important improvements in sur
gery were introduced by him at this time. In Sept. ,'1552, he was appointed surgeon to
king Hemy II., and in. the following year was taken prisoner at Heedcn; he was, how--
ever, released, in consideration of his having cured col. de Vaudeville, after rejecting,
the brilliant offers made him by the duke of Savoy to remain in his service. Returning
10 Paris, honors were showered upon him; and though he was ignorant of Latin, the
conditio sine qua non of a liberal education at that time, no hesitation was shown in con-
ferring upon him learned titles and degrees. He attended Francis II. on his death-bed,
and continued to hold the office of king's surgeon to his successors, Charles IX. and
Henry III. The former of these monarchs, whose life had been gravely threatened by
an injury inflicted by his physician Portail, and who had been preserved by Pare, testi-
fied for him the greatest esteem, and saved him during the massacre of St. Bartholomew
by locking him up in his own chamber. During the latter part of Fare's life he was
much employed in the publication of his various writings, and suffered considerable
annoyance from the envious spirit displayed towards him by his professional brethren,
who showered obloquy upon him for having, as they said, "dishonored science by writ-
ing in the vulgar tongue." Pare died at Paris, Dec. 22, 1590. His writings have exercised
H great influence on the practice of surgery in all countries to which they have penetrated,
and are held of the highest authority on the subject of gun-shot wounds. The first com
plete edition of them appeared at Lyons in 1562, and the last, edited by M. Malgaigne, at
Paris (1840-41, 3 vols.j. Besides these are 8 Latin editions, and more than 15 transla-
tions into English, Dutch, German, etc. As an instance of his great popularity in the
tinny, it may be mentioned that the soldiers of the garrison of Metz, of their own accord
gave him a triumphal reception on his entering that town.
PABEGOE 1C, or PAREGORIC ELIXIR (from the Gr. paregoricos. soothing), the com-
jxmiid tincture <>f camphor of the London, and the camphorated tincture of opium of the
British pharmacopoeia, consists of an alcoholic solution of opium, benzoic acid, cam-
phor, and oil of anise, every fluid ounce containing two grains each of opium and ben-
zoic acid, and a grain and a half of camphor. This preparation is much used both by
the profession and the public. In doses of from one to three drams, it is an excellent.
remedy for the chronic winter-cough of old people, the opium diminishing the bronchial
secretion and the sensibibility of the pulmonary "mucous membrane, while the benzoic
acid and oil of anise act as stimulating expectorants. It has also been found useful in
chronic rheumatism.
PAREI EABRA'VA. See CISSAMPELOS.
PARETRA BRAVA (ante), the root of the clwndodendron tomeniomm. It has for a
century been supposed that the root known as pareira brara was that of cissampdon
parcria, but its true origin was established by Hanbury in 1873. Ckondodcndron
tomentosiim is a tall, woody, climbing plant, a native of Brazil and Peru, belonging to
the order menupermacec^.. It has large ovate-cordate, fine-nerved leaves, very small
unisexual flowers, and purplish-black, ovoid one-seeded drupaceous fruits, resembling
grapes. As it comes to market the root is in pieces from three to six inches long, cr
more, and from one to three inches in diameter, of a dark-brown color externally with
transverse ridges and fissures, and irregular longitudinal furrows. When cut it presents
a palish brown color and a waxy luster, and when broken, a fibrous fracture. It is
nearly inodorous and has a bitter taste. The stem is sometimes found mixed with the
root, 'which it much resembles, but may be distinguished by the pith. Several roots of
menispermous plants have been sold for pareira bram, and recently a yellow pareira
brava has been imported from Brazil. It comes in the form of flat, twisted stems which
have been thought to be obtained from abuta amura: It may be detected by the
eccentric arrangement of its woody zones, which in the genuine are symmetrically con
centric. Pareint brava contains a yellow, bitter principle, which has been called
cissampelina (after the plant for which it has been mistaken), soluble in alcohol and
ether: a soft resin soluble in alcohol; and a brown extract soluble in alcohol and water.
It appears to have therapeutic properties similar to those of uva vrsi. It has been used
with benefit in chronic pyelitis and cystitis in the form of an infusion, decoction, or
fluid-extract. The solid extract is said to be less active.
PAREJA, JUAN DE, 1610-70; b. West Indies; son of a Spanish father and an Indian
mother. He was at first a slave of the painter Velasquez, for whom he ground colors.
He passed his nights in drawing, copying the manner of his master. Pie had noticed
that Philip IV., who was in "the habit of visiting the studio of Velasquez, always
directed any painting which was placed with its face to the wall to be turned. Pareja
U. K. XL— 19
Parella.
Parent.
put one of his own pictures in that position, and the king, as he expected, ordered it to
by turned, ami admired it. Velasquez disowned it, and Pareja confessed that it was his,
and w;is immediately emancipated at Hie instar.ee of the king. He did not. however,
leave Ydasque/, but remained in his house in the double capacity of a servant and a
pupil. After the1 death of Velasquez he continued to serve his master's daughter, with
whom he remained till her death, lie was particularly successful in portrait painting,
and his works in coloring and treatment closely resemble those of his master. Ills best
picture is " The Calling of St. Matthew," in the Spanish royal gallery.
PAREL'LA (Fr. parette or pere.lle), a name often given to some of those crustaceous
lichens which are used to produce archil, cudbear, and litmus; but which more strictly
belongs to one species Lecanora parella, resembling the cudbear lichen, but with sonu--
wlmt plaited warty crust, and shields (apotJiecia) having a concave disk of the same
color as the thick tumid even border. Like the cudbear lichen — to which it is far
superior in the quality of the dye-stuff obtained from it — it grows on rocks in mountain-
ous districts both in Britain and on the continent of Europe, being particularly abundant
in Auvergne and other parts of France.
PAEEN'CHYMA. See CELLTJLAU TISSUE.
PARENT AND CHILD. The legal relation between parent and child is one of the
incidents or consequences of the relation of husband and wife, and flows out of the con-
tract of marriage. The legal is to be distinguished from the natural relation, for two
persons may be by the law of nature parent atd child, while they are not legally or
legitimately so. Hence a radical distinction exists between natural, or illegitimate, and
legitimate children, and their legal rights us against their parents respectively are very
different. Legitimate children are the children of two parents who are recognized a's
married according to the laws of the country in which they are domiciled at the time of
the birth; and according to the law of England, if a child is illegitimate at tho time of
the birth, nothing that can happen afterwards will ever make it legitimate, the maxim
being "once illegitimate always illegitimate" — a maxim which, as will be stated, has
some exceptions in Scotland. In treating of the laws affecting the mutual relation of
parent and child, the laws of England and Ireland, which differ from the law of Scot-
land in material respects, will iirst be stated.
1. As to Legitimate Children. — These laws relate first to the liability of the pnient to
maintain the child, and the rights of the child in the event of the parent's death. An
regards the maintenance of the child, it is somewhat singular that, according to the law
of England, there is no duty whatever on the parent to support the. child, and con-
sequently no mode of enforcing such maintenance. The law of nature was probably
considered sufficient to supply the motives which urge a parent to support the child, but
the municipal law of England has not made this duty compulsory. This defect was to
some extent remedied when what is called the poor-law was created by statute in the
reign of Elizabeth by which law parents and children are compellable to a ceriain small
extent, but only when having the pecuniary means to do so, to support each other, or
rather to help the parish authorities to do so. But apart from the poor-law statutes,
there is no legal obligation on the parent to support the child, nor on the child to support
the parent. Hence it follows, that if the child is found in a destitute state, and is taken
up, fed, clothed, and saved from starvation by a stranger, such stranger cannot sue the
parent for the expense, or any part of it, however necessary to the child's existence. In
order to make the father liable for maintenance, there must in all cases be made out
against him some contract, express or implied, by which he undertook to p;;y for such
expense; in other words, the mere relationship between the parent, and child is not of
itself a ground of liability. But when the child is living in the father's hous* .
always held by a jury or court that slight evidence is sufficient of, at least, an implied
promise by the father to pay for such expenses. As, for example, if the child <
clothes or provisions, and the father °,ee these in use or in process of consumption, it will
be taken that he assented to and adopted the contract, and so will be bound to pay for
them. So if a parent put a child to a boarding-school, very slight evidence of a contract
will he held sufficient to fix him with liability. Nevertheless, in strictness of law, it is
as necessary to prove a contract or agreement, on the part of the parent to pay for these
expenses as it is to fix him with liability in respect of any other matter. "U'hen it i-
that a parent is not compellable by the common !aw to maintain his child, it inusi. at tho
same time, be observed that if a child is put under the care and domirnon of an adult
person, and the latter willfully nfglect or refuse to feed or maintain such child, whereby
the child dies or is injured, such adult will incur the penalties of misdemeanor; bi;
offense does not result from the relationship of parent and child, and may arise h<
an adult and child in any circumstances, as where a child is an apprentice or servant.
The change as to the liability of parents to maintain their children created by the poor-
Jaws amounts merely to this, that if a person is chargeable to the parish, that is, not- able
to work as well as destitute, and if the overseers or guardians are bound to support him
or her, then the parish authorities may reimburse themselves this outlay, or part of it.
by obtaining from justices of the peace an order commanding the parent or child of such
paupei to pay a certain sum per week towards the relief. This is, however, only compe-
tent when the relative is able to pay such sum, and in all -cases the sum is of necessity
Parella,
Parent.
very small. Not only parents, but grand-parents, are liable under the poor-law act to
the extent mentioned. Another provision in the poor-law and other kindred acts is, that
if a parent runs away and deserts his children, leaving them destitute and a burden on
the parish, the overseers are entitled to seize and sell his goods, if any, for the benefit
and maintenance of such children; and if the parent, so deserting the children, is able
by work or other means to support them, such parent may be committed to prison as :i
rogue and vagabond. Not only, therefore, is a parent during life not bound to maintain
his or her child (with the above exceptions), but also after the parent's death the execu-
tors or other representatives of the parent, though in possession of funds, are not bound,
li is true that if the parent die intestate, both ihe real and personal property will goto
the ciiil-iren; but the parent is entitled, if he choose, to disinherit the children, and give
away all his property to strangers, provided he execute hiawiil in due form, which he
may competently do on death- bed if in possession of his faculties.
"Another important point of law, affecting the mutual relation of parent and child, is
the right of the parent to the custody of the child. At common law it is the father who
has the right to the custody of the child until majority at least, as against third parlis's,
and no court will deprive him of such custody except on strong grounds. Whenever
the child is entitled to property, the court of chancery so far controls his parental right,
that if the father is shown to act with cruelty, or to be guilty of immorality, a guardian
will btt appointed. A court of common law' also has often to decide in cases of children
brought before it by habeas corpus, when parties have had the custody against the
father's will. In such cases, if the child is under fourteen, called the age of nurture,
and the father is not shown to be cruel or immoral, the court will order the child to be
delivered up to him; but if the child is above fourteen, or, as some s;iy, above sixteen.
the court will allow the child to choose where to go. So the father is entitled by his
will to appoint a guardian to his children while they are under age. The mother had
at common law no right as against the father to the custody of the children, however
young; but under a statute of 36 and 37 Viet. c. 12, she is entitled to the custody of the
child while under sixteen years of age, or rather she is entitled to apply to the court of
chancery for leave to keep the children while under that age, provided she is unobjec-
tionable in point of character; and access may be allowed to the father or guardian. If
the parents separate by agreement, no stipulation will be enforced which is prejudicial
to the child. In cose of divorce or judicial separation, the court of divorce has power
to direct who is to have the custody of the children.
2. lUif/iiimnfe Children. — It has been already stated that, at common law, the parent
of a legitimate child is not bound to maintain it, and this is equally true of un illegiti-
mate child — i.e., a child not born in wedlock. In strictness of law an illegitimate child
has no father, which means practically that in case of the death of the father without
making a will, the law will not treat such child as entitled to the ordinary legal rights
of a k-gitinuite child — i. e., to a share of the father's property. The child is not legally
related to the father in this sense. With regard to the mother, she also is not bound to
maintain her child according to the common law;' but the poor-law acts have made an
important qualification of her rights and duties. As between the father and mother of
tiie child, the law is this: The father is not bound even by the poor-laws to maintain the
child, and the parish officers cannot now institute any proceeding whatever against
him for this purpose; but the mother can, to a certain extent, enforce against him a
contribution toward the child's maintenance and education, or the guardians may do so.
It is entirely discretionary on the mother to take any proceeding against the father, but
if she chooses she can do so; and the lirst step is to go before a justice of the peace, and
obtain a summons ofNi'.ffiliation. The father is thus cited before the magistrate, and if
the mother swears that he is the father of the child, and is corroborated in some material
part of this statement by a third party, the magistrate may make an order against tin;
father to pay the expenses of lying-in, and a weekly sum not exceeding five shillings till
the child attains the age of sixteen. The mother may make this application either a few
months before the birth, or within twelve months after the birth; and even after that
time, provided she can prove that the putative father paid her some money on account
of the child within such twelve months. The putative father, in these cases, is a com--
petent and compeilable witness. The utmost, therefore, that the father can bo made to
contribute toward the child's maintenance is only a portion of the whole, the chief
burden being thrown on the mother, who is assumed to be the more blamable party.
Though she is not bound by the common law to maintain her child, yet the poor-laws
make her liable to maintain the child till it attains sixteen; and not only is she bound,
but any man who marries her is also by statute bound to support all her illegitimate (and
also legitimate) children till they attain sixteen. The result is, that illegitimate children
under sixteen are better provided for bv the present state of the law than legitimate chil-
dren, inasmuch as the mother is positively bound to support her illegitimate child, and
only to a less extent her legitimate child. As regards the custody of illegitimate chil-
dren, the mother is the party exclusively entitled, for the father is not deemed, in point
of law, to be related to such child. Yet if the fa! her has, in point of fact, obtained t!ie
custody of such child, .and the child is taken away by fraud, the courts will restore the
child to his custody, so as to put him in the same position ns before. Though illegiti-
mate children will not succeed to the father's property in the event of his dying with-
Parent. OQO
Pariahs.
out a will, there is nothing to prevent him making his will in their favor, provided he
expressly name ami identify them, and not leave il to them by the description of "his
children," which in point of law they are not.
fjcotla-nd. — The law of parent and child in Scotland differs materially from the law
of England and Ireland. In Scotland a child may be horn a bastard, and yet if the.
parents afterward marry this will legitimize the child, and give the child the right to suc-
ceed to the father's property. A difficulty sometimes arises where, before the father and
mother of a bastard marry, the father has had a legitimate family by another woman, in
which case it is held that the bastard, though oldest in point of age, does not take pre-
cedence of the legitimate children. The law of Scotland also differs from that of Eng-
land as regards i he obligation of parent and child to maintain each other. The:'
legal obligation on both parties to maintain each other if able to do so, and cither may
sue the other for aliment at common law; but this obligation extends only to what may
be called subsistence money, and does not vary according to the rank" of I he party.
Thus an earl is bound to pay no more for the aliment of his sou than any other rather.
As regards all maintenance beyond mere subsistence, the law does not materially differ
from that of England, and a contract must be proved against the father before lie can
be held liable to pay. The legal liability as between parent and child is qualified in
this way by the common law, that if a person has both a father and a child living and
able to support him, then the child is primarily liable, and next the grandchild, after
whom comes the father, and next the grandfather. Not only are parent and child liable
to support each other while the party supporting is alive, but if he die, his executors are
also liable; and this liability is not limited by the age of majority, but continues (hiring
the life of the party supported. Such being the common law of Scotland, it was scarcely
necessary, as in England, for the poor-law to supply any defect: but the Scotch poof-
law supplements the common law, by imposing a penalty on a father or mother (though
not vice versa) who neglects to support a child. Another advantage which a cotch
child has over an English child is, that the father cannot disinherit it— at leasl s-r. ar as
concerns his movable property; and even in case of heritable property, the rights of the
child were so protected, that unless the father made away with his heritable property
sixty days before his death, or while in sound health, it was too late to prejmiue hi"s
heir-at-law; this rule was, however, abolished in 1870 by 34 and 35 Viet. c. bl. This
was called the law of death-bed (q.v.); but as regards the father's inovable property,
he cannot by any will he can make at any time of his life deprive the children of one-
third, or, if their mother is dead, of one-half of such property. This is called the chil-
dren's right to legitim (q.v.), a right which they can vindicate, whatever maybe their
nge when the father dies. With regard to the custody of children in Scotland, the rule
is, that the father is entitled to the custody as between him and the mother; but the
court of session has power to regulate the custody in case the children are entitled to
property, and the father is of an immoral or cruel character; and the court will also
interfere to allow to the mother access to the children at certain times aid BI
Another important difference between a Scotch and English child is this, that whereas
in England the father or guardian, or the court of chancery, has power to control the
custody of the person of the child to a certain extent, until the child attains the
age of 21, in Scotland such power entirely ceases when the child attains the age of 14
or 12, according as such child is male or female. At the age of 14, a boy, and at 12,
a girl, in Scotland, is entire master or mistress of his or her movements, and can live
where he or she pleases, regardless of any parent or court. They can marry at that age
at their own uncontrolled'discretion, and act in all respects with the same freedom as
adults. As regards the disposition of their property there are some restrictions, but as
regards the disposal of their persons there are none, after the ages of 14 and 12 respect-
ively.
2. Illegitimate Children. — The law of Scotland as to illegitimate children also differs
in some respects from that of England. Both the father and mother of a bastard are
bound by law to support such child, and the obligation transmits to the personal repre-
sentatives of the father or mother. Moreover, by the poor-law statute both are liable to
a penalty for neglecting to support the child. The mother of illegitimate children is
entitled to their custody till the age of ten, if daughters, rnd if sons, till the age of seven;
but the limit is not clearly denned. If the father support the child after the above age,
he is entitled to the custody. The mother does not apply to a magistrate for a summons
of affiliation in order to fix the paternity; but she may bring an action of filiation and
aliment, in which the question of paternity is settled. The father may be judicially
examined, and is a competent witness; and it is usual for the court to decree an aliment,
varying from £4 per annum against laborers, up to £10 rgainst persons in better cir-
cumstances. In Scotland, as in England, the father of a bastard child is not deemed
related, in point of law, 'to such child; and if he desires to provide for such child, it
must be done by deed or will, in which the child is identified, and not merely described
under the general designation of " child," which he is not.
PATIENT AND CHILD (ante). In the United States it is generally held that the
right-; of protection and support due from a parent to a child are dependent not upon
\8tatuioryprovisions (though these exist in most states), but on general principles of the
OQQ Parent.
~y< Pariahs.
common ln\v, as well as of morality. As the protector of his child, a parent may law-
fully do any act which he might do'in self-defense, and hence may even take the life of
an assailant. It has been said that though protection and education are the child's right,
yet maintenance and support is the or.ly obligation which can be enforced by the law; if
a father fail to supply such necessaries for the support of his minor child as are suitable
to its rank and condition, a third person may do so, and can recover the amount from
the father, acting, however, at his own risk in determining whether the facts justify his
interference. No evidence of a contract is required as in the English courts (see ante}.
The reciprocal rights of parent and child cease when the latter has attained his legal
majority, but may be revived on either side. Thus If the adult child become a pauper,
the parent would again be liable for its support; and, on the other hand, if the parent
become a burden to the community, the adult child is responsible. The right of a parent
lo leave his property away from liis children is undisputed at common law, but is in
some cases restrained by statute; and if a child be left destitute without very strong
reason, it will go far to prove the exertion of undue influence. The right to the custody
of the child belongs to both parents. When the custody is disputed between the father
and mother, the question may be brought before an equity court on petition, or before a
court of common law by writ of habeas corpus. In the latter case, the child's preference
is consulted it' he be 14 years old or over, and if not, the court may use its discretion.
In the English courts the superior right of a father to custody has been strongly upheld,
and only the most flagrant conduct on his part has been thought to justify its restraint.
In this country the courts are less restricted by this rule, but, ceteris parilnix, will prefer
the father to the mother (see DIVORCE). The parent has also the right to obedience and
service on the part of his child, and may compel obedience by a reasonable exercise of
force, as may also school-teachers or any persons standing in loco par en tis. The father
may collect his child's earnings, 'and may sue for damages caused by the loss of services
from injuries inflicted by the defendant. This action is entirely distinct from that which
may be brought in the child's name for his personal damage, pain, expenses, etc. The
right of a father to sue for damages the seducer of his daughter is also based on the loss
of service, but the jury are allowed to take into consideration the loss of reputation, etc.,
in fixing the amount of damages. See MEASURE OF DAMAGES. If the girl were a lawful
apprentice, or had reached her majority, the actual relation of master and servant must
exist to ju-uify tiie action. Under the statutes of most states, an action may be brought
by the child when the parent is killed through the negligence of a third party, a right
which did not exist, at common law. See NEGLIGENCE. The obligations due from a
parent to an illegitimate child are those of support only. For this both the mother and
th:- putative fathor are liable; and the liability may be enforced against the latter on suit
ti:li '•!• of the mother or of the local authorities in form and manner as by statute pro-
vided.
PARENTHESIS, a term originally Greek, and signifying insertion or intercalation, is
in composition a clause, or part of a sentence or argument, not absolutely essential to the
sense, but generally serving either for explanation or confirmation, sometimes chiefly for
rhetorical effect. A parenthesis is usually included between the marks ( ), instead of
which the dash ( — ) at ftie beginning and end of the parenthesis is frequently but
improperly employed.
PAREPA-ROSA. See ROSA.
PARGA, a t. in European Turkey, in Albania, on a rocky peninsula, on the shore of
the Mediterranean, opposite the island of Paxo, and distant from it 12 miles. It is on a
steep cliff, on the summit of which is a small but almost impregnable citadel, and from
which is a fine view of tlie adjacent country. It has a harbor defended by a small island,
and carries on a thriving export trade in oil, wine, fruit, and tobacco. Parga was
founded in the hist days of the Roman empire, and has had importance in history since
the beginning of the 13th century. It was independent, and under the protection of
Venice from this period until the overthrow of the Venetian power by Napoleon in 1797,
when it was for a short time governed by the French. In 1814 AH Pasha, governor of
Aliiauia, besieged it, and the French refusing to defend it. the people applied to the
English for aid, who took possession of the fortress. In 1819 Parga was given up to
Turkey by the treaty of 1817, under the condition that those who chose to emigrate
should have an asylum in the Ionian islands, and that their immovable property should
be valued and paid for by the portc before embarkation. The payment was delayed for
two years through the intrigues of the Turkish commissioner and Ali Pasha, but in 1819
the whole population of Parga having received the money, amounting to £150,000,
embarked in English vessels and settled at Paxo and Corfu, having previously dug up
and burned the bones of their ancestors
PARHELIA. See HALOS, ante.
PA RIAHS is the rinme given to the lowest class of the population of India — to that
class which, not belonging to any of the castes of the Brahmanical system, is shunned
even by the lowest Hindu professing the Brahmanical religion, as touching a Pariah would
render him impure. The Pariahs seem to belong to a negro race, as it appears from their
Parixh.
Paris.
short woolly hair, flat nose, aud thick lips; they are, besides, of short stature, and their
propensities are of the coarsest kind. Despised b}" the Hindus, and ill u.scd by the con
querors or' India, they have, iu some parts of India, gradually sunk so low thai, to judge
from the description which is given of their mode of living by different writers, it is
scarcely possible to imagine a more degraded position than that which is occupied by
these miserable beings.
PAR IAH DOG. See CUB.
PA'RIAN. See POTTEHY.
PARIAN CHRONICLE. See ARTJNDEL MARBLES.
PA RIDJ2 AND PARUS. See TIT.
PARIETAL BONES. See SKULL, ante.
PARIMA SIERRA, an irregular cluster of mountains sometimes called the High-
lands of Guiana, iu the u.e. of Venezuela, lat. 4° to G° 40' n., long. 64° to 67 w., ami
connected on the s.e. with the Sierra Pacaraima, thus forming a part of the gn at moun-
tain system of South America, which consists of lofty ranges, generally bleak and barren,
and of elevated plateau-like valleys, which afford pasturage, or are covered with foiv.Ms;
the valleys being about 2,000 ft. above the level of the sea, and sometimes 60 m. wide.
These mountains in no part border on the sea, i.cing separated bv wide belts of lowland.
Maravaca. 10.000 ft, high, and Duida, about 8,000 ft. high, are the highest points. The
EsBequibo, the Rio Branco, a branch of the Rio JS'egro, and the Orinoco rise among these
mountains.
PARING- AND BURNING consists in cutting off the surface of the soil in thin slices,
which are then dried and burned. This is the most effectual way of reclaiming pi-at
and other waste land, the surface of which is matted with coarse plants, dillicult of decay.
It is also applied advantageously to cold clay soils, apt to produce rank weeds and coarsu
grasses, which are to be broken up after lying for some time in grass. The ashes of the
plants, consisting of potash and other salts, act as a powerful manure; while the clay,
being reduced to the state of brick-dust, both improves the texture of the soil and .
an absorbent for retaining moisture and nutritive gases, and giving them out to the
of growing plants. On thin light soils the operation is rarely advisable, for much oi the
scanty volatile vegetable matter is dissipated; however, if care is taken to make the turfs
merely smolder without flame, so that the plants are rather charred than burned, it is
doubtful whether more dissipation takes place than if the plants were plowed down and
allowed slowly to decay. The plot to be reclaimed should, if necessary, bo dried by
stone or tile drains: and all large stones grubbed up and carted or conveyed off upon
sledges. The paring is to be done, if possible, in the months of April and May, in order
to have the most favorable part of the year for drying the parings well before burning.
There are plows specially made for paring, with a very flat share; but the best method
is to employ the breast-plow or paring spade, as the surface is iu most cases very irregular,
aud it is desirable to have the slices very thin. The parings should be burned directly
thev are sufficiently dry, as, after lying a month or six weeks, they begin to unite
with the ground, and imbibe moisture from the young grass vegetating beneath them.
Sometimes they can be burned as they lie, without being collected into heaps; and in
this way the fire, in consuming the lingy side, which is undermost, chars the surf
the soil at the same time. If burned in heaps the heaps should be very small, in order
to secure a good black ash, instead of the hard lumps of red n.«h produced by large tires.
The weeds or refuse organic matters are thus only charred, instead of being entirely
burned away; whilst the mineral matters are left in a soluble state instead of being
reduced, as is too apt to be the caso where the operation is carelessly conducted, into an
insoluble semi-vitrified slag. To attain these desirable results a smoldering fire must
be maintained, by keeping the outside laj-er" of sods so close as to prevent the lire from
kindling into flame. The ashes should be spread, care being taken to clear the bottoms
of the heaps well out, so that the first crop may be free from patches. The cost of thus
paring, burning, and spreading is about £1 per acre.
PARINI, GIUSEPPE, 1729-99; b. in Bosisio, near Milan. He was of humble parent-
age, but cultivating his poetical faculty he soon became celebrated. In 1752 he published
a volume of anacreontic poems, showing remarkable lyric talent. In 1765> he published
ihe fiist part of his Giorno, a dramatic nnd didactic satire, which raised him to a high
rank as a moral poet. By his success he obtained several important offices at Milan,
occupied the chair of belles-lettres in the palatine schools, and thai of eloquent in the
college of Brera. He was appointed magistrate by Bonaparte. His works were pub-
lished in 6 volumes in 1801-4.
PA RIS, a genus of plants of the small endogenous or dictyogenous natural order
Uwcca-. of which one species, P. qiiadrifolia, called HERB PARIS, is not uncommon in
moist shady woods in some parts of Britain. It is rarely more (ban a foot high, with
one whorl of generally four leaves, and a solitary flower on the top of the stem, followed
by a'berry. The berry is reputed narcotic and poisonous, but its juice has been employed
to cure inflammation of the eyes. The root has been used as an emetic.
Pariah.
Paris.
PARIS, also called ALEXANDER, war,, according to Homer, the second son of Priam
and Hecabe, sovereigns of Troy. His mother dreamed during her pregnancy that she
gave birth to a fire-brand, which set the whole city on lire, a dream interpreted by JE$a-
cus or Cassandra to signify that Paris should originate a war which should end iu the
destruction of his native city. To p; event its realization Priam caused the infant to be
exposed upon mount Ida by a shepherd named Agelaus, who found him, five dnys after,
alive and well, a she-bear having given him suck. Agelaus brought him up as his o\vn
son, and he became a shepherd on mount Ida, distinguishing himself by his valor in
protecting the other shepherds from their enemies — whence his name. Alexander, " the
defender of men." An accident having revealed his parentage, old Priam became recon-
ciled to his son, who married (Enone, daughter of the river-god Ccbren. But his mother's
dream was to come true for all that. lie was appealed to, as umpire, in a strife which had
arisen among tin; three goddesses, Hera (Juno), Athene (Minerva), and Aphrodite (Venus),
as to which of them was the most beautiful, the goddess Eris (strife) having revenge-
fully liung among them, at a feast to which she had not been invited, a golden apple
(of discord) inscribed To the Most B?.<i utiful. Each of the three endeavored to bribe him.
Hera promised him dominion over Asia and wealth; Athene, military renown and wis-
dom; Aphrodite, the fairest of women for his wife — to wit, Helen, the wife of the
Lacedaemonian king, Menelaus. Paris decided in favor of Aphrodite, hence" the ani-
mosity which the other two goddesses displayed against the Trojans in the war that
followed. Paris now proceeded to seek Helen, whom he carried away from Lacedse-
mon in her husband's absence. "The rape of Helen" is the legendary cause of the
Trojan war, on account of which Paris incurred the hatred of his countrymen. He
deceitfully slew Achilles in the temple of Apollo. He was himself woVnded by a poi-
soned arrow, and went to mount Ida to be cured by (Enone, who possessed great powers
of healing; but she avenged herself for his unfaithfulness to her by refusing to assist
him, and he returned to Troy and died. He was often represented in ancient works of
art, generally as a beardless youth, of somewhat effeminate beauty.
PARIS, the .seat of justice of Edgar co., Illinois; the southern terminus of the Paris
and Danville railroad, and the junction of the Illinois, Midland with the Indianapolis
and St. Louis railroad; pop. '70. 4522. It contains a number of churches, a normal
academy, national banks, and a court-house. It has a good trade and some manufac-
turing interests.
PARIS, seat of justice in Eoutbon co., Ky., on Stoner creek, a branch of Licking
river, on the Kentucky Central railroad, at die junction of Maysville and Paris railroad;
19 m. n.e. of Lexington; pop. '70, 2,055. It contains a court-house, a military institute,
two colleges for girls, banks, flour-mills, and a rope factory. It is one of the chief cattle
markets in the state, and the principal place for the manufacture of Bourbon whisky.
The town is lighted with gas.
PASIS (the ancient Liitttia Parisiorwm), the metropolis of France, is situated in 48°
50' n. lat., and 2° 20' e. long., on the. Seine, about 110 m. from its mouth. The population
of the city \vas, in 1869, 1,875,000; in 1872, 1,799,250; and at the end of 1876, 1, £88, 806.
Its circumference is upwards of 25 miles. It lies in a hollow, about 200 ft. above the
level of the sea. and is surrounded by low hills, which in their highest ranges to the n.
only attain an elevation of 290 or 300 ft., as at Montmartre and Belleville. These hills,
which are separated by narrow valleys or plateaus, as those of St. Denis to the n., Ivry
to the e\ Moutrouge to the a., and Grenelle to the s.w., are encircled at a distance of
from two to five miles by an outer range, of heights, including Villejuif, Meudou. St.
Cloud, and Mout-Valerien, the highest point in the immediate vicinity of the city. .The
Seine, which enters Paris in the s.e. at Bercy, and leaves it at Passy in the w., divides the
city into two parts, and forms the two islands of La Cite and St. Louis, which are both
covered with buildings.
The earliest notice of Paris occurs in Julius Caesar's Commentaries, in which it is
described under the name of Lutetia, as a collection of mud huts, composing the chief
settlement of the Parisii, a Gallic tribe conquered by the Romans. The ruins of the
Palatium Thermarum (Palais des Thermes), and of ancient altars, aqueducts, and other
buildings, show that even in Roman times the towrn extended to both banks of the Seine.
Lutetia began in the 4th c. to be known as Parisia, or Paris, from the Celtic tribe of the
Parisii, to whom it belonged. In the 6th c. Paris was chosen by Clovis as the seat of
government; and after having fallen into decay under the Carlovingian kings, in whose
time it suffered severely from frequent invasions of the Northmen, it finally became in
the 10th c. the residence of Hugh Capet, the founder of the Capetian dynasty, and the
capital of the Frankish monarchy. From this period Paris continued rapidly to increase,
and in two centuries it had doubled in size and population. In the middle ages Paris
was divided into three distinct parts — La Cite, on the islands: the Yille, on the right
bank; and the quartier Latin, or university, on the left bank of the river. Louis XI. did
much to enlarge Paris, and to efface the disastrous results of its hostile occupation by
the English during the Avars under Henry V. and Henry VI. of England : but its prog-
ress was again checked during the wars of the last of the Valois, when the city had to
sustain several sieges; On the accession of Henri IV. of Navarre in 1589, a new era was
opened to Paris. The improvements commenced under his reign were continued under
296
the minority of his son, Louis XIII. Louis XIV. converted the old ramparts into pub-
lic walks or bmdetard«, organized a regular system of police, established drainage and
sewerage works, founded hospitals, nlmshouses, public schools, scientific societies, an;l
a library, and thus gave to Pari s a claim to be regarded as the focus of European civili-
y.a:i:>n. The terrible days of the revolution caused a temporary reaction. The iim
tnent of Paris was recommenced on a new and grander scale under the lir>t Napoleon,
when new quays, bridges, markets, streets, squares, and public gardens were created.
All the treasures of art and science which conquest placed in his power were applied to
the embellishment of Paris, in the restoration of which he spent more than i'4,000, 000
sterling in twelve years. His downfall again arrested progress, and in many rc.-p' ; •!."
Paris fell behind other European cities.
Renovation of various sorts was recommenced under Louis-Philippe; but as lately as
1834, much of the old style of things remained; the gutters ran down the middle of" the
streets, there was liltle underground drainage from the houses, oil lamps were suspended
on cords over the middle of the thoroughfares, and, except in one or two streets, there
were no side-pavements. It was reserved for Napoleon III. to render Paris the most
commodious, splendid, and beautiful of modern cities. When he commenced his im-
provements, Paris still consisted, in the main, of a Iab}Tinth of narrow, dark, and ill-
ventilated streets. He resolved to pierce broad and straight thoroughfares through t'ne
midst of the«e, to preserve and connect all the finest existing squares and boulevards;
and in lieu of the old houses pulled down in the heart of the town, to construct, in a
ring outside of it, a new city in the most approved style of modern architecture. AVith
the assistance of baron Haussman, the prefect of the Seine, his schemes were carried out
with rare energy and good taste. Two straight and wide thoroughfares, parallel to and
near each other, crossed the whole width of Paris from n. to s. through the Cite; :; still
greater thoroughfare was made to run the whole length of the towii, 11. of the Sein< ,
from e. to west. The old boulevards were completed so as to form outer and inr
cles of spacious streets — the former chiefly lying along the outskirts of the old city, the
latter passing through and connecting a long line of distant suburbs.. In the y< ar IM;';.
when tho international exhibition was opened, Paris had become in all respects the most
splendid city in Europe; and in 'that year it was visited by upwards of a million and ;;
half of foreigners. Many further improvements were then contemplated. J\'"\v botan-
ical and zoological gardens were to be formed; the museifms and class-rooms of the Jar-
din des Plantes were to be rebuilt; an underground railway was to be formed, crossing
Paris from e. tow.; Montmartre waa to be leveled, and the Seine was to be de'-pcned up to
Grenelle, the point where it leaves the town; and there a harbor was to be formed for
sea-going ships, which was to convert Paris into a port de mer. Financial and political
difficulties were, however, at hand (see FRANCE), and these great schemes had to lie.
postponed. The siege of Paris by the Germans, which lasted from Sept. 1!), isio. to
Jan. 28, 1871, caused much less injury to the city than might have been expected — it was
reserved for a section of the Parisian population to commit an act of vandalism without
a parallel in modern times. On Mar. 18, the red republicans, who had risen against
tlie government, took possession of Paris. On Mar 27, the commune was dee!;1 red the
only lawful government. Acts of pillage and wanton destruction followed. On .May
15, the column erected to the memory of Napoleon and the great, army, in the place Yen-
dome, one of the principal squares of Paris, was solemnly pulled down as "a monument
of tyranny." The government troops under marshal MacMahon attacked the insurgent*.
and kept them from doing further mischief. The former succeeded in entering Pavis
on May 20, and next day the communists began systematically to set fire with petroleum
to a great number of the chief buildings of Paris, public and private. The fire for a timu
threatened to destroy the whole city, "it raged with the greatest fury on the 21th. and
was not checked until property had been lost to the value of many millions sterling, and
historical monuments were destroyed which never can be replaced. The horror inspired
by the commune for a time drove the wealthy classes from Paris, and it was feared that
it would lose its prestige as a European capital. This, however, has not proved to b«
the case. In the autumn of 1873, all the private houses burnt had been rebuilt — the
monuments only partially injured had been restored, and the streets and public places
were as splendid and gay as in the best days of the empire. There remained, however,
to recall the commune, the blackened ruins of the Tuileries, the hotel de Yillc, and two
or three other buildings to which we are about to refer.
The Seine, in passing through Paris, is spanned by 28 bridges. The most celebrated
and ancient arc the pout Notre-Dame, erected in 1500, and the pont Neuf. begun in l.")?s.
completed by'Henri IV. in 1604, and thoroughly renovated in 1852. This bridge, whi< h
crosses the Seine at the n. of the Ile-de la-Cite, is built on 12 arches, and abuts near the
middle on a small peninsula, jutting out into the river, and planted with trees, which
form a background to the statue of Henri IV. on horseback, which stands in the centr, 1
open space on the bridge. Among the other bridges, the handsomest are the Pont de la
Concorde, 160 yards Ions:, built in 1787-90; the pont du Carrousel, pont d'Austerlitz,
and the pont d'Jena, both of the time of the first empire; :u:d the pont des Invnlides,
pont de I'Alma. and pont de Solferino — all handsome structures, adorned with military
and naval trophies, commemorative of events and victories connected ^itli the second
empire. These bridges all communicate directly with the spacious quays, planted with
297
Paris.
trees, which line botli banks of the Seine, and which, together with the boulevards, give
special characteristic beauty to the city. Although the most ancient quays — as those
des Augustins and do la Megisserie — date from the 14th c. , the greater part of these mag-
nificent embankments, measuring 12 m. in extent, is due to the lirst Napoleon and the
late emperor.
Before speaking in detail of the streets, boulevard?, and places or squares of Paris, it
is proper to mention that the private houses as well as the public buildings are built of
a light-colored kind of limestone, easily wrought and carved ornamentally. With this
material they are reared in huge blocks, rising to a height of six or seven stories, each
rloor constituting a distinct dwelling; access to all the floors in a tenement being gained
by a common stair, which is usually placed under the charge of a porter at the entrance.
Very frequently the tenements surround an open quadrangle, to which there is a spacious
entry, the gate of which is kept by a porter for the whole inhabitants of the several stairs.
In these respects, therefore, Paris differs entirely from London; for instead of extending
rows of small brick buildings of a temporary kind over vast spaces, the plan consists of
piling durable houses on the top of each other, and confining the population to a com-
paratively limited area. In the great new rtreets which were formed in the time of the
late emperor, this general plan has beCn adhered to, but with this difference, that instead
of being narrow and crooked, they are wide and straight. Among the finest of them are
the f ue dc Rivoli, 2 m. in length, the rue de la Paix, the rue du Faubourg St. Ilonore,
imd the rue Royale. The boulevards, which extend in a semicircular line on the right
side of the Seine, between the nucleus of the city and its surrounding quarters, present
the most striking feature of Paris life. In all the better parts of the city they are lined
with trees, seats, and little towers called Vespasiennet, covered with advertisements. Res-
taurants, cafes, shops, and various places of amusement succeed one another for miles,
their character varying from the height of luxury and elegance in the western boulevard
des Italicns, to the homely simplicity of the eastern boulevards Beaumarchais and St.
Denis. Among the public squares or places, the most noteworthy is the place de la Con-
corde, which connects the gardens of the Tuileries with the Champs Elysees, and
embraces a magnificent .view of some of the finest buildings and gardens of Paris. In the
center is the famous obelisk of Luxor, covered over its entire height of 73 ft. with hiero-
glyph res. It was brought from Egypt to France, and in 1836 placed where it now stands.
On the site of this obelisk stood the revolutionary guillotine, at which perished Louis XVI. ,
Marie Antoinette, Philippe Egalite, Danton, Robespierre, and a host of other victims. Of
the other squares, the following are some of the most handsome : The place du Carrousel,
between the Tuileries and Louvre; the place Vendome, already referred to. with Napoleqn's
column of victory; the place de la Bastille, where once stood that famous prhon and
fortress; the place Royalc, with its two fountains and a statue of Louis XIII. ; the place
de 1'llotcl de Ville, formerly place de la GreA'e, for many ages the scene of public execu-
tions, and the spot at which some of the bloodiest deeds of the revolution were perpetrated.
The porte St. Martin and porte St. Denis, which were erected by Louis XIV. to com-
memorate his victories in the Low Countries, and are adorned with bas-reliefs representing
events of these campaigns, mark the ancient limits of the most turbulent quarters of the
Paris of the past; while the Arc de 1'Etoilc, begun by Napoleon in 1806, and completed
in 1836 at a cost of more than £400,000, may be said to form the extreme western
boundary of the aristocratic quarters. This arch, which bounds the Champs Elysees,-
has a total height of 152 ft., and a breadth of 137. It is profusely adorned with bas-
reliefs and alto-reliefs, representing victories of Napoleon, which were injured during
the bombardment of Paris, but which have since undergone a complete restoration.
The great streets which radiate from the Arc de Triomphe were among the most mag-
nificent of those Constructed during the recent improvements, and they still form the
finest quarter of Paris. A great avenue runs e. from it to the palace of the Tuileries, in
the heart of the city.
Tiie palace of the Tuilerios (q v.) was begun in 1566 by Catherine de' Medici, and
enlarged by successive monarchs, while used as a royal residence, until it formed a struc-
ture nearly a quarter of a mile in length, running at" right angles to the Seine. To the e.
of the Tuileries, at a distance of more than a quarter of a mile, was erected the palace of
the Louvre, forming a square of 576 ft. by 538 ft., remarkable, especially the eastern
fa9ade, for its architectural beauty. The Louvre long since ceased to be a royal resi-
dence, and has been converted into a public museum of antiquities. It was connected
with the Tuileries by a great picture gallery overlooking the Seine, and 1456ft. in length.
N. of the pk'turc gallery, and between the two palaces, lay the place du Carrousel, into
the northern side of which, at the accession of Napoleon III., there intruded a mass of
poor and narrow streets. One of the emperor's earliest improvements was to remove
these buildings, and connect the Tuileries and Louvre on the northern side, throwing
them into one vast building, forming the most magnificent palatial structure in the world.
The Tuileries continued to be occupied as the residence of the imperial family; but the
Louvre proper formed a series of great galleries filled with pictures, sculptures, and col-
lections of Egyptian, Greek, and Roman antiquities. The communists attempted to burn
the whole pile, but fortunately only succeeded in destroying the Tuileries (now being
restored) and the north-western corner of the Louvre. The library of the Louvre, with
its contents, was burned, but the rest of the building and its priceless treasures were
Paris.
298
waved. A large sum was voted by the government for the restoration of UK; Louvrr, and this
work was at once undertaken and carried forward wuh the utmost dispute!). N. of ;hc
injured part of the Louvre is the palais Royalc (q.v ), the, most valuable part of \\hich,
1 routing tlie rue St. Houore, was set lire to by order of the commune in lh?l. The
palace of the Luxembourg, on the s. side of the .Seine, was built by Marie de' .Medici in
the Florentine style. It contains many magnificent rooms, sonic of which have been
employed as picture galleries for the works of modern arti.sts. The Luxembourg was
formerly the house of the peers, but since 1871 it has been used as the hotel de Yille.
On the n. bunk of the Seine, .opposite the island of the Cite, is the site of the hole! de
Yille, which, before its destruction by the commune, was one of the most magnificent
buildings in Paris. It was the residence of the prefect of the Seine, who held a sort of
court there, and included all the offices for the transaction of the municipal bush:'
Paris. It was commenced under Francis I., but had been trebled in extent 1 y recent
Additions. The statues and rich ornament.-, with which it was decorated Lave been almost
entirely destroyed, but the building has been again carefully rebuilt in the style of iis
predecessor. .Not far from the hotel de Yille, on the northern bank of the Cite, stand?
the palais dc Justice, u vast building, also set fire to by the commune; H>me parts of it
date from the 14th c., and others are modern. It is the seat of soi-.ie of the courts of law,
as the court of cassation, the imperial court, the tribunals of the first appeal and
of police. The old palace was not much injured by the lire; but the new portion which
was constructed during the reign of Napoleon III. "and much admired for i!s architect-
ure, was left in ruins. Within the precincts of this palace arc the Suinte Chapelle, and the
noted old prison of the Conciergerie, in which Marie Antoinette, Dantou, aim Robespierre
were successively confined.
The Conciergerie, just mentioned, in winch prisoners are lodged pending their tral,
constitutes one of the eight prisons of Paris, of which the principal is l.a Force. Th«
Nouveau Bicetre is designed for convicts sentenced topcnal servitude for life; 8!. li'-hii/ie
receives political offenders, St. Lazare is exclusively for women, the Madeloimettes lor
juvenile criminals, and Clichy for debtors.
The number of the institutions of benevolence is enormous. The largest of the
numerous hospices or almshouscs is La Salpetriere, probably the largest asylum in the
world, extending over 78 acres of land, and appropriated solely to old women, 1800 of
its 4,500 inmates being insane patients; Bicetre, with nearly 3,600 beds, receives only
men. The hospice des Enfans Trouves, or foundling ho.-pital, provides for the infants
brought to it till they reach the age of maturity, and only demands payment in the
event of a child being reclaimed. The Creches, or public nurseries, first established in
184*4, of which there are now 18, receive the infants of poor women for the day at the
cost of 20 centimes. Besides institutions for the blind, deaf and dumb, convalesce nis.
sick children, etc., Paris lias 17 general a<id special hospitals. Of these the <
and most noted are the hotel Dieu, receiving annually 13,000 patients; La Charite; and
La Pi tic
The chief institutions connected with the university of France, and with education
generally, are still situated in the Quarticr Latin. The Sen-bonne (q.v.), a large; building
erected by cardinal Richelieu for the faculties of the old university of Paris, contiiir.s
lecture halls and class-re>oms, and an extensive library open to the public. There i':<
are granted by the university of France in the faculties of science, letters, and theology,
and gratuitous public lectures are delivered, which are attended by a large number of
students. Near the Sorbonne is the college de France, where gratuitous public hrtuu .-,
are also delivered by eminent scholars anel men of letters. The Ecole Poly technique,
the school of medicine and the school of law, the observatory, and the- .Tardin des plantcs,
•with its great museum of natural history, lecture-rooms, and botanical and zoological
gardens, are situated in the same quarter of Paris. The principal of the public' binaries
lire those of the rue Richelieu, now called the bibliotheque nationale, which contains
more than 1.300 000 volume's, 150,000 manuscripts, 5,000 portfolios of engravings, and a
great collection of coins and medals (see LIBRARIES), which originated in a i-nuill collec-
tion of books placed by Louis XI. in the Louvre. No city on this side of the Alps is
richer than Paris in fine-art collections, and among these the museums at the Louvre
stand pre-eminent. The palais des Beaux-arts is used as an exhibition of art, manufac-
tures, and architectural models. The hotel .Cluny. connected under-ground with the
palais des Thermes, in addition to its being in itse-lf a most interesting monument of
mediaeval art, contains curious relics of the arts and usages of the French people, from
the earliest ages of their history to the renaissance period. The mint deserves m.iiie
fe>r the perfection of its machinery. The Gobelins, or tapestry manufactory, may he
included under the fine arts, as the productions of its looms are all manual, and demand
great artistic skill. The conservatoire des arts et Metiers, in the Rue St. Martin, contains
a great collection of models of machinery, and class-rooms for the instruction of work-
men in all departments of applied science. The palace of industry, built in 1854 for
the universal exhibition, now forms a permanent exhibition. The spacious building hi
which the exhibition of 1878 took place was named palace of the Trocadero.
Among the parish churches of Paris (upwards of 60 in number); the grandest and most
interesting, in an historic point of view, is the cathedral of Notre Dame, which stands
on a site successively occupied by a Pagan temple and a Christia-n basilica of the time of
299
Paris.
the Merovingian kings. The present building was constructed between the 12lh and
15th centuries; and in its present state of restored magnificence it may r<;nk as one of the
noblest specimens of Gothic architecture. St. Germain-des-Prea, which is probably the
most ancient church in Paris, was completed in 1163; St. Etienne du Moat and St. Ger-
main 1'Auxerrois, both ancivnt, are interesting — the former for its picturesque and quaint
decorations, and for containing tTie tomb of St. Geuevieve, the patron tainr. of Paris;
ar.d the latter for its rich decorations and the frescoed portal, restored at thewi.-hof
Margaret of Valois. The Sainte Chapelle, built by St. Louis in 124-j— 1.8, for the recep-
tion of the various relics which he bail brought from the Holy Land, is one of the most
remarkable buildings in Paris, profusely decorated in all parts with brilliantly colored
materials. Its present beauty is entirely due to the restorations completed by the lato
emperor at a cost of £50,000. It was threatened by the commune, but saved. Among
modern churches .are the Madeleine, built iu imitation of a Greek temple, and gorgeous
with gildings, frescos, carvings, marbles, and statues; and the Pantheon, which was
begun as a church, but converted by the constituent assembly of republican France into
a temple dedicated to the great men of the nation — it was restored to the church by t'no
iaie em; er >r, and recledicated to St. Genevieve; Notre Dame de Lorettc, erected in 1823,
a fiagrai.t specimen of the meretricious taste of the day; and St. Vincent de Paul, com-
pleted in 1844, somewhat less gaudy and more imposing in style, etc. Among the few
Protestant churches, I'Oratoire is the largest and the best known.
Paris abounds in theaters and plates of amusement suited to the tastes and means of
every class. The leading houses, as the opera, theatre Francais — chiefly devoted to classi-
cal French drama— Od eon, theatre Italien, etc., receive a subvention from government,
and all are under strict police supervision. The new opera-house, completed in 1875, is a
wonderfully magnificent building, costing, exclusive of the site, £1,120,000. Cheap
concerts, equestrian performances, and public balls, held in the open air in summer, sup-
ply a constant round of gayety to the burgher and working classes at a moderate cost,
and form a characteristic feature of Paris life; while, in addition to the noble gardens
of the various imperial palaces, the most densely crowded parts of the city have public
gardens, shaded by trees, and adorned with fountains and statues, which afford the
means of health and recreation to the poor. Beyond the fortifications at the w. of
Paris is the Bois de Boulogne, converted by the late emperor from a wood covered with
stunted trees into one of the most beautiful gardens in Europe. That part of it which
skirted the fortifications was cut up and destroyed during the siege, but since then it has
been replanted, and is now as attractive to visitors as1t has ever been.
Paris has three large and twelve lesser cemeteries, of which the principal one is Pere-
la-Chaise, extending over 200 acres, and filled in every part with monuments erected to
the memory of the countless number of celebrated persons who have been buried here.
The morgue is a building in which the bodies of unknown persons who have met with a
violent death are placed, and which, if not claimed within three days, are buried at the
public expense. The southern parts of the cily are built over beds of limestone, rich iu
fossils, which have been so extensively quarried as to have become a mere net-wort of
vast caverns, which in some cases scarcely afford sufficient support to the houses above.
These quarries were first converted in 1784 into catacombs, in which are deposited the
bones of the dead, collected from the ancient cemeteries of Paris.
Paris was surrounded, under Louis Philippe, with fortifications extending 30 miles
round, and costing £5,500.000 sterling, and, in addition to these, 16 detached forts have
been erected at definite distances from one another. The Champ-de-Mars is a vast sandy
plain near the Quai d'Orsay, on which reviews and other military displays and national
festivals are held. Close to it stands the Ecole militaire, founded in 1752, and used as
barracks for infantry and cavalry, of which it can accommodate 10,000 men, with space
for 800 horses. The hotel des invalides, founded in 1670 for disabled soldiers, is situated
on the left bank of the river. The crypt of the church contains the sarcophagus, hewn
from a huge block of Russian granite, in which lie the remains of Napoleon, deposited
thera in 1840.
Paris is divided into 20 arrondissements. The prefect of the Seine is the chief of the
municipal government, and is appointed by the government. There is a large municipal
council, chosen by popular election. Each arroiidissement has a maireand two assistant
councilors. The prefect of police is at the head of the civic guard or gensdarmes, the
tire brigade, and the sergents de ville, or city police, who are armed with a sword. The
cleaning, sewerage, and water supplies of Paris are under the charge of the prefect.
Paris is now abundantly supplied with pure and wholesome water; since 1854 the length
of vaulted sewers has been doubled, and now amounts to upwards of 250 miles. The
same may be said in regard to the paving of the city, and the street-lighting is now ade-
quately effected by means of some 15,000 gas-lights. In 1818 public slaughter-houses, or
abattoirs, were established at different suburbs, where alone animals are allowed to be
slaughtered. Large cattle markets are held near the licensed abattoirs (q.v.). There are in
the heart of the city numerous halles, or wholesale, and marches, or retail markets. The
principal of these is the halles centrales, near the church of St. EustacLe, covering nearly 20
acres. Among the older markets, the halle aux vins, in which 500, OGO casks of wine can
be stowed, and the marche aux flours, are perhaps the most interesting.
For an account of Paris, see Lc Nouceau Parin, by Labedolitre; Paris lllustre en
Paris. •
Parish.
l'S70. by Ad. Joanne (Paris. 1870 and 1S71); and Moriac's Paris fousla Commune (Paris,
1871). A great work, which was to include all the principal docuinunts connected with
the history of Paris, was commenced daring the late empire, under the supervision of
M. Haussinan. Seven large quarto volumes had appeared when the work was inter-
rupted by the eveiits of 1871.
PARTS, JOHN AYRTON, 1785-1856; b. England; educated at Cambridge, where he
took a medical degree after a course of medical study at Edinburgh, lie begun the
jfraciu'e of his profession, in London, and in his 23d year was made physician to West-
minster hospital. Soon afterwards he settled in Cornwall, where he obtained a large
practice. lie pursued the study of natural history, founded the royal geological society
of Cornwall, and wrote a Quideto Mounft Jint/ and Jsnnl'* I'lnd, describing the geology
of that part of Cornwall, lie also wrote, while in Cornwall, Miiuvir* <>f the Lj'e and
ticieittific Labors of the late lieo. W. Greyor. Returning to London, he lectured on the
materia rnedica at the Windmill-street school of medicine, and on the philosophy of
medicine at the roj'al college of physicians. He worked over the substance of these lec-
tures iuto the introduction of his Phdnnacoloyiii, which passed through many editions,
and still ranks as a valuable text-book on the materia medica. He also wrote a '1 '',
on Du'.f; a LiJ'c of S'.r Humphrey Davy; and anonymously Philosophy in. Spurt m.
in Earnest. He became a censor of the college of physicians in 1817, delivered the llar-
veian oration before it in 1843, and the next year succeeded sir Henry Ilalt'ord in its
presidency," retaining that ofiice till bis death. He received the degree of D.C.L. from
Oxford, aud was a member of the royal society.
PARIS, Lotus PHILIPPE D'ORLEANS, Comte de, b. in Paris, 1838; son of Louis
Philippe, king of France; educated, ai'ter the abdication of his father, in Germany
und England. After a journey to Syria with his brother, the due de Chartres, in 1S">!J.
he published a journal of the voyage entitled Damns ct le Liba.it . Early in 1801 he
became interested in the American war against the rebellion, offered his services, with
his brother's, to the union cause, and Sept. 28 was made aid-dc-camp to gen. Meridian,
with the rank of capt. lie remained in active and efficient service in all the disastrous
battles of that campaign, and retired from" the service when the attitude of Franco
towards Mexico gave cause of offense to the United States. lie returned to England in
the summer of 1802, and in Feb., 1803, published in the Revue des Deu.i'-M»in!<'x an arti-
cle entitled La SHiiutine de Rod dti/if la Laucas hire over the signature of Eugene Forcade.
In 1807-63 ho published in the same magazine, under the nom deplume of dx-Raymond, a
letter on new Germany, and a study of the stale church and the free church in Ireland.
In 1809 he published a book entitled I^es Associations Ouvru'rcs en Anykterre (Trades
Union: ), which went through many editions in Paris, and has been translated into several
languages. During the misfortunes of the German war the count, and his brother offered
their services in the French army in whatever place they might be assigned; but. were
refused by the legislative assembly. In 1873 he made a formal resignation of the claims
of his family to the throne of France, by a visit to the comte de Chambord at Frohs-
dorff. In 1874-75 his great work, Une llistoire de la Guerre Civile en Amerique appeared,
and has been completed in 8 vols. He married May 30, 1834, Marie Isabel, daughter of
the duo de Moutpensier, by whom he has a son and daughter.
PARIS, MATTHEW, the best Latin chronicler of the 13th c., was b. about llOo, and in
1217 entered the Benedictine monastery of St. Albans. After the departure of Roger of
Wendovcr, in 1235, Paris was chosen to succeed him as annalist of the monastery. He
discharged his functions with veracity and boldness, in consequence of -which he greatly
displeased some of his contemporaries. The principal external incident of his life wa's
his voyage to Norway, whither he was invited by king Hakon, to repair the financial
disorders in the Benedictine monastery of Holm. Paris landed at Bergen, July 10,
1248, was courteously received by the Norwegian monarch, and settled the bi;
about which he came in a satisfactory manner. After his return to England he stood
high in the favor of Henry III., who used to converse with him in the most familiar
manner, and from whose lips he derived not a little of the information that makes his
Chronicle so valuable. He had also a wide circle of influential friends and acquaintances
among the clergy, from whom he obtained materials for his work. His death occurred
in 1259. Paris had a great reputation in his day for his virtues and abilities, lie was
considered a universal scholar, and is said by his laudatory biographers to have; been
versed in mathematics, poetry, oratory, divinity, history, painting, and architecture.
One thing about him long kept his memory green in the hearts of his countrymen — he
was a patriotic Englishman, and though a sincere Catholic (like all good men of his age),
yet he loved his country better than the pope, and wrote so fiercely against the encroach-
ments of the court of Rome in ecclesiastical matters that hi.; Chronicle becime, in after
times, a great favorite with the reformers. Paris's principal work is his Iliaturia Major,
which begins with the Norman conquest, and extends to the year of the author's death.
It was continued by William Rishanger, also a monk of St. Albans, till the death of
Henry III. in 1272. The first edition was published at London by archbishop Parker
in 1571, and was reproduced at Zurich in 1000; later and more complete editions are
those of London in 1640-41, and in 1684. The only portion of the llistoria Major, how-
oni Paris.
Parish.
ever, 'which is properly the work of Paris is that extending from 1235 to 1259; the pre-
vious part being nearly a transcription from the Flares Hintoriarum, attributed to Roger
of Weudover, whence some critics have supposed that Paris is really the author of that
work too. But this opinion is strenuously contested by the most recent editor of the
yiores Historiarum, the rev. H. O. Coxe (4 vols. 1841-4%J). Translations both of Paris's
Chronicle and that of Roger of Wendover have been published by Bohn in his Anti-
quarian library. The British museum, and the library of Corpus Christ i college at
Cambridge, contain manuscript abridgments of the llistoria Major, made by Paris him-
self, and entitled (Jhronica Majoni Kancte Albani; a second abridgment is known as tiie
JI/xf,:>fi<i Minor. Other works of Paris's are Duoru'.n Offanim Mercw-rum Ihgvm Vitte;
Vif/inii trium Abbatum, 8. Albani Vitce; and Additamenta, being explanatory additions
to his Iliaturia Major.
PARIS BASIN, the collective name of the beds of eocene age, which rest, in a hollow
of the chalk in the district around Paris, where they occupy an oblong area measuring
180 m. in greatest length from n. to s., and 90 m. in breadth from e. to we'st. The dif-
ferent sections into which the series has been divided are given under eocene (q.v.).
Tiie be is are chiefly remarkable for the rich harvest of organic remains which they sup-
plied to Cuvier, and which led to the foundation of the modern science of palaeontology.
The strata from which these were principally obtained consist of a series of white and
green marls with subordinate beds of gypsum; they are largely developed at Montmar-
trc, where the gypsum has been extensively quarried for the manufacture of plaster
of Paris. The fossils consist of land and fluvial ile shells, fresh-water fish and croco-
diles, and the bones of birds and quadrupeds, besides a few laud-plants, among which
are some palms. The mammals, of which about 50 species have been described, belong
to the order pachydcrmata. The Paris basin has for some time almost ceased to supply
the remains of vertebrate animals.
PARIS GREEX. See ARSESIOUS ACID, ante.
PARISH (Gr. paroikia, habitation, from para, near, and oikeomai, I dwell; Lat. paro-
ehifi), the district assigned to a particular church, where the inhabitants of the district
may attend at public worship, and receive the sacramental or other ministrations of the
clergy.' The name original]}' seems to have been interchangeable with rfiaccftis, "dio-
cese," and to have been applied to the district subject to the spiritual jurisdiction of a
bishop; and, on the other hand, at a la.ter period, dioccesis was somt-times used to signify
a parochial church or district. The distribution into parishes appears to be compara-
tively modern. Originally, all the clergy were (in Ihe opinion of the Episcopalian
churches) but coadjutors of the bishop, and served in his church, at which all the faith-
ful assembled. At Alexandria, and afterwards at Rome, a number of minor churches
were opened (called at Rome tititli), which were served by clergy originally not perma-
nently attached to them, but sent from the principal or bishop's church, hut in progress
of time fixed permanently in the charge. This, however, was not common; and we find
churches, with clergy permanently attached, much earlier in rural districts than in cities.
The institution does not appear to have become general till the 9th or 10th century. In
England, the first legislation on the4 subject occurs in the laM's of Edgar, about 970.
The parochial division of districts seems in great measure to have followed the civil dis-
tribution into manors, or other feudal divisions of territory; and it is probable that it is
to the same state of things we owe the practice of lay patronage, the priest officiating
in a manorial church being chosen, with the bishop's consent, by the lord of the
manor. The parochial revenue, however, by no means followed the same rules which
now prevail. At first, all ecclesiastical income, from whatever district, was carried into
a common fund, which was placed at Ihe disposal of the bishop, and was generally
divided into four parts — for the bishop, for the clergy, for the poor, and for the church.
By degrees, however, beginning first with the rural parishes, and ultimately extending
to those of the cities, the parochial revenues were placed at the disposal of the parish
clergy (subject to the same general threefold division, for the clergy, for the poor, and
for the church), and in some places an abusive claim, which was early reprobated, arose
upon the part of the lord of the manor to a portion of the re-venire. Property, a parish
has but one church; but when the district is extensive, one or more minor (succursal)
churches, sometimes called "chapels of ease," are permitted.
In the law of England, a parish is an important subdivision of the country, for pur-
poses of local self-government, most of the local rates and taxes being confined within
that area, and to a certain extent self-imposed by the parties who pay them. The origin
of the division of England into parishes is not very clearly ascertained by the authori-
ties. Some have asserted that the division had an ecclesiastical origin, and that a parish
was merely a district sufficient for one priest to attend to. But others have asserted that
parishes^ had a civil origin long anterior to ecclesiastical distinctions, advantage being
merely taken to ingraft these on so convenient an existing subdivision of the country:
and that a parish was a subdivision of the ancient hundred, known as a vill or town, and
through its machinery the public taxes were anciently collected. Hobart fixes the date
of the institution of civil parishes in 1179, and his account has been generally followed.
Much difficulty has occasionally arisen in fixing the boundaries of parishes. 'Blackstone
says the boundaries of parishes were originally ascertained by those of manors, and that
Parish.
302
it very seldom happened that a manor extended itself over more parishes than one, though
there were often many manors in one parish. Nevertheless, the boundaries of parishes
are often intermixed, which Blackstonc accounts for by the practice of the lords of adjoin-
ing manors obliging their tenants to appropriate their tithes towards the officiating
minister of the church, Avhich was built for the whole. Even in the present day, theso.
boundaries often give rise to litigation, and the courts have always decided the question
according to the proof of custom. This cu^om is chiefly established by the ancient
practice of perambulating the parish in Rogation-week in each year. See PEHAMBI I,A-
TION. There are some places us to which it is uncertain whether they are parishes or
not, and hence it has been usual to call them reputed parishes. There are also places
tailed extra-parochial places, which do not, belong to any parish, such as forest and
abbey lands. In these cases the persons inhabiting were not subject to the usual paro-
chial rates and taxes, and other incidents of parochial life. But in 1S«">7 a statute was
passed which put extra-parochial places upon a similar footing to p:'.;-i-hes, by giving
power to justices, and in some cases to the poor-law board, to annex them to adjoining
parishes, after which they are dealt with in much the same way as other places. One
of the chief characteristics of a parish is that there is r. parish church, and an inc.nmlx nt
and churchwardens attached to it, and by this machinery the spiritual wants of the par-
ishioners arc attended to. These several parish churches, and the endowments connected
therewith, belong in a certain sense to the nation, and t'.ie incumbents are members of
the established Church of England, and amenable to the discipline of the bishops and
the spiritual courts. The private patronage, or right of presenting a clergyman to an
Incumbency, is technically called an advowson, and is generally held by an individual as a
salable property, having a market value. The patron has an absolute right (quite irre-
spective of the wishes of the parishioners) to present a clerk or ordained priest of the
church of England to a vacant benefice, and it is for the bishop to see to his qualifications.
The bishop is the solo judge of these qualifications, and if he approves of them, the clerk or
priest is instituted and inducted into the benefice, which ceremony completes his legal title
to the fruits of the benefice. The incumbents of parish churches are c-iiied recto
vicars, or perpetual curates, the distinction being chiefly founded on the state of the tithes.
When the benefice is full, then the freehold of the church vests in the rector or p:.
and so does the church-yard; but he holds these only as a trustee for the use of the par-
isiiioners. There are certain duties which the incumbent of the parish church is bound
by law to perform for the benefit of the parishioners. He is bound, as a general rule . to
reside in the parish, so as to be ready to administer the rites of the church to them. Bee
NON-RESIDENCE. The first duty of the incumbent is to perform public worship in the
parish church every Sunday, according to the form prescribed by the Book o!' ('cmmou
Prayer, which is part of the statute-law of England. He must adhere sirictly to the
forms and ceremonies, and even to the dress prescribed by the Book of Common Prayer
ami Canons. The incumbent is also bound to baptize the children of all the parishioners.
an 1 to administer the rite of the Lord's-supper to the parishioners not less than three
thnej eacii year. The incumbent is also bound to allow the parishioners to be buried in
the church-yard of the parish, if there is accommodation, and to read the burial service
at e-ioh interment. Ho is also bound to marry the parishioners on their tendering them-
selves, and complying with the marriage acts, within the parish church and during
canonical hours, and it is said he is liable to an action of damages if he refuse. In
respect of burials and marriages, certain fees are frequently payable by cu.stom; but
unless such a custom exists, no fee is exigible for performance of these duties. In many
cases, where one church hs».d become insufficient for the increased population, the old
parish has been subdivided under the church building acts, the first of which was -
in 1818, into two or more ecclesiastical districts or parishes, for each of which a new
church was built, and an incumbent appointed. The incumbents in these eccle-i
parishes have generally been provided for by the incumbent of the mother-parish or by
voluntary benefactors, and by the aid of pew-rents. But these ecclesiastical pa-'
so far as the poor and other secular purposes are concerned, make no change on the old
law. Another incident of tbe parish church is that there must be churchwardens
appointed annually, who are accordingly leading parochial officers, and whose duty is
partly ecclesiastical and partly civil. Their civil duties consist chiefly in this, that i!r y
must join the overseers in many of the duties arising out. of the management of the prior,
mid incidental duties imposed by statute. But their primary duty is to attend to the
repair and good order of the fabric of the church. The common law requires that there
should b^ two churchwardens, one of whom is appointed by the incumbent, and the
other is chosen by the parishioners in vestry assembled, but sometimes this rule is varied
by a loml custom. This appointment and election takes place in Easter-week of each
vear. In electing the people's churchwarden, there is often much local excitement, and
it Is common to poll the parish, all those who pay poor-rates being entitled to vote, the
number of votes varying according to the rent, but no person having more than six votf*.
See CHURCHWARDENS; CHUHCH RATES.
The next most important business connected with the parish is that which concerns
the poor, the leading principle being, that each union is bound to pay the expense of
relieving its own poor. See OVKKSEERG: GUARDTAW; POOR.
Another important feature of the parish is, that all the highways within the parish
303
Parish.
must be kept in repair by the parish, i.e., by the inhabitants who are rated to the poor.
For this purpose, the inhabitants of each parish, in vestry assembled, appoint each year
a surveyor of highways, whose duty it is to see that the highways are kept in good
repair; and he is authorized, by the general highway act, to levy a rate on all the prop-
erty within the parish. Tiie office oi' a surveyor of highways is, like those of church-
warden, overseer, and guardian, a compulsory and gratuitous office. "When a highway
is out of repair, the mode of enforcing the repair is by summoning the surveyor of high-
ways before justices, to show cause why he has not repaired the road; and if the fads
are not disputed, the justices either tine him, or order an indictment to be laid against
the inhabitants of the parish. This indictment is tried, and the expense of it is defrayed
out of the highway-rate, which is subsequently made. The highways of each parish being
thus exclusively under the control of the ratepayers and their officers, it happened that
f-eat inequality prevailed in the standard of repairs which each parish set up for itself,
his led lo the late highway district acts, first passed in 1802, the object of which is to
enable the justices of the peace of the district to combine several parishes into one dis-
trict, and thus secure more uniformity in the repairs of the highways. A way-warden
is now appointed to represent each parish at the highway board, instead of the old high-
way surveyor; but the expenses of maintaining the highways are still ultimately paid by
the parUh in which they are situated, the only change being, that the expenses are
ordered to be incurred by the highway board, instead of the parochial officer.
The above duties in reference to the parish church, the poor, and the highways, are
the leading duties attaching to the parish as a parish; but over and above these, many
miscellaneous duties have been imposed on the parish officers, particularly on the over-
seers and churchwardens, which will be found specified under the head of OVERSEERS.
In nearly all cases where the parish, as a parish, is required to act, the mode in which it
does so is by the machinery of a vestry. A vestry is a meeting of all the inhabitant
householders rated to the poor. It is called by the churchwardens, and all questions are
put to the vote. Any ratepayer who thinks the majority of those present do not repre-
sent the majority of the whole parishoners, is entitled to demand a poll. At these meet-
ings, great excitement often prevails, especially when there existed church-rates. Wher-
ever a parish improvement is found to be desirable, the vestry may meet and decide
whether it is to be proceeded with, in which case they have powers of rating themselves
for the expense. Such is the case as to the establisbjnent of baths and wash-houses,
watching, and lighting. Returns arc made of ail parish and local rates to parliament
every year. The parish property, except the goods of the parish church, which are
vested iu the churchwardens, is vested in the overseers, who hold and manage the
same, requiring the consent of the poor-law board in order to sell it. Of late, a statute
has authorized benefactors to dedicate greens or playgrounds to the inhabitants of
parishes, through the intervention of trustees.
In Scotland the division into parishes has existed from the most ancient times, and
is recognized for certain civil purposes relative to taxation and otherwise, as well as for
purposes purely ecclesiastical. The court of session, acting as the commission of teinds,
may unite two or more parishes into one; or may divide a parish, or disjoin part of it,
with consent of the heritors (or landholders) of a major part of the valuation ; or apart
from their consent, if it be shown that there is within the disjoined part a sufficient
place o^' worship, and if the titulars of teinds (q.v.), or others ,vho have to pay no less
than three-fourths of the additional stipend, do not object. By act 7 and 8 Viet. c. 44.
any district where there is an endowed church may be erected into a parish quoad sacra,
for such purposes as are purely ecclesiastical. Endowed Gaelic congregations in the
large towns of the Lowlands may similarly be erected into parishes quoad sacra.
The principal application of the parochial division for civil purposes relates to tho
administration of the poor-law. Under the old system the administrators of the poor-
law were the kirk-session in county parishes, and the magistrates, or certain managers
selected liy them, in burghnl parishes. The act 8 and 9 Viet. c. 83, which remodeled
the poor-law of Scotland, retained the old administrative body so long as there was no
assessment: but, on a parish being assessed, substituted for it a new one. consisting in
rural parishes of the owners of heritable property of £20 ycarljr value, of the magistrates
of any royal burgh within the bounds, of the kirk-session, a certain number of members
chosen by the persons assessed ; and in burgh al parishes of members, not exceeding 30,
chosen by the persons assessed, four members named by the magistrates, and not above
four by the kirk-session or sessions. The board of supervision may unite two or more
parishes into a combination for poor-'aw purposes. There is not the same extensive
machinery for parochial self-governr -,nt that exists in England. The burden of sup-
porting the fabric of the church ;'alls> on the heritors, and there are no churchwardens.
Highways are not repairable by the parish, and there are no elections of surveyors or
way-wardens. The meeting of the inhabitants in vestry, which so often takes place in
England, is unknown in Scotland, and hence the ratepayers do not interest themselves
so much in local affairs. Many of the duties which in England are discharged by paro-
chial officers, are in Scotland discharged by the sheriff-clerk, a county-officer. The sys-
tem of having a parish school (q.v,) in every parish (a system extended by the education
act of 1872) has long prevailed in Scotland" though unknown in England till the year
1870
I'sirlsh. on 4
Park.
PARISH (and) has in this country a usage different from that in England; and its
usage is not the same in all the slates. In Louisiana it is synonymous with county in
the other .laics. The legal significance of the English parish arises from the right of
the rector to receive tithes of the agricultural products of the pari-h. In America no
such right ever existed. IJut from the first settlement of the country, associations were
formed or corporations organized for religious worship; and parish denoted the terri-
torial limit of a church. In New England, where the connection between church and
state was originally very close, and where at one time only church members were quali-
fied to vote, the parish was the town; that is, the whole body of qualified eitiz< us, acting
as the town in civil matters, constituted and acted as the parish in eerle^'s'U-al matters.
The same town-meeting, for instance, would vote an appropriation for the reads of the
town, and another appropriation for the salary of the pastor of the town churcli. There
was originally but one church and one parish in each town; but as population increased
new parishes were set off, still remaining territorial divisions for cceloiastieal purposes.
Finally, as Congregationalism ceased to be the sole form of religion in Isew England,
find new denominations sprang up, and new churches were organ i/.ed, the theocratic
idea died, and it was recognized that all denominations should he on an equality. The
state and the town as such ceased to provide for the support of religious worship, and
parish henceforth denoted a voluntary association of persons with the same religious
worship, without reference to locality or residence.
PARISH. ELIJAH, D.D., 1762-1825; b. Conn.; graduated at Dartmouth 1785; studied
theology with the rev. Ephraim Judson of Taunton, Mass., and in 1787 was settled as
pastor of the Congregational church at Byfield, Mass.; remaining there till his death
His theological views were those of Dr. Hopkins. He was greatly interested in politics,
and in the annual election sermon which he preached in 18iO hecmsured M> severely the
policy of the government that the legislature refused to publish it. It had however a
wide circulation. He published with Dr. Morse, A Gazetteer of the Etixtcni "/.'<•/ V
Continent; also A History of New England; System of Modern Geography; Mii^oir of Dr.
Eleazar Wliedock, first president of Dartmouth college; fairred Geography, or Gazdteer
of the Bibk'. In 18.26 a volume of his Sermons was published with a memoir.
PARISH CLERK, in England, is an officer of the parish of pome importance, hi.s duty
being to lead the responses during the reading of the service in the parish church, lie
is appointed by the parson, unless some other custom of a peculiar kind exists in the
new churches built in populous parishes, he is annually appointed by the minister. The
salary of the parish clerk is paid out of the church-rate.
PARISH SCHOOL. In England, prior to the recent education net, there was no such
thing as a parish school — that is, a school existing for the benefit of the parLhi'
endowed by the state, or supported by taxes on the parishioners. Every school he\ond
charity schools was more or less voluntary in its character, and endowed, if at all, by
private benefactors. In Scotland, however, it Avas essential that in every parish there
should be a parish school, for a statute of 1696 made it compulsory on the heri
i.e., the chief proprietors— to provide a school-house, and to fix a salary for tie teacher.
If the heritors neglected to supply a school-house, the presbytery was empowered to
order one at the expense of the heritors. The schoolmaster's salary was fixed ace e id ing
to a certain proportion, half of the rate or cess being paid by the landlorel. ;:i.el half by
the tenant. In 1803 a statute was passed to regulate the salaries, and te> give a right te>
the schoolmaster to have a house and garden. The office, was further regulated by a
later act, 24 and 25 Viet. c. 107. The salary was fixed to be from i." 5 to i7() per annum,
tobevarsd and fixed by the heritors and minister of the parish, in the case of future
vacancies. Tfie qualification of the schoolmaster consisted in passing an examination
conducted by the examiners of parochial schoolmasters, who were professors of the
universities, who made regulations as to the time and mode of examination. For this
purpose, Scotland was divided into 4 districts, each in connection with one of the Seote-h
universities. When examined, the person obtained a certificate of fitness from these
examiners. The schoolmaster, who had formerly, before admission to rlTer. he-en
required to si<rn the confession of faith and the formula of the church of Scotland, and
to profess that he would submit to its government and discipline, had by this act nn rely
to make a declaration that he would not. in his office, endeavor, directly or indirectly,
to teach or inculcate opinions opposed to the divine authority of the holy Scripture's. e>r
to the doctrines contained in the shorter catechism, agreed upon by the iiseemhly of
divines at Westminster, and approved by the general assembly of the church of Scot-
land, and that lie would not exercise the functions of his office to the prejudice or sub-
version of the church of Scotland as by law established. In case of misconduct, the
presbytery might complain to the secretary of state, who would institute a commission lo
inquire and report, and to censure, suspend, or deprive such schoolmaster accordingly.
The sheriff of the county was made the sole judge of charge's of immorality, or cruel or
improper treatment of the scholars, offenses formerly cognizable by the presbytery: and
the heritors and minister might permit or require hiin to resign, and allow him a retiring
Parish.
Park.
allowance. Notwithstanding all those improvements, however, it continued to be appar-
ent that the system of parish schools, however well adapted to Scotland at the revolu-
tion, had fallen behind the requirements of the country when the population had tripled,
and large manufacturing villages and towns had sprung up in rural districts. But for
denominational and other schools, vast numbers of children would have been left with-
out the rudiments of education. By the education (Scotland) act, 35 and 37 Viet. c. 62
(1>72), the parish schools were placed under the management of the school board of each
parish, the jurisdiction of heritors, ministers, and church courts was abolished, and
every school under the management of the school board was declared to be equally a
parish school. Teachers in olfice before the act are not to be preji^liced by its provis-
ions; those whom the school boards appoint are to have such salaries assigned them as
the boards think fit, and to hold office at pleasure of the board.
PARIS, PLASTER OF. See GYPSUM, ante.
PAEK (Fr. pare), a term still employed in some parts of Britain, in its original sense,
to denote a field or inclosure, but more generally applied to the inclosed grounds
around a mansion, designated in Scotland by another term of French origin, policy.
The park, in fills sense, includes not only the lawn, but all that is devoted to the-growth
of timber, pasturage for deer, sheep, cattle, etc., in connection with the mansion, wher-
ever pleasure-walks or drives extend, or the purpose of enjoyment prevails over that of
economical use. Public parks are those in the vicinity of towns and cities, open to the
public, and intended for their benefit. Au increase of public parks is a pleasing feature
of the present age, and not a few towns enjoy parks recently bestowed by wealjthy per-
sons somehow connected with them.
PARK (ante), ground used for purposes of pleasure and recreation, and possess-
ing some characteristics of woodland and grassy ground. It need not necessarily be a
large area. The original French word pare signified first an iuclosure for game, and
afterward one for domestic animals. A decorated half-acre of trees and flowers in
Montreal is called a park, with the same propriety as the deer park of hundreds of acres;
and with more correctness than when those vast extents of natural meadows flecked
with tre.es in Colorado are called parks. The evident needlessness of shutting people
out of the enjoyment of nature's beauties which their use will not harm, has long made
the great parks of England and the continent almost as free to the people as recognized
'•commons." A grassy expanse, large or small, stocked with shade trees, and used for
rest and recreation, is a park; whether it be as formal as Versailles, as wild and pictur-
esque as Fontainebleau, or as trim as an old Dutch garden. Even grass may be
omi ;('"(!, and yet the park remain. The park of the Tuileries in Paris is so swarmed with
people that no grass could be maintained under the trees without limiting to an intolerable
degree its use. The entire surface among its trees not occupied by pavements, groups
of shrubs, or parterres of flowers, is covered with loose gravel, through which water per-
colates to the tree roots, and over which there is no restraint of popular use. The beauty
of the bark is lessened, but its value greatly increased for the use intended — viz., the
recreation of the greatest number of people. The distinction between a park and a
pleasure garden is this: the decorated garden where no crop is grown is cultivated to
exhibit a growth of grass, trees, shrubs, or flowers with reference to the special beauty
of each, as well as the beauty of harmonious arrangement. The perfectness of develop-
ment of each part of a pleasure garden is the object aimecTat. The garden becomes a
park whenever freely used for recreation by persons not interested in its special growth.
It is the tendency of our modern suburban home gardening to make playgrounds of
their grassy surroundings, where croquet and all out-door family sports may be freely
indulged. Thus they become our little parks, rather .than gardens. Frederick L.aw
Olmsted. the highest American authority on parks, suggests that little open spaces in
ciiies, designed for public use, should be called places, when not large enough to have
grass and trees; and place-parks when barely large enough to have grass plats and a few
trees; that thoroughfares planted with trees for special adaptation to promenades or as
avenues to parks, should be called park-ways ; and public forests without roads simply
iraod*. The Spanish have a word to designate long walks under avenues of trees which
are neither thoroughfares nor park-ways, and yet admirably adapted to small cities, viz..
<i.lti,',neda. The main streets of many old American towns arched with elms or maples,
are some of the finest examples of alamedas, or park-ways, if the country beyond
them might be considered park.
Public parks in the United States on a small scale are as old as their cities. A sea-
side walk was originally the most common. The Battery in New York, and the Bay-
side in Charleston, S. C. are familiar examples. The city hall park in New York was
•originally its men's and boy's playground or common. It was but little improved until
the city hall was built, when it was offensively fenced in. Boston common was specifi-
cally dedicated to public use by the founders of the city, and has more perfectly
fulfilled its use than any other equal area in the country. Public, squares in nearly all
the cities, notably around Yale college in New Haven, have shown the noble expression
that may be given to a very limited park by avenues of full grown* native trees. The
period of land speculation from 1830 to 1837, when great numbers of western cities were
platted, was peculiarly unfortunate in the failure to dedicate ground liberally either in
U. K. XL— 20
Park. 306
park-places, public squnres. or larger ground?. The beginning of the era of public
parks for largo cities, commensurate with their si/e, was when tlr,' city of New York
felt the lack of park provision for her people and secured special legislation to create
tlu' Central park. Though inferior in many respects to older parks, especially if its
ircent growth of trees be compared with noble old park forests, and its limited ranges of
lawn with the great expanses of the finest Knglish parks, yet it has this merit in a remark-
able degree; that, in proportion to the ground which it covers, the loss of space by the
great reservoir being considered as well as its proportions and topography, it has developed
in >re beauties and interest for public use than any other. The property was secured in
1057, and the plars&for its laying out submitted by Frederick Law Olmsted and C'alvert
Vaux were adopted and put in their charge, to be executed. "NVork was heirun at once.
In 1853 4,000 men were engaged on it. The orderly manner in which the people
thronged to enjoy its first opening beauties was a pleasing refutation of the fear that had
been expressed that a quiet enjoyment of a park could not be maintained in an American
city. The ground as purchased was a region of ledgy granite hills and swampy hollows.
embracing a few small farms and old mansions. The transformation within five years
was marvelous, and an enduring monument of the genius of the designers, their execu-
tive ability, and the energetic spirit of the park commissioners. The ground occupied
is 2i m. long n. and s. and a half-mile wide e. and w. The city reservoirs within it
occupy 142 acres, forming a lake the elevation of which does not permit it to be given
the air of a natural piece of water, but which nevertheless is a pleading feature in the
varm months Besides this water there are six beautifully managed artificial lakes, con-
taining in all 43 acres. Exclusive of the reservoirs and building sites, the park contains
(•83 acres. About 110 acres are in lawn, little broken by rocks and only bordered by trees.
and the remainder mostly broken ground, in glades and young forests, or covered with
copses and shrubbery, but nearly'ill in a condition to have a surface of lawn. 'I here
a;e V\ m. of carriage roads of admirable construction, 5| m. devoted to saddle-horse use;
a:nl 28 m. of walks. The average breadth of the drives is 50 ft., of walks 13 ft. ; and the
entire area occupied by roads and walks is 100 acres. There are 8 bridges over wafer and
83 for roads and walks that intersect at different levels: forming altogether the most vaiu d
pfndy of single-arched bridge designs to be found within the limits of a single park. In
isiC originality of the forms employed in these bridges (no two of them being alike or
even similar) in the grace of their lines, their adaptation to abutting grounds, the lianpy
TJSO of all sorts of materials, of cut stones, and rustic, of mixed stone and brick, of iron
and wood in their construction, in the perfectness of the mechanical work nnd the deli-
cate taste of their details they are monuments of the genius and taste of Mr. Oalvert
Vaux the architect, unsurpassed, if equaled, anywhere. The grand terrace also by .\Ir.
Vaux, is the first great work of park architecture executed in the United States. I; is
an admirable study. The visitors to the park frequently exceed 100,000 a day. A mag-
nificent system of parks and drives has been projected' for the part of the island above
Central park. Prospect park. Brooklyn, is an outgrowth of the enthusiasm developed !>y
thc creation of the Central park. It contains 550 acres all of which is available for ]>-.•'<
us?. Well-grown trees already on a part of it, and larger stretches of grassy ground,
gave a nobler immediate effect in sylvan features than was possible in Central park.
Its architectural features, though on a grand scale, are not so interesting as those ol
tral park, except at the enhance which is finer. The park was designed by the same
gentlemen who created Central park, writh masterly skill in producing the fine-4 results
with the means at hand. The heights command a fine view of New York bay and the
• ocean. Artificial lakes covering 50 acres of its surface are supplied wish water by
steam-power. It has 6 m. of carriage drives, 4 m. of saddle-horse roads, and iO m.
of »valks. New York and Brooklyn together have about 1600 acres appropriated to
parks.
Philadelphia in addition to her generous original squares for pnrk use — as Franklin,
•Washington, Independence, Logan, and Ritterhou.se — has followed and outdone New
'York in the purchase and improvement of 2,740 acres m one body — Fairmount. park.
Its extent, varied surface, fine old t:ees, broad expanses of turf, the SchuylUill river at
its side, and the stream of the Wissahickon, flowing through a picturesque rocky val-
le/ clothed with the trees, shrubs and wild vines of virgin nature, through dark dells.
broken by numerous waterfalls, altogether give it a different character from that of most
oilier -parks of the United States. Inartificial improvements it. has had less expended
upon it than the New York and Brooklyn parks. Baltimore has the honor of the
noblest forest park of the United States, Druid Hill — an old forest of 600 acres acquired
in 1800, previously the private park of an old estate.
Boston's common contains 48 acres of pleasantly varied surface with trees as old as the
city. The "old elm " was represented on a map published in 1722. English elms form-
ing « part -of its exterior avenues are the finest of their kind in the United States. The
"public garden " is an extension n.w. of the common containing 21£ acres, separated
from it by a street. It is kept in gardencsquc style as an arboretum and botanical urr
den, anid "contains a small lake, a conservatory, and many fine statues. The city
smallorparks. Commonwealth avenue, leading n.w. from the public garden, is a grand
park way, T£ m. long. 240 ft. wide, in the center of which are double avenues of trees,
and walks through grass-plots, shrubbery, and flowers.
307
Pai k.
The park system of Chicago, devised after 1864, was extensive and thorough as a plan,
find though as yet but partially carried out, already fulfills an important mission of
pleasure and comfort to its citizens. The plan embraces 1900 acres divided between G
parks of 250 acres each and the broad parkways which connect them, and form a cir-
cumvallation of the city from lake Michigan n. round to the lake south. The parks
by the lake-shore will have some features suggested by peculiarities of Venice, and in the
hot summer months will be delightful. The parks on the flat prairies west of the city
will be slow to develop the beauty that can come only from a growth of trees to shade
their lawns and walks. The park-ways are 20 m. in length, 200 to 250 ft. wide.
St. Louis has 2,100 acres devoted to park use, of which 100 acres are small place-parks,
already in use in the city. Tower Grove park, containing 277 acres, has been handsomely
improved, and is connected with the city by a park-way 120 ft. wide, which is a part of 12
m. of suc-h avenue embraced in its park system. Cincinnati has over 400 acres of park.
Eden park containing 207 acres lies on the bluffs of the Ohio river e. of the city, and has
a pleasing variety of vale and hill beautifully kept. Burnett-wood contains 168 acres
mostly forest. Buffalo has one of the best park systems in the United States, consisting
of a park of 300 acres of a rural character, with fine trees, a lake of 46 acres approached
from the city by a noble avenue with park-ways 200 ft. wide, and a promennde along
its shore on one side, and a parade-ground and garden on the opposite side. The
park and park-ways together cover 530 acres. San Francisco has made an interest-
ing essay in park-making by the conversion of some of the shifting sand dunes w. of the
city into parks, by a careful system of watering and seeding; so that places where the
'•weep of winds from the Pacific made and unmade new sand hills or materially changed
nil their surfaces every year, have become well-established lawns, planted with trees, and
in a fair way to become beautiful parks. The work has not been so systematically fol-
lowed up as was intended, but whenever it is, then gardening skill, seconded by the
peculiarly moist and equable climate of that coast, may be relied upon to cover the parks
with interesting forms of semi-tropical vegetation. Winds are the sole enemy to these
park formations; 1000 acres have been devoted to this experiment in the Golden Gate
park, and broad park-ways along the sea entrance to the bay lead to it. Smaller cities
throughout the United Slates and Canadr have of late years fallowed the lead of the
great ones. In many of them, comparatively small areas near the centers of population
serve better than larger ones remote from it. It is a misfortune in many American cities
that ihc late awakening to the need of more pleasure-grounds has forced the purchase of
lands too remote to be most useful to the body of poor people who have most need of
their pure air and priceless recreation ; and it is too much the fashion of modern park-
making to provide for those who can drive or ride to them, rather than for those who.
like women ai:d children, will use them only when near. In this respect European cities
are generally much more favored. There nearly every town formerly had its wall arid
surrounding ditches and reserve of open ground outside kept clear for military defense,
all belonging to the state. These walls and adjacent grounds, before as well as after the^
fortifications were razed, Avere the promenades" of the people, and in modern times have
<;cen converted into parks and boulevards. Towns which have grown great?y have had
several successive circles of inclosing fortifications; thus providing, as in Paris and
Vienna, several successive circles of public promenades, boulevards, and commons. Parks
could not be devised more convenient to the people than these enviioning grounds nearly
c;jui-di<iant to all the population.
The area of parks in London, England, is proportioned to the immensity.of the city.
Only a small part of them are broken by carriage roads; nearly their whole extent
dedicated to the exclusive use of pedestrians. Its seven great parks are: Hyde,
containing about 400 acres, intersected by walks and carriage roads, (including the
famous saddle-horse drive called Rotten Row) clothed with old forests, and graced by
the lake called Serpentine; Kensington gardens, an adjoining royal park of about the
same size, further from the city: Green, a smaller pedestrian park, by which Hyde
park may be approached; Regent's, nearly circular, with 450 acres, and having zo-
ological and botanic gardens; Victoria park, with 290 acres, Battersea park, 320 acres,
Kcnsingtoi^park, 20 acres, are almost exclusively for pedestrians; as well as the groat
Botanic gardens of Kew outside of London. Paris is more noted for the elegance and
great number of its place-parks and avenues for promenades than for real parks. The
latter have become numerous of late years, and are even more recent than the Cen-
tral park of Xew York. The Bois de Boulogne, an ancient wood belonging to the
crown, was given to the public about 1852. It contains 2,250 acres, not particularly
interesting by nature, with no noble trees, but treated with all the graces of art pos-
sible to cover its natural deficiencies. Carriage drives and promenades traverse it in
every part, and four artificial lakes arc its most interesting feature. The most striking
new park in the city is the Buttcs C/uiuinoiit in the n.e. quarter, occupying the site of
extensive old stone quarries. It embraces 62 acres, and is picturesque to a degree that
renders it peculiarly charming and surprising in the midst of the city on (he unsightly
place of the exhausted quarry. It is probably tha highest triumph of modern taste and
skill in park creation. The "park Monceaux is a smaller example of similar skill. The
old gardens of the Tuileries already alluded to, and the somewhat similar gardens of the
Luxembourg, though more like gardens than parks in their treatment, are so completely
Turk. OAQ
l»urk«.
iHcd by the public that they fulfill nil the uses of parks. Paris is provided with park
resorts outside of the city to a greater extent than any other city. All tin- old ch:
forests and hunting grounds of successive kings of France are now the property of the
state, and furnish attractions in every direction out of the city. St. (loud, Versailles,
Vincennes, Fontainebleau, the latter one of the most picturesque and extensive of old
r ival hunting forests, are the most noted. Smaller cities in France and throughout
Europe abound in beautiful small parks contiguous to their population, most of wliicli
lirive been improvements of the last 30 years, made possible by the poss:-.>ion by muni-
cipalities of suitable ground previously used by the public, but not specially improved
for their enjoyment.
Private parks of much extent are everywhere decreasing rather than increasing,
especially in the United States. The ambition for family land estates sifter t he man
ner of the English was once general among the wealthy. The inheritors of estates
under colonial grants, like the Livingstons and Van Renssellaers on the Hudson, for-
merly maintained private parks of great beauty. But the care and expense of main-
taining a large and hospitable establishment, the loneliness of the mansion occup.mts
without such tax for hospitality, and the weight of taxes concentrated on lands, have
tended of late years to the abandonment of the park establishments and the sale ami
subdivision of such properties. In short, it is the tendency of civilization to make pub-
lic parks instead of private ones.
PARK, a co. in central Colorado, drained by branches of the Platte river, which has
its sources in the co. ; 2,000 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 3,970 — 2,946 of American birth. The surface
is mostly table-laud, bounded on the n. and w. by the Park range of the Rocky mountains.
The scenery is remarkable for its beauty and sublimity. The soil is good grazing land.
and oats, potatoes, and barley are the chief products. Gold, silver, copper, and lead
abound. Co. seat, Fair Play.
PARK, EDWAKDS AMASA, D.D., LL.D. , b. Providence, R. I., 1808; graduated at
Brown university, 1826; and at Andover theological seminary, 1831; ordained the same
year pastor of the Congregational church in Braiutree. .Mass.; elected in 18'.'}~> pro,
of moral and intellectual philosophy in Amherst college; in 1836 became Bartlett pro-
fessor of sacred rhetoric in Andover theological seminary; and in 1847 Abbot pro;
of Christian theology in the same institution, which position he still hcUls. lie has con-
tributed largely to periodicals, and has been one of the editors of the BH>U»''
from the beginning. With prof. B. B. Edwards he translated a volume of a
Selections; edited the Writings of Ren. William Bradford Homer, with a memoir; a volume
on homiletics, the Preacher and Pastor, with an introductory essay; The Writiii;/^ <>f
Prof. B. B. Edwards, with a memoir, 2 vols. ; and jointly with Di -. Austin Phelps and
Lowell Mason, the Sabbath Hymn and Tune- Book. In 1859 he assi-i 1 in the preparation
of a volume of Discourses and Treatises on the Atonement, and v»'...;e an iuirodii'
treatise on The Rise of the Edioardean 'theory of the Atonement. With Dr. Phelps and
the rev. D. L. Furber he published in 13t>l a volurae entitled Hymns and Cltair*. lie
has written memoirs of Drs. Hopkins and Emmons for the editions of their wovks. !!.•
has published several sermons, one of which, a "convention sertaou," on Tin Ti<
of tJie Intellect and the Feelings, occasioned a theological controversy between him and
prof. Hodge of Prinaeton. He has long been considered one of the leading pulpit orators
of the country, as regards both the matter of his discourse and the combined vigor and
finish of his delivery. His use of words is exceedingly accurate and felicitous, and his
illustrations are singularly apt. For many years he has been the foremost, expounder of
what is known as the New England theology, a strongly evangelical scheme of Chri>tian
doctrine, which has doubtless had a modifying power on the iuteuser forms of Calvinism,
long prevalent in the middle ana southern states. As editor of a leading theol mi al
quarterly, high in repute on both sides of the Atlantic, Dr. Park has had wide influ
But as a lecturer to consecutive classes of students for the ministry he has exerted an
intellectual force keen, profound, vital, and formative, whose range and value can scarcely
be overestimated. He has closely devoted himself to this work, visiting Europe for
study and for indispensable rest, but seldom leaving his classes for any more public sphere
of work. From his lecture-room, through his multitude of pupils, a stimmus has gone
forth through the land and to distant parts of the earth.
PARK, MUNGO, a celebrated African traveler, was the son of a Scottish farmer, and
was b. Sept. 10, 1771, at Fowlshiels, near Selkirk. He studied medicine in Edinburgh.
and afterward went to London, where he obtained the situation of assistant-surgeon in a
vessel bound for the East Indies. When he returned, in 1793, the African, As*nriatin>i of i
London had received intelligence of the death of maj. Houghton, who bad undertaken a
journey to Africa at their expense. Park offered himself for a similar undertaking, \\.is
>ccepted, and sailed from England May 22, 1795. He spent some months at the English
factory of Pisania, on the Gambia, in making preparations for his further travels, and in
[earning the Mandingo language. Leaving Pisania on Dec. 2, he traveled eastward; lv.it
when he had nearly reached the place where Houghton lost his life, he fell into the hands
of a Moorish king, who imprisoned him, and treated him so roughly that Park seized an
opportunity of escaping (July 1, 1796). In the third week of his flight he reached the
Niger, the great object of his search, at Sego (in the kingdom of Bambarra), and followed
Qf)0 Parfe.
Parke.
its course downward as far as Silla; but meeting with hindrances that compelled him to
retrace his steps, he pursued his way westward along its banks to Bammakoe, and then
crossed a mountainous country till he came to Kamalia, in the kingdom of Mandingo
(Sept. 14), where he was taken ill, and lay for seven months. A slave-trader at last con-
veyed him again to the English factory on the Gambia, where he arrived June 10, 1797,
after an absence of nineteen months. He published an account of his travels, after his
return to Britain, under the title of Travels in the Interior of Africa (Loud. 1799), a work
which at once acquired a high popularity. He now married and settled as a surgeon at
Peebles, where, however, he did not acquire an extensive practice; so that, in 1805, he
undertook another journey to Africa at the expense of the government. When he started
from Pisania, he had a company of 45, of whom 36 were European soldiers; but, when
he reached- the Niger, in August, his attendants were reduced to 7, so fatal is the rainy
season in those regions to Europeans. From Sansanding, on the Niger, in the kingdom
of Bambarra, he sent back his journals and letters in Nov., 1805, to Gambia; and built a
boat, in which he embarked with four European companions, and reached the kingdom
of Houssa, where he and they are believed to have been murdered by the natives, or
drowned as they attempted to sail through a narrow channel of the river. The fragments
of information and other evidence picked up among the natives by Clapperton and Lan-
der (q. v.), strongly confirm this view of the fate of Park and his companions. An account
of Park's second journey was published at London in 1815. Park's narratives are of no
inconsiderable value, particularly for the light which they throw upon the social and
domestic life of the negroes, and on the botany and meteorology of the regions through
which he passed; but he was unfortunately cut off before he had determined the grand
object of his explorations — the discovery of the course of the Niger.
PARK, ROSWELL, D.D., 1807-1869; b. Conn.; graduated at Union college, and at
West Point in 1831, and was lieut. of engineers at the latter place until 1836; was pro-
fessor of natural philosophy and chemistry in the university of Pennsylvania, 1836-42;
ordained a minister in the Protestant Episcopal church in 1843; was principal of Christ
Church hall. Conn., 1846-52; president of Racine college, Wis., 1852-59; chancellor of
the college, 1859-63. In 1863 he founded at Chicago a literary and scientific school,
Immaruiel hall, of which he was rector and proprietor till his death.. He is the author
of Selection* of Juvenile and Miscellaneous Poems; Pantology, or Systematic Survey of
Human Knowledge ; Sketch of the History of West Point ; Hand-book for American Trav-
elers in Europe ; Jerusalem and oilier Poems ; and some lectures and addresses.*
PARK OF ARTILLERY is the whole train of great guns with equipment, ammunition,
horses, and gunners for an r.rmy in the field. It is placed in a situation whence rapid
access can be had to the line of the army in any part; and at the same time where the
divisions of the force can easily mass for its protection. The horses of the park are
picketed in lines in its rear.
PARKA, the name given by Fleming to a fossil from the old red sandstone, about
which there has been considerable difference of opinion. The quarrymen call them
" berries," from their resemblance to a compressed raspberry. They were compared by
Fleming to the panicles of a Juncus, or the globose head of a sparganium. ' Lyell thinks
they resemble the egg-cases of a natica, while Mi.ntell suggested that they were the eggs
of a batrachian. The opinion now most generally entertained is that they are the eggs
of the pterygotus.
PARKE, a co. in w. Indiana, having the Wabash river for its w. boundary, inter-
sected by the Logansport, Crawfordsviile and South-western railroad, the E/vansville,
Terre Haute and Chicago c'ossing tjje extreme s.w. section; 450 sq.m. ; pop. '80,
19.460— 19. 054 of American birth, 290 colored. It is drained by Sugar and Raccoon
creeks, branches of the Wabash. Its surface is generally level, elevated in some por-
tions, and largely covered with forests of hardwood timber, interspersed with groves of
sugar maple and ash. Its soil is fertile, producing wheat, corn, dairy products, and
vegetables. Cattle, sheep, and swine are raised. A mineral product is bituminous
coal, called block coal. Its leading industries are the manufacture of carriages and
wagons, saddlery and harness, woolen goods, and cooperage. Co. seat, Rockville.
PARKE. JOHN, b. Del., 1750; a student at the university of Pennsylvania in 1768.
At the beginning of the revolution he was assistant quartermaster-gen., and, as some of
his poems are dated in camp at Valley Forge and near Boston, it is probable-that he was
in Washington's division. -At the close of the wyar he went to Philadelphia, and in
1786 published The Lyric Works of Horace, translated into English Verse, to ichich are
arl<li"l a number of Original Poems by a Native of America.
PARKE, JOHN G., b. Penn.. 1827; after graduating at West Point in 1849, he was
commissioned 2d lieut. in the topographical engineers, and became 1st lieut.. in
1856. From 1857 till the rebellion he .acted as chief surveyor and astronomer in local-
ing the n.w. boundary. In 1861 he received the rank of brig.gen. of volunteers, and
in Burnside's North Carolina expedition commanded a brigade at Roanoke island and
Ne\v Berne, and was first in command at the capture of fort Macon. For his services in
these engagements lie .was promoted to the rank of majigen., and at Antietam and
South Mountain was chief of staff of the 9th corps. 'When gen. Burnside assumed
Parker.
310
command of the army of the Potomac, gen. Parke was appointed his chief of staff, and
was present at the battle of Fredericksbufg and the siege, of Yicksburg. At Jacksou he
commanded Sherman's left wing, and subsequently took part in the siege of Petersburg
and the Richmond Campaign. He showed great gallantry in the defense of Knoxville
and at fort Steadman. At the close of the war he was a maj. in the engineer corps,
and has since had charge of a division of that department.
PARKER, a co. in u. Texas, intersected in the s.e by the Brazos river; 900 sq.m.;
pop. '80, 15.871 — 15,248 of American birth, 620 colored. Its surface is rolling, com-
posed of broad prairies, well limbered for that sccti-m of the country. It is drained by
rivulets from the Bra/os river, and has a fertile soil adapted to the production of cotton,
coru, fruit, and vegetables. Live stock is raised to some extent, and coal is found. Co.
seat, Weatherford.
PARKEB, a family of distinction in the annals of the British navy. The founder of
the family was sir HUGH PAUKEH, an alderman of London, who received a baronetcy in
1681. — His grand-nephew, sir HYDE PARKER, commanded the British licet in the action
off the Dogger bank, Aug. 5, 1781, in which three Dutch ships were destroyed, and the
rest of the Dutch fleet compelled to retreat into harbor. In 1783 he was appointed to
the command of the British fleet in the East Indies; In t the ship in which he sailed
thither was lost, with all on board.— His second son. sir HYDK PAKKKK, distinguished
himself in the American war; blockaded the Dutch harbors with a small squadron in
1782; commanded the British fleet in the West Indies in 1795; and in 1M)1 was appointed
to the chief command of the fleet which was sent to the Baltic to act against the armed
coalition of the three northern states of Russia, Sweden, and Denmark. He had no
share in the battle of Copenhagen, in which Nelson engaged contrary to his orders; but
by his appearance before Carlscrona, he compelled the neutrality of Sweden ; and he was
on the point of sailing for Cronstadt when the news of Paul's death put an end to hos-
tilities.— His kinsman, sir WILLIAM PAKKKK, was also a British admiral of high repute
for his skill and bravery, and contributed to some of the great victories of the close of
last century. — Sir PETER PARKER, who was born in 1716, and died in 1811, with the
rank of admiral of the fleet, served with distinction during the seven years' and the
American wars; and in 1782 brought the French admiral, De Grasse, a prisoner to Eng-
land, for which he received a baronetcy. — Sir WILLIAM PAKKKK, born in UNI. cum
inanded Uie frigate Amazon in 1806, and took, after a hard battle, the French frigate I.n
Belle Pome, belonging to the squadron of admiral Linois; and in 1809 captured the citu-
del of Ferrol. In 1841 he succeeded to admiral Elliot in the command of the fleet in
the Chinese seas during the first Chinese war. He took possc.-sion of Chusan, >.ing|.o.
and Shapu; forced the entrance of the Yang-tse-kiang; and arrived under the wall.- of
Nankin, where the treaty of peace was agreed upon. For these services he receivi d a
baronetcy in 1844. He was afterwards appointed to the command of the fl( et in the
Mediterranean, and exerted himself, although in vain, to mediate between the Neapoli-
tan government and the insurgent Sicilians. In autumn, 1849, he sailed to the Darda-
nelles, jit the request of sir Stratford Canning (now lord Stratford de RedcliftV), to su]
the Porte against the threatening demands of Austria and Russia concerning politic;1.!
fugitives; and in Jan., 1850, he compelled the Greek government, by a blockade of their
ports, to comply with the demands of Britain. Named in 1831 admiral of the blue, he
resigned the command of the Mediterranean fleet to admiral Dundas. was created admi-
ral of the white in 1803, admiral of the red in 1858, and rear-admiral of the United King-
dom in 1862. He died in 1866.
PARKER, AMASA J., LL.D., b. Conn.. 1807; graduated at Union college in ;
He was principal of the Hudson academy in 1823, studied law. and was admitted to the
bar in 1828, when he entered into partnership with a relative at Delhi, N. Y. 11
elected to the state legislature in 1833, and two years later was made a regent of the
state university. In 1837 he was elected a member of congress, became a circuit judsie.
and vice-chancellor of the court of equity in 1844; and a supreme court judge shortly
afterwards. In 1859 he was U. S. district-attorney for New York. lie compiled
Reports of Criminal Caws, 6 vols. 8vo. 1855-69; and with Wolfert and Wade, The Ji
Statute* of New York, 3 vols. 8vo, 1859.
PARKER, ED^IN POND. b. Me.. 18S6: graduated at Bowdoin college in 1856;
became pastor of the South Congregational church, Hartford, Conn., in I860, where he
remains. He has fine poetic taste and musical^ culture, and has done excellent work
in compiling books of hymns and tunes for church service.' He is known as a dear,
original, and independent evangelical thinker and preacher, both claiming and con-
ceding liberty in theological investigation and in the pulpit, spiritually impressive.
PARKER, ELY S., b. N. Y., 1825, a Seneca Indian; b. on their reservation at Tona-
wanda; educated at Rochester, and adopted the profession of a civil engineer. He par
ticipatcd in the war against rebellion a> a member of gen. Grant's staff, and attained the
rank of brevet brig. gen. He was afterwards a secretary to gen. Grant, and from
1869 to 1872 Commissioner of Indian affairs.
PARKER, FOXHALL A., 1821-79; b. N. Y. ; son of capt. F. A. Parker. U.S. navy,
educated at the naval academy, and received his appointment as midshipman in 1843.
311
Parker.
He served in the Indian campaigns in Florida, was commissioned lieut. in 1850, and
daring the rebellion commanded the gun-boat Mahaska, had charge of the naval bat-
tery on Morris island, which reduced fort Sumter to a mass- of ruins, and in 1864 had
command of the Potomac flotilla. The rank of commander was bestowed on him in
1862, and that of capt. in 1866. He was the author of several magazine articles and
of two books, Squadron Tactics under Steam; and Naval lloicitzer Ashore and Afloat. lu
1873 he was appointed chief signal officer of the navy. He contributed numerous articles
to Johnson's Encydopctidia.
PARKER, JOEL, LL.D., 1795-1875; b. N. H. ; graduated at Dartmouth college in
1811. He was admitted to the bar, and began to practice at Keene. He soou attained
a considerable practice, which he gave up in 1833, to become an associate justice of the
supreme court of New Hampshire; and he was appointed chief-justice in 1838. He was
chairman of the committee appointed in 1840 to revise the statutes of New Hampshire.
In 1847 lie was called to a chair in the Harvard law school. He was prominent in the
proceedings of the Massachusetts constitutional convention of 1853. In politics he was
a conservative, and opposed, during the civil war, to the- exercise of what he deemed
unconstitutional powers by the president. He published Non-Extension of Slavery, 185(5;
Personal Liberty Laws, and T.'^e Right of Secession, 1861; Constitutional Laic, 1862; \\'iu-
Powers of Congress and the President, 1863; Revolution and Reconstruction, 1866; and
Conflict of Decisions, 1871.
PARKER, JOEL, D.D., 1799-1873; b. Vt. ; graduated at Hamilton college 1824;
ordained to the ministry in the Presbyterian church 18.26, and became prominent as an
earnest and successful preacher in revivals of religion; was pastor at Rochester, N. Y. ,
1826-30; of Dey street church, New York, 1830-33; at New Orleans, 1833-38; of the
Broadway tabernacle, New York. 1838-40; president and professor of sacred rhetoric in
Union theological seminary. New York, 1840-42; pastor of Clinton street church, Phila-
delphia, 1842-52; of Bleecker street church, New York, which afterward became the
Fourth avenue church, 1852-63; and of Park church, Newark, N. J., from 1863 until
failing health compelled him, a short time before his death, to resign.
PARKER, JOEL, LL.D., b. N. J., 1816; educated at the college of New Jersey, and
admitted to the bar in 1842. He was a member of the legislature in 1847, and afterward
county' attorney. He received a commission as maj.gen. of volunteers in 1861. He was
governor of New Jersey, 1862-65, and again, 1871. He was a candidate for the demo-
cratic nomination for president in the convention at St. Louis in 1876, but failed to receive
a large vote.
PAEKEE, MATTHEW, the second Protestant archbishop of Canterbury, was born at
Norwich, Aug. 6, 1504, studied at Corpus Christ! college, Cambridge, and was ordained
a priest in 1527. At the university he was a distinguished student, especially of the Scrip-
tures and of the history of the church, even to antiquarian minuteness; yet, in spite of
his strong leaning to the past, he was from an early period favorably disposed toward
the doctrines of the Reformation, and lived in close intimacy with some of the more
ardent reformers. In 1533 he was appointed chaplain to queen Anne Boleyn,who thought
very highly of him, and not long before her death exhorted her daughter Elizabeth to
avail herself of Parker's wise and pious counsel. In 1535 he obtained the deanery of the
monastic college of Stoke-Clare in Suffolk — Roman Catholicism, it must not be forgotten,
being still the professed religion of the land, for Henry had not yet formally broken with
the pope — and here the studious clerk continued his pursuit of classical and ecclesias-
tictil literature, and at the same time set himself to correct the prevailing decay of morali
and learning in the church, by founding a school in the locality for the purpose ol
instructing the youth in the study of grammar and humanity. Here, too, he appears fol
the first time to have definitely sided with the reforming party in the church and state,
the sermons which he preached containing bold attacks on different Catholic tenets and
practices. In 1538 Parker took the degree of D.D. ; and in l-~44, after some minoV
changes, became master of Corpus Christ! college, Cambridge, which he ruled admirably.
Three years later he married Margaret Harlstone, the daughter of a Norfolkshire gentle-
man. It was probably about this time that he drew up his defense of the marriage of
priests, entitled De Conjucjio Sacerdotum. In 1552 he was presented by king Edward VI.
to the canonry and prebend of Covingham, in the church of Lincoln. On the accession
of queen Mary he refused to conform to the re-established order of things, and was (like
many others of the new school of divines) deprived of his preferments, and even obliged
to conceal himself. It does not appear, however, that he was eagerly sought after by the
emissaries of Mary ; for he was no fanatic or iconoclast, but. on the contrary, though
sincerely attached to the common Protestant doctrines, very unwilling to disturb the
framework of the church. Parker spent at least some portion of his compulsory seclusion
from public life in the enlargement of his De Conjuyio Sactrdotinn. and in translating the
Psalms into Esglish meter. The death of Mary, and the accession of Elizabeth, called
him from that learned retirement of which he seems to have been sincerely fond. Sir
Nicholas Bacon, now lord-keeper of the great seal, and sir William Cecil, secretary of
state, both old Cambridge friends, knew what a solid and sure judgment, what -a moderate?
and equable spirit, and 'above all, what a thorough faculty for business, ecclesiastical and
secular, Parker had, and by their recommendation he Avas appointed, by the queen.
Parker. o i i)
Parkes.
archbishop of Canterbury. The consecration took place in Lambeth chapel, Dec. 17,
1559.
" The subsequent history of archbishop Parker," it has been justly remarked, "is that
of the church of Kim-land." The difficulties that beset him were very great. Elizabeth
herself was much addicted to various "popish" practices, such as the idolatrous use of
images, anil was strongly, we might even say violently, in favor of the celibacy of the
clergy. She went so far as to insult Parker's wife on one occasion. But his greatest
anxiety was in regard to the spirit of sectarian dissension within the bosom of the church
itself. Already the germs of jim:;f<i H/KIH were beginning to spring up, and there can be
no doubt that their growth was fostered by the despotic caprices of the queen, Parker
himself was manifestly convinced that if ever Protestantism was to be 'firmly established
in the land at all, some definite ecclesiastical forms and methods must be sanctioned to
Eecure the triumph of order over anarchy, and so he vigorously set about the repression of
what he thought a mutinous individualism -incompatible with a Catholic spirit. That
he always acted wisely or well, cannot be affirmed; he was forced, by virtue of his very
attitude, into intolerant and inquisitorial courses, and as he grew older lie grew harsher,
the conservative spirit increasing with his years. To forbid "prophesy ings," or meet-
ings for religious discourse, was something very like persecution, though probably enough
something very like treason to the church was talked in these pious conventicles. Fuller
(who must have his pun, however bad) says of him: " He was a Parker indeed, careful
to keep the fences." Yet it must not be forgotten that it is to Parker we owe the Bish-
op's Bible, undertaken at his request, carried on under his inspection, and published at
his expense in 1568. He had also the principal share in drawing up the B«ok of Common
Prayer, for which his skill in ancient liturgies peculiarly fitted him, and which strikingly
bears the impress of his broad, moderate, and unsectariau intellect. It was under his
presidency, too, that the Thirty-nine Articles were finally reviewed and subscribed by the
clergy (1562). Parker died May 17, 1575.
Among other literary performances, Parker published an old Saxon Jlomlly on Hi#
Sacrament, by yElfric of St. Albans, to prove that transubstantiation was not the doctrine
of the ancient English church; edited the histories of Matthew of Westminster and
Matthew Paris (q.v.); and superintended the publication of a most valuable work, De
Antiquitate BritanniaK Ecclexice, probably printed at Lambeth in 1572. where the arch-
bishop, we are told, had an establishment of printers, engravers, and illuminators. He
also founded the " society of antiquaries," and was its first president; endowed the uni-
versity of Cambridge, and particularly his own college, with many fellowships and
scholarships, and with a magnificent collection of MSS. relating ta the civil and ecclesi-
astical condition of England, and belonging to nine different centuries (from the 8th ro
the 16th).. Of this collection Fuller said that it was " the sun of English antiquity before
it was eclipsed by that of sir Robert Cotton."
PARKER, PETER, b. Mass., 1804; graduated at Yale college in 1831; studied theology
and medicine at New Haven ; was ordained and went to China as a missionary in 1S'J4. I Ie,
established a hospital st Canton, principally for eye-diseases, but soon for other di-
The first year over 2,000 patients were treated. Dr. Parker -wrought wonderful surgical
cures, and his fame spread rapidly. He made it a point to preach to the inmates, ;md
trained several Chinese students in surgery and medicine. In 1837 he visited the Loo-
Choo islands and Japan. War breaking out in 1840 between England and China, the
hospital was closed, and Dr. Parker returned to America. In 1842 he went back to
China and reopened the hospital, which was soon crowded as before. In 1845 he resigned
his connection with the American board, and became secretary to the U. S. legation and
interpreter of the new embassy, still having charge of the hospital. In the absence of
the minister he acted as charge d'affaires. In 1855, his health having failed. IK- again vis-
ited this country, but by request of the government he returned the same year to China
as commissioner with full power to revise the treaty of 1844. This position he held until
a change of administration in 1857, when, his health again failing, he returned to the
United States, and has resided in Washington. He has been a regent of the Smithsonian
institution, and filled other scientific positions. He has published A Stateine,.
Hospitals in China, and an account of his visit to the Loo-Choo islands and Japan.
FAEEEB, THEODORE, an American clergyman and scholar, was born at Lexington,
Massachusetts, Aug. 24, 1810. His grandfather was capt. of a militia company at the
battle of Lexington, his father a farmer and mechanic, and his own boyhood was spent
at the district school, on the farm, and in the workshop. At the age of 17 he taiiihf a
school, and earned money to enter Harvard college in 1830. During his collegiate
course, he supported himself by teaching private classes and schools, and studied meta-
physics, theology, Anglo-Saxon, Syriac, Arabic, Danish, Swedish, German, French,
Spanish, and modern Greek. Entering the divinity class, at the end of his eoHe-inte
course, he commended to preach in 1836, was an editor of the Scriptural Interpreter, and
settled as Unitarian minister at West Roxbury in 1837. The naturalistic or rationalistic
views which separated him from the more conservative portion of the Unitarians, first
attracted wide notice, in consequence of an ordination sermon, in 1841, on 'I he. Transient
and Permanent in Christianity. The contest which arose on the anti-supernaturalism of
this discourse, led him to further develop his theological views in five lectures, delivered
01 Q Parker.
010 Parkes.
in Boston, and published (1841) under the title of A Discourse of Mattel's Pertaining to
Ile'fijion, which "was followed by Sermons for the Times. Failing health induced him to
inuke an extended tour in Europe. In 1845 he returned to Boston, preached to large
audiences at the Melodeon, and wrote for the Dial, Christian Register, Christian, Examiner,
and Massachusetts Quarterly. He became also a popular lecturer, and was active and
earnest in opposition to slavery, the Mexican war, and the fugitive slave law, for resist-
ing which, by more than words, he was indicted. In the midst of his work, he was
attacked, in 1859, with bleeding from the lungs, and made a voyage to Mexico, where
he wrote his Experience as a Minister, whence he sailed to Italy, where he died at Flor-
ence, May 10, I860. His works, consisting chiefly of miscellanies, lectures, and sermons,
have been collected and published in America and England, in which his peculiar views
in iheology and politics are sustained with great force of logic and felicity of illustration.
His learning was equal to his energy and philanthropy, and his influence was also great.
His library of 18,000 volumes he bequeathed to the Boston free library. Sec Parker's
Life and Correspondence, by Weiss (1804).
PARKER, THOMAS, 1595-1677; b. England; studied at Oxford, in Ireland under
Dr. Usher, and at Leyden in 1617. He taught and preached in New bury, England;
came to New England in 1684; was colleague with the rev. Mr. Ward at Ipswich, Mass.,
ami then settled at Newbury in 1635. His church was divided by a long controversy on
church government, but he remained its pastor till his death. His publications are:' The
l*)-ophecies of Daniel Expounded; Methodus Gratia: Divince; Theses de Traductione Pecca-
ioris ad Vitane. He published also a "letter to a member of the Westminster assembly
on church government, and edited the works of the Puritan Dr. Ames.
PARKER, WILLARD, LL.D., b. N. H., 1800; graduated at Harvard 1826, and began the
study of medicine with John C. Warren, professor of surgery in the medical department
of Harvard university; graduated in 1830, when he was appointed professor of anatomy
in the Vermont medical college. During the same year he was also appointed professor
of anatomy in the Berkshire medical college, in which latter institution he became pro-
fessor of surgery in 1833. In 1836 he accepted the chair of surgery in the Cincinnati
medical coll ge. The following year he visited Europe and spent considerable time in
the hospitals of Paris and London. After his return, in 1839, he was appointed professor
of sin-liny in the college of physicians and surgeons of New York, a position he held for
thirty years. He then resigned and was appointed professor of clinical surgery, lecturing
once a week at the diniqucs. In 1865 he was made president of the New York state
inebriate asylum at Binghamton, succeeding Dr. Valentine Mott. Dr. Parker has made
many contributions to the science of surgery, among which are the performance of the
operation of cystotomy for the treatment of some cases of chronic cystitis, and the
establishment of a system of rational treatment in cases of abscess of the «jij,ui<l/.r teiiai-
formia. He was also the first to point out the fact that nerve branches became the sub-
ject of concussion, as well as the nerve centers, a condition whiqhhad previously been
confounded with inflammation or congestion. He has also been a successful operator in
many important cases of ligaturing some of the larger arteries. See LIGATURE.
PARKERSBURG, a city in West Virginia, incorporated 1860, on the e. bank of tfie
Ohio river at the mouth of the Little Kanawha; pop. about 9,000. It is the capital of
Wood county, 92 m. below Wheeling, 65 m. n. of Charleston and 12 m. below Marietta,
Ohio. It is regularly laid out in squares, with streets 60 ft. wide; on a plateau 100 ft.
above the river, the 'ascent being a gradual rise from the water's edge, and the limits of
the city extending for 1 m. on the Ohio river, and 2 m. on the Little Kanawha.
In the background is an elevation called Prospect hill. A railroad bridire spans the
Ohio at this point, erected in 1869-71 at a cost of $1,000,000; \\ m. long, 6 spans over
the river. It is the w. terminus of the Baltimore and Ohio railroad, connecting here with
the Marietta and Cincinnati railroad* It has regular lines of steamers to Wheeling,
Charleston, and Cincinnati, the Little Kannwha being navigable 38 m. above this place.
It is favorably located, the center of a fertile agricultural region, and of an active and
constantly increasing trade. It contains 4 medicinal springs 6^ rn. from the city, and
pet roleum wells of great value. Salt is among its mineral products. It has 7 establish-
ments for running petroleum, producing about 200.000 barrels of illuminating and
100,000 barrels of lubricating oil annually; annual value of oil shipments $3,000,000.
Among its manufactories are barrel factories, a chemical laboratory, a boat-building yard,
lumber mills, iron foundries, machine shops, and chemical works. Its public buildings
are of a substantial character, consisting of a county court-house, a fine building for
holding the U. S. court, a custom house, a market, and fine post-office, and 3 national
banks, with an aggregate capital of $450,000. Three weekly newspapers and two
^monthly magazines are published here. It contains 10 churches and several academies.
PARKES, Sir HARRY SMITH, b. in England about 1812. After receiving a good edu-
cation he went out to China, in the British civil service, at the time of the opium war in
1840. Rapidly rising, by reason of his energy and knowledge of the Chinese language,
he was appointed British consul at Canton. The Chinese constabulary force seized ihe
British lorcha Arroic, Oct. 8, 1856, and took therefrom 12 Chinese sailors. The aclion
of Mr. Parkes in demanding from mandarin Yeh their return to the British consulate,
and his speedy notification of the act to the British naval commander, led to the bom-
Parkegia«. Q 1 J.
rarli.imeiit.
hardii'.ent of Canton and the rapture of the forts and city, Dec. 28, 1857. In July, 1860,
he left Canton to join lord Elgin in tiie n. of China, where lii" laiv.e i,aval forces of Eng-
land and France were assembling off the Pei-ho. After the capture of Tie;i!.-in, Aug. ^4,
and \vhilc the allied forces were moving on to Peking, a conference with the (
was attempted at Tungchow. Consul Parkes, with :>5 men, were sent forward with a
flag of truce, but were seized by the Chinese, and kept prisoners in cages. Thirteen
were barbarously murdered, and the remainder tortured and nearly s:ar\ed. AVhile a
prisoner in a cage, Parkes sent word to lord Elgin not to delay or in any way compromise
on his account. The treatment of Parkes and his companions left the allies no course
but to proceed to Peking, before which they arrived Oct. G. Parkcs ar.d the survivors
of his party were delivered to the British forces Oct. 9, but in retaliation lor the cruellies
and murders inflicted the imperial summer palace was destroyed and pillaged. For his
c inrage and skill, Parkes was rewarded with the title K.C.B., and appointed minister to
Japan, arriving at Yokohama June 30, 1865. With characteristic insight, lie soon
learned the truth that the mikado and not the "tycoon" was the sovereign of Japan.
lie was the first foreign diplomat to recognize the new government of Japan as it r
of the revolution of 1868. Besides serving actively in his oilicial duties, he has been
several times elected president of the Asiatic society of Japan.
PARKESINE, the name given to a substance introduced for manufacturing pur,
by Mr. Parkes of Birmingham. In that town, where so many kinds of small objects are
made in countless thousands daily, it is of great importance to get hold of a cheap mate-
rial which will in some measure partake of the properties of ivory, bone, horn, t«.t
shell, hard wood, india-rubber, or other natural substances. There arc- a number of arti-
ficial compositions which to some extent do this, and Parkesiue is one of these. It is
said to bo a mixture of pyroxyline (gun cotton) and oil, hardened with chloride of sul-
phur. The pyrox3rline is made from any vegetable liber, as cotton and rlax wa.ste, or
rugs. According to another account, it is composed of castor oil, collodion, and wo->d
spirit. For large and cheap objects other materials and solvents can be used, to which
saw dust, cork-dust, or pigments may be largely added.
In a paper read before the society of arts on the subject of Parkesine, and in a di
siou which followed the reading, it was stated that this substance is not aHe-'ied by s a-
water; it does not soften, like gutta-percha, by heat; it is a good insulator of elect
even at a temperature of 212° F. ; it may be made either opaque or transparent, plain or
colored; it will make a very strong joint after fracture; it will resist most of the com-
mon acids; its tensile strength is grea*"/' *han that of india-rubber or gutta-percha. In
its hard form, the surface can be so tr< «ed as to imitate marble, tortoise-shell, amber, or
malachite. It may be molded, pressed, turned, sawn, planed, carved, rolled, cngi
inlaid, or polished, according to the consistency given to it in the course of manufac-
ture; or it may be made thin 'enough to use, when melted, as a varnish or protective
coating or water- proofing. Among the many articles into which it may 1>e fashioned,
are included spinners' rolls and bosses, knife-handles, combs, brush-backs, shoe
utiibrellaand parasol handles, buttons, book-binding, tubes, galvanic-battery cells. wai--r-
proof fabrics, surgical implements, and telegraphic insulators. — It is probable that tin;
eventual success of compositions such as this will mainly depend on the price at which
the material can be supplied per pound, compared with the prices of gutta-percha a M!
india-rubber, the two substances which it is mainly intended to imitate or sup
the supply of these is necessarily exhaustible. Parkesine appears to have been first ir.a le
on a large scale in 1862, but the manufacture of it has declined. There are, however,
other materials in use which resemble it as respects composition.
PARKHURST, JOHN, an English biblical scholar, the second son of John Parkhurst,
esq., of Catesby. in Northamptonshire, was b. in June, 1728, educated at Kuirby and at
Clare hall, Cambridge, where he took his degree of M.A. in 1752, and in 1?.");', published
A Serious and Friendly Address to the RIP. John Wesley, in U<-1<iti<>n f» >< Principal !>"•-
trine advanced and maintained by him and his Assistants. The doctrine assailed in Park-
hurst's pamphlet was the favorite Wesleyan doctrine of " Assurance." In 17(i'3 appeared
his principal work — indeed the only thing that has preserved his name — A ILhinr a i,d
English Lej'icoa, wit/tout Points, adapted to the Use of Learners. Parkhurst kept mending
this Hebrew lexicon all his life. It was a very creditable performance for its time, and
long continued to be the standard work on the subject among biblical students in this
country; but it is disfigured by its fanciful etymologies, partly the result of his having
(like many other divines of his time) adopted the irrational and presumptuous t!/
of Hutchinson (q.v.), and is now entirely superseded by the works of Gesuiius, Ewald,
and other critical scholars. Parkhurst also wrote a treatise (1787) againM. Dr. Pries, ley,
to prove the divinity and pre-existence of Jesus Christ. He died at Epsom, in Surrey,
Mar. 21, 1797.
PARKIITSO NTA, a genus of plants of the natural order lefjnminom, sub-order
ni'ic. — P. firnieatii is a West Indian shrub or small tree, which, when in flower, is one of
the most splendid objects in the vegetable kingdom. It has pinnated leaves, with winged
leaf -stalk, and large yellow flowers spotted with red. It is furnished v. i;h sirong spi::rs.
and is often used for hedges, whence it is called the Barbadoes flower fence. It is r.uw
O1 .% ParkesJiie.
Parliament.
common in India. The bark yields a beautiful white fiber, which, however is not very
strong; but it has beeu suggested that it might be found suitable for paper-making.
PABKMAN, FKANCIS, D.D., 1788-1802; b. Boston; graduated at Harvard in 1807,
and prepared for the ministry under Chun mug and at Edinburgh. In 1813 he was M-I-
tled over the new North (Unitarian) church, where he continued to be pastor till 1849.
He published, in 1829, The Offering of Sympathy. The Parkman professorship of ]. :!pit
eloquence in the Harvard divinity school is his foundation.
PARKMAN, FRANCIS, JR., b. Boston, 1823; graduated at Harvard in 1843, and began
the study of the law. He gave up the law in 1846, and made a journey to the Rocky
mountains, living for a time among the Dakota Indians, and suffering hardships which
seriously impaired his health. He embodied his western experiences in his Pruirii- cm/
RiMky Mountain Life, better known under its later title of California and (he Oregon
Trail. In 1856 he published a novel called Vasxall Morton. For the last 30 years he has
studied the history of the French power in America, and his works on various branches
of that subject are of the first authority. The first of his series of works on this topic
was The L'o)ixpir(i.<:y of P-jiitiue, which appeared in 1857. It was followed by the Pioneers,
of l''i-(ince in the J\tuc World (180-")); The Jesuits in North America (1867); T lie Discovery of
{he Great Went (1869); and The Old Regime in Canada (1874). He has made two visits to
France for the purpose of examining authorities, and consulting the French archives.
Like Prescott, his sight is so impaired as to make it impossible for him to read or write.
In spite of this disadvantage, his historical works show accurate investigation, and are
distinguished for impartiality and candor, no less than for grace of style. He lias also
given much attention to horticulture, published in 1866 T'ue Book of Roses, and w;:s pro-
lessor of horticulture in the Bussey institution connected with Harvard university, 1871-72.
He is now (1881) a member of the corporation of that university, and president of the
St. Botolph's club, Boaou.
PARLEY, in military language, is an oral conference with the enemy. It takes place
undr:r a Hag of truce, and usually at some spot — for the time neutral — between the lines
of the two armies.
PAHLIAIIEUT (Fr. parlement, from parler, to talk), the supreme legislature of the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The word was first applied, according
to Biackstoue, to general assemblies of the states under Louis VII., in France, about the
middle of the 12lh c. ; but in that country il came eventually to be the designation of a
body which performed certain administrative functions, butvvuose principal duties were
those of a court of justice.
The origin of the parliament of England has been traced to the Saxon great councils
of the nation, called " Wittena-gt-mote," or meeting of wise men. These had, however,
litile in common with the parliaments of a later date: among other points of difference,
they had a right to assemble -when they pleased without royal warrant. Even under the
Norman kings, the great council formed a judicial and ministerial as well as a legislative
body, and it was only gradually that tlie judicial functions were transferred to courts of
justice, and the ministerial to the privy council — a remnant of the judicial powers of
parliament being still preserved in the appellate jurisdiction of the house of lords.
Under the Norman kings, the council of the sovereign consisted of the tenants-in-chJ-vf
of the crown, who held their lands per baroniam, lay and ecclesiastic. It was the prin-
ciple of the feudal system that every tenant should attend the court of his immediate
superior ; and he who held per baroniain, having no superior but the crown, was bound
to attend his sovereign in the great council or parliament. In the charter of king John,
we for the first time trace the germ of a distinction between the peerage and the lesser
nobility, the archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, and greater barons being required to
Attend by a writ addressed to each, and the other tenants-in-chief by a general summons
by the sheriffs and bailiffs. Baronial tenure originally made a man a baron or lord of
parliament. When the offices or titles of earl, marquis, or duke were bestowed on a
baron, they were conferred by royal 'writ or patent, and at length barony came also to i;e
conferred by writ instead of by tenure. During the 13th c. , the smaller barons were
allowed, instead of personally attending the national council, to appear by representa-
tives; 'cut the principle of representation seems first to have been reduced to a system
when permission was also given to the municipalities, which, as corporations, were chief
tenants of the crown, to appear by representatives. It is not quite clear when the
division of parliament, into two houses took place; but when the representatives of the
minor barons were joined by those of the municipalities, the term commons was applied
to both. The lower house was early allowed to deal exclusively with questions of
"supply; and seems, in the reign of Richard II., to have established the right to assign the
supplies to their proper uses. As the commons became more powerful, they came to
insist on the crown redressing their grievances before they would vote the supplies. The
influence of parliament was on the increase during the Tudor period, while the reign of
the Stewarts was characterized by a struggle for supremacy between the parliament and
the crown, each striving to acquire the control of tlie military force of the country. The
powers of the different estates came to be more sharply defined at the revolution of 16S8.
Nineteen years later, on the union of Scotland, the parliament of England was merged
into that of Great Britain.
Parliament.
316
In its early history, prior to the war of independence, the parliament of Scotland hat
probably not been very unlike that of England; it assembled without warrant, and con-
si.-ted of bishops, earls, priors, abbots, and barons. At the close of the 13th c.. Die
constitutional history of Scotland diverges from that of England. The addition of the
burghs to the national council seems to date from the beginning of the 14th c., but it was
not till much later that the lesser barons began to be exempted from attendance. The
first act excusing them belongs to the reign of James I., and allows them to choose
representative* called speakers, two for each county, excepting some small counties,
which were to have but one, the expenses of the representatives being defrayed by the
constituency. The Scottish parliament was never, like the English, divided into two
houses; all sat in one hall, and though it consisted of three estates, a general numerical
majority of members was considered sufficient to carry a measure. The greater part of
the business was transacted by the lords of the articles, a committee named by Die parlia-
ment at the beginning of each session, to consider what measures should be passed; and
whatever they recommended was generally passed without discussion. It was never
held indispensable that the parliament should be summoned by the crown, and it has
even been thought that the royal assent to the measures carried was not absolutely
essential. The parliament which carried the reformation had no royal sanction. The
union was adjusted by commissioners for each country selected by the crown, and
passed first, after strong and protracted opposition, in Scotland, ana afterward more
easily in England.
By the act of union with Ireland in 1800 (Act 39 and 40 Geo. III. c. 67), the Irish
parliament was united with that of Great Britain as the parliament of the I'nitecl King-
dom of Great Britain and Ireland. The parliament of Ireland had been originally
formed on the model of that of England about the close of the 13th c., but it was merely
the very small portion of Ireland occupied by the English settlers that was represented,
which, as late as the time of Henry VII., hardly extended beyond the count;
Dublin, Louth, Kildare, and Meath, and constituted Avhat was called the Pale. It \\as
only for the last few years of its existence that the Irish parliament was a supreme
legislature; the English parliament having down to 1783, had power to legislate for
Ireland. By one of the provisions of Poyning's Act, passed in 1495, no legislative pro-
posals could be made to the Irish parliament until they had received the sanction of lin-
king and council in England. Act 23 Geo. III. c. 28 gave the Irish parliament exclusive
imlhorityto legislate for Ireland, and the abuse of this power so obstructed the machinery
of government, as to render the union of 1800 matter of necessity.
The power of parliament is according to sir Edward Coke, so transcendent and
absolute, that it cannot be confined either for persons or causes within any bounds. All
remedies which transcend the ordinary courts of law are within its reach It can alter
Die succession to the throne, the constitution of the kingdom, and the constitution of
parliament itself. It has its own law, to be learned from the rolls and records of parlia-
ment, and by precedents and experience. One of the most thoroughly established max-
ims cf this law is, that whatever question arises concerning either house of parliament
ought to be discussed and adjudged there, and not elsewhere. The house of lords will
not allow the commons to interfere in a question regarding an election of a Scotch or
Irish peer; the commons will not allow the lords to judge of the validity of the elect i( n
of a member of their house, nor will either house permit courts of law to exs'inine such
cases. The authority of parliament extends to British colonies and foreign possessions.
la the ordinary course of government, however, parliament does not make laws for the
colonies. For some the queen in council legislates; others have legislatures of Dieir
own. which propound laws for their internal government, subject to the approbation of
the queen in council; but these may be repealed and amended by parliament.
The constituent parts of parliament are the sovereign, the house of lords, mid Die
house of commons. In the sovereign is vested the whole executive power; the crown is
also the fountain of justice, from whence the whole judicial authority flows. To il;e
crown is intrusted the permanent duty of government, to be fulfilled in accordance with
the law of the reaim, and by the advice of ministers responsible to parliament The
sovereign is also invested with the character of the representation of the majesty of the
state. The sovereign's share in the legislature includes the summoning, proroguing, and
dissolving of parliament. Parliament can only assemble by act of the sovereign; in but
two instances have the lords and commons met of their own authority — vi/... previously
to the restoration of Charles II., and at tne convention parliament summoned at the
revolution of 1688; and in both instances it was considered necessary afu nvard to pass
an act declaring the parliament to be a legal one. Though the queen may detei mine the
period for assembling parliament, her prerogative is restrained within certain limits. She
is bound by statute (16 Chas. II. c. 1; and 6 and 7 Will, and Mary c. 2) to is.-ue writs
within three years after the determination of a parliament; and the practice of voting
money for the public service by annual enactments, renders it compulsory for the
sovereign to meet parliament every year. Act 43 Geo. III. c. 90 provides that the
sovereign shall assemble parliament within fourteen days, whenever the militia shall be
drawn out and embodied in case of apprehended invasion and rebellion: and a similar
proviso is inserted in Act 15 and 16 Viet. c. 50, in case the present, militia force should
be raised to 120,000 men, and embodied. The royal assent is necessary before any
< Parliament.
measure can pass into law. The crown, as the executive power, is charged with the
management of the revenues of the state, and with all payments for the public service;
it is therefore the crown that makes known to the commons the pecuniary necessities of
the .government, without which no supplies can be granted. The sovereign's prerogative
also includes the sending and receiving of ambassadors, entering into treaty witli foreign
powers, and declaring war or peace. All the kings and queens since the revolution have
taken an oath at their coronation "to govern according to the statutes in parliament
agreed on, and the laws and customs of the same." The sovereign is further bound to
an adherence to the Protestant faith, and the maintenance of the Protestant religion as
established by law. Ey the bill of rights (1 Will, and Mary c. 2, s. 6), and the Act of
Settlement (12 and 13 Will. III. c. 2, s. 2) a person professing the popish religion, or
marrying a papist, is incapable of inheriting the crown, and the people are absolved from
their allegiance. This exclusion is further confirmed by the act of union with Scotland;
and in addition to the coronation oath, every king or queen is required to take the declar-
ation against the doctrines of the Roman Catholic church prescribed by 30 Chas. II. c.
2, either on the throne in the house of lords in the presence of both houses, at the first
meeting of the first parliament after the accession, or at the coronation whichever event
shall first happen. The sovereign -is bound by similar sanctions to maintain the Prot-
estant religion and Presbyterian church government in Scotland.
The province of the houses of parliament is to legislate with the crown, to provide
supplies, to exercise a supervision over the ministers of the crown and all other function-
aries, and to advise the sovereign on matters of public moment. The upper house, from
its hereditary and aristocratic character, is a check oil the popular branch of the legisla-
ture and on hasty legislation.
The house of lords may originate leg'slative measures of all kinds, except money-bills.
Acts of grace and bills affecting the rigats of peers must originate in this house. In Vs
judicial capacity, defined by the appellate jurisdiction act, 1876, it forms a court of final
appeal from her majesty's court of appeal in England, from the court of session, Scot-
land, and the superior courts of law and equity of Ireland. It has a judicature in claims
of peerage and offices of honor under reference from 'the crown. Since the union with
Scotland and Ireland, it has had the power of deciding disputed elections of representa-
tive peers. It tries offenders impeached by the house of commons, and members of its
own body on indictment found by a grand jury. The house of lords is composed of
lords spiritual and temporal. According .to a declaration of the house in 1672, the lords
spiritual are only lords of parliament and not peers, a distinction which seems not to
have been known in ancient times. They consist of 2 archbishops and 24 bishops for
Knirland, who are said to have seats in virtue of their temporal baronies. (By the act of
iiic Irish church, which formerly sent 4 bishops, is no longer represented.)* The
bi>!n>p of Sodor and Man has no seat in parliament, and on Manchester being made a see
in 1847, it was arranged that one other bishop should be in the same position, according
to a rotation not including the bishops of London, Durham, and Winchester, so as not to
increase the number of the lords spiritual. The lords temporal consist of : 1. The peers
of England, of Great Britain, and of, the United Kingdom, of whom there were, in 1876,
5 princes of the royal blood, 21 dukes, 17 marquises, 109 earls, 24 viscounts, and 232
barons. The number of the peers of the United Kingdom may be increased without
limit by new creations at the pleasure of the sovereign. 2. Sixteen representatives
chosen from their own body by the. peers of Scotland for each parliament. As no pro-
vision was made at the union for any subsequent creation of Scottish peers, the peerage
of Scotland consists exclusively of the descendants of peers existing before the union. By
order of the house of lords, an authentic list of the Scottish peers was entered on the roll
of peers on Feb. 12, 1708, to which all claims since established have been added; and in
order to prevent the assumption of dormant and extinct peerages by persons not having
right to them, statute 10 and 11 Viet. c. 52, provides that no title standing in the roll, in
right of which no vote has been given since 1800, shall be called over at an election
without an order of the house of lords. 3. Twenty-eight representatives of the Irish
peerage, elected for life. Most peerages are still hereditary. Life peerages were in early
times not unknown to the constitution; but in 1856, her majesty having created lord
Wensleydale a peer for life, the house of lords decided he could not sit and vote. But
in 1876, peers_to sit as members of the house while they held the office of lords of appeal
in ordinary — i.e., for judicial business, but on ceasing to act as judges to be peers no
longer — were created by statute. The house has also power to call to its assistance in
legal and constitutional questions the judges of the supreme court of judicature of all
the four divisions, who advise what should be done. The house has power also to sit
for judicial business during the prorogation of parliament. The votes of spiritual and
temporal lords are intermixed, and the'joint majority determine every question ; but they
sit apart on separate benches — the place assigned to the lords spiritual being the upper
part of the house on the right hand of the throne. A lord may, by license from the
sovereign, appoint another lord as his proxy to vote for him in his absence; but
a lord spiritual can only be proxy for a lord spiritual, and a lord temporal for a lord
temporal, and no member of the house can hold more than two proxies at the same time.
Proxies cannot vote in judicial questions or in committees of the whole house. There
are other rules and restrictions incident to the right of vote by proxy; a lords' committee
Parliament.
818
in 1807 reported that the practice of using proxies should he discontinued, hut no altera-
tion in Ilic rules was agreed to. Peerages arc lust hy altaindcr for high ticason. Neither
the issue of the hndy of the person aitai'-.'eci. nor. on their failure, the descendants of (ho
person first called to the dignity, will !, admitted to it without a removal of the attainder.
IV.it where the attainted person is ten:;:^ ji> tail-male, with a remainder in tail-male to
another, the dignity lieeo.nes vested in the remainder man on failure of the is.>ue of the
person attainted. A peerage, whether hy patent or writ, is forfeited by attainder for
high treason; attainder for felony forfeits a peerage hy writ, not one by patent,
attainted peerage cannot he restored hy the crown, only hy an aet of parliament,
The house of commons, besides its general power to introduce legislative measures,
has the sole right to originate hills levying ta.v;es, or affecting the public inrome and
expenditure, and to examine into the validity of elections to its own body. The qu
•whether it has any control over the rights of electors was the subject of a memorable,
contest between the lords and commons in 1704, in the cases cf Ashby and White, and
of the " Ayleshury men" (Hat aril's Pro's t/t nix, vol. Hi.), a contest ended hy the que< n
proroguing parliament. When inquiring into the conflicting1 claims of candidates tor
seats in parliament, the commons have an undoubted power to determine whether
electors have the right to vote. The house of commons has the right to expel or commit
to prison its own members, and to commit other persons who offend hy breach of its
privileges, contempt of its authority, disobedience of its orders, or invasion of its ri^ht.-;
but I ids power is limited to the duration of the session. Expulsion does not. however,
ere .lie any disability to serve again in parliament. The house of commons has also the
power of impeaching offenders, who, however, are tried at tho bar of the house of
lords. " •
The number of members of the house of commons has varied greatly at different
times. In the reign of Edward I., it seems to have been 275; in that of Edward III..
250; and of Henry VI., 300. In the reign of Henry YITI., 27 members were added for
Wales, and 4 for the county and city of Chester; 4 were added for the county and city
of Durham in the reign of Charles II. Between the reign of Henry VIII. and that of
Charles II., 180 new members were added by the granting of royal charters to bo>.<
which had not previously returned representatives. Forty-five members were assigned
as her proportion to 'Scotland at the union, find 100 to Ireland., making the v. hole
number of members of the house of commons of the United Kingdom 058. The reform
acts of 1832, 2 Will. IV. c. 45 for Enirland, 2 and B Will. IV. c. 05 (amended by 4 and
5 Will. IV. c. 88, and 5 and 6 Will. IV. c. 78) for Scotland, ami 2 and 3 Will. IV. c. 88
for Ireland, while leaving unaltered the whole number of members of tho hoi
commons, made great changes in the distribution of th"ir seats. Fii'ty-six boroughs in
England and Wales were entirely disfranchised; 80 which had previously returned two
members wTere restricted to one; while 42 new boroughs were created, of which 2'J
each to return two numbers, and 20 a single member. Several S7nall boroughs in Wales
•were assigned to the city of London, 2 to each of the universities of Oxford rmd Cain-
bridge, and one to 133 cities and boroughs. •The number of members for Scotland was
increased from 45 to 53, 30 being county and 23 borough members, pome of Ihe latter
representing several combined boroughs. The number of members for !•
increased from 100 to 105, 64 representing counties, £4 cities and boroughs, and 2 the
university of Dublin. Further extensive changes in the distribution of seats were made
by the recent reform nets of 1867 r.nd 1868, 30 and 81 Viet. c. 1C2 for Englar.d. and 31
r.nd 32 Viet. c. 48 for Scotland. The English act deprived of iff second member
borough of less than 10.000 inhabitants, and altogether disfranchised 7 boroughs, givii.g
45 seats for redistribution, of which 25 were given to the larger counties, 11 t<
boroughs. 8 to boroughs already represented, and 1 to the university of London. The
Scotch act united the counties of Selkirk and Peebles into one constituency: gave a
member to the universities of Edinburgh and St. Andrews, and another to the univcrsi-
t>fl of Glasgow and Aberdeen, a second member to each of the counties of Lanark. Ayr,
and Aberdeen, and to the town of Dundee, and a third member to Glasgow: and con-
stituted Tlnwick, Galashiels, and Selkirk into a new district of boroughs: the 7 new
required being provided for by a further disfrar-ichisement of small English boroughs.
The Irish reform act,, 31 and 32 Viet. c. 49. made no change in the distribution of seals.
The whole number of 658 seats was thus left unaltered, but the disfranchisement of two
English and two Irish boroughs for bribery has since reduced the number to 652, which
are thus distributed:
Counties. Boroughs.
England and Wales 187 295
Scotland 32 26
Ireland 64 39
283 360 9 652
In English counties, prior to the act of 1832, the electoral qualification was founded
on the holding of freehold property of the yearly value of 40s. : by that aet every person
who at the date was seized for his own life and that of another, or for any lives what-
ever, of a 40s. freehold, or who might be seized subsequently to the act if in occupation,
319
Parliament.
or who might come into such freehold estate by marriage, marriage-settlement, device,
or promotion to any benefice or office, could still vote as a freeholder; but a person not
included in these classes, acquiring a freehold subsequently to the act, had only the
franchise when it was of the clear yearly value of £10, which value wns reduced to £5
by the act of 1867. Copyholders holding an estate of £10 a year, leaseholders of that
vaiuo whose leases were originally granted for 60 years, leaseholders of £50 with 20
j ears' leases, and tenants at will occupying lands or tenements paying a vent of £50. had
the franchise under the act of 1832; and the act of 1867 reduced the franchise of copy-
holders and leaseholders from £10 to £5, and the occupation franchise from £50 to £12
In boroughs, the old qualification varied according to local usage, and some of ihe
ancient rights, as that of freemen, were retained in 1832, when the franchise was
bestowed on all occupiers of houses of £10 yearly value. The act of 1867 extended the
borough franchise to all occupiers of dwelling-houses who have resided for 12 months
on July 31, in any year, and h'ave been rated to the poor-rates as ordinary occupiers, and
have, on or before July 20, paid such rates up to the preceding Jan. 5, and to lodgers
who have occupied for the same period lodgings of the annual value, unfurnished", of
£12. In Scotland, the old county qualification consisted in being infeft in lards or
superiorities holding directly of the crown of 40s. old extent (see VALUATION), or £400
Scots valued rent; and the Scotch act of 1832 reserved the rights of persons then on the
roll of freeholders, or entitled to be put on it, and extended the franchise to all owners
of property of the clear yearly value of £10, and to certain classes of leaseholders. By
the act of 1868, the county franchise was further extended to proprietors of lands of £5
yearly value, and occupiers of the ratable value of £20. The Scottish burgh a I franchise
had, prior to 1832, been vested in the town-councils: the act of 1832 substituted a £10
household franchise, and that of 1868 conferred the franchise on ah occupiers of houses
paying rates.
By the Irish reform act of 1832, various classes of freeholders were invested with the
county franchise, to whom were added, by 13 and 14 Viet. c. 69, occupiers of land
rated for the poor-rate at a net annual value of £12, and persons entitled to estates in
f< e, or in tail, or for life, of the rated value of £5. The Irish borough qualif? cation w;is
nearly the same as the English, but the above-mentioned statute of Victoria added to
the constituency the occupiers of lands and premises rated at £8. The act of 1868
made no change in the county qualification, but gave the borough franchise to occupiers
of houses riled at £4, and of lodgings of the annual value of £10 unfurnished. Certain
disqualifications exist from exercising the franchise on the grounds of infamy, alienage,
conviction of felony, and the holding of government offices. Peers cannot vote. In the
umv'Tsitk's of Cambridge and Oxford the constituency consists of the doctors and
mnsters of arts; in Dublin, of the fellows, scholars and graduates of Trinity college. In
London university the graduates form the constituency; in the Scotch universities the
chancellor, the members of the university court, the professors, and the members of
general council. Under the acts of 1867-8, in London, where four members are returned,
lector has only three votes; and in Glasgow, which returns three members, each
elector has but two votes.
The reform acts of 1832 introduced .a system of registration of voters for the
three divisions of the United Kingdom. In England lists of voters are prepared by the
oYi'ivfcrs.of each parish, and on certain days courts are held by barristers appointed by
the chief-justice and the senior judge of each summer circuit to revise these lists, when
( -hums may be made for persons omitted, and objections offered to names standing on
lln list. If an objection be sustained, the name is struck off the list, there being an
appeal from the decision of the revising hamster to the court of Common Pleas. In
Scotland a register of persons entitled to vote is made up annually in counties and
boroughs in terms of the registration of voters (Scotland) act, 24 and 25 Viet. c. 23,
which register is printed, and may be had for a small price. Voters are thus put on the
roll without trouble to themselves, and, in point of fact, •without their consent. "Fnroll-
nu'nt. however, may be challenged, in which case objections are heard ami ddti mined
by the sheriff", subject (under the act of 1868) to appeal to a tribunal composed of three
j'.YVos of the court of session. The registration system of Ireland introduced by the
reform act resembles that of England; and by 16 and 17 Viet. c. 58, provision is made
for the annual revision of the list of voters for the city of Dublin.
A property qualification of £600 a year in candidates for counties and £300 in candi-
dates for boroughs, which had previously existed in England and Ireland, was left
untouched in 1831, but has been abolished by 21 and 22 Viet. c. 26. Scotch peers,
though not representative peers, are disqualified from sitting in the house of commons
Irish peers may represent any constituency in Great Britain, but not in Ireland. A dis
qualification is also attached to nudges (except the master of the rolls), clergymen of tho.
established church of any of me three kingdoms, Eoman Catholic priests, revenue
o(]i<-f rs. persons convicted of treason and felony, and aliens, even when naturalized,
unless the right has been conceded in express terms. Sheriffs cannot sit for their own
counties, and government contractors are disqualified, a disqualification which does not.
extend to contractors for government loans. A member becoming bankrupt is incapaci-
tated from sitting or voting.
When a new parliament has to be assembled, the lord chancellor, by order of the
Parliament.
sovereign, directs the clork of the crown to prepare and issue, under th? great se;il, writs
to the sheriffs of counties, b<'.li '.• • liic i oiiniies and the borou-h-;. A >ln riff, on receiv-
ing the writ for ;i county, appoints :i day for the election, and by the practice prior to
tlii! ballot act, 1872 (3o and :](j Viet. c. 33) on the day fixed, he proclaimed the writ. If
no more candidates were then proposed ihan were to be elected, lie dei-lared them duly
elected; if there was opposition, a show of hands was asked, and Lbe sheriff declared
who had the majority. If a poll was demanded by the opposite party, the election was
adjourned. The electors of each district voted at their several polling-places, and at the
termination of the poll, the return was transmitted to the sheriff, who proclaimed the
successful candidate. In borough elections in England and Ireland, the sheriff, on
receiving the writ, issued his precept to the returning officer of the municipality, who
superintended the election; in Scotland, the sheriff himself superintended the borough as
well as the county elections. The names of the persons elected, both in counties and
boroughs, were returned by the sheriff to the clerk of tire crown. The candidai-
now nominated by a writing signed by two electors, as proposer and second, r, and eight
others as consenting, and delivered to the returning officer; if on expiry of an hour from
the time fixed there are more candidates than vacancies, the election is adjourned and a
poll taken. The vote is given by ballot (q.v.), and the result announced by the return-
ing officer, and returned to the clerk of the crown in chancery. Vacancies occurring
after a general election are supplied by new writs issued by authority of the house.
When it is determined that a writ should be amended, the clerk of the crown is ordered
to attend the house, and amend it accordingly.
A member of the house of commons can not, in theory, resign his seat, but on the
acceptance of any office of profit under the crown, his election is, by an act of queen
Anne, declared void, and a new writ issues, lie being, however, eligible for re-election.
By the reform act of 1867, members who already hold certain offices do not vacate their
seats on the acceptance of cfrtain other offices enumerated, the list seemingly compre-
hending all offices usually held by members. The resignation of office is held not to be
complete until the appointment of a successor; and on the resumption of office, tl:°
is held not to have been vacated. A first commission in the army or navy vai
seat; subsequent commissions do not do so. A member wishing to resign usually applies
for the stewardship of the Chiltern Hundreds (q.v.).
Privilege. — Both houses of parliament possess extensive privileges for the maintenance
of their authority and the protection of individual members. Some of these pri\'
have well-defined limits; others are so vague in their extent as occasionally to lead to
conflicts between parliament and the courts of law. The privilege of speech is claimed
of the sovereign by the speaker o.' the house of commons at the opening of every new
parliament. At the same time, ai . member using offensive expre--iuii-, may be called
to the bar to receive a reprimand from the speaker; or, if the offense be ^iave. may be
committed for contempt, in which case he is sent either to the tower or to .\c\\gati-.
Persons not members of the house may also be committed for breach of pi i
no one committed for contempt can be admitted to bail, nor can the cause of commit-
ment be inquired into by the courts of law. The publication of the debates of either
house has repeatedly been declared a breach of privilege; but for a long time back this
privilege has been practically waived, except where the reports are false and perverted.
Publication of the evidence before a select committee previously to its being reported is
punished as a breach of privilege. Libellous reflections on the character and proceed-
ings of parliament, or of members of the house, come under the same category, as al>o
does assaulting or threatening a member. Willful disobedience to the orders of the
house is punishable as a breach of privilege; but if orders be given beyond the jurisdic-
tion of the house, their enforcement may be questioned in a court of law. The oil'er of
bribe to, or its acceptance by a member, is a breach of privilege; so also is any inter-
ference with the officers of the house in the execution of their duty, or tampenn
witnesses who are to be examined before the house, or a committee of the hou.-e. .Mem-
bers of both houses are free from arrest or imprisoment in civil matters, a privilege.
which is permanent in the case of peers, extending also to pecre.— ;rs. whether b.
tion or marriage (though the latter lose it by subsequently marrying a commoner), and
to peers and peeresses of Scotland and Ireland, whether representative or not. It con-
tinues in the case of members of the house of commons during the sitting of parliament,
for forty days after each prorogation, for 40 days prior to the day to which parlia-
ment is prorogued, and for a reasonable time after a dissolution. Witnesses summoned
to attend before parliament or parliamentary committees, and other persons in attend-
ance on the business of parliament, are also protected from arrest. Protection
claimable from arrast for any indictable offense. Counsel are protected for any state-
ments that they may make professionally.
Meeting of a New Parliament. — On the day appointed for the meeting of a new parlia-
ment, the members of the two houses assemble in their respective chambers. In the
lords, the lord chancellor acquaints the house that "her majesty, not thinking it fit to be
personally present here this day, had been pleased to cause a commission to be issued
under the great seal, in order to the opening and holding of the parliament,'' the lords
commissioners, being in their robes, and seated between the throne and woolsack, then
command the gentleman usher of the black rod to let the commons know that th»
321
Parliament.
"lords commissioners desire their immediate attendance in this house to hear the commis-
sion road." Meantime, in the lower house, the clerk of the town in chancery has
delivered to the clerk of the house a list of the members returned to serve; and on receiv-
ing the message from black rod the commons go up to the house of lords. The commis-
sion having been read in presence of the members of both houses, the lord chancellor
opens the parliament by slating " that her majesty will, as soon as the members of both
houses sh::il be sworn, declare the causes of her calling this parliament: and it being
necessary that a speaker of the house of commons should first be chosen, that you,
gentlemen of the house of commons, repair to the place where you are to sit, and there
pioceed to the appointment of some proper person as your speaker, and that you present
such person whom you shall so 'Clie-ose here to-morrow at o'clock, for her majesty's
royal approbation." The commons immediately withdraw, and, returning to their own
iiouse. proceed !o elect a speaker.
Till a speaker is elected, the clerk acts as speaker, standing and pointing to members
as they rise to speak, and then sitting down. If only one candidate be proposed for the
office, the motion, after being seconded, is supported by an influential member, gener-
ally the leader of the house of commons; and the member proposed, having expressed
his sense of the honor meant to be conferred on him, is called by the house to the chair,
lo which lie is led by his proposer and seconder. If another member be proposed and
seconded, a debate ensues; and at its close, the clerk puts the question, that the member
first proposed "do take the chair of the house as speaker." If the house divide, lie
directs one party to go into the right lobby, and the other into the left, and appoints two
t'ur each. If the majority be in favor of the member first proposed, he is led to
the chair; if not, a similar question being put regarding the other member, and answered
in the affirmative, lie is conducted to the chair. The speaker-elect expresses his thanks
for ihe honor conferred on him, and takes his seat; on which the mace is laid on the
table, where it is always placed during the sitting of the house with the speaker in the
chair. He is then congratulated by some leading member, and the house adjourns.
The i;c-xt day the speaker-elect, on the arrival of Duck rod, proceeds with the commons
to the house of loids, where his election is approved by the lord chancellor. He then
Irys claim, on behalf of the commons, to their ancient rights and privileges, which being
confirmed, he retires with the commons from the bar. Nearly the same forms are
observed on the election of a new speaker when a vacancy occurs by death or resigna-
tion in the course of the session.
The members of both houses then take the oath prescribed by law. See OATH, AB-
JURATION. In the upper house the lord chancellor first takes the oath singly at the table.
The clerk ef the crown delivers a certificate of the return of the Scottish representative
peer-, and garter kiuu'-at-arms the roll of the lords temporal, after which tl^e lords pres
ent take and subscribe the oath. Peers who have been newly created by letters patent.
;;t, their patents to the lord chancellor, are introduced in their robes between two
other peers of their own dignity, preceded by black rod and garter, and conducted to
their places. The same ceremony is observed in the case of peers who have received a
writ of summons — a formality necessary when a member of the lower house succeeds to
a peerage; otherwise his s -;.t does not become vacant. A bishop is introduced by two
other bishops, without the formalities observed with temporal lords. Peers by descent
have a right to take their seats without introduction: peers by special limitation in
remainder have to be introduced. In the commons, the speaker first subscribes the oath,
standing on the upper step of the chair, and is followed by the other members. Mem-
bers on taking the oath are introduced by the clerk of the house to the speaker. Mem-
bers returned on new writs in the course of the session, after taking the oath, are intro-
duced between two members. They must bring a certificate of their return from the
clerk of the crown. On tiie demise/of the crown, the oaths must be taken anew in both
houses.
When the greater part of the members of both hfltises have been sworn, the causes of
c-illing the parliament are declared by the sovereign either in person or by commission.
In the former case, the queen proceeds instate to the house of lords, and commands
black rod to lc-t the commons know "that it is her majesty's pleasure that they attend
her immediately in this house." Black rod proceeds to the house of commons, and form-
ally commands their attendance, on which the speaker and the commons go up to the
bar of the house of lords, and the queen reads her speech, which is delivered to her by
the lord chancellor kneeling on one knee. Of late years the practice has been revived
of the lord chancellor reading the royal speech in the queen's presence. When parlia-
ment is opened by commission, the so'vereign not being personally present, the lord chan-
cellor reads the royal speech to both houses. Immediately after the royal speech is read,
the house is adjourned during pleasure; but both houses are resumed in the afternoon,
for the purpose of voting an address in answer to the speech from the throne. In each
house it is common to begin business by reading some bill pro forma, in order to assert
the right of deliberating without reference to the immediate cause of summons. The
royal speech is then read, and an address moved in answer to it. Two members in each
house are chosen by the ministry to move and second the address. The preparation of
the address is referred to a select committee; it is twice read, maybe amended, and when
finally agreed on, it is ordered to be presented to her majesty.
U. K. XL— 21
Parliament.
322
Adjournment, Prorogation, and Dissolution. — Adjournment of parliament is but (he
continuance of the session from one day to another. Either house may adjourn r-ep-
aralciy on its own authority, with this rc.-tnction, introduced by act :!!) ;.nd -M Gco. III.
c. 14, that the sovereign, with advice of the privy council, may issue a proclamation
appoint u g parliament to meet within not less than 14 days, notwithstanding anadjourn-
jnent beyond that [>criod. On reassembling, the hou.-e can again take up buv.nos \vliich
was left unfinished. A prorogation differs from an adjournment in this n -.;:«•! that it
not merely suspends all business, but quashes all proceedings pending at the time, except
impeachments by the commons, ami appeal* and wri's of error in the lords. "William
111. prorogued parliament from Oct. '2\ to Oct. '2<>, 1089, in order to renew the bill of
rights, regarding which a difference had arisen between the two houses that was fatal
to its progress. It being a rule that a bill of tLe same substance cannot be introduced
twice in the same session, a prorogation has som> limes been resorted to, to enable a
second bill to be brought in. Parliament can only be prorogued by the sovereign; and
this may be done by having her command signified in her presence by the lord chanccW
lor to both houses, by writ under the great seal, by commission, or by proclamation.
Till recently, a proclamation for the prorogation of parliament from the day to which
it stood summoned or prorogue;! to another day, was followed by a writ or comnr
but by 30 and 31 Viet, the royal proclamation alone prorogues parliament, except at tin*'
close of a session.
Parliament comes to an end by dissolution. This dissolution maybe by the will of the
sovereign expressed in person or by her representatives, llavimr bc< n first pioioinu'd, it
is dissolved by a royal proclamation, and by the same ins, nun.' nt it is declared that the
chancellor of Great Britain and chancellor of Ireland have been respectively ordered to
issue out writs for calling a new parliament. By 6 Anne c. 37, a parliament was deter-
mined six months after the demise of the crown; but by the reform act of 1807, the
parliament in being at, any future demise of the crown .shall not lie determined by such
demise, but shall continue as long as it would otherwise have continued unles* iii>sol\< d
by the crown. Were the power of dissolving the parliament not vested in the executive,
there would be a danger of its becoming permanent and encroaching on the royal author-
ity, so as to destroy the balance of the constitution. An example of this danger i.s
shown in the long parliament, to which Charles I. conceded that it should i:ot 1«
solved till such time as it dissolved itself. If the houses of parliament encroach on tho
executive, or act factiously or injudiciously, the crown may, by a dissolution, bring their
proceedings to an end, and appeal to the people by sending the members of the housa
of commons to give an account of their conduct to their constituent
There was originally no limit to the duration of a parliament except the will of the
sovereign. By 6 Will, and Mary, c. 2, the continuance of a parliament w;is limited to
three years, :i term afterward extended by 1 Geo. I. o. 38 to seven years. Thesai: i
of William and Mary enacts that parliament shall a?semble"once in th •< e years ;it tho
least; but the practice of granting the mutiny act and the budget for a year only, mak< s
it necessary that it should assemble annually.
Conduct of Business. — Each house is presided over by its speaker. The speaker of
the house of commons does not take part in a debate, offer l.is opinion, or vote on ordi-
nary occasions; but, in case of equality, he has a casting vote; his duty is to decide all
questions which relate to order, putting the matter at issue in a substantive i'c-im for tho
decision of the house, if his own decision is not assented to. lie explains any doubts
that may arise on bills. He determines the precedence of members rising to audit
house. He examines witnesses at the bar. At the close of the session, he address
sovereign on presenting the money-bills passed during the session for the royal ;
He nominates the tellers on n division, and makes known the votes to the house. I!o
may commit members to custody during the pleasure of the house, a coniinf ment which
terminates with the close of the session. When a vacancy occurs by drain, he signs tho
warrant to the clerk of the crown to make out the writ for the election of a new meiulK r.
He audits the accounts of the receiver of fees, and directs the printing of the vot.
proceedings of the house. The lord chancellor, or lord keeper of the great seal, is iho
speaker of the house of lords; in his absence, the chairman of the committee of ways
and means takes the chair. The speaker is not, as in the lower house, charged with tho
maintenance of order, or the decision who is to be heard, which rest with the h"i:so
itself. The chairman of the committee of ways and means of the house of commons. »s
deputy speaker, performs the speaker's duties in his absence. The chi< f olti.i is of the
house of lords arc the clerk of the parliaments, who takes minutes of tl
the house; the gentleman usher of the black rod, who, with his deputy, the ye. man
usher, is sent to desire the attendance of the commons, executes orders for committal.
and assists in various ceremonies; the clerk-assistant; and the sergeant-at-arms, who
attends the lord chancellor with the mnco, and executes the orders of the house for tho
attachment of delinquents. The chief officers of the commons are the clerk < f tho house.
the sergeant-at-arms, the clerk-assistant, and second clerk-assistant.
Each house has its Standing Orders, or regulations, adopted at different periods,
relating partly to internal order, partly to certain preliminaries required in the introduc-
tion of bills and promulgation of statutes. A standing ore- tii! ivpen1
"vacated," as it is called in the upper house); but each house is also in tl e practice of
323
Parliament.
agreeing to certain orders or resolutions of uncertain duration declaratory of its practice,
which are considered less formally binding than standing- orders.
The house of lords usually meets sit 5 P.M. ; the commons at a quarter before 4, except
on Wednesdays and other clays specially appointed for morning sittings. In the lords
the chancellor, as speaker, sits on the woolsack. A standing order, which is never
enforced, requires the lords to take place according to precedence. Practically, the
bishops sit together on the right hand of the throne; the members of the administration
on the front bench on the right hand of the woolsack adjoining the bishops, and the
p?ers who usually vote with them occupy the other benches on that side. The peers in
opposition are ranged on the opposite side, and those considered politically neutral
occupy the cross benches between the table and the bar. In the house of commons, the
front bench on the right hand of the chair is reserved for the ministry, and called the
treasury bench, the front bench on the opposite side being occupied by the leaders of
the opposition. By ancient custom and orders of both houses, rarely enforced, strangers
are excluded while the houses are sitting.
Pra3*ers are read before business is begun — in the house of lords by a bishop; in the
house of commons by the chaplain. Every member is bound to attend the house — in
the lower house personally; in the upper personally, or by proxy; but in ordinary cir-
cumstances, this obligation is not enforced. The house of "lords may proceed to business
when three peers are present; in the commons, forty members are required to constitute
a house for the dispatch of business. The speaker counts the house at four; and if that
number be not then present, or if it be noticed, or appear on a division, that fewer than
forty members are present, the house is adjourned. A call of the house is an expedient
to secure attendance 0:1 important occasions; when it is made, members absent without
leave may be ordered to be taken into custody. When matters of great interest are to be
debated in the upper house, the lords are "summoned."
To make a motion, or, more properly, to move the house, is to propose a question, and
notices of motions should IK> given on a previous day. The commons are in the practice
of setting apart Mondays, Wednesdays, Thursdays, and Fridays for considering orders
of the da,1/, or matters which the house had alre:uiy agreed to consider on a particular
day, and to reserve Tuesdays for motions. Government orders take precedence of
others on all order days except Wednesdays, which are generally reserved for the orders
of independent members. Notices of motions are by a standing order not allowed to
b • iriren for any period beyond the four days next following on which motions are enti-
re,! 10 precedence. Questions of privilege may be considered without previous notices,
and take precedence bo Hi of other motions and orders of the day. A motion may be
accompanied by a speech, and must in the lower house be seconded, otherwise there is
no question before the house. In purely formal motions this rule is not observed, and
;in order of the day maybe moved without a seconder. A seconder is not required in.
i ,-• Ifous ; of lords. A motion in the commons must be reduced to writing by the mover,
and delivered to the speaker, who, when it has been seconded, puts it to the house; it
cannot then be withdrawn without leave of the house. In the lords, when a motion has
beeh made, a question is proposed " that- the motion be agreed to." When an amend
ment is proposed to a question, the original motion cannot be withdrawn till the amend-
ment has been either withdrawn or negatived. An amendment is properly such an
alteration on a motion by striking out or adding words, or both, as may enable members
to vote for it who would not have done so .otherwise.
Aquation may be evaded or superseded in four ways: 1. By adjournment. Any
member in possession of the house may move " that the house do now adjourn." Tm-
house may also be adjourned, even while a member is speaking, on its being noticed
that there are fewer than forty members present. The motion, " that the debate be now
adjourned," does not supersede the question, but merely defers the decision- of the
house. 2. By a motion, that the orders of the day be now read, which my be put and
carried on days on which notices of motion have precedence. 8. By what is called mor-
iny the previous qu^i'ion. The act of the speaker in putting the question is intercepted
by a motion, " that (he question be now put." The mover and seconder of this motion
vote against it; and if it be resolved in the negative, the speaker is prevented from put-
ting the main question, which, however, may be brought forward on another day.
4. By an amendment substituting words of an entirely different import for those of the
parties exclaim
expression used is "aye" or "no."
The speaker signifies his opinion which party have the majority, and if the house
acquiesce, the question is said to be resolved in the affirmative or negative; when his
decision is disputed, the numbers must be counted by a division. Both houses now
divide by the content or ayes going into the right lobby, and the non-contents or noes
into the left, each being counted by tellers appointed by the speaker. In the house oi'
commons, two clerks with printed "lists of the members put a mark to the name of each
as he re-enters the house, so as to secure accuracy in the division-lists. The speaker of
the commons, who does not otherwise vote or take part in a debate, has a casting-vote
in case of equality. In the house of lords, the speaker is, on the other hand, not dis-
qualified from taking part in a debate; he votes on divisions, but has no casting-vote;
8° 4
.Parliament,
and on an equality, the non-contents prevail. The system of pairing commonly prac-
ticed, though never directly recognized by the house, enables members on opposite sides
to absent themselves for a 'time agreed on, each ncutrali/.ing the votes of the other. A
member of the upper house may, \viih leavp of the house, hy a protest enVcr his dissent
from a vote of tlie house, audits grounds. Every prote ' i entered on the journals of
the house, together with the names of all the lords who concur in it.
No question or bill is allowed to IK- offered in citlier house substantially the same
with one on which the judgment of that house has already been expressed in the current
session. A resolution of the house, however, may le rescinded, and i:u order dis-
charged: and by lo and 14 Viet. c. 21, it is provided that every act may be altered,
amended, or repealed in the same session of parliament.
In debate, a member of the commons addresses the speaker; a member of the upper
house the lords generally, in both cases standing and uncovered. ISo member may
speak except when there is a question before the house, or with the view to propose a
motion or amendment, the only admitted exceptions being in putting questions to minis-
ters of the crown, or to members concerned in some business which is before the house,
and in explaining personal matters. A member is not allowed to speak twice to the
same question except in explanation, and the proposer, in some cases, in reply — a
restriction which does not apply in committee. J5y the rules adopted by both houses
for preserving order in debate, no allusion is allowed to debates of the same session on a
question not under discussion, or 1.0 debates in the'piher house of parliament. All reflec-
tions on any determination of the house are prohibited, except when made with u. vi-w
of moving that the determination be rescinded; so is the mention by a member of her
majesty's name either irreverently, or to influence the debate, and the use of offensive
ami insulting1 words against parliament or cither house, or a member of the lion e in
which he is speaking. No member is allowed to refer to another by name, or otherwise
than by the rauk or office which he enjoys, or place which he represents. The speaker
naming a member to the house, is an old established form of censure, which was lust
used when Mr. Feargus O'Connor struck the member beside him.
Messages. — It is often found necessary for the houses to communicate with each other
regarding mutters occurring in the course of business. Messages from the lords were
formerly sent by masters in chancery or judges, while the commons sent a deputation
of their own members. According to a new arrangement adopted in 18o5, one of the
clerks of either house may be the bearer of a message.
Committees. — Parliamentary committees are either " of the whole house," or " select. "
A committee o'f the whole house is the house itself, with a chairman instead of the
speaker presiding. The chair is taken in the lords by the chairman of committees
appointed at the beginning of each session, in the commons by the chairman of the com-
mittee of ways and menns. Matters relating to religion, trade, the imposition of t
or the granting of public money, are generally considered in committee before legisla-
tion, as also are the provisions of any public bill. Proceedings are conducted nearly as
when the house is sitting, the lords b^iu r addressed in the upper house, and in the lower
the chairman, who has the same powers to maintain order as the speaker, and a casting
vote in case of equality. In committees of the commons, as in the house itself, a quo-
rum of forty members is required; but if that number are not present, the speaker must
resume the chair to adjourn the house. A motion in committee need not be seconded,
mid there is a more unlimited power of debate' than in the house, members being at lib-
erty to speak any number of times on the same question. A motion for ' the previous
question" is not allowed. When the business of the committee is not concluded on the
day of sitting, the house is resumed, and the chairman moves "that the hou--e be again
put into committee on a future dajV in the lords, and in the commons reports progress,
and ask^ leave to sit again.
Select committees are composed of a limited number of members appointed to inquire
into any matter, and report. In the commons, it is usual to pive select committees
power to send for persons, papers, and records; in the lords, they may, without any
special authority, summon witnesses. In neither house can a committee enforce the
attendance of a witness; this must be done, when necessary; by the house itself. The
commons have certain standing orders for insuring the efficiency of committees.
and impartiality in their appointment. No committee is to consist of more than fifteen.
Members moving for a committee must ascertain whether the members whom they pro-
pose to name will attend. Lists of the members serving on each committee are to be
affixed in the committee clerk's office and the lobby. To every question asked of a wit-
ness, the name of the member who asko it is to be prefixed in the minutes of evidence
laid before the house; and the names of the members present at each sitting, and. in the
event of a division, the question proposed, the name of the proposer, and the votes of
efich member, are to be entered on the minutes, and reported to the house. In the lords
there are no special rules regarding the appointment and constitution of committees; but
resolutions containing arrangements similar to those of the commons regarding ques-
tions to witnesses, minutes of proceedings, and divisions, have been adopted since 1852;
Select committees have the power of adjournment from time to time, and sometimes
from place to place. By an anomaly not easily explained, the commons have always
been considered not to have the power of administering oaths: a power of examining on.
325
Parliament.
oath has, however, by statute been granted to election committees, and committees on
private bills In tiie house of lords, witnesses had formerly to attend at the bar of the
house to be sworn; but the oath may now be administered by any committee of the
house. Except where leave of absence has been obtained, no member, unless above the
age of sixty, can excuse himself from .serving on committees, or for not attending when
his attendance has been made compulsory by order of the house. In committees ou
private bills in the commons, the chairman has a deliberative as well as a casting vote.
Since 1864, joint committees of both houses, composed of an equal number of members
of each, have occasional!}" been appointed.
Jjiiln. — The principal business which occupies both houses is the passing of bills. In
early times, laws were enacted in the form of petitions from the commons, which were
entered on the rolls of parliament, with the king's answers subjoined; and at the close
of the session, these imperfect records were drawn up in the form of a statute, which
was entered on the statute rolls. It was found that, on undergoing this process, Hie acts
passed by the parliament were often both added to and mutilated, and much of the legis-
lative power practically came into the hands of the judges. Pills in the form of com-
plete statutes were first introduced in the reign of Henry VI. Bills are either public or
private; the former affect the general interests of the community, the latter relate to
local matters. Public bills are introduced directly by members; private bills by peti
tions from the parties in tt rested, presented by members. Bills may originate in
either hou.se; but the exclusive right of the commons to deal with all legislation
regarding taxes or supplies, makes it necessary and expedient that by far the greater
part of both public and private bills, except such as are of a purely personal nature,
should originate in the lower house. Bills regarding restitution of honors originate
in the house of lords. One description of act alone originates with the crown— an
act of grace or pardon. It is read only once in each house, and cannot be amended,
but must be accepted in the form in which it is received from the crown, or rejected.
Public Bills. — In the house of lords, any member may present a bill. In the com-
mons, any member may move for leave to bring in a bill, except it be for imposing a
tax, when an order of the house is required. "When the motion is seconded and leave
given, the mover ;md seconder are ordered to prepare and bring in the bill. Such biils,
however, as relate to religion, trade, grants of public money, or taxation, are required lo
be introduced by the house itself, on a report of the committee of the wl:ole house. A
bill is draw 11 out on papei, with blanks or italics where any part is doubtful, or where
sums have to be inserted. It is read a first time, and a day fixed for a second reading,
allowing a .sufficient interval to let it be printed and circulated. When ready, which is
<>ft< n as soon as the motion for leave to bring it in has betn agreed to, it is presented &t
the bar by one of the members who were ordered to prepare and bring it in, anel after-
wards, on an intimation from the speaker, brought up to the table. The question is
put, '"'that the bill be now reael a first time,," which is rarely objected to; arid in the
commons can only be opposed by a division. The short title of the bill, as entered :n
the orders of the day and indorsed on the bill, is then read aloud, which is accounted
sufficient compliance with the order of the house. A day is then appointed for consid-
ering the question, " that tlie bill be read a second time," allowing a sufficient interval
to elapse to let it be printed and circulated. At the second reading the member in
ci large of the bill moves "that the bill be now read a second time." This is the usual
time for opposing a bill whose general principle is disapproved. This is done by an
amendment to the question, by leaving out the word " now," and adding " this dajr three
months," " this day six months," or some other time beyond the probable duration of
the session. Counsel are sometimes allowed to plead at the second reading or other
stages. If the bill be approved on^he second reading, it is committed, either to a select
committee, or to a committee of the whole house, to consider its provisions in detail.
Wiien the proceedings in committee are terminated, the bill is reported to the house
with amendments, which may be agreed to, amended, or disagreed to. It is then ordered
to be read a third time, when the entire measure is reviewed. No amendments, except
what are verbal, can then be made, anel the question .is put to the house, "That this bill
do now pass." The title of the bill is last settled. The bill, when passed by the com-
mons, is sent to the lords, where it goes through the same forms: if rejected, no further
notice is taken of it; if passed, a message is sent to the commons that the bill is agreed
to. If amendments have been made, they are sent down along with the bill to be dis-
cusseel by the commons; and if they are not agreed to, a conference is demanded by the
commons, to offer reasons for disagreeing to the amendments. A conference is a mode
of communicating on iirtportant matters between the houses, in which each house is
brought into direct contact with the other by a deputation of its own members — the time
and place of meeting being always fixed by the lords. A conference is conducted, for
both houses, by managers, who, on the part of the house desiring the; conference (in the
ease supposed, the commons), consist of the members who have drawn up the reasons,
with others sometimes added. If the iords be not satisfied with the reasons offered, a
second conference is desired, after which what is called a "free conference" may be
demanded, in which the managers have more discretion vested in them to advance wh;;t
arguments they please. No free conference has been held since 1740. By resolutions of
both houses, agreed to iu 1851, reasons for disagreement from amendments n:ay bo
Parliament.
communicated by messages without p. '.reference, unless the other house si.oii;J desire a
conference; and since that time the'.e i-as been but one instance of a conference where H
message would have bei n available, if the commons eveniualiy agree to the amend-
ments, the bill is sent back to the lorl"; if not, it is dropped. The same forms are gone
through \yhen a bill originates in Uie house of lords. The oliicial record of the a-seut of
one house to the bills passe..!, or amendments made by the other, is an indorsement on
the bill in Norman Ficnch. Tl'us, when a bill is pas-ed by the commons the clerk of
tlie house writes on the top of it, "Soitbade aux seignieurs. '' When the lords make
amendment to a bill, it is icP.irncd with the indorsement, "A ceste bill',: avesque
des amendments les seignicurs sr/it asscntus." Wlien it is sent back with these amend-
ments agreed to, the clerk of the house of commons writes, '• A ces nmendmeuts lea
communes sont assentus." V>"J»'jn both houses have agreed to a bill, it is deposited iu
the house of lords, to await ',j>c royal assent, unless it be a money-bill, which is sent back
to the commons
Private Jh'ibt. — In priv»*a bills, the functions of parliament partake of the judicial as
well as the legislative character, and the difficulties of reconciling the interests of the
public and of individuals often give rise to inquiries too extensive for the house to
undertake, which t!»'.-rerore delegates them to committees. The standing order; require
cenain notices *.o \m given to parties interested by personal service, and to the public by
advertisement. The practice in both houses now is for ail petitions for private bills to
be referred to Tour "examiners," two from the lords and two from the commons, whose
duty it is to '-xamine whether certain notices and other forms required by the standing
orders of tb'j house have been complied with. If the report be favorable, leave is given
to bring jp the bill; if unfavorable, it is referred to a committee, called the committee on
stand in »;r,rders, who report on the propriety of relaxing the standing orders in this indi-
vidual c:vse — should they report unfavorably, it is still in the power of the house to relax
the standing orderr,, though this is rarely done. Throe days must cl-ipse between the first
and second reading. At the second reading, the principle is considered, as in the case
of public bills; and if the bill be carried, it is referred, if not a railway, canal, or divorce
bill, to the " committee of selection," consisting of the chairman of the standing orders
committee, and five other members nominated at the beginning of the session, whose fiiiu--
tionsare to classify the bills, to nominate the committees on them, and to arrange their lime
of sitting. A railway or canal bill is referred to the " general committee of railway and
canal bills." This committee forms bills of this class into groups, and appoints the
chairman of the committee which is to sifon each bill f.-om its own body, the remaining
members, four in number, being chosen from the committee of selection. Ueioro the
sitting of the committee, every private bill, whether opposed or unopposed, must b,:
examined by the chairman of the committee of ways and means and his council. Ii is
also laid before the chairman of the lords' committee and his council, and effect is given
to their observations, a proceeding which greatly facilitates tli3 after-progress of the bill
in the house of lords. The board of trade, the secretary of state for the home depart-
ment, the lords' commissioners of the admiralty, and the commi-^ioners of w >^d ai.d
forests, also exercise a supervision over private bills of various kinds, by which tie:
respective rights of their departments may be supposed to be encroached on. In the
house of lords, estate bills are referred to 'the judges. Every bill, at the first reading,
is referred to the examiners, fie fore whom compliance with such standing orders as have
not been previously inquired into must be proved. The standing orders commit
the lords is now assimilated in functions to that of the commons. The bill is returned
to the commons either with amendments, or with a message that it is agreed to without
amendments. In case of disagreement between the houses, the same forms are observed
as in public bills.
In recent times, the necessity for obtaining private acts has been, in many <
obviated by general laws adapted to different classes of objects, of which parti
enabled to avail themselves, instead of applying to parliament for special powers.
Royal Assent. — A bill becomes a statute or, act of parliament on receiving the royal
assent, which is given in the house. or lords, the commons being also present at the bar.
it is given in either of two ways: by letters-patent under the great seal, signed by the
sovereign's own hand, and communicated to the two houses by commissioners; or by the
sovereign present in person in the house of lords. When the royal assent is given by
commission, three or more of the lords commissioners command black rod to signify
to the commons that their attendance is desired, on which the commons, with the
speaker, immediately come to the bar. The commission is then read at length; and the
titles of all the bills being read by the clerk of the crown, the royal assent ioeaeh is
signified by thfc clerk of the parliaments in Norman French, and so entered on the lords'
journals. In assenting to a public bill, the words used are: "Le roy [la reyne] le
veuit;" to a private bill, " Soit fait comme il est desire;" and to a bill of supply (which
is presented by the speaker, and receives the royal assent before all other bills); " Le
roy remercie ses bons sujets, nccepte leur benevolence, et ainsi le veult. " In the case of
an act of grace, which has originated with the crown, there was, till lately, no further
expression of the royal assent: but the clerk of the parliaments, having read its title,
said: " Lcs prelats, seigneurs, et communes en ce present parliament assembles, an npm
de tous vos auctrcs sujets, remercieut trcs-humbleuient yostre Majeste, et prieut u Dieu
32'
Parliament.
vos dormer en sante bonne vie et. longue :" the royal assent, however, has been latterly
given to acts of grace in the usual form. The refusal of the royal assent is announced
by the words, "Le roy s'aviscra.' But the necessity for such refusal is generally
removed by tlie observance of the constitutional principle, that the queen has no will
but that of "her ministers, who only continue-in office so longas they have the confidence
Of parliament. The last instance in which the royal assent was refused was by queen
Anne hi 1707, regarding a bill for settling the militia in Scotland.
The royal assent is seldom given in person, except at the close of a session, when the
queen attends to prorogue parliament, and then signifies her assent to such bills as have
btten passed since the last commission was issued; but bills providing for the honor and
dignity of the crown, and bills for settling the civil lists, have generally been assented to
by the sovereign in person, immediately after they have passed both houses. When the
royal assent is given in person, the clerk of the crown reads the titles of the bill; and the
clerk of the parliaments, who has previously received her majesty's commands in the
robiug-room, maki's an obeisance to the throne, and signifies her majesty's assent, as
already described, the queen giving a gentle inclination.
Supplies. — Prior to 1688, in addition to parliamentary taxation, imposts were some-
times levied by an exercise of the royal prerogative. Since the revolution, no taxes have
been raised otherwise than by parliamentary authority. The commons have the exclu-
sive right to impose taxes arid vote money for the public service. The lords cannot
even make an alteration in a bill of supply, except to correct a clerical error. The lords
are not even entitled to insert in a bill any pecuniary penalties, or to alter the amount or
application of any penalty imposed by the commons; a rule whose rigid assertion has
been found to be attended with so much inconvenience that there has latterly been a
disposition to relax it. If a biii containing provisions which make a pecuniary charge
on the public originate in the lords, any such provisions are struck out in the bill as sent
to the commons. In the commons, these provisions are printed in red ink, and sup-
pose:! to be blank, and may be agreed to in committee. But though the commons has
the exclusive right to grant supplies, a grant requires the ultimate assent of the queen
and the house of lore's.
The public revenue of the crown is derived in part from permanent charges on the
consolidated fund, and in part from actual grants for specific public services, which
require the yearl}- sanction of parliament. On the opening of parliament the queen
demands from the commons the annual provision for the public services, and directs
estimates to be laid before them. On agreeing to the address in answer to the royal
speech, the commons order the speech to be taken into consideration on another day. On
the arrival of that day a motion is made: "That a supply bs granted to her majesty,"
and the house resolves itself into a committee to consider that motion. On the day
appointed, the committee sits and agrees that a supply be granted, •which, being reported,
is agreed to by the house. Tuc house then appoints another day on which it resolves
itself into a "committee of supply." The estimates for the army, navy, and ordnance
departments, are first laid before the committee; then the estimates for civil services,
known as the miscellaneous estimates. The first business of the committee of supply is
to elect a chairman, who is known as the chairman of the committee of ways and means,
over which he also presides. When the first report of the committee of supply has been
received and agreed to, a day is appointed for the house to resolve itself into a "com-
mittee of ways and means." .This committee is not appointed till a sum has been voted
by the house, nor is it afterward allowed to vote in excess of the expenditure voted by
the committee of supply. It is the function of the committee of supply to consider what
specific grants are to be voted, and of the committee of ways and means to determine
how the funds shall be raised which are voted by the committee of supplj'. Without
special parliamentary authority, the consolidated fund could not be applied to meet the
supplies voted for the service of the year; but to make it so available, the committee of
ways and means votes general grants from time to time out of the consolidated fund
" toward making goo I the supply granted to her majesty;" and bills are founded on the
resolutions of the committee, by which the treasury receives authority to issue the requi-
site amount from the consolidated fund for the service of the year. It belongs to the
committee of ways and means to determine what sums shall be raised by exchequer bills
in anticipation of the annual revenue, to make up the supply granted to her majesty.
When the committee of supply has determined the number of men that shall be main-
tained during the year for the army and sea-service, and its resolutions have been agreed
to, the mutimi bill and marine mutiny bill are brought in, providing respectively for the
discipline of the troops and marines when on shore. Apart from this annual sanction,
the maintenance of a standing army in time of peace would be illegal, and the army and
marines Avould be relieved from "all martial discipline. The committee of ways and
means receives the annual financial statement from the chancellor of the exchequer, popu-
larly called the buclf/et. That minister gives a general view of the resources of the coun-
try, and of the financial policy of the government, and presents a probable estimate of
income and expenditure for the twelve months ending on the 12th of April of the follow-
ing year. He states what taxes he intends to reduce, and what new ones he means to
impose, and ends by proposing resolutions for the adoption of the committee, which,
when reported to the house, form the groundwork of bills for accomplishing the fiiian
Parliament.
328
cial objects proposed. The charges for collecting the revenue, have, since lfif>4. been
brought under the supervision of the house of eo;. unons; and estimates are ve-leil iVr the-
revenue <hp:irtmi;iits. A new t:i.\ cannot be propeiseel except by a mini -u r of il.e crown.
The resolutions of committees of supply and of wit) s and ineai orted on a day
appointed by the liousc, and read a lirsi iinie \\iiht.ut a (luestion. and a s< ce>i:d lime on a
question put from the chair, and are agreed to by the henise, or 111:13" he disagreed to,
amended, postponed, or recommitted. When the* committee of supply is closed, the
committee of u 113*8 aud means authorizes the applu -a! ion of ino/u-y 1'ioni I lie consolidated
fund, the surplus of ways and means, and Minis in the cxche quer, to nice: tic grant and
servitcs 01' the \ear, and tlie resolutions of the committee! are carried i:;lo i licet b)' Uio
consolidated fund bill, or as it is often called, the tti'jni<-jii'iii.tioii dill. \",\ ;\ standing oroer
of April 3, 1862, u standing committee of i>ublic accounts is appointed at the i e-inmng
of each session to examine into the appropriation of the sums granle d i y p.rliament. to
meet the public expenditure. Taxes of a permanent and general character are not now
considered in the committee of WHYS ar.d means.
Petitions. — Among the duties of parliament is the receiving of petitions. A petition
must be presented by a member of the house to which it is aelehe\s < <|. 1 ditions from
the corporation of London are. however, presented to the liousc of commons by the sher-
iffs at the I.ar, or by one sheriff, if the other be a member of the lie-use. e>r unavoidably
absent. In 1840, a petition was allowed to bL- presented by the lord mayor and alder-
men, when the sheriffs were in custody of the sergeant-at-arms. The l< rd mayor eif
Dublin has been allowed to present a petition at the bar of the house, and the same' privi-
lege would probably be conceded to the lorel provost of Kdinburgh. JYiiMor.s which
violate any of the rules of the house, are not brought up, but returned u> the petitioners;
and if an irregularity be discovered after a petition is brought up. its presentation i- not
recorded in the votes. In the house of lords, when a petition is laid on the table, au
entiy is made in the lords' minutes, and afterward in the journals of the house', which,
however, does not describe its nature and substance. A petition in;-y, on ] 'refutation,
be made a subject of debate, but unless this is done, there rcir.a'ns no pul lie- rece-rd e:f ils
import, or of the parties l>3r whom it was signed. In the hov:se of eon -me i>, accor.-^iig
to standing orders adopted in 1842. the member presenting a petition is to e< ni'ne him-
self to a statement of who the petitioners are, the number of signal*.: :.!erial
allegations of the petition' and its prayer. In case of urgency, or where qsu^tions of
privilege are involved, the matter o: the petition maybe discussed; but in e reli: :n-y ease's
no debate is allowed, and it is referred to the committee on public petitions, and if relat-
ing to a subject with regard to which the member presenting it has given notice of a
n-'jtion. it may be ordered <o ba printed with the votes. The reports of the- committee
oil public petitions are printed twice a week, and point out the name, the subje-ct, and
tbe number of- signatures of each petition, and the total number of signatures, and peti-
tions relating to each subject; and, in some cases, the petition itself is printed at full
length in the appendix.
Communications withtlie Crown. — Besides at the opening aud proroguing of parliament,
and giving of the royal assent, there are other occasions on which the crenvn eominuni-
catcs with parliament by a inesxage, under the sign-manual, te> citl :< r h<;i;se -ingly, eir
both houses separately. Messages are brought bj" a member of the In -use, being a minis-
ter of the crown, or one of the royal household, and may relate to important public
events, the prerogatives or property of the crown, provision for the royal family, etc. An
address is I he mode in which the resolutions of parliament are communicated to th«
crown. Addresses majr be joint, of both houses, or separate, of either heuise.
Return*. — Each house has the power of ordering returns from all tho.-e public depart-
ments which are connected with the revenue, under control of the treasury, or re gulatcd
by statute; but returns of matters connected with the exercise of royal prerogative, as
from public departments subject to her majesty's secretaries of state, are obtained by
means of addresses to the crown. A return is not allowed to be oidcrcd in one houso
regareling the proceedings of the other; when such return is wished, it is usual to mako
an arrangement by which it is moved in the house to whose proceedings it relates, and
after it has been presented, a message is sent to request that it maybe communicated,
Returns cannot be moved from private associations, or persons not exercising public
functions; and the papers and correspondence sought from government departments
must be of an official, not a private or confidential, description. This rule was, under
special circumstances, departed from in 1858, in regard to the opinii n e>f the law-olii( < ;s
of the crown in the case of the Car/Unri. Accounts and papers presented are ordered to lie-
on the table, and when necessary, ordered to be printed, or in the commons rcfcn
the printing committee appointed at the beginning of each session.
Ekctwn Petitions. — Until 1770 all questions regarding controverted elections worn
decided by the whole house; the Grenville act of that year introduced, tbe practice of
appointing committees for their trial, and the proceedings of eln-iion e-on miite'i-
further regulated by 11 and 12 Viet. c. 98. By the " parliamentary e lection-
(31 and 32 Viet. c.*124), election petitions arc* now presented te> the court of common
pleas in Westminster or Dublin, or the court of scssiem in Scotland, and trieel by a single
judge appointed by the court, and silting in the borough or county who-e' (le'e'tieui is
contested. An election petition must be signed by some person who voted, or i
329
Parliament.
right to vote at the election, or by some person who claims to be returned, or alleges him-
self to have been a candidate, and presented within 21 days after the return objected to,
or, if it proceeds on the allegation of bribery, within 28 days after the alleged payment.
Security is to be found for costs to the extent of £1000, either by sureties not exceeding
four, or by a deposit of money, or partly in each way. The judge determines whether
the member was duly elected, "and certifies to the speaker his determination, which is
final. Should the petition allege corrupt practices, the judge shall also report to tho
speaker whether there has been any corrupt practice within the knowledge and consent
of any candidate, the names of persons proved guilty, and whether corrupt practices have
prevailed extensively at the election; also the judge may specially report any matter for
consideration of the house of commons. Where, on application of any party to a petition,
it appears that the case raised can be conveniently stated as a special case, it may be so
stated and determined by the court, who certify their decision to the speaker, which
is final. An election petition cannot be withdrawn without leave of the court or judge
on special application; and a person who might have been a petitioner may apply to be
substituted for the person withdrawn. The court or judge is to report to the speaker
whether in their opinion the withdrawal of the petition has been induced by any corrupt
arrangement. The most frequent subjects of special reports are bribery, treating, and
the use of undue influence, matters regarding which, prior to 1868, various acts had been
passed, the most, important being 17 and 13 Viet. c. 102 (1854), 21 and 22 Viet. c. 87
(1858), and 2i> Viet. c. 29 (1863), three statutes known as the " corrupt practices preven-
tion acts." By the act of 1868, a candidate convicted of bribery is punished by voidance
of his election, incapacity during 7 years to be elected or to vote, to hold any office
under 5 and 6 Will. IV. c. 76, or 3 and 4 Viet. c. 108, or any municipal or judicial office,
or to act as justice of the peace ; and the same disqualifications to vote, to be elected, and
to hold office, are incurred by tiny person other than a candidate found guilty of bribery.
If a candid.ite is proved to have knowingly engaged as canvasser or election-agent a per-
son found guilty within the previous seven years of any corrupt practice, his election is
void. Act 15 and 16 Viet. c. 57 enacts that upon the joint address of both houses of
parliament, representing to her majesty that a committee of the house of commons has
reported that corrupt practices have extensively prevailed at any election, her majesty
may appoint commissioners to make inquiry; and by the act of 1868, the judge's report
to the effect that corrupt practices have prevailed, or that there is reason to believe they
have prevailed, is to be accounted equivalent to the report of the house of commons'
committee to that effect im Jer the 'previous act. It is further provided by the act of
18 jS that within 21 days of the return to the clerk of the crown, or within 14 days after
the mc.;ttng of parliament, a petition maybe presented by any two electors, alleging that
corrupt practices have extensively prevailed at their last election, or that there is reason
to itL'iieve this to have beer, the case. If, on such petition, an address byb'oth houses of
parliament be presented to the crown, praying for inquiry into such allegation, the crown
may app -;iiit commissioners to inquire, with the powers and subject to the provisions of
act 1.) au.l l':> Viet. c. 57.
By the act of 1854, the offering of money, office, employment, etc., to a voter to
induce him to vote or abstain from voting, or the offering of a similar consideration to
any p:-rso:i to induce him to procure the return of a candidate or the vote of an elector,
the acceptance of such consideration, and the payment of money in the knowledge that
it is to be cxp"ndcd in bribery, or the repayment of money which has been spent i:i
bribery, are all declared to be acts of bribery punishable by fine and imprisonment, as
well as by the forfeiture of £100 with costs to any person who will sue for the same.
Any voter who agrees to receive money,- office, or employment for voting or abstaining
from voting, and any person who, after an election, receives money or other considera-
tion on account of any person having voted or refrained from voting, is also guilty of
bribery, and liable to forfeit £10 with costs to any one who will sue for the same. Treat-
ing, whwih is defined as the providing of meat, drink, or other entertainment to any per-
son in order to be elected, or in consideration for any person voting or abstaining from
voting, involves a penalty of £50 similarly recoverable, as also does vndue influence, or
interference by intimidation, abduction, or otherwise, with the freedom of electors.
Persons guilty of any of these offenses are, by the provisions of the same acts, to be
struck off the register, and their names inserted in a separate "listof persons disqualified
for bribery, treatment, and undue influence," which is to be appended to the register of
voters. Cockades are prohibited, as is the furnishing of refreshment on the day of elec-
tion to a voter in consideration of his being about to vote. By the corrupt practice? act,
1854, it is however declared lawful to provide a conveyance i'or a voter, though not to
pay him a sum of money for tr?,~ ~ling expenses. By the act of 1863, no payment is
allowed to be made on behalf of a :, .ndidate except through his authorized agent, and all
claims against a candidate in respect of an election must be settled within a month,
otherwise tiie right to recover them is barred. A detailed account of election expenses
with vouchers is required to be delivered within two months of the election to the return-
ing officers, by whom it is published in a local newspaper, and the vouchers are to be
open for a month to the inspection of voters. The act of 1853 provides that when an
election committee iias reported that certain persons named have been guilty of bribery,
and their report is confirmed by a commission of inquiry, such report, with the evidence
ViiHinmentary.
rurma.
taken, is to be laid before the attorney-general with the view of instituting a prosecu-
tion.
ImpcacJimcnt. — There are instance:;. as far back as tlie times of the Plantagentl
princes, of the supreme power of parliament being exercised to punish offcn-es where
M>metiiing extraordinary in the nature, or some unforeseen obstacle to the execution of
the Ordinary laws, was deemed to render liiis advisable. This was done by a bill of
tiUaiuder, which in the reign of Henry VI II. became the usual mode of proceeding
cgainst slate offenses. A bid of attainder sometimes followed a regular trial and convic-
tion, as in the case of Empson and Dudley, but was often passed without trial, examina-
tion of witnesses, or hearing the accused party, as in the attainder of Fish* r and sir
Thomas More. Bills of attainder were sometimes, but rarely, had recourse ID under the
Stuart, kings; the last, instance was the ease of sir John Fenwick, in 1GUG. The practice
of impeaeinnent pf extraordinary olT'enders before the lords by the commons, \vhich had
been frequent during the 14th and loth centuries, Avas revived in the reign of James 1.
This proceeding is not like bills of attainder or pains and penalties, the making of a new
law pro re nata, but a carrying out of the already known and established law. The
great representative inquest of- the nation liist lind the crime, and then as prosecutors
support the charge before the highest court of criminal jurisdiction. It ha-; a 'ways been
allowed that a peer may be impeached for any crime whether cognir.able by the ordinary
courts or not. The right of the commons to impeach a commoner of a capital oiien-',
•which was atone time doubted, has been solemnly affirmed by the house of lords. The
trial is conducted by managers for the commons. * Witnesses are summoned by the lords
at the desire of the commons, and Westminster hall has usually been the pl::<v of trial.
the lord high steward presiding. The managers make their charges and ::dduce evid-
ence; the accused answers, and may defend himself by counsel; and the managers have
a right to reply. In giving judgment, the question is put by the lord high steward to
each peer, beginning with the junior baron, on. each article separately, whether the
accused be guilty. The answer is, "guilty, on iliy honor," or "not guilty, on my
honor," the lord high steward giving his opinion the last, and the numbers being ca- 1 up,
the accused is aquainted with the result. Impeachments have not been common in later
times, though they are still a competent proceeding; the latest memorable cases are those
of Warren 'Hastings in 1783, and lord Melville in 1805.
Trial of Peers. — Peers arc, in all cases, tried by their peers for treason, misprision of
treason, felony, or misprision of felony. For misdemeanors, however, they an- tried
before the ordinary courts of law; and the lords spiritual are in all canes tried" before the
ordinary courts of I he country. During the sitting of parliament, the trial pn
before the house of lords, or more properly before the court of parliament prc-idrd over
by the lord high steward. When parliament is not sitting, the trial takes plaeo before
the court of flic lord high steward — a tribunal whose constitution was at one time very
objectionable, that officer being allowed to summon what peers he pleased, only with
the proviso that the number should amount in all to 23. Act 7 Will. 111. <: on
that all the peers who have a right to sit and vote in parliament b;> summoned. P( ers of
Scotland and Ireland are. in terms of the acts of union, tried in the same way. By 4 and
5 Viet. c. 22, a peer is liable on conviction to the eamc punishment as any other of the
lieges.
See sir T. Erskine May's Laws, Privileges, Proceedings, and Usage of Parliament, 7th
edition, 1873
PARLIAMENTARY CHURCH is a church erected under the authority of afi act of par-
liament. In England such a church is generally. called a district church ; air: the acts of
parliament authorizing such churches, are known as the church building acts. See
PARISH. In Scotland similar churches are called quoad sacra (q.v.) churches.
- PARLIAMENTARY LAW. The course of procedure, ru'.es of order, r.nd customs
of debate in American organized conventions, legislative bodies, and societies, are those
laid down in the manual arranged by Thomas Jefferson, while he was president of the
U. 8. senate; and in the Law and Practice of Lcf/idati>r, Axxcniblim, by Mr. L. 8.
Gushing. But the foundation of both these works, and of the methods in vogue Tinder
their suggestion, has been the law of parliament.' Sec PARLIAMENT, anic. And this
applies equally to all voluntary and temporary organizations in America, to local and
business corporations, and to political meetings; 'excepting, as regard the parliamentary
origin of rides of order and the business of public meetings, when these have
specifically altered by the laws and customs of congress, which may be considered as
the immediate fountain-head of all such rules and business in American assemblies.
Public meetings are usually organized at first temporarily, and the details of permanent
organization left to a committee appointed by the temporary chairman. It is a common
practice in such cases to elect more than one vice-president, aiid several secretaries: these
offices being, however, usually honorary. In certain legislative bodies in the I
States, and notably in the U.S. senate, and in the upper house in some of the slates, the
presiding officer is" not. a member of the organization. A quorum of member
required for the transaction of business, and if the number necessary to a quorum be
not fixed bylaw, it is always a majority of the members. Business is cntertai;.
being before the house, when a member is recognized by the chairman as having offered
Pjirli.'.mentary.
Fai-ma.
a motion, or when a communication is acknowledged by the sumo officer and laid before
the meeting; provided thr.t in the case of a motion it be seconded by a member oilier
than the one offering it. Motions to lay on the table, and for the previous ques«i<;i;, arc
customary methods in use to dispose of questions and to cut off debate. It requires a
two-thirds vote to suppress a question without permitting any debate. A motion to
reconsider a question which has been decided, can only be made by one who has voted
affirmatively; in congress this can be done on the day following that of the original
action on the question. A motion to adjourn, when unqualified, is always in order,
provided there has been debate on any question since its last previous offer. A rulo
adopted must be enforced by the chair without question, though a motion to suspend
the rules gives temporary priority to the question in behalf of \\hich such action is taken,
provided that the motion he sustained by a two-thirds vote. On an appeal against a
decision of the chairman, the latter is permitted to speak without leaving the chair, a
course which is not permitted under other circumstances. Debate must Le confined to
the question, the' chairman being addressed, and personalities being out of order.
Motions w'hich are undebatable are the following: to reconsider, where the question is
undebatnble; the previous question; to lay on and take from the table: an objection to
consideration of any question; an appeal, provided it shall relate to transgression of the
rul.-.s. or to indecorum; questions relating either to priority of business, to withchawing
a motion, to reading papers, or to suspending the rules; a call for the order of the day; a
motion to adjourn, when unqualified; to fix a time to which to fidjourn; and a motion
to postpone indefinitely. None of these motions can be amended, excepting that to fix
tl._ 'vimc to which to adjourn. Precedence to motions is given in the following order;
and any motion, except to amend, can be made while one of a lower order is pending,
but none can supersede one of a higher order: to fix the lime to which to r.djouin; to
adjourn, when unqualified; a call for the order of the day; to lay on the table; the pre-
vious question; to postpone to a certain lime; to commit, amend, or postpone indefinitely.
It is usual in all deliberative assemblies to simplify their business by referring questions
requiring investigation or testimony, to committees appointed for the purpcse. tome-
times such committees are appointed by the chair, at others they are elected by (he mem-
bers. On occasions when the assembly resolves itself into a committee of the whole, for
the consideration of any special question, the chair appoints a presiding officer, or. he
may be elected by the committee. The course of a bill through congress, involves its
introduction into the senate or the house of representatives, on the report of a committee,
or on motion for leave to introduce by a member who shall have previously given at
least one day's notice of his intention. It is then, unless otherwise specially ordered,
read three times on three different days; the merits of the bill being usually discussed
after the second reading, which generally immediately fellows the first, on an accepted
theory that the second leading is by special order. If ordered to be engrossed, a day is
appointed for the third reading, and after this reading the question is on the final passage
of the bill. Commonly the second and third readings are held to mean only the reading
of the title of the bill. On the passage of the bill in one house, it is certified by the
clerk and sent to the other; upon passing which, it is enrolled on parchment, examined
by a committee of two from each house, signed by the speaker of the house and the
president of the senate, presented to the president of the United States, and on receiving
bis fi^nature becomes a law. If it is vetoed, it may be still made a law en receiving a
two-thirds vote in each house, and if rot returned by the president within ten days after
its receipt by him (Sundays exceptcd) it becomes a law without his approval. A similar
mode of procedure in the case of bills generally obtains in the state legislatures.
Societies and voluntary organizations of all classes in the United States, usually havo
their constitution, by-laws, and rules of order, as adopted after full discussion, printed,
or engrossed, and conveniently placed for the information of the members. But these,
except in minor points of detail, are usually made to conform to Jefferson's and Gush-
ing's manuals, to which the reader is referred for further information.
PARMA, a former sovereignty of upper Italy, having the rank of a duchy, and
bounded on tjie n. by Lombardy and Venice, e. by Modena, s. by Genoa and Tuscany,
and \v. by Piedmont, consisted of the duchies of Parma and Piacenza, which were sub-
divided into 5 districts, and contained in all 2,268 English sq.m., with a pop. (1871) of
490.2.19. The Apennines, which cross the southern division of the duchies, send off
spurs northwards, and give to the northern part oi the country the character of a plain,
;:ent!y undulating, but sloping uniformly to the Po, which is the recipient of all ihe
rivers of the country. The highest peaks of the Apennines in Parma are, Monte Alpe
di Succisio, about 7,000 ft. : and Monte Parma and Monte Orsajo, both more than 5,250.
The mountain-range is richly clad with oak and chestnut forests. The plain, which is
very fertile, produces rich crops of grain (including rice), leguminous plants, fruits of
all kinds, olives, and grapes; while marble, alabaster, salt, and petroleum are the chief
mineral products. A'cxt to agriculture, the production and manufacture of silk, the
rearing of cattle and poultry, cheese-making and the extraction of the mineral products,
afford the chief employment. Silk and cheese are the chief exports. The cheese,
however, known as Parmesan, is not made here, but in the neighborhood of Lodi
farina.
Parmigiaiio.
The form of government was monarch ioal, and llic Roman Catholic religion the only
one tolerated, though a few Jews are found here ami there through tlic county. Tho
condition of education, though improved of late, is still very defective. The adminis-
trative power was hi the hands of a council of state, which was divided into two sec-
tions— one for internal administration, which acted as a court of iii:a! appeal in metiers
of justice, the other for finance and military and foreign affairs. The. revenue of Parma
in 1859 was estimated at 11,566,648 liras (£458,085), aud the expenditure at 11.2?3.b83
liras (£44(5,490). The total debt, funded and redeemable, amounted to 15,558,218 iiras
(£616,167). TJ;e army (1859) before the annexation, according to the slaii. tic
consisted of 8,290 soldiers; the duke had also the occasional loan of an Austrian regi-
ment, and tiie fortress of Piucenza was garrisoned by the troops of that power.
Hixton/. — Pa nil a and Piaceuza belonged in the time of the Roman empire to (
piue Gaul, and after its fall came under the rule of the Lombards, to whose rule suc-
ceeded that of the kings of Italy and the German emperors. In the 12th and following
centuries, they joined the other territories of northern Italy which were struggling lor
liberty and independence, and consequently became involved in the Guelph and Ghibcl-
liue contests. Weakened bjf these strifes, they fell under the domination of the power-
ful houses of Este, Viscpnti, and Sfor/a; but in 1499 they passed under the yoke of tho
French monarch, Louis XII., from whom they were soon recovered by the emperor
Maximilian, nnd handed over to pope Leo X. iu 1513. They continued under the sov-
ereignty of the popes till 1543, when they were alienated by pope Paul 111., and with the
surrounding territory were erected into a duchy for his natural son Pier-Luigi Farnese,
the grandfather of Alessandro Farnese, the celebrated regeut of the Lo\v Countries. On
the extinction of the male line of Farnese. in 1731, by the death of the eighth duke.
Antonio, his niece Elizabeth, the queen of Philip V. of Spain, obtained the duchies for
her sou Don Carlos, who, however, exchanged them in 1735 with Austria for the throne
of the two Sicilies. In 1748 tiiey were restored along with Guastalla to Spain, and
became a duchy for the infante Don Philip, with a reversion to Austria in ca;-e of Uie
failure of his male descendants, or of any of them ascending the Spanish or Neapolitan
throne. Philip was succeeded in 171)5 by his sou Ferdinand, who was an able and
enlightened ruler, and expelled the Jesuits in 1768. He died in 1802, and his dominions
were immediately taken possession of by the French, and were incorporated with France
under the designation of the department of Taro in 1805. In 1814, by the treaty of
Paris, Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla were presented as a sovereign duchy to the ex-
empress Maria Louisa, a proceeding strongly opposed by the king of Spain, who
demanded them for his sister, Maria Louisajthe widow of Louis, king of Kiruria, the
son of duke Ferdinand. However, in 1817, it was settled that Maria Louisa o!' Austria
should possess the duchies, and that on her death they should descend to 1-Ypiinand
Charles, duke of Lucca, the son of Maria Louisa of Spain, and the rightful heir; and on
failure of his heirs, Parma should revert to Austria, and Piacenza to Sardinia. The
empress governed very much after the Austrian fashion, but with gentleness I hough
liberal sentiments were looked upon by her with little favor. On her death, in 1847, the
duke of Lucca succeeded as Charles IT., and certain exchanges of territory, previously
settled by the great powers, took place with Tuscany and Modemi — the chief of which
being the transfer of Guastalla to Modena in exchange for the districts of Villa-franca,
Treschietto, Castevoli, and Mclazzo, all in Massa-Carrara, resulting in a loss to Parma
of about 77 English sq.m. of territory, and a gain of 198 English sq. miles. This transfer
was not made without great discontent o.n the part of the inhabitants. Th" duke's rule
was severe and tyrannical, and on an address being presented to him with a view <>£
obtaining a. reform of certain abuses, and a more liberal political constitution, similar to
what Tuscany had (Feb., 1848), obtained from its grand-duke, he threw himself into
the arms of Austria, aud consented to the occupation of his territory by Austrian i
In March, 1848, a revolution broke out, and the duke was compelled to grant the popular
demands, but he almost immediately after retired from the country. Parma joined with
Sardinia in the war of 1848-49 against Austria, but on the triumph of the latter power
was compelled to receive Charles III. (iiis father, Charles II., having resigned his throne.
March, 1819) as its ruler. The new duke recalled the constitution which his father had
been compelled to grant, and punished with great severity the active agents of the r vo-
lutionary movements in his dominions. His arbitary measures were effectively s< condcd
by his chief minister, an Englishman named Ward, who shared the public obloquy with
his master. After Charles III. 's assassination in March, 1854, his widow Louise-M
Thcresr- do Bourbon, daughter of the last duke of Berry (q.v.), assumed the government
for the behoof of her son Robert I., and made some attempts at political reform; but
owing to the excited state of the people they were little effective, and she and her son
were compelled to leave the country in 1859. on the outbreak of a new war between Sar-
dinia and Austria. In March 18th of the following year the country was annexed to
Sardinia, and it now forms a part of the kingdom of Italy, constituting the two prov-
inces of Parma (area 1251 English sq.m., pop. in '71, 264,509) and Piacenza (area 965
English sq.m., pop. 225,775), a few of the outlying di-tricts. amounting, to about 150
eq.m.. being incorporated with other provinces. — Official Slatintirs oj im <>f Hnly
(Turin, 1861); Budget of ttie sKmilias ; Report of the Mnrqui* Ptpoli to the .!/?'// /Vfcr of
Finances (Turin, 1860); idem. Report of General 1 "o~.se to the Minuter of War (1803).
q <> q
Parma.
PAE3IA, the chief t. of the province of the same name in Italy, and formerly the
capital of riie duchy of Parma, is situated on both sides of the river Parma, 12 in. s.
from the Po, 75 m. s.e. from Milan, and about the same distance e.n.e. from Genoa, with
a pop. '72 of 45,509.
The town is of a circular form, and is surrounded by walls and ditches flanked by
bastions; the streets are straight and wide, and meet at right angles, the chief of them,
a part of the Koman Via ^Emilia, crossing the city from e. to w. , and dividing it into
two nearly equal parts. Parma is celebrated for its churches, 10 in number, the _chief
of which are the Duomo, or cathedral (consecrated 1106 A. ».), built chiefly in the Lom-
bard style, having the interior adorned with magnificent frescoes by Correggio, and
paintings by of he/ artists, and surmounted by a beautiful dome; the Battisterio, or Bap-
tistery, one of the most splendid in Italy, begun in 1196 and completed in 1281; the
church of the .Madonna, dell a Steccata, containing the famous painting of " Moses break-
ing the Tables of the Law" by Parmigianino. The other celebrated buildings are, the
Fainese palace, a gloomy and ill-constructed edifice; the Farne.se theater, built (1618-28)
of wood, and now in a most dilapidated condition. Parma has also a library containing
120,000 volumes, mostly well selected, and many of them rare and valuable works; a
museum of antiquities; a botanic garden ; a theater (Teatro Nuoto); an academy of fine
arts, founded in i T52, possessing a collection of 600 pictures, many cf which are exceed-
ingly valuable. The pictures most highly estecmeu are the "Madonnas" of Correggio
and Francia, the "St. Jerome"' of Correggio, and the "Jesus Glorified" of Raphael.
The manufactures of Parma are stockings, porcelain, sugar, wax-candles, and vessels
of crystal, also silk, cotton, and fustian stuli's. The chief exports are cheese and silk
goods; and in June there is an annual silk fair.
PAKMA, BATTLES OF. An indecisive engagement took place here June 29, 1734,
between the confederated armies of England, France, and Spain, and the Austrians;
and on June 19, 1799, the French under Macdonald were routed by the Russians under
Suwarof, with a loss of 10,000 men and 4 generals.
PARMA, DUKE OP. See FARNESE, ante.
PAXMELIA, a genus of lichens, with a leafy horizontal thallus which is lobed and
cut; and orbicular shields (apvthecia) fixed by a central point, concave, and bordered by
the inflexed thailus. The species are numerous, and many are found in Britain. Some
of them are occasionally employed in dyeing. Various chemical principles have been dis-
covered in lichens of this genus, as Us nine or Usnic acid (also found in species of the
genus Usnea), and Parielin. Valuable medicinal properties — tonic and febrifugal — have
been ascribed to Parmelia parietina, the common yellow wall lichen, or common yellow
wall moss of the herb shops, a bright yellow species with deep orange shields, plentiful
on walls and trees in Britain and most parts of Europe.
PARMENIDES, a Greek philosopher of Elea, in lower Italy, and in the opinion of the
ancients the greatest member of the Eleatic school, flourished about the middle of the
5th c. B.C. Nothing is known with certainty regarding his life, but he is said to have
visited Athens in his old age, and to have conversed with Socrates, then quite a youth.
The story, though it rests on the authority of Plato, has a suspicious air, and seems as if
it were intended to account for the influence which the philosophy of Parmenides
undoubtedly exercised on that of Socrates and Plato themselves. Parmenides. like
Xenophanes of Colophon, sometimes regarded as the first of the Eleatics, expounded his
philosophy in verse — his only work being a didactic poem On Nature. The leading
design of this poem is to demonstrate the reality of absolute being, the non-existence of
which Parmenides declares to be inconceivable, but the nature of which, on the other
hand, he admits to be equally inconceivable, inasmuch as it is dissociated from every
limitation under which man thinks. Parmenides is not a theologist in speculation, seek-
ing rather to identify his " Absolute Being" with "Thought" than with a "Deity."
Only fragments of his poem remain, which have been separately edited by Fulleborn
(Zuflichsu, 1795); another collection is that by Brandis, in his Commentationcs Eleaticm
(Altona, 1815); but the best is to be found in Karstcn's Philosophorum Grcecorum veterum
RdiqiivK (Amstelod. 1835).
PAEMIG-IANO, GIKOLAMO FRANCESCO MAI? FA MAZZOLA, called Parmigiano or Par-
migianino, b. at Parmo in 1503, an able painter of the Lombard school, and the most dis-
tinguished of those who followed the style of Correggio. His pictures attracted much
attention when he was little more than 14 years of age. In 1523 he went to Rome to
follow out his studies, and was soon favorably noticed and employed by Clement VII.
He was in that city when it was stormed by the imperialists under Bourbon in 1527, and,
it is said, was calmly at work on his picture of " The Vision of St. Jerome1' (now in the
national gallery, London) when soldiers, bent on pillage, burst into his studio. He was,
however, protected by their lender. After this event he left Rome for Bologna, where
he painted various important works, and returned to Parma in 1531. Having engaged
to execute several extensive frescoes in the church of St. Maria Steccata. after repeated
delays, he was thrown into prison for breach of contract, and on being released, in place
of carrying out his undertaking, he fled to Casal j&Iaggiore, in the territory of Cremona,
where he died soon afterward in 1540. Vasarij in his notice of Parmigiano, attribute*
Parnahiha. OO |
Paroquet.
his misfortunes and premature death to his passion for alchemy; but this oft-repeated
story has been disproved by tin; researches of late biographers. lie executed several
etchings, anil some wood-cuts are attributed to him.
FARNAHI BA, or PAKANAHYKA, a river of Brazil, rises in the Sierra dos Coroado?,
between the provinces of Goyas and Piauhi, about 11° south. It liows n.e ami n., and
enters the Atlantic- in Ionic, about 41" 40' w. by rive mouths, which inclose a delta about
00 in. will.- aiong the shore. These mouths, ho. Never, are only from two to four
fathoms deep. It drains the province of Piauhi, and forms the boundary-line between
it and the province of Maranhao. Total len^h estimated at 750 miles.— A chief tribu-
tary of the Parana also bears the name of Parn::hiba.
PARNAS SUS, a mountain greatly celebrated among the ancients, and regarded by the
Gr-cks as the central point of their country. It was in Phocis. It has tine • steep ;
almost always covered with snow, and seen from a great distance, the hi-he>t being fully
8,000 ft. above the level of the sea; but as only two of them are visible from Delphi,
it was customary among the Greeks to speak* of the two-peaked Parnassus. On its
southern slope, lay Delphi (q.v.), the seat of the famous oracle, and the fountain of
Castalia (q.v.). The highest peak was the scene of the or.uies oi the woivhip of Diony-
sus (Bacchus); all the rest of the mountain was sacred to Apollo ;md the Mu.-e.-, whencu
poets were said to " climb Parnassus," a phrase still thus employed.
PAR'NELL, CHARLES STEWART, b. Ireland, 1847; of an aristocratic family, one of
whose connections was the poet Parnell. lie inherited the estate of Avondale, in \Yi< k-
low, Ireland; was educated at Harrow school, England, and Magdalen college, Cam-
bridge. Mr. Parnell's mother is the daughter of admiral Stewart — "Old !•
who commanded the U. S. frigate Constitution during the war of 1812. In 1876 he
entered parliament from Mcath. and has continued a member to ISi-l. being last elected
to represent the city of Cork. He has displayed remarkable ability both as a parliament-
ary debater and tactician, and as an organizer in the interest of the Irish "home-rule"
party. He identified himself with the tenant-farmers of Ireland in their struggles with
absenteeism and high rents, and was chiefly instrumental in forming ami sustaining the
"Land League " of 1879-80. Justin McCarthy said of him in his History of 0'.'
Times: "Mr. Butt had been failing in physical power and in influence for some time.
His place as a leader had long been practically disputed by Mr. Parnell. and was evi-
dently about to be taken by him. Mr. Parnell, a young man but lately come into par
liament.'soon proved himself the most remarkable politician who had arisen on the field
of Irish politics since the day when John Mitchell was conveyed away from Dublin to
Bermuda." In the beginning of Jan., 1880, Mr. Parnell made a visit to the United
States with the design of interesting the Irish-American population in the cause of the
land league. He failed in producing the effect which he had anticipated, and bein^
opposed by the press, was obliged to return home chagrined and defeated. He became,
virulent and bitter in his public addresses in Ireland, and appeared desirous of foment-
ing disorder. Possibly, however, to him may be attributed much of the influence which
brought about the introduction of the Irish land act into parliament by Mr. Gladstone,
in April, 1881.
PAR'NELL, HENRY BROOKE. See CONGLKTON, Lord.
PAR'NELL, THOMAS, 1679-1718; b. Dublin; son of in English landed proprietor.
He graduated at Trinity college, and was ordained deacon, though under the cat:
age. In 1705 lie was appointed archdeacon of Cloglicr. About this time he began to
compose verses, in the manner of Pope; they attracted much attention, and secured him
the friendship of the London wits. He contributed to the Spectator and Gvai'ricttn; and
was the associate of Pope, Arlmlhnot, and Gay, in the " Scriblerus flub.'' On the fall
'of the whig government, noar the close of Anne's reign, he went over to 'he lories, and
stood in high favor with the Oxford administration. But his prospects of advancement
from that, quarter were destroyed by the overthrow of the lories at the death e.l the
queen. By the influence of Svvift he was made prebend in 1713, find -J years later he
was presented to the vicarage of Fingiass. His disappointment at not obtaining more
adequate promotion, and the death of his wife, which happened in 1712, threw him into
a profound melancholy: and he is said to have hastened his death by intemperance. An
edition of his poems, selected by Pope, appeared soon after his death; and a volume of
doubtful authentic!!}', containing his posthumous works, was published in IT'S. The
Hermit is his best known poem; and among his. other productions, The /.'.'.••
1 fie Fairy Tale. TJie Vigil of Venus, and The Alkfjory on Man, deserve menti< n. A lifo
of him, by Goldsmith, appears in the latter's works.
PAEO CHIAL BOARD, in Scotland, is the board in each parish which manages the
relief of the poor. In England the same duty is performed by overseers, arid in s. me
cases by guardians of the poor.
PAROCHIAL RELIEF is the relief given to paupers by the parish authorities.
POOR.
PARODY (Gr. para, beside, and ode, a soag), the name given to a burlesque imi!Mi< n
of a serious poem. Its peculiarity is that it preserves the form, and as far :i^ p<
the words of the original, and thereby differs from a travesty, which is a looser and less
Farnahlba.
Paroquet.
literal kind of burlesque. The invention of parodies is commonly ascribed to the Greeks
(from whom, at least, we have derived the name); the first parodist, according to Aris-
totle, liC'iii:;' Hegemon of Thasos, who flourished during the Peloponnesian war; accord-
ing to others. Hipponax. From the fragments that are extant of ancient parody, we
infer that Homer was the favorite subject of comic imitation. Thus Hipponax, in his
picture of a glutton, ludicrously insinuates n comparison between the feats of his hero in
eating and those of Achilles in fighting, by commencing as follows:
Sin,?. O celestial goddess, Eurymedon, foremost of jrluttons,
AVhose stomach devours like Charybdls, eater unmatched among mortals.
The Batracltomyomachia (Battle of the Frogs and Mice), erroneously ascribed to Homer,
is also a happy and harmless specimen of the parody, which, however, soon began to
exchange its jocose and inoffensive raillery for a biting and sarcastic banter, of which
numerous specimens maybe seen in the comedies of Aristophanes; while the philoso-
pher Timou of Phil us invented, under the name of Silla, a new species of satirical par-
ody. Arnon<j the Romans we first meet with this form of literature in the period of the
decline; All the power of Nero could not prevent his verses from being parodied by
Persius. Among modern nations the French — as might naturally be expected from their
character — have been most addicted to this literary mimicry. Corneille parodied Chape-
lain in his Cid, and Racine parodied Corneille. The potpourris of Desangiers are consid-
ered by his countrymen models of this ungracious kind of literature. Schiller's famous
poem of the Bell has been often parodied by German wits. In England, perhaps the
best compositions of this nature arc the Rejected Addresses of the brothers James and
Horace Smith. Many will remember, in particular, the parody on Scott's "Battle of Flod-
den" in Marmion, ending —
'od rot 'em
Were the last words of Higginbotham.
Barnham's Ingoldsby Legends contains a felicitous parody on Wolfe's Lines' on tlie Burial
of Sir John Moore. We quote the first stanza as a specimen:
Not a sou had he got, not a guinea or note,
And he looked most confoundedly flurried
As he bolted away without paying his shot,
And his landlady after him hurried.
Thackeray's Miscellanies also contain some very clever and s'atirical prose parodies upon
certain of his brother novelists.
The historical development of the parody has been treated by Moser in Daub's and
Creuzer's Studien (6th vol.). See also Moser'a Parodiariim E-xempla (Ulm. 1819) and
Weland's Da Prascipuis Parodianun Nomsrlcarum Scriptoribus (Gott. 1833).
PAEOLE (literally, a word) is the declaration made on honor by an officer, in a case
in which there is no more than his sense of honor to restrain him from breaking his
word-. Thus a prisoner of war may be released from actual prison on his parole that he
will not go beyond certain designated limits; or he may even be allowed to return to his
own count iy on his parole not to fight again, during the existing war, against his captors.
To break purole is accounted infamous in all civilized nations, and an officer who has
so far forgotten his position as a gentleman, ceases to have any claim to the treatment
of an honorable man, nor can he expect quarter should he again fall into the hands of
the enemy he has deceived.
PAROLE EVIDENCE, in law, means such evidence as is given by witnesses by word
of mouth at a trial or hearing of a cause. Parole agreement, in English law, means any
agreement marie either by word of mouth or by writing not under seal. If the agree-
ment is made by writing under seal, it is called a deed, or indenture, or covenant, accord-
ing to the nature of its contents.
PAROPAMISAN MOUNTAINS. See AFGHANISTAN.
PAROQUET, PARRAKEET', or PARROQTJET, a name very commonly given to many of
the smaller species of the parrot family; generally to species having long tdls, and
natives or the East Indies, Africa, and Australia, not so frequently to American species;
although it is sometimes also applied to some of these, indifferently with the name par-
rot.— One of the most beautiful groups of the psittacidce, combining gracefulness of
form with splendor of plumage, is "that to which the ALEXANDRIA PAROQUET or RING
PAROQUET (PalcKornis Alexandn) belongs. It is about the size of a common pigeon,
green, with a red collar, whence its name ring paroquet, and is a native of the East
Indies. It is said to have been brought to Europe by some of the members of Alexander
the great's expedition to India, and to have been the first of the parrot tribe known to
the Greeks and Romans, by whom it was highly prized, as it still is, not only for its
beauty, but for its docility and its power of imitating human speech. Like many of its
tribe, it is gregarious, and immense flocks make their abode in some of the cocoa-nut
groves of the western parts of Ceylon, filling the air with the most deafening screams.
The ring paroquet has many congeners, natives chiefly of the East Indies, exhibiting
much variety of splendid plumage. — Somewhat like them in length and form of tail, but
with longer and stronger legs, is the GROUND P.\r.';Q.(TET, or GROUND PARROT (P<:zopho-
rtteformoKVS), of Australia, a bird very common in all the southern parts of New Holland
and in Van Diemau'sLand, inhabiting scrubs or ground covered with very low underwood.
P;iro*.
Tunis.
Its habits r.re very unlike those of parrots in general; it runs along the ground, and even
Be 'Us tf> e.-eape from eueuiies by runoiug, UQ willingly iakeg. wing, ana ihon only for a
sliurt lo\v slight. It makes no in-st, but lays' its eggs in u hole in the ground. It is a
sin-,11 bin:, iu;t much more than 12 in. in entire lengih, one half of which is occupied by
tin: tail: its color, dark green above, yellowish below, less brilliant than in many of thV
parrot tribe, but finely marked and mottled. Its tiesh has a very strong game flavor.
Tin -re are numerous other Australian species, distributed in .several gi m ra. some of
which, although less exclusively than that just noticed, live and seek their food on the
ground. Some of them exhibit the greatest splendor of plumage. The oi'ly one we
shall notice is the ZicimA PAROQUKT (.)/'• '/^/^•///^.••//.s un , very beautiful little
species which has often been brought to England, and has .sometimes bred in it. In the
va-t inland plains of Australia, this paroquet is to be seen in Hocks of nv.ny hundreds
feeding on the seeds of the grasses, which afford food also to many other small species.
PA ROS, one of the larger islands of the Grecian Archipelago, is situated w. of Naxos,
from which it it separated by u channel from 4 to G m. wide. Greatest length, 15 in. ;
greater breadth, 9 m. ; area, about 95 sq.m.: pop. 6,000. The •surface is hilly, the
scenery picturesque, and the soil naturally fertile, but imperfectly cultivated. The island
is especially productive in cotton, wax, honey, partridges, and wild pigeons. Xear the
middle of the island, the mountain Capresso (ancient Joarjoe&a) abounds in the famous
Parian marble, which was used by many of the greatest sculptors of antiquity. Parekhia,
on the w. coast, is the principal town, !md Naussa, on the n. coast, is the chi- 1 port.
In ancient times, Paros, which is said to have been colonized by Cretan?, attained
great maritime prosperity, and became wealthy and powerful. It submitted to the Per-
sians; and after the battle of Marathon was assailed ineffectually by Miliiades, who
received here the wound of which he soon after died. After the defeat of Xerxes, Paros
came under the supremacy of Athens, and shared the fate of the other CycUides. Archil-
ochus, the inVentor of Iambic verse, was born here.
PAHOT'ID GLAND. See SALIVARY GLANDS.
PARQUETEY, a kind of wood mosaic used only for flooring. The art of making
inlaid wood floors lias until lately much declined in this country, but on the continent it
has been much in use, and has been carried to great perfection. Parquetry Moors are
usually of oak, but other and more ornamental woods have also been much used for
giving variety and beauty to the pattern. In the more elaborate kinds of parquetry,
veneers are used, but it is much more generally composed of blocks of wood squared at
the sides, and laid down so as to combine and form a geometric pattern. Of late the
taste for this work has revived in Britain, and it is beginning to be extensive];
in the better class of buildings.
PARR, CATHARINE. See CATHARINE PARR, ante.
FABU, 8 -\MTJEL, LL.D., a once notable scholar, was b. Jan. 15, 1747, at Ilarrow-on-
thc-hill. He entered Emanuel college, Cambridge, in 1765; but the death of his father,
two years afterward, necessitated his doing .something for himself, and he was, in con-
sequence, induced to accept an assistant-mastership at Harrow, where he remained five
years. The head mastership then becoming vacant. Parr applied for it, but was rejected,
whereupon he left, and started as an independent schoolmaster. In 1777 he was
appointed master of Colchester school, where he was ordained priest, and obtained Ihe
curacies of Hythe and Trinity church. Next year he became master of Norwich school ;-
but in 1786 settled at.Hatlon in "Waiwiekshire, where he spent the rest of his life. In
17^7 he published an edition of Bellcnden, to which he prefixed his celebrated preface,
which is as remarkable for its uncompromising advocacy of whig principles as for the
scrupulous Ciceronianism of its Lntinity. He died Mar.' 6, 182$.
It is almost impossible to understand the reputation which Parr once hnd. None of
bis voluminous writings justify it. That he was in some respects an accomplished, and
even a great scholar, -is undoubted, for he could write Latin of Ciceronian purity and
finish; but it is equally undoubted that he never did anything with his boasted scholar-
ship. Parr has left the world absolutely nothing to keep it in remembrance of him, yet
his complete works (edited by Dr. J. Johnstone in 1828>— exclusive of his contributions
to periodicals— form eight enormous tomes, and contain 5,734 octavo pages, many of
them printed in small type. They relate to matters historical, critical, and metaphysi-
cal, but in all of them "the thread of Parr's verbosity is finer than the staple of his
argument." What, then, gave him the fame that he certainly enjoyed during his life?
Beyond all question, it was his conversational powers. He was an amazing, an over-
\vhelming talker. Bold, dogmatic, arrogant, with a memory profoundly and minutely
retentive, and with a genuine gift of ephemeral epigram, he seemed, at the tables of
statesmen, and wits, and divines, to be a man of tremendous talent, capable of any liter-
ary feat; but the learning and the repartee have left little trace of their exist' :(, and
posterity declines to admire the wonders that it has neither seen nor heard, free De
Quincey's famous essay on " Dr. Samuel Parr on Whig<rism in its Relations to Litera-
ture" (Author's edition, vol. 5. Edin. Adam & Charles Black, 1862).
PARR. THOMAS. 1483-1635; b. England. According to a curious pamphlet published
by John Taylor in 1635, and called The Olde, Olde, Very Olde Man, etc., Parr's first mar-
OO^T Paros.
Pan-is.
riage took place in his 81st year, and his second when he was 120. He is said to have
had a love ail'air when 105 years old, and to have been condemned to do public penance
for it, by standing in a sheet at the church of Alderbury. He died in London, and was
buried in Westminster abbey.
PAR RA. See JACANA.
PARRAS, a well-built t. of Mexico, in the state of Coahuila, 470 m. n.w. of Mexico,
near the e. shore of lake Parras. It derives its name from a species of indigenous vine
much cultivated, and has always been celebrated for its wines and brandies. There are
many old Spanish families here. Pop. 8,000.
PARRHA SIUS, one of the greatest painters of ancient Greece, was the son of Evenor,
himself an artist, and was b. at Ephesus in the 5th c. B.C. He practiced his profession,
however, at Athens, the inhabitants of which held him in high estimation, and con-
ferred on him the rights of citizenship. He was already celebrated in the time of Socra-
tes, with whom, according to Xenophon, he held a conversation (Mem. 3, 10), and was
also a younger contemporary of Zeuxis. The date of his death is unknown. Seneca,
who lived several hundred years after, tells a monstrous story about him. He says that
when Parrhasius was painting his "Prometheus Vinetus." he got hold of one "of the
prisoners taken at the capture of Olynthus by Philip of Macedon (347 B.C.), and cruci-
fied him in his studio that he might copy from life the expression of agony. Fortunately
for Parrhasius's memory, the anecdote is almost certainly untrue, as it would require us
to suppose that he was still alive and painting when upward of a hundred years old.
Parrliasius appears to have surpassed all his predecessors in purity of design, accuracy
of drawing, force of expression, and what is technically called "finish." According to
Pliny, he was the first who established a true proportion between the different parts of a
picture, and delineated with elegance and precision all the minutiae of the features, even
to those evanescent -motions that betray the most delicate sentiments of the soul. He
painted the extremities, such as the hands and fingers, in so exquisite a style, that the
intermediate parts seemed relatively — but only relatively — inferior. Quinctilian calls
him the legislator of his art, because his canon of proportion for gods and heroes was
followed by all contemporary and subsequent painters. Among his works were an
apparently symbolical picture of the Athenian Demos (" people"), a " Theseus," " Naval
Commander in full Armor," "Ulysses feigning Madness," " Castor and Pollux," "Bac-
chus and Virtue," a " Meleager, Hercules, and Perseus" on one canvas, a "Cretan Nurse
with a Child in her Arms," a "Priest officiating with a Child bearing Incense," " Two
Young Children," an " Achilles," an " Agamemnon." etc. But his subjects were not
always of a pure or lofty character. His " Archigatlus" (high-priest of Cybele) and his
" Meleacer and Atnlanta" were most licentious representations, and gave such pleasure
to the emperor Tiberius, a man of unbounded sensuality, that he kept them in his bed-
room, and valued the second in particular at more than a million sesterces.
Parrliasius was of an excessively proud and arrogant disposition. He called himself
the prince of painters, and claimed to be descended from Apollo; he also painted him-
Relf as the god Mercury, and then exposed his own portrait for the adoration of the
crowd. His vanity was' equal to his pride, and showed itself even in his apparel, which
was of the kind called " gorgeous." He generally dressed in a purple robe with a golden
fringe, sported n gold-headed cane, and wore boots tied with golden clasps.
PARRICIDE (Lat. paricida) is rather a popular than a legal term. In the Roman law
It comprehended ftvery one who murdered a near relative; but in English the term is
usually confined to the murderer of one's father, or of one who is in loco parent-is. The
parricide does not, in any respect, differ in Britain from the murderer of. a st ranger ; in
both cases, tin; punishment is death by hanging. In the Roman law, a parricide was
punished in a much more severe manner, being sewed up in a leather sack, along with a
live cock, viper, dog, and ape, and cast into the sea to take his fate with these com-
panions.
PARRIS, ALBION KEITH, 1788-1857; b. Maine; graduated at Dartmouth college in
1806, studied law and settled as a lawyer at Paris, Me., where he resided many years.
In 1815 he was a representative in congress and three years later aU. S. district judge, at
which time he removed to Portland. During the following 30 years he was a judge of
probate, governor of Maine, U. S. senator, judge of the state supreme court, second comp-
troller of the U. S. treasury, and mayor of Portland, in which city he died.
PARRIS, SAMUEL, 1(553-1720; b. London, Eng. ; came in youth to Massachusetts;
studied at Harvard college, but did not graduate; was a s'uccess'ful merchant in Boston;
entered the ministry, and was pastor of "the church at Dauvers, Mass., in 1689-86. The
delusion of Salem witchcraft originated in his family, his daughter and niece accu.-ing
Tituba, living as a servant in the family, withjbew'itching them. Mr. Parris beat her
and compelled her to confess herself a witch. Her husband for his own safety accused
others, and a sad persecution was commenced. The delusion lasted 16 months. Mr.
Parris having been a zealous prosecutor, his church brought charges against him. He
acknowledged his error, but was dismissed. After preaching for a time at Stow ho
removed to Concord, and preached six mor.ths at Dunstable. It should be remembered
that at that time the most learned men in Europe, ecclesiastics and lawyers, were
IT ir YT oo
U. li.. .A.JL. — /wv
Parrlsh.
i'strry.
believers in witchcraft; and that many years after the Salem delusion had passed away
persons were put to death in England for the alleged offense.
PARUISH, EDWARD. 1823-73; b. Philadelphia; principal of the Philadelphia school
of practical pharmacy, where he became professor of maleria niedica in 1804. Me pub-
lished, besides a large number of papers in scientific periodicals, Practical Pimr
1vo(>; T'i>; Phantom Bouquet, ldf&; and Education in t/u- Society <>f Frn /nl.i, 1 80(3. iU>
was a commissioner to the Indians on the plains at the time of his death.
PAKIilSH, JOSEPH, 1779-1840; b. Philadelphia; educated at the university of Penn-
sylvania, when- he took a degree in medicine, 1806. Me began practice in Philadelphia;
wa-i connee'ed with several local medical institutions: t'rom 1816 to 18~'9 was surgeon of
t ." Pennsylvania state hospital, and for the last five years of his life was consulting sur-
»;.•. >n of the Philadelphia dispensary. He obtained a high rank in the profession; wai
in;;1, 1 for his philantliropy, and contributed many articles to the medical periodicals.
II,- published a revised edition of Lawrence on ILrnin with notes and an appendix.
PASBISH'S CHEMICAL FOOD is the popular name for a non-officinal preparation
medicinally known as (.'>nir>:»tii(l Syrup of Phosphate of Iron, evry dram of which
contains 1 grain of phosphate of iron, 3| of phosphate of 'lime, br-.id( 8 sod:; and potash.
Mr. Purrisli ct' Philadelphia was the first to publish a formula for this very useful com-
pound.
PARROT, P;tittacu8, a Linuaian genus of birds, now the family psittitcidfr, of the order
*cnn:t'>i-cx, or climbers (q.v.), comprehending a vast number of species, natives of almost
all tropical and subtropical regions; a few species extending further north and south, in
America, in New Zealand, and in Van Diemen's land, even to the neighborhood of lake
Michigan in North America, and to Terra del Feugo in South Am.-rica. They are
mostly birds of splendid plumage; they vary very much in size, from the great macaw,
more than three feet in length, tail included, to the little love-birds, not lari'vr than spar-
rows. They are mostly gregarious, and are often seen in vast flocks, generally inhabiting
forests, and making their nests in trees, feeding chiefly on fruits and seeds, partly also
0:1 leaves and buds; but some of them dwelling in open plains, feeding on the seeds of
grasses and other plants of humble growth, bulbs and succulent parts () j, and
living mostly on the ground. The voices of the parrot tribe are generally harsh and dis
cord-.mt, although some of the smaller kinds have not unpleasant voices; but many of tha
1-irger have a remarkable power of imitating human speech, and in dome-tication becomo
capable of articulating not only words but sentences. They exhibit a greater degree of
intelligence than is usual in birds, with a monkey-like restlessness and love of trick; and
although docile and affectionate, are generally of capricious irritable temper. They ii'ivo
a short, stout, hard beak, rounded on all sides, and enveloped at the base in a membrane
in which the nostrils are pierced; the upper mandible generally much longer than tha
lower, much curved, and sharp pointed. The tongue is almost always very large, thick,
round, and fleshy; the muscles which move the mandibles are more numerous and
powerful than in* most other birds. They make use of the powerful hooked bill as well
ii3 of the feet in climbing trees; and employ their feet as hands for holding their food,
and bringing it up to the mouth. Their feet differ from those of all oilier climbers, in
buing covered with small tubercle-like scales instead of plates. Some have short and smno
have long tails. Most of them have short wings. Their intestines are very long and
slender, and without cseca.
The psittitcidte are easily distinguished from all other birds; but their division into dis-
tinct subordinate groups has not been found so easy. "Whilst the nanfe parrot popularly
includes all, except that it is seldom given to some of the smallest species, soni. . :u
known by the* names macaw, cockatoo, parrakcet, lory, love-bird, etc. See these head-.
But some of these names are very vaguely applied. And although the parrot family i*
regarded as consisting of a number of very natural groups, the characters and limits of
these groups have not vet been very well defined.
The name parrot, in its most restricted sense, is sometimes applied only to thosa
species which have the upper mandible very distinctly toothed, the lower mandible
longer than it is high; and the tail short, and square or rounded; but this use is rather
ornithological than popular, the most restricted popular use equally including long-tailed
species, such as the Caroline parrots, which are ornithologically ranked with the macaws.
—The CAROLINE PAKKOT (eonurns Caroline nsisf) is the species of which the northern
range extends far beyond all others of its tribe to the shores of lake Michigan: although
by the increase of cultivation, atcl the war waged against these birds for their depreda-
tions on orchards and corn-ricks, their numbers have been greatly diminished in regions
where they were once plentiful. Its whole length is about 14 in., of which about one-
luilf is occupied by the tail; the general color is green, shaded with blue, and diversified
with orange, the wing primaries almost black. Jt is gregarious, prefers to roost in tha
holes of hollow trees, and in such situations also the females lay their eggs. It seems to
love salt, frequenting salt licks like pigeons. It is easily tamed, but does not acquire
the power of articulation. — Of the short-tailed parrots, one of the best -known is the
GRAY PARROT (psnttncus erytlutcus), a west African species, about the »i/.e of a small
pigeon, of an ash-gray color, with a crimson tail. It is famous for its docility, its power
of articulation and of imitating noises of all kinds, its loquacity, and its mischievousnesa.
OOQ ParrlsK
Parry.
It is very often brought to Europe, and often lives to a great age in confinement. Indi-
viduals have been known to attain the age of nearly 100 years. — The GREEN PARROTS
(ckrysotis), natives of the tropical parts of Isoutu America, are also among the short-tailed
parrots most frequently seen in Britain.
PARROT FISH, tscarus, a genus of fishes of the family labridce (q.v.) or cydo-labridw,
of oblong and massive form, with large scales, and remarkable for the structure of their
jaws and teeth, the jaws being divided into halves by a median suture, the teeth incor-
porated with the bone in crowded quincuucial order, the surface even and polished in
some species and rough in others, the oldest teeth forming the trenchant border of the
jaw. and being succeeded by others as they are worn away, whilst new ones are formed
behind. The species are numerous. Some of them feed on fuci, and some on corals,
the younger branches of which they crush, so that the animal part affords them nourish-
ment, whilst the calcareous part is rejected. They are lishes generally of brilliant colors,
some of them of wonderful splendor, and have received the name parrot-fish partly on
this account, and partly on account of a fancied resemblance in their jaws to a parrot's
bill. Most of them are natives of tropical seas. One species is found in the Mediter-
ranean (& ereticus), the scarus of the ancients, of which many wonderful stories were told
as to its love, its wisdom, its ruminating, its emitting of sounds, etc., and which was
esteemed the most savory and delicate of all fishes. It is still held in high esteem for
the table. The Greeks cook it with a sauce made of its own liver and intestines.
PARROTT, ENOCH G., 1814-79; b. Portsmouth, N. H. ; entered the navy at the age
of 17, and was promoted to lieut. in 1841. About 1843 he accompanied commodore
Perry in the frigate Congress to the w. coast of Africa. He was with gen. Fremont in
several engagements in the Mexican war, and was prominent in the siege resulting in the
capture of Guaymas and Mazatlaa. In the war of the rebellion he went with the expe-
di.ion to Norfolk, Va., April, 1861, when the navy-yard was destroyed, and in that year
was made commander. He was in command of the steamer Augusta at the battle of
Port Royal, and engaged the confederate gunboats in Charleston harbor Jan. 13, 1863.
In June, 1804. he commanded the iron-clad Canonicus in the engagement with Hewlett's
battery and in subsequent engagements on James river, and was in command of the
Monadnock at Wilmington, a favorite resort of blockade runners. He was present at the
bombardment and surrender of fort Fisher Jan. 15, 1865, under admiral Porter and gen.
Terry, and was highly commended for gallantry. In I860 he received a captain's commis-
sion, was promoted to commodore in 1870, rear-admiral in 1873, and retired from active
service in 1874.
PARROTT, ROBERT PARKER, b. Lee, N. H., 1804; graduate of West Point 1824;
entered the army as 2d lieut. of artillery; was appointed assistant professor of mathe-
matics at West Point and principal assistant professor of natural and experimental phi-
losophy, and tilled the office 1834-29. He was detailed for ordnance duty 1834, and was
in Hie war against the Creeks. He was transferred to the ordnance corps as capt., 1836,
resigned the same year, and was appointed superintendent of the West Point foundry
at Cold Spring, Putnam co., N". Y. In 1844-47 he was judge of the court of common
pleas in Putnam county. H invented a system of guns and heavy ordnance extensively
used in the war against the rebellion, and of which the 10-pounder, 30-pounder, and 100-
pounder are considered capable of producing the best results. One 30-pounder proved
its power of endurance, having been fired 4,606 times before bursting. They were first
introduced at the battle of Bull Run, July 21, 1861.
PARRY, Sir WILLIAM EDWARD, commonly known as sir EDWARD PARRY, a cele-
brated English navigator, was born at Bath, Dec. 19. 1790. His father, who was a phy-
sician of some eminence, destined him for the medical profession; but acting on the
advice of a friend, entered .him as a first-class volunteer on board the VUle-de- Paris, the
fl ig-.ship of the channel fleet in 1803. After several years' service, he received his com-
mission as lieut., Jan. 6, 1810. Though thus early engaged in active service, his educa-
tion had not been neglected; he had attained at school to considerable eminence in
''classical knowledge; and for the first five years after entering the navy he had particu-
larly studied French and mathematics under the chaplain's superintendence, after which
he constantly employed his leisure time in nautical and astronomical studies. In Feb.,
1810, he was sent to the Arctic regions in command of a ship, for the purpose of pro-
tecting the British whale fisheries and improving the admiralty charts of those regions;
but in 1813 he was recalled and dispatched to join the fleet then blockading the coast of
the United States. He remained on the North American station till the spring of 1817,
and during this time he wrote and distributed MS. copies of a work entitled Nautical
Af-tronomy by Night, in which rules were given for determining accurately the altitude
of the pole by observations of the fixed stars. This work he subsequently published in
London. Having returned to England too late to take part in the African exploring
expedition, he was, at his urgent request, backed by the recommendations of Mr. Barrow,
secretary to the admiralty, appointed to the command of the Alexander, under the orders
of capt. John Ross in the Isabella, and dispatched in search of the " north-west passage"
(q.v.) in April, 1818. The expedition returned to England, having made no important
discoveries. The admiralty were dissatisfied with the report of capt. .Ross; and Parry's
opinion, though only communicated to his private friends, having become known to
Parry. OJA
Parsees.
them, he was again sent out (May, 1819), and this time commenced that career of dis-
covery (see NOKTH-WKST PASSAGE) which haa immortalized him as the greatest of all
Arctic' explorers. Parry on liis return to Britain was hailed with the utmost enthusiasm
and was made commander (Nov. 4, 1820), and a member of the royal society, lie sub-
sequently made a second and a third voyage to the same regions, but effected nothing
further of importance. Parry now devoted himself to the discharge of his duties as
hydrographer, hut such labors were too monotonous for one of his temperament, antl lie
accordingly prepared a pi in of an expedition for reaching the north pole, which being
submitted to the admiralty and approved of by them, his old ship the llu'ln was lilted
out for a polar expedition, and Parry set sail in her, accompanied by lient. .1. ('.
April 4, 1827. See POLAU VOYAGES. The Journals of these voyages were published by
order of the admiralty.
Parry's career as an explorer was now closed, and he again returned to his duties as
hydrographer, but his health now gave way under this sedentary mode of lilc. and he
excha iged his oih'ce for that of commissioner to the agricultural company of Australia.,
for which country lie sailed July 20, 1829. He returned to England in Nov.. \±'.\-\. and
filled in succession various government appointments up till Dec., 1846, when he rctiied
from active service, receiving a sinecure office. On June 4, 1852, he was rai.-cd to the
rank of rear-admiral of the white, and in the following year was appointed lieutenant-
governor of Greenwich hospital — an office which he held till his death, July 7, 1K"». at
Ems in Germany, whither lie had gone for the benefit of his health. A complete edition
of his voyages was published in 1838 (Lond. 5 vols.). His life has been written by his
sou, the rev. Edward Parry, M.A., of Balliol college, Oxford (1857).
PARRY SOUND. See MELVILLE SOUND, ante.
PARRY SOUND, a district in n. Ontario, on Georgian hay, drained by the outlet
of lake Nipissina; and other streams; 3,400 sq.m. ; pop. '71, 1519. Capital, Parry Sound.
PARSEES (people of Pars or Fars, i.e., ancient Persia) is the name of the small n m-
nant of the followers of the ancient Persian religion, as reformed by Zcrdusht, or*
Zoroaster, as he is commonly called. The}' are also known under the denomination of
Guebers, under which head some account will be found rcspicting their recent history
and present numbers. The prc-ZoroaMrian phase or phases of their primeval religion
will probably forever remain shrouded in deep obscurity; so much, however, is fully
established by recent investigations that this, and what afterwards became the 1'rahmanic
religion, were originally identical; that in consequence of certain social ;:r.d political
conflicts between the Iranians and the Aryans, who aftcrwaids pc .] led llii dusian
•proper, an undying feud arose, in the course of which the former forsv. ore even the
hitherto common faith, and established a counter faith (Ahura). a princip,;! «;< Lma of
which was the transformation of the ancient, now hostile, gods into < ; d the
branding of the entire Deva religion as the source of nil mi chief Mid wid.c <i 111*1 s. Zer-
dusht, the prophet, whose era is given very differently by ancient writers and by modern
investigators, placed variously between COO or 600 B.C. (Roth) and 1200 r..c. (Hai g), h; d.
like all prophets and reformers, many predecessors, chiefly among the Soshy:;i
fire-priests (Atharvans); yet to him belongs the decisive act of separating forever the
contending parties, and of establishing a new community with a new faith — the Ma/da-
yasna or Parsee religion proper, which absorbed the old Ahura religion of the lire-priests.
Referring for a summary of what is known and speculated about the person of the great
reformer to the article under his name, we shall here confine ourselves to pointing out,
as the characteristics of liis leading doctrines, that the principle of his thtolo: y \\as as
pure a monotheism as ever the followers of the Jelmvistic faith were enjoined. He
taught the existence of but one deity, the Ahura; who is called Mazdao ( < e <;i:MV7.r>).
the creator of all things, to whom all good things, spiritual and worldly. In long. The
principle of his speculative philosophy is dualism, i.e., the supposition of t\\o primeval
causes of the real and intellectual world; the Vohu Mano, the good mind, or reality
(Gaya), and the Akcm Mano, or the naught mind, or non-reality (Ajyfdti); while the
principle of his moral philosophy is the triad of Thought. Word, and I)< < d. Not long.
however, did the pure idea of monotheism prevail. The two sides of Ahura 3I:.7dao's
being were taken to be two distinct, personages — God and Devil— ar.d tiny ( a. h took
their due places in the Parsee pantheon in the course of lime: — chiefly lhn>r,«.:h the influ-
ence of the sect of the Zendiks, or followers of the Zend, i.e., interpretation. Accord-
ing to Zerdusht, there are two intellects, as there are two lives — one •//.< /.'W and one
bodily; and, again, there must be distinguished an cartllu and nfntnif life Tic immor-
tality of souls was taught long before the Semites had adopted this leiief. There are
. two abodes for the departed — Heaven (GarO- Demfina, the house of the -Mitels' hymns,
Yazna, xxviii. 10; xxxiv. 2; cf. Is. vi., Reveiat., etc.) and Hell (Drujo -IK r.iina, the
residence, of devils and the priests of the Deva religion). Between the two there is the
bridge of the Gatherer or Judge, which the souls of the pious alone can pp.ss. There
will be a general resurrection, which is to precede the last judgment, to fore tell which
Sosiosh (Soskyans), the son of Zerdusht, spiritually begotten (by later priests divided
into three persons), will be sent by Ahuramazdao. The world, which by that time will
be utterly steeped. in wretchedness, darkness, and sin, will then be renewed; death, the
arch-fiend of creation, will be slain, and life will be everlasting and holy. These
OJ1 Parry.
Parsees.
are >he outlines of the Zoroastrian weed, as it flourished up to the time of Alexander the
great, throughout ancient Irauia, including Upper Thibet, Cabulistan, Sogdiana, Bactri-
aua, Media, Persis, etc.; and it is curious To speculate on the consequences which might
have followed Marathon and Salamis had the Persians been victorious. The religion of
Orrnuzd would have dethroned the Olympians, as it dethroned the gods of the Assyr-
ians and Babylonians; and it would certainly have left its traces upon the whole civilized
world unto this day in a much more direct and palpable shape than it now does. From
the death of Alexander, however, it gradually lost ground, and rapidly declined under
hi; successors, until, in the time of Alexander Severus, Ardshir " Arianos" (cf. Mirk-
houd ap. de Sacy, Memoirea sur die. Aut. de la Perse, etc., p. 59), the son of Babegan,
called by th/j Greeks and Romans Artaxerxes or Artaxares, who claimed descent from
til.- ancient royal lineage of Persia, took the field against Artabauus, and slew him ('225),
thus putting an end to the four hundred years' rule of the Parthians, and founded the
Sassauide dynasty. This he effected in conjunction with the national Persians, who
hated the " semi-Greek" dynasty of the Arsacidae, their leaning to the foreign, and con-
tempt for the Z2nd religion, and finally for their powerlessuess against the spreading
conquests of the Romans. The first act of the new king was the general and complete
restoration of the partly lost, partly forgotten books of Zerdusht, which he effected, it is
related, chiefly through the inspiration of a Magian sage, chosen out of 40,000 Magians.
The sacred volumes were translated out of the original Zend iuto the vernacular, and
disseminated among the people at large, and fire temples were reared throughout the
length and the breadth of the land.
The magi or priests were all-powerful, and their hatred was directed principally
against the Greeks. "Far too long," wrote Ardshir, the king, to all the provinces of
the Persian empire, "for more than fi^j hundred years has the poison of Aristotle
spread." The fanaticism of the priests often also found vent against Christians and
Jews. The latter have left us some account of the tyranny and oppression to which they
an unbelievers were exposed — such as the prohibition of lire and light in their houses on
Persian fast-days, of the slaughter of animals, the baths of purification, and the burial of
the dead according to the Jewish rites — prohibitions only to be bought off by heavy
bribes. In return, the magi were cordially hated by the Jews, and remain branded in
their writings by the title of demons of hell (Kidushin, 72 a.). To accept the instruction
of a magian is pronounced by a Jewish sage to be an offense worthy of death (SJaibb.
75 a. ; 156 b.). This mutual animosity does not, however, appear to have long con-
tinued, since in subsequent times we frequently find Jewish sages (Samuel the Arian,
etc.) on terms of friendship and confidence with the later Sassanide kings (cf. Moed
Katan, 26 a., etc.). From the period of its re-establishment, the Zoroastrian religion flour-
ished uninterruptedly for about 400 years", till, in 651 A.D., at the great battle of Nahav-
and (near Ecbatana), the Persian army, under Yezdezird, was routed by the caliph Omar.
The subsequent fate of those that remained faithful to the creed of their fathers has been
described, as we said before, under GUEBERS. At present some remnants inhabit Yezd
and Kinnun, on the ancient soil of their race; others, who preferred emigration to the
endless tribulations inflicted upon them by the conquering race, found a resting-place?
along the western const of India, chiefly at Bombay, Surat, Nawsari, Achmedabad, and
the vicinity, where they now live under English rule, and are recognized as one of the
most respectable and thriving sections of the community, being for the most part mer-
chants and landed proprietors. They bear, equally with their poorer brethren in Persia,
with whom they nave of late renewed some slight intercourse for religious and other
purposes — such as their Riv&yets or correspondences on important and obscure doctrinal
points — the very highest character for honesty, industry, and peaceful ness, while their
benevolence, intelligence, and magnificence outvies that of most of their European
fellow-subjects. Their general appearance is to a cerfain degree prepossessing, and
many of their women are strikingly beautiful. In all civil matters they are subject to
the laws of the country they inhabit; and its language is also theirs, except in the ritual
of their religion, when the holy language of Zend is used by the priests, who, as a rufe,
have no more knowledge of it than the laity.
"We have; spoken of the leading fundamental doctrines as laid down by their prophet.
Respecting the practical side of their religion, we cannot here enter into a detailed
description of their very copious rituals, which have partly found their way into other
creeds. Suffice it to mention the following few points. They do not eat anything
cooked by a person of another religion; they also object to beef, pork, especially to ham.
Marriages can only be contracted with persons of their own caste and creed. Polygamy,
except after nine years of sterility and divorce, is forbidden. Fornication and adultery
are punishable with death. Their dead are not buried, but exposed on an iron grating
in the Dokhma, or tower of silence, to the fowls of the air, to the dew, and to the sun,
until the flesh has disappeared, and the bleaching bones fall through into a pit beneath,
from which they are afterwards removed to a subterranean cavern.
Ahuramazdao beinj the origin of light, his symbol is the sun, with the moon and the
planets, and in default of them the fire, and the believer is enjoined to face a luminous
object during his prayers. Hence, also, the temples and altars must forever be fed with
the holy fire, brought down, according to tradition, from heaven, and the sullying of
whose flame is punishable with death. The priests themselves approach it only with a
Parsley. 040
Paiaoiis.
half-mask (Pcnom) over the face, lest their breath should defile it, and never touch it
with their hands, but with holy instruments. The fires are of live kinds; but however
great the. awe felt by Parsees with respect to (ire and light (they are ihe only eastern
nation who abstain from smoking), y<-t they never consider these, as we said before, as
anything but emblems of divinity. There are also five kinds of "wicritice." which term,
however, is rather to be understood in the sense of a sacied action. These are — ihe
slaughtering of animals for public or private solemnities; prayer; the Damns sacranu nt,
which, \vith its consecrated bread and wine in honor of the primeval founder of the law,
Horn or lieomoh (the Sanscr. KOIIKI), and Dahman, the personified biosing, bears :i
striking outward resemblance! to the sacrament of the Lord's supper; the .saeriiice of
expiation, consisting either in flagellation or in gifts to the priest; and, lastly, the sacri-
lice for the souls of the dead. The purification of phy-ieai and mural impurities ifl
cll'ected, in the first place, by cleansing with holy water (Nirang). earth, etc.; next, by
prayers (of which sixteen, at least, are to be recited every day) and the recitation of the
divine word; but other self-cast igations, fasting, celibacy, etc., are considered haiei'ul to
the divinity. The ethical code may be summed up" in the three words— purity of
thought, of word, and of deed: a religion "that is for all, and not for any particular
nation," as the Zoroastriaus say. It need hardly be added that superstitions of all kinds
hav^, in the course of the tribulations of ages, and the intimacy with neighboring coun-
tries, greatly defiled the original purity of this creed, and that its forms now vary much
among the different communities of the present time.
Something like a very serious schism, however, has lately broken out in the Parsce
communities, and the modern terms of conservative and liberal, or rather bigot and
infidel, are almost as freely used with them as in Europe. The sum and substance of
these innovations, stoutly advocated by one si<ie. and as stoutly resisted by the other, is
the desire to abolish the purification by the Nirang — a filthy substance in itself— to
reduce the large number of obligatory prayers, to stop early betrothal and marriage, to
suppress the extravagance in funerals and weddings, to educate women, and to admit
them into society. Two counter alliances or societies, the "Guides of the NYorshipcrs
of God" and " the True Guides" respectively, are trying to carry out at this moment, by
means of meetings, speeches, tracts, etc., the objects of their different p 11 ties.
The literature of the Parsees will be found noticed under PI.USIAN L',N<;r\or
LITERATURE, and ZEND-AVESTA. Besides the latter, which is written in ancient Zend.
and its Gujarati translation and commentaries, there are to be mentioned. a:< works
specially treating of religious matters, the Zarditsht-Nameh, or Legendary IlU'.ory of
Zerdusht; the Sadder, or Summary of Parsee Doctrines; the Zto''/.v'</,/. or School of
Manners; the Desatir, or Sacred Writings, etc. All these have been translated into
English and other European languages.
On the influence Parseeism has had upon Judaism and its later doctrines and ceremo-
nial, and, through it, upon Christianity and Mohammedanism — which besides drew from
it directly — we cannot dwell here at any length. So mush, however, may be stated, that
the most cursory reading of the sacred Parsee books will show, in a variety of points.
their direct influence upon the three Semitic creeds. Of works treating on the subject
of this article, we mention principally. Hyde, Vft. Rel. Pens. Hiyt. (Oxon., 1760, 4to);
Ousely. Travels in the Ea*t (Land. 1819); Auquetil du Perron. . * dea
Parses; Rhode, Dieheu. Sagcaer alien Baktrier, Meder n. Pcrser, etc. (Frank. -a-M., 1820,
8vo); Dosabhoy Framjee, The Parsees, etc. (Lond. 1858); Dadnblmi Naoroii, T.'H'. .W<tn-
ners and Customs of the Parsees; and 'Hie Parsce Religion (Liverpool, is<n. tsvo)- and
lastly, Haug's Essays on the Parsee Religion (Bombay, 1862), and Spiegel's Emu (Berl.
1863.)
PAES'LEY, Petroselinum, a genus of plants of the natural order of ••um'iidHfrm. The
species are annual or biennial, branching, smooth, herbaceous plains, with variously pin-
nated leaves. — COMMON PARSLEY (P. sativum), winch has tripinnate shining leaves, one
of'our best known culinary plants, is a native of the south of Europe, growing chiefly on
rocks and old walls, and naturalized in some parts of England. The cultivation of pars-
ley is extremely simply, and an annual sowing is generally made, although when cut
over and prevented from flowering, the plant lives for several years. A variety with
curled leaflets is generally preferred to the common kind with plain leaflets, as finer and
more beautiful, being often used as a garnish; it is also safer, as the poisonous fool's
parsley (q.v.) is sometimes gathered by mistake instead of the other. — IIAMTIVWJ PAIW-
I.EY is a variety with a large white carrot-like root, cultivated for the sake of its root.
and much in the same way as the carrot or parsnip. To produce large roots and of deli-
cate flavor, a very rich soil is required. The foliage of parsley is not merely of use for
flavoring soups, etc., but is nutritious, at the same time that it is stimulating, a quality
which it seems to derive from an essential oil present in every part of the plant. Parsley
contains also a peculiar gelatinous substance called apiine. The bruised leaves of pirsley
are sometimes employed as a stimulating poultice. The seed< arc a deadly poison to
many birds, and when powdered, they arc sometimes used for killing lice.
PARSNIP, Pdttinaca, a genus of plants of the natural order iiml>ellifera>, having com-
pound umbels with neither general nor partial involucres; yellow flowers with roundish.
involute, sharp-pointed petals; calyx almost without teeth; fruit dorsally compressed and
CMQ Parsley.
Farswu*.
flat, with a broad border, the ridges very fine. The species are annual, biennial, or per-
ennial herbaceous plants, with carrot-like, often fleshy roots, and pinnate leaves, — The
COMMON PARSNIP (7J. satim} is a native of England, although not of Scotland, and is
abundant in some districts, particularly in chalky and gravelly soils. It is also found in
many parts of Europe, and of the north of Asia. It is a biennial, with angular furrowed
stem, 2 to 3 ft. high, pinnate leaves with ovate leaflets, rather shinning, cut, and ser-
rated, and a three-lobed terminal leaflet. The root of the wild plant is white, aromalic.
mucilaginous, sweet, but with some acrid ness; and injurious effects have followed from
its use. Cultivation has greatly modified the qualities both of the root and foiinge, ren-
dering them much more bland. The parsnip has long been cultivated for the sake of its •
root, which in cultivation has greatly increased in size, and become more fleshy. The
flavor is disliked by some, as well as the too great sweetness, but highly relished by
others; and the root of the parsnip is more nutritious than that of the cat rot. The prod-
uce is also, on many soils, of larger quantity; and although the parsnip delights in ;v
very open rich soil, it will succeed in clayey soils far too stilf for the carrot. It is rather
remarkable that it has not been extensively cultivated as a field-crop, and for the feeding
of cattle, except in the Channel islands and in limited districts of continental Europe;
more particularly as cattle are very fond of it, and not only the flesh of cattle fed on it is
of excellent quality, but the butter of dairy-cows fed on parsnips in winter is far supe-
rior to that produced by almost any other kind of winter-feeding. The mode of cultiva-
tion of the parsnip scarcely differs from that of the carrot. There are several varieties
in cultivation. A very large variety, cultivated in the Channel islands on dee]) sandy
Boils, has roots sometimes 3 or 4 ft. long; but this is fully twice the ordinary length, and
there is a smaller turnip-rooted variety sometimes cultivated in gardens where tLc soil Ls
very shallow. The parsnip is used chiefly in winter, whether for the table or for feed-
ing cattle. It is improved rather than injured bj' frost; but is apt to become rusty if '
allowed to remain too long in the ground; and exhibits acrid qualities after it has begun
to grow again in spring. The root of the parsnip is much used in the north of Ire-
land for making a fermented liquor, with yeast and hops; and both in England and
Ireland, for making parsnip wine, which has some resemblance to Malmsey wine. —
Another species, the CUT-LEAVED PARSNIP or SEKAKUL (P. sckakul), having pinnaiifid
cut leaflets, a native of India, Syria, and Egypt, is cultivated in the Levant, and is very
similar in its uses to the common parsnip.
PARSONS, a city in Sedalia co., Kan., on the Missouri, Kansas nnd Texas rail-
road, near the junction of the Big and Little Labette rivers; pop. '70, 3,500. It has
churches, schools, 2 banks, a public library, and 3 newspapers. The car and machine
shops of the railroad are here. Carriages, chairs, plows, etc., are manufactured.
PARSON, in English ecclesiasticai law, means the incumbent of a benefice in a parish.
He is- called parson (Lat. persona) because he represents the church for several purposes.
He requires to be a member of the established church of England, and to be duly
admitted to holy orders, presented, instituted, and inducted; .and requires to be 23 ycara
of age. When 'he is inducted, and not before, he is said to be in full and complete posses-
sion of the incumbency. The theory is, that the freehold of the parish church is vested
in him, and as the legal owner, he has various rights of control over the chancel. He is
also the owner of the churchyard, and as such is entitled to the grass. As owner of the
body of the church, he has a right to control of the church bells, and is entitled to pre-
vent the church-wardens from ringing them against his will. The distinction between a
parson and a vicar is, that the parson has generally the whole right to the ecclesiastical
dues in the parish, wherens the vicar has an appropriator over him, who is the real owner
of the dues and tithes, and the vicar has only an inferior portion. The duty of the par-
son is to perform divine service in the prrish church under the control of the bishop, to
administer the sacraments to parishioners, to read the burial service on request of the
parishioners, to marry them in the parish church when they tender themselves. He is
bound to reside in the parish, and is subject to penalties and forfeiture if he without
cause absent himself from the parish. He is subject to the clergy discipline act, in case
of misconduct.
PARSON'S, JONATHAN, 1705-76; b. Mass.; graduated at Yale college 17£9; w;ia
ordained pastor of the Congregational church in Lyrae, Conn., 1731, where he continued
until 1745; settled at Newburyport. Mass., in 1746, W:here he died. He was distin
guished for his learning, for his skill as a controvertist, and as a preacher. He pub-
lished Letters on the Christian Ministry; letters on Baptism; Lectures on Jutfifcaiion;
Good News from a Far Country, in Seven Discourses; A Sermon on the Death of G. White~
field; Freedom from Civil and Ecclesiastical Tyranny the Purchase of Christ; Sixty Sermons
on Various Subject*, 2 vols.
PARSONS, SAMUF.T, HOLDEN, 1737-89, b. Conn., son of the rev. Jonathan Parsons.
After graduating at Harvard college, 1756, he studied law at Lyme, Conn., with gov.
Matthew Griswokl, his uncle; began practice in Lyme, 1759, and for many years repre-
sented the town in the colonial assembly. In 1774 he removed to Newr London, and was
made prosecuting or king's attorney. At the outbreak of the revolution he took command
of the 6th Connecticut regiment, wras present at the battle of Long Island and the siege
ui' Boston, and for his services was promoted to the rank of brig.gen. ; in 1779 he became
Parson*.
Pai Uiuiiogpnesfs.
Putnam's successor in the command of the state militia, and in 1780 was made a maj.gen.
At the close of the \v:ir he opened ti law o.liee in Midi!l"town, Conn. Coi:grcss in 1785
appointed him a commissioner to treat wi;h the Miami Indians, arid a few years later he
negotiated the treaty between Connecticut and the Indian tribes about lake Erie, by
whi"h tin1 claim of the latter, to what became known as the Connecticut. weMrrn reserve.
was extinguished. In H87 lie headed a New Kngland colony which sctilcd on the i
near the Ohio river. He published a paper on the Antiquities of the Western titatox in.
vol. 2 of the Transaction* of the American Academy.
PARSONS, TiiEorinn s, I.L.D.. 1750-181:3, b. Mass.; graduated at Harvard in 1769,
and was admitted to the bar in 1774. He began the practice of his profe-^ion at Fal-
mouth, now Portland, .Main:', which was laid waste by u British squadron in Oct., \~, 75;
und Parsons, whose prospects for professional success at Falmouth wen- rtiiihd by \\\\*
disaster, withdrew soo:i ai'terward to Bylicld, liis native town. Tiiere, i'or some years,
lie studied in the library of judge Edmund Trowbridge, then the first jurist in N\w
England, and whose collection of law books was at that time 'perhaps the mo>t complete*
In fills couutry. Parsons linally removed to Newburyport, where he soon acquired an
extensive practice; and for some ten years he exerted a considerable influence in public
affairs. In 17TS lie was active in the discussion of the new constitution of .Massachusetts,
then recently framed by the legislature. Parsons was strongly opposed to the adoption
of that instrument; he was a member of the " Essex Junto," which comprised a largo
number of the citizens of Essex co. hostile to the new constitution; and the pamphlet
c-alied Tin'. E<xe.v Result, and which had a great influence in bringing about the del'
the new constitution, is attributed to him. In 1779 he sat in the convention which drew
up the constitution which, with some changes, still subsists in Mass: in 1788 ha
was a member of the state convention called to act upon the adoption of the fed- ral
constitution. He warmly supported the latter, and the so-called " Proposition" in favor
of its adoption, though offered by John Hancock, was drawn up by Pr.rsons. 1!
serving from time to time in the legislature, this was his last appearance in public life.
He settled in Boston in 1800, and continued his law practice, which had long included
causes from all parts of New England. From 1806 till his death he w;is chief justice of
the state supreme court. His judicial opinions have not been as fully reported as
(»ould be desired, but those preserved in the early Massachusetts reports, and in his
Commentaries on the Law of tJie United State*, show great ability and learning, especially
in the departments of real property and marine insurance. He was expeditious in the
dispatch of business, and thoroughly conversant with the old common law system of
pleadings. In politics he was a federalist in principle, but after his elevation to tha
bench, punctilious to take no share in them.
PARSONS, TiiEOPniLUS, LL.D., b. Mass., 1797; son of chief justice Parsons. He
graduated at Harvard in 1815, was admitted to the bar, and began \'.i practice in Taunton.
Soon afterward he removed to Boston, where he became the founder and editor of the
United States Literary Gazette. He also contributed regularly to the 3<>ri/< A,i,> •/•/<•///•
Rerit'.'ri. In 1847 he was appointed Dane professor of law at the law-school of Harvard
university, where he remained for a quarter of a century. He has published a num'oer
cf treatises on legal subjects. His Law of .Contracts, which has become a standard work
upon its subjects, and has gone through many editions, appeared in 1^53, and was
followed by Elements of Mercantile Laic, 1856; Laics of Business for Business Mm, 1857;
Maritime Lute, 1859; Notts and Bills, 1862; Law of Partnership, 1807; Marine Ih^/rnm-a
and General Average, 18G8; Shipping and Admiralty, 1869; and /V/7 /,-,/'. /'< • «»n/', mnl
Property Rir/hts of a Citizen of the United States, 1875. lie is a Swcdenborgian, and had
written a number of works maintaining the doctrines of the New Jerusalem church.
The most important are his Essays, in 3 series; Dens Homo, 1867; alid The Infinite and
ifie Finite; 1 872.
PARSONS, THOMAS WILLIAM, b. Boston, 1819; educated at the Boston Latin school.
He went to Italy in 1806, and carefully studied Italian literature, particularly the
of Dante, a translation of the first 10 cantos of whose Inferno he published in 1843.
Returning to Boston, he took a medical degree at the Harvard medical school, and for
some time practiced dentistry. For a number of years he lived in England, and now
resides in Italy. He published in 1854 a collection of poems under the title of (U.
Roma. His translation of the Inferno was finished in 1867, and he is now translating
the Pargatorio. Three volumes of his poems have appeared since 1867: The Maf/nofin,
The Old House at Sndbury, and The Shadow of the Obelisk. He occasionally contributes
to the Catholic World and other periodicals.
PARSONS, USHER, 1788-1868; b. Maine; received an ordinary education, and
studied medicine under Dr. John Warren of Boston. In the war of 1812 he entered the
naval service as surgeon's mate and was acting surgeon of Perry's flag ship, the Law~
rence, and in that capacity was present at the battle of lake Eric, Sept. 10, 1813. He
remained in the navy until* 1822, was present at the attack on Mackinac, and after r-
ing his commission practiced his profession at Providence, 11. I. He became a pro'
in Brown university medical school, president of the state medical school, and first vice-
president of the national medical association. He published a life of sir \Vm. Pcpperell,
Parsons.
Parthenogenesis.
1856, several medical works, and a number of biographical sketches and speeches con-
nected wiih the events of the buttle of lake Erie.
PAE,SO!TSTO\7N (anciently called BIRR), a considerable inland t. on the river Brosua,
in King's county, Ireland, 69 ni. w.s.w. from Dublin, with which city it is connected
by a. branch-line issuing from the Great Southern and Western railway at Ballybrophy.
Pop. '71, 4,939; of whom 4,049 were Roman Catholics, 723 Protestant Episcopalians,
and the rest Protestants of other denominations. Birr had its origin at an curly period
in a monastery founded by St. Brendan, and was the scene of many important events,
both in the Irish and in the post-invasion periods. The castle, which was anciently the
seat of the O'C'arrols, was granted by Henry II. to Philip de Worcester; but it frequently
changed masters, and even alternated between English and Irish hands. By James I. it
was granted to Lawrence Parsons, ancestor of the present proprietor, the earl of Rosse;
but through the entire period of the civil wars, its possession was constantly disputed,
utiti! after 1690, when the Parsons family was finally established in possession. About
this time Birr returned two members to parliament, but the privilege was temporary.
The castle lias been rebuilt. Parsonstown is one of the handsomest and best built inland
towns in Ireland, with several fine churches and chapels, a nunnery, a statue of the duke
of Cumberland, a bronze statue (erected in 1876) of the third carl of Rosse, a town-hall,
a library, literary institute, a model and other schools. But the great attractions of
Parsonslown arc: the castle, the observatory, and the laboratory of the late earl of Rosse
(q.v.), still maintained in active use by the presenn earl. Parsonstown is an important
corn market, a considerable center of inland commerce; but with the exception of a dis-
tilieiy and brewery, it is almost entirely without manufactures. It is a military staMon,
and the seat of a union workhouse.
PARS WANATHA, the twenty-third of the deified saints of the Jainas, in the present
era. He and MaJuixira, the twenty-fourth, are held in highest esteem, especially in
Hindustan. In a suburb of Benares called Belupura, there is a temple honored as the
birthplace of Parswanatha. See JAINAS.
PART, in music. When a piece of music consists of several series of sounds per-
formed simultaneously, each series is called a part.
PARTANNA, a market t. of the island of Sicily, in the province of Trapaui, 36 m.
s.w. of Palermo, on a slope. Pop. 12,467.
PARTERRE, in gardens laid out in the old French style, the open part in front of the
house, in which flower-beds and closely-cut lawn were intermingled according to a regu-
lar plan.
PAR THENOGEN E3IS (from the Gr. parthenos. a virgin, and genesis, the act of pro-
duction) is a term invented by prof. Owen to indicate propagation by self-splitting or
self -dividing, by budding from without or within, and by any mode save by the act of
impregnation; the parthenogcnclic individuals being sexless or virgin females. Sec tha
article GENERATIONS. ALTERNATION OF. For many remarkable facts in relation to par-
thenogenesis in insects, the reader is referred to prof. Owen's 18th lecture, On the Com-
parative Anatomy and Physiology of Invertebrate Animals; and to Siebold, On Partheno-
yenettis, translated by Dallas.
PARTHEXOGEN'ESIS (ante). This term, as employed by prof. Owen and applied,
as noticed in ihe preceding article, to the processes of gemmation and fission as exhibited
in sexless beings or virgin females, is not strictly the generative process which is now
indicated by its use. The term is now confined to the generation of new individuals
from the development of om by virgin females without contact with the male element.
The peculiarity of this process is appreciated by regarding the proper definition of an
ovum, and its distinction from an internal bud. An ovum is usually contained in an
ovary, and always has a germinal vesicle and a germinal spot, and during its develop-
ment undergoes what is known as segmentation nf the yelk. Examples of true partheno-
genesis are seen in certain plant-lice (aphides), the lu>ney-b?o, and some of the lower and
smaller crustaceans, as now classified. In the autumn, plant-lice consist of males and
females, which 'by sexual union produce ova; but these remain dormant during the win-
ter. In the spring they are hatched, but, instead of producing males and females, the
young are all of one kind, variously regarded as neuters, females, or hermaphrodites.
These oviparous products, whatever their nature may be^ now produce viviparously a
brood of young resembling themselves, these in turn bringing forth a third generation;
and the same viviparous process may be repeated a considerable number of times during
the summer. The last generation, however, brought forth at the commencement of
autumn will not be all of one kind, but will consist of distinct sexes. Now sexual repro-
duction by means of eggs takes place, as in the preceding autumn, to be followed in the
spring by another series of viviparous generations. The viviparous multiplication of the
aphides is multitudinous, and it has been estimated that ten generations of a single aphis
during one summer may reach the number of one quintillion. The ovary of each vivip-
arous aphis resembles that of a fertile female, with certain exceptions which cannot well
be described here. It may be regarded as a pseudo-ovary, and it generates or develops
eggs or "pseudo-ova," which, without male intervention, are developed into young
aphides. There is no anatomical difference between the pseudo-ova and true ova, the
Parthenon. QJ.A
Partition.
distinction being purely physiological. Some naturalists, however, maintain that the
viviparous aphides are hermaphrodites, possessing both sexual elements, in which case
their mode of generation would not be an example of parthenogenesis; but. this view is
not entertained by most observers. In regard to certain reproductive phenomena among
honey-bees there seems to be but little doubt. There are three classes of individuals in ;i
hive of bees; a queen, or fertile female; workers, forming the bulk of the community and
which are examples of arrested development in females; and, thirdly, the drones, or male
bees, produced at certain times of the year. The wonderful Impregnation of the queen,
which occurs during her "nuptial flight," results in the storing up of fecundating
material in a receptacle which communicates by a tube with the oviducts, and which
material, it is said, can be used at will, or at 'least is used periodically, as ocra-ion
requires. The ova which become undeveloped femaies, or workers, are fertilized during
their passage through the oviduct; and the subsequent development of these fecundated
ova into queens or into workers, as the case may require, depends upon the form (seem-
ingly) of the cell which receives the ovum, and upon the food which is given to the
larva. There is nothing in the evidence so far produced to show non-^xual gnu-ration;
but careful observers have succeeded — by preventing, as they assert, the contents of tin.1
seminal receptacle of the queen from passing into the oviduct, and thus coming into con-
tact with the ovum — in causing her to produce none but males, or dron<->. If these
observers are correct, this case is one of parthenogenesis; and at present the prevailing
tendency is toward the acceptance of their conclusions.
PAR'THENON, the temple of Minerva at Athens; one of the most celebrated of tho
Gredt temples, and usually regarded as the most perfect specimen of Greek architecture.
Many of the sculptures have been brought to England, and are now in the British
museum. See GRECIAN AIICHITKCTUHE.
PARTHENOPE AN REPUBLIC (from Tarthenope, the oldest name of the city of
Naples) was the name given to the state into which the kingdom of Naples \\as trans-
formed b_y the French Republicans, Jan. 23, 1799, and which only lasted till the follow-
ing June, when the invading army was forced to retreat.
PAR THIA, anciently a country of western Asia, lying at the s.e. end of the Caspian
eea, from which it was separated by a narrow strip, known as Hyrcania. now forms the
northern portion of the province of Khorassau, and is an almost wholly mountainous
region. Its rivers are merely mountain torrents, which are supplied by the melt ing
enow on the Elburz range during winter and spring, but are mostly dry in summer and
autumn.
The original inhabitants are believed to have been of Scythian race, PS shown by
their language as well as by their manners, and to belong to the great Indo-Germamc
family. If this be the case, as is very probable, the term Parthian, from its analogy te
the Scythian word partite, banished, seems to indicate that they were a tribe who hud
been driven to Parthia out of Scythia (i.e., cent rat- Asia). The Parthians during the tim«
of the Roman republic, were distinguished by primitive simplicity of life and extreme
bravery, though at the same time much given to bacchanalian and voluptuous pleasures.
They neglected agriculture and commerce, devoting their whole time to predatory expe-
ditions and warfare. They fought on horseback, and after a peculiar fashion. Being
armed solely with bows and arrows, they were rendered defenseless after the first dis-
charge; and, to gain time for adjusting a second arrow to the bow, turned their 1
and retired, as if in full flight, but; an enemy incautiously pursuing, was immediately
assailed by a second flight of arrows; a second pretended flight followed, and the con-
flict was thus carried on till the Parthians gained the victory, or exhausted their quivers.
They generally discharged their arrows backward, holding the bow behind the shoulder;
a mode of attack more dangerous to a pursuing enemy than to one in order of battle.
The Parthians first appear in history as subject to the great Persian empire. After the
death of Alexander the Great, Parthia formed part of the Syrian kingdom, but revelled
under Antiochus II., and constituted itself into an independent kingdom under the
Arsacidce (see ARSACES), 250 B.C., a race of kings who exercised the most completely
despotic authority ever known, treating their subjects as if the vilest of slavi ••; yet so
accustomed did the Parthians become to this odious rule, that some of the lau-r n.on-
archs, who had received a Roman education, and after their accession treated their M:!.-
jects with ordinary justice and humanity, were completely despised. The ea] 't;il <>'.' 'he
Parthian monarchy was Hecatompylos ("the city of the hundred gates"), now Damgan.
The Parthian dominion rapidly extended to the Euphrates on the w. and the Indus on
the e., and became a most powerful and flourishing empire; Seleueia. Cle.-ipl on — the
capital of the Persian emperors of the Sassanidae — and other celebrated cities ciate their
rise from this period, and soon eclipsed, in size and splendor, the ancient Hecatompyloa.
In spite of repeated attacks on the part of the Romans, the Parthians maintained their
independence (see CUASSUS SUREXA); and though Trajan, in 115-116 A.D., seized cerlaiu
portions of the country, the Romans were soon compelled to abandon them. In i;14
A.D., during the reign of Artabonus IV., the last of the Arcacidse. a revolt, headed by
Ardshir; son of Babegan, broke out in Persia, and the Parthian monarch, beaten in three
engagements, lost his throne and life, while the victor substituted the Persian dynasty
«f tho SASSAKUX* (q.v.) for that of the Arsacidse. Some scions of the Parthian royal
Parthenon.
P;iititioi».
family continued for several centuries tortile over the mountainous district of Armenia,
under the protection of the Romans, and made frequent descents upon Assyria and
Babylonia; but their history is obscure and of little importance.
PAETIAL LOSS, in the law of marine insurance, is a loss which is not total; and there-
fore the insurer is not entitled to abandon or give up the remains of the ship or cargo,
and claim the entire insurance money; but he is bound to keep his ship or goods, and
cJaini only in proportion to his actual loss or damage.
PAR TICIPLE (Lat. participium, part-taking), the name of a class of \yords which
have the meaning of a verb with the form of an adjective. The name is said to have
been given from their partaking of the nature both of a verb and of au adjective. Some
grammarians make the participle a distinct part of speech, but it is more commonly
classed as a part of the conjugation of the verb. There are in English two participles,
one in ing, usually called the present, but properly the imperfect, because it expresses
continued, unfinished action, e.g., loving, writing; and the other expressing p:isl action,
and ending either in ed (() or in en, e.g., loved, written. In Aug. Sax. and old Eng. . tho
imperfect participle ended in and, e.g., Jiaband (having), corresponding to the modern
Ger. /iabsnd, Gr. echo/it (os), Lat. habont (is). In the sentence, "he is writing a h'tter,''
writing is the imperfect participle; in" the writing of the letter occupies him, "or "wrtliitg
is a difficult art," it is a substantive, and had a different origin. In the latter case, -ing
corresponds to the Ang. Sax. termination -ung, used in forming substantives from ;v
large class of verbs; thus, Aug. Sax. halyuny (hallowing) is equivalent in meaning and
in etymology to Lat. consecrate ; similarly, modern Ger. Vcrnicktting, annihilation, from
wmchten, to annihilate'. Such a phrase as, "while the letter is writing." seems to be a
shortened form of the now antiquated, "is si-writing," which was originally, " is i.i
•writing." Although this mode of expression is liable in some cases to ambiguity, it is
terser and more idiomatic than the circumlocution of, " is being written," which is oft ^a
substituted for it. The verbal substantive in -ing is often exactly equivalent to th \
influiiive; thus, "standing fong in one position is painful" = "to stand," civ. It, has
this advantage, that while it cm bo construed as a noun (e.g., with a possessive case), it
can retain at the same time the usual adjuncts of a verb; as, " what are we to infer from
the king's dismissing his minister?" The use of this form contributes not a liub to t'liu
peculiar brevity and strength of the English language.
PARTICK, a t. of Scotland, in the co. of Lanark, prettily situated, chiefly on a rising
ground oa the Kelvin, immediately above its junction with the Clyde, and ab:mt 3 in.
w.u.w. of the cross of Glasgow, of which city it now forms a suburb. Nine-tenths of
the workmen of Partick are engaged in ship-building, and there are numerous ship-
building yards. Hour mills, cotton factories, and bleach-fields. A large proportion of
the inhabitants are engaged in business in Glasgow, and for their accommodation exten-
sive ranges of handsome villas have been built here. Pop. '51, 3,13.3; '61, 8,183; '71,
17,691.
PARTINICO, SALA. DI, a post-town of Sicily, in the province of Palermo, and 19 m.
«. w. of the city of that name, at the foot of a grand precipice of red limestone. The
plain in the vicinity is of surpassing fertility; corn, wine, oil, fruit, and sumach are pro-
duced in rich abundance: and linen and woolen goods are manufactured. Pop. '72,
20, 15i. Scattered vestiges of ancient habitations are still to be seen on the summit of
the height above the town, and are said to be the ruins of the ancient Partltenicurn meu-
tioned in the Itinerary of Antoninus, and there only.
PARTISAN is a name for a halberd or pike, or for a marshal's baton. The name is
also given to the leader of a detached body of light troops, who make war by harassing
the enemy, rather than coming to direct fighting, by cutting off stragglers, interrupting
his supplies, and confusing him by rapid strategy. "The action of such a corps is known
e& par titan warfare.
PARTITION, a thin interior wall dividing one apartment from another. It is usually
of brick-work, 4£ or 9 in. thick, or of timber with standards about 44 in. thick, covered
with lath and plaster. Wooden partitions are used when there is no sufficient support
for brick. When these have to carry joists or any other weight they ought to be con-
structed in the form of a truss (q.v.).
PARTITION, the division by co-parceners, joint-tenants, or tenants in common,
of their undivided interests in lands, tenements', or hereditaments, or in goods and
chattels. Technically the term is restricted to the severance of common interests in real
estate, by the persons above named. Estates in co-parcenery were created by operation
of law, when one estate fell to two heirs: thus, where the tenant of an estate in fee died
without male heirs, his estate devolved upon his daughters or female representatives,
who took as co- parceners. A dissolution of such a joint-estate would be compulsory at
the common law, upon request of a single co-parcener, because the creation of the
joint-estate w;;s compulsory. But estates in joint-tenancy and tenancy in common were
created by voluntary act of the parties and could be dissolved only in the same way.
The common-law rule was finally changed by statute, so that since the reign of William
IV. all estates in common have been subject to partition. Joint-tenancy has been gener-
ally abolished in the United States, so that tenancy in common is practically the only
Partition.
o I O
form of joint-ownership found in this country. 1'ul lit in- a;:d devisees holding llio
estate of a deeca.v d ancestor, in common, have .still !•> re-ort io partition. Partition i*
either compulsory, i.e., without reference io tin; consent of one or more of the owners;
or- voluntary, i.e., by consent of all the owners. The 1'onncr is effected by the suing
out of a writ of partition at common law, by the party demanding partition, or by bring-
ing a partition in a court of equily. A vo.untary partition i - cured by a mutual relea.se
by all the other owners io every owner of the share which is to vest in him. It is
always more advantageous, and is mnv more common to seek partition in a court of
iquity. A law court can make a severance only in accordance to the proportional*
interests of the parties; and such a division is often injurious to the interests of some of
the parties. A court of equity does not confine itself to (he allotment of equal shun •>..
but makes an equitabledivision, giving each party the portion which seems best adapted
for his interests, and if necessary making one party an equitable compensation for
improvements made in the common property. "Where a petitioner's title is disputed,
equity will not interfere, and he must establish it at law. "Partition in law and at
equity," says lord Kedesdale, "are very different things. The first operates by the judg-
ment of a court of law and delivering up possession in pursuance of it, which com hides
all the parlies to it. Partition in equity proceeds upon conveyance to be executed by
the parties, and if the parties be not competent to execute the conveyance, the partition
cannot be effectually hr.d." A written agreement for a partition as held by equity is
equivalent to a partition, and will be enforced. A parol partition has been held void,
notwithstanding an actual possession in severally; but it has been held that wh"re a ten-
ant in common has had actual adverse possession for a number of years, partition will
be inferred. A parol partition will be held good notwithstanding the statute of frauds
if there have been a several possession for some time, and the line of partition is certain.
A partition of real estate by quit-claim deed is valid between the grantee of a tenant in
common and his co-tenants. As a rule, a person must have actual seisin to maintain
proceedings for partition, but a tenant in common need have only a right of entry. No
partition can be had of land to which the parties nave only a title in remainder, or where
the title is vested in a third person, as a trustee. A tenant in common of personal prop-
erty cannot maintain a bill for partition, while another has adverse possession. The
owner of an undivided interest cannot claim partition of part of the land held in com-
mon, but if division be made, the whole must be divided. When proceedings for par-
tition are brougnt, every person not a plaintiff having an interest in the land, must be
made a plaintiff. In many states special proceedings for partition have been established
by statute, and particular courts, frequently courts of probate, are given jurisdiction
over partition. The limit of the interest of the several parties is first fixed by a hearing,
and thereupon the court, appoints commissioners to make ihe severance and allotment,
their acts being subject to the revision of the court. If no equitable division of the
land can be made, it is fo be sold at public auction, and the proceeds divided among the
owners according to the order of the court, which will protect the rights of all parlies m
iU dceiee.
PARTITION, or PARTITCRA, in music. See SCORE.
PARTITION" LINES, in heraldry, lines dividing the shield in directions correspond-
ing to the ordinaries. According to the direction of the partition lines, a shield is said
to h- party or parted per fess, per pale, per bend, per cheveron. per saltire; a shield
divided by lines in the direction of a cross, is said to be quartered; and a shield parted
at once per cross and per saltire, is said to Gironne (q.v.) of eight. The partition lines
are not always plain; they may be engrailed, invccted, embattled, wavy, uebuly. indented.
dancotte or raguly — forms which will be found explained under separate article-;.
PARTNERSHIP, in the law of England, is the union of two or more individuals act-
ing under a contract, whereby they mutually contribute their property or labor for the
purpose of making profits jointly. When a partnership is confined to a particular
transaction or speculation, it is usually called a joint-adventure, and the parties are joint-
ndvcntrtrers. The usual criterion by which a partnership is ascertained to exist, as dis-
tinguished from other arrangements, is that there is a community of profit; it is not
essential that both should suffer losses equally or proportionably, for one partner may
stipulate that he shall not be liable to loss. This stipulation is binding between the
partners, but of course is insufficient to prevent the partners from being all liable to
third parties. So one partner may contribute all the capital or all the labor. A dor-
mant partner is one whose name does not generally appear to the world as a partner, but
who nevertheless is to all intents and purposes a partner, with equal rights and liabilties
to the rest. In order to constitute that kind of community of profit which is the chief
ingredient in a partnership, it is necessary that the partner share in the profits as a
partner; for in many cases, clerks, servants, or agents receive a commission or remunera-
tion proportioned to profits, and yet are not partners, for this is merely one mode of
ascertaining the salary which they are to receive. In all such cases, therefore, the dis-
tinction as to whether there is a partnership or not turns on the consideration whether
the alleged partner receives a share of the profits, ns such, or merely rcccivesas a salary
proportioned to profits, without having a specific interest in the firm. The contract of
partnership may be entered into either by word of mouth or in writing. If no specified
9 A A
Partition.
term be agreed upon, it is a partnership at will, and may be dissolved by either of> the
parlies at pleisure. Sometimes, also, the court of chancery will interfere to dissolve the
partnership before the time appointed; but this only happens when some unforeseen and
urgent reason exists, as that one of the partners has become a lunatic, or has proved
grossly dishonest, or the object of the partnership cannot be carried out. Mere differ-
ences of opinion on minor matters are no ground for seeking a dissolution. The part-
ners may make any kind of arrangement between themselves that they think proper;
but if these are unusual and special stipulations, there is no certainty of securing the
same being adhered to, without a formal deed or indenture of partnership being executed.
Thus, it is common to stipulate as to the capital each is to contribute, and as to the pro-
portion of profits he is to receive, as what is to be done in case of the death of a partner,
etc. Unless a stipulation is made to the contrary, the rule is, that the death of one of
the partners dissolves the partnership. So does his bankruptcy. It is also a rule that
no new partner can be introduced without the consent of the rest. There was once a
peculiarity in the law of England as to the form of remedy — the rule being, that part-
ners cannot, sue each other in a court of law in respect of partnership transactions, but
the only remedy is by a bill in chancery. As against third parties, whatever may be the
secret arrangements between themselves, the rule is, that any partner can bind the firm
in all matters which are within the scope of the partnership, each being by the nature of
the contract made the agent of all the rest for business purposes. Thus, any one may
accept a bill in the name of the firm, provided such be one of the modes of doing busi-
ness. It is, however, to be borne in mind, that the fiim is only bound by one of the
partners in those matters which are strictly within the proper business of the firm,
which is an important qualification of the general power. Within the al.ove limits, each
partner can bind the rest of his co-partners, however imprudent or foolish may be his
act, for it is one of the implied conditions, that all have full confidence in each other.
It follows from this principle, that the firm is liable for the dealings of each partner on
its behalf within the scope of the partnership, and each is liable to the full extent for all
the debts of the firm; in short, each is liable to his last shilling for the solvency. of
the firm. Hence, it is often of importance for a partner, on leaving the firm, to know
how to terminate this liability. The rule is, that as regards all strangers, a notice in the
Gazette is good notice; but as between the firm and those who have had dealings with it,
the Gazette notice is of no use, unless it can be proved that the party had actual notice
given to him — and hence a circular-notice sent to customers announcing the fact of
retirement, is the only cause effectual.
The practice of individuals entering into large associations, now called joint-stock
companies, which were originally oidy extended partnerships, has led to a separate code
as to these being framed for the United Kingdom. See JOINT-STOCK COMPANIKS. The
practice of limiting the liabilities of partners or shareholders in joint-stock companies
had of late years led to the belief that a similar restriction might well be extended tc
ordinary partnerships, and accordingly a bill was introduced into parliament in 1864 to
enable this to be done. But that view was not carried out except to a limited extent,
though an attempt was made to simplify some of the rules as to partnership liability,
which arc somewhat perplexing. It had long been matter of complaint that every man
who had a share of the profits of a trade Avas said to be liable also to bear his share of
the loss; whereas by lending money at a fixed rate of interest he was a mere creditor-
and could be exposed to no risk but the loss of his advance. The house of lords, how-
ever, in I860, had held it to be a mistake to suppose that a person who advanced money
on terms of sharing profits was necessarily a partner. To remove part of the difficulty,
however, an act of 28 and 29 Viet. c. 86 was passed, which enacts that if advances are
made by written contract to a person in trade on terms of sharing profits, that of itself
will not make the lender a partner. Nor will the payment of a servant or agent by a
share of profits, nor the receipt by a deceased partner's widow or child of part of the
profits as annuity, make any of these a partner. But the benefit of this act was con-
fined in most cases to written contracts, and thus the old law remains as to other cases.
It is still the law that a person, not a partner, becomes liable as one, if he has either
represented himself as a partner, or authorized another so to represent him; and the
third person dealing with the firm must have known this representation to enable him
to hold the dormant partner liable. In 1870 a bill was passed "to facilitate compro-
mises and arrangements between creditors and shareholders of joint-stock and other
companies in liquidation," but these points do not call for notice here.
In Scotland the law of partnership, though in its essential features the same with the
law of England, differs in one or two particulars. The partnersliip is treated as a dis-
tinct person in law, the partners being only its sureties or cautioners; and the conse-
quence of this is, that in actions by or against the firm, the individual partners need not
be named, though in practice one or two of them generally are named. Each partner
may also sue the firm as if it were a distinct person; and the firm may be mode bankrupt
without any of the partners being sequestrated. See Paterson's Comp of E. & 8. Law,
p. 214.
PARTNERSHIP in law (ante], is defined by Kent as " a contract of two or more
competent persons, to place their money, effects, labor, and skill, or some or all of them in
Parton.
350
lawful commerce or business, and to divide the profit and hear the loss in certain propor-
tions." What constitutes a partmryhijt : There- must be an agreement to carry on sonio
business for the purpose of profit, and that Ihe parties to the agreement shall share the
profit. The association of a number of persons for the purpose of carrying on business
for the sake of profit may not be a partnership, 'but a corporation differs from a partner-
ship iu thi*, that though composed of a number of persons, it performs its acts as a
whole; and its rights and liabilities are as those of a single person, and not as tiioM- of
the persons of whom the corporation consists. The rights and liabilities of a par.nership,
on the other hand, are those of the individual partners. A partnership diil'ers, on
the other hand, from a joint tenancy, or tenancy in common. A common intere.st in tlio
profits is absolutely essential to constitute a partnership. An agreement for a community
of profits is primd facie an agreement for a partnership. An agreement to share profit*
is primd facie- an agreement to share losses, though the agreement says nothing of 1
and wherever a community of profits is shown, the existence of a, partnership is not
arily negatived even by a positive stipulation against community of loss. Parties
not actually partners are made liable as such, by law in two cases. The lirst case,
resulting from the principle of estoppel, is where non-partners have acted in such a way
as to nv.ike other persons suppose they actually are partners. The second case of part'
nership as to third persons arises from sharing profits. An instance of this is where a
person in the service of others, receives not a salary, but a share in the profits. Both
these partnerships as to third persons are known as qua si partnerships. Every person
who has a share in the profits of the business, is primd facie a partner as to third per-
HOIIS; and if behave never represented himself as a partner, he may show that he is not
a partner as to the others. The question as to what kind of community in the profits
will charge a person as a partner in respect to third persons has given rise to many
subtle distinctions. There is a series of cases in which it is held that the right to demand
nn account of profits is the test whether a person be or be not a partner. But it appears
from the 5 Gray, 58 (Mass.), and elsewhere, that though every partner has a right to
demand 30 account, every person who has a right to demand account is not necessarily
a partner. Another series of cases'hold that only a party who has a specific interest in
the profits as principal trader, is chargeable as a partner. Other cases again hold that
a participation in the net profits charges a man as partner, but not a participation in the
gross profits. The cases are not uniform xipou this point. At present, however,
whether there be a partnership or" not, depends upon the intention of the parties. Kach
partner is regarded both as principal and agent in relation to the other partners. (Cox
v. Hickman. 8 H. L., 302, 11.)
A'.< :-,e iiiial* of the formation of a partnership : 1. The association must be voluntary.
3. The purpose must be some lawful business. 3. The persons must be competent to
contract. By common law any number of persons might form a partnership, but somo
English statutes restrict the number. 4. There must be a contribution of capital or
skill. Good credit may be equivalent to capital. 5. The parties must be to each other
as principal and agent.' 6. The result aimed at must be mutual profit, and generally
there is some agreement as to the distribution of profits. In a case where there was no
special agreement, lord Eldon thought there should be an equal division, but the opinion
of lord Ellenborough on the same case at nisiprius seems better, i.e., that it was a ques-
tion for the jury what is a reasonable share. A partnership may be either actual or
ostensible. If actual partnership exist, though not ostensible, as in the case of dormant
partners; the liability to third persons exists. So if a person be an ostensible, though
not an actual partner, he is liable.
(Pawes of partnership : 1. General. 2. Special. 3. Limited as to liability. Thin
exists only by statute. 4- -Joint stock companies. No one can become a member of
the firm without the consent of all the parlies. But one partner may sub-divide hi«
share without the consent of the others. The parties may stipulate to admit certain par-
ties in future, e.g., the representatives of a partner in case of his death during the
partnership. A court of equity will not ordinarily enforce an agreement of partner-
ship; it will leave to the party this remedy at law for breach of the contract. Whether
a partnership exist or not, is a question of fact, in determining which the sharing of the
profits is merely evidence, but no fact makes a partnership by operation of law as
formerly. Co-partners are thus distinguished from co-owners: a co-owner owns only
part of property absolutely; co-partners have an interest in the whole. An agreement
to buy property together does not constitute a partnership, but an agreement to buy and
sell does. Written proof is required by the statute of frau/Js in a partnership in real
estate. A firm may assume any name, and even different names at the same time; but
if any man's name be used with his knowledge, or if he otherwise hold himself out as a
partner, he is liable to those who directly or indirectly learn the fact, and act on it
But his liability does not apply to his executors or administrators. A firm cannot use
the name of another the same as its own if such use be liable to deceive. But no generic
name, or name of country, or produgt, can be the subject of private property. Accord-
ing to the modern law, partnerships may be formed for any business that an individual
may pursue. But a distinction is taken between the right to cany on a business forbidden
by law, and the right of partners to recover the proceeds of such business from each
»ther. The act of partners often occurs in one country while the firm is in another; the
351
Parton .
legality of the action is determined by the law of the country where the act is per-
formed. The powers of a partnership are usually expressed in articles, and the powers
of the majority arc limited by the articles, or by the main purpose of the partnership.
In dealing with third persons, each partner has all the power of the firm. Each partner
is the unlimited agent of the others in every matter connected witli the partnership
business, or which he represents to be partnership business, and which is not by iis
nature outside of such business. But in legal proceedings a partner cannot confess
judgment for his co-partner; the whole firm must confess. He cannot submit a . contro-
versy of the firm' to referees without consent of the other partners, although the firm's
attorney can submit the firm's case to referees. A partner cannot execute a sealed
instrument for the firm; but where a seal is unnecessary by law, or in settlement of debt
or release, he may execute such an instrument. But an authority on the part of the
other partners to execute a sealed instrument will be readily implied by the court. A.
partner may appoint agents and fix their compensation. lie cimuot charge, however,
for his own services. Unanimity of partners may change any condition in the partner-
f-hip business, even its nature. Each partner has a lien on partnership property for
payment of partnership debts, and of his proportion. As a conseauence all real estate
is treated as personal property. Creditors may disregard partner's lien and pursue other
remedies. Partners may convert partnership property into private property, and so
'discharge it from lien. In the United States in the absence of agreement to the con-
trary, partners are held entitled to equal shares in. the profits. IN o allo wance is to be
made for an excess of capital paid in, or cha-ge for excess withdrawn. Apart from the
aci i'm of account, there is no action at law pending the partnership in regard to partner-
ship affairs. A partnership may be dissolved by the act of God, as the death of one of
the partners; by mutual consent of the parties; by an assignment of the partnership
property -for the benefit of creditors; by the assignment of a partner's interest to his
co-partner or another; by act of the law, as the bankruptcy of a partner; by the mar-
r'.ii'y: of a female partner; by the lapse of the time for which the partnership was formed;
by the completion of the business for which the partnership was formed; by war between
tiio different states in which the partners live, and by the award of arbitrators appointed
under the articles of partnership. Lunacy of one of the partners does not itself dis-
f'.olvc the firm, but upon clear evidence of incurable insanity a court of equity will
dccroo a dissolution. A partnership may be dissolved by decree in cases of gross care-
lessness or willful fraud, or where there are permanent dissensions between the parties
of such a nature as to prevent their carrying on the business. Dissolution ends all
transactions between the parties except for taking arf account and winding up the busi-
ness. The power of the partners still continues for some purposes; as to pay the
partnership debts out of the partnership funds, to carry out the engagements of the
partnership, and to convert all the partnership assets for the benefit of the partners.
The liability of partners as to third persons continues till actual notice of the dissolution
H served upon the latter, if they have had previous dealings with the firm; for other
persons, notice in the Newspapers is sufficient. Notice of the retirement of a dormant
partner need be given to only such creditors as know of his being a partner. The class
of partnerships known as "limited" is allowed by statute in most of the American
btates They consist of one or more partners, called general partners, whose liability is
unrestricted, and one or more special partners with a liability restricted to the amount
of capital furnished by each.
PARTON, JAMES, b. England, 1822; came to New York while young, and received
his education at an academy in White Plains, N. Y. ; where about 1841 he began to
teach. He followed this profession for some years, teaching also in New York city and
Philadelphia, and then entered upon a literary career, by joining the staff of the New
York Home Journal, with which paper he continued three years. In 1855 he published
his Life of Horace Greeley; and in 1857 his Life of Aaron Burr. The latter work estab-
lished for him a reputation as a brilliant writer of biography, and becams very popular.
It was followed in 1859-60 by bis Life of Andrew Jackson, a more ambitious work, and
which tended to confirm the popular impression' with regard to him. He published also
liamoroux Poetry of t Jut English Language from Chaucer to Saxe; Biography of Franklin;
General Butler in Neio Orleans; Famous Americans; Caricature and the Comic Art; and
a number of pungent monographs on political and other topics. He has contributed
frequently to the North American Review, Atlantic Monthly, and other periodicals; he has
also been a successful lecturer. He married, in 1856, Sara Payson Willis, sister of
Nathaniel P. Willis, better known as " Fanny Fern ;" and after her death, in 1872, married
her daughter by her first marriage. See FARTON, SARA PAYSON (WiLLis).
PARTON, SARA PAYSON (WILLIS), 1811--72; b. Maine; received her education in
the school of Catharine and Harriet Beecher, in Hartford, Conn; and, in 1834, married
Charles Eldridgc, of Boston. Her husband died in 1846, leaving her with two children
and she married a Mr. Farrington, a Boston merchant, but the union proved short-lived.
She now endeavored to support her children and herself by teaching, but was unsuccess-
ful, and in 1851 made her first attempt in literature by sending sketches signed "Fanny
Fern," to Robert Bonner, the publisher of the New York Ledger. These sketches were
written in a vein and upon topics which secured public attention, and were wideljr
Part-owners.
Parts.
copied; and the immediate result was a lucrative engagement with Mr. Bonner, for
whom she continued to write until her death. In 1853 she published a collection of her
articles, under the liile /•<•/•/< /,<•.//•<.•<, which had a large circulation, as many HS 70,000
copies being sold. She also published Jlnlh JInl', l,\ /•',•<./< LeAte^ and other
novels and sketches. Soon after beginning to write for the Lfi!(/< r she removed lo New
York, where she passed the remainder of her life. She married James Parton in 1856.
PART-OWNERS, in law, persons who, without being partner?, hold un-lividcd
shares of personal property. Their respective rights and interests differ greatly from
those of partners; one cannot bind the others as their agent; but if there be such uj
and authority to act for the other part-owners, it must be created in some other \vu\
can it exist, nor its existence be inferred, from the fact of part-ownership. A part-owner
can affect only his own undivided share of the property; he cannot place an incumbrane*?
on the whole, or assign or dispose of the whole. The' term part-ownership i- ordinarily
and almost exclusively applied to ownership in vessels. It is common for a vessel to be
held by a number of persons, not as partners, but as part-owners. The \< ssel, in that
case, is supposed to be divided into a number of equal shares. The various part owners
manage the vessel by, and delegate their interests to, a number of ;:genls, < f whom the
principal arc the ship's husband and the master. These oflicers have a wide authority
under the maritime law to bind their principals in certain contracts. Thus the ir.ashr
can make contracts for supplies, uses, and repairs, when the ship is abroad ; and ii \
sary may borrow money on the credit of the part-owners, or procure it by bottomry, or
by a pledge of the cargo. As long as he acts within the scope of his authority the part-
owners will be liable;"and the ship itself is liable as a rule. The ship's husband is gen-
erally himself a part-owner. He is the agent of the owners to make repairs aii>.
erally attend to the equipment and management of the ship. A majority of the part-
owners have the right to use the ship for a particular voyage, against the will of the
minority; but they must secure the latter, to the amount of their shares, against loss.
PARTRIDGE, Perdir, a genus of gallinaceous birds, of the family Id: iving
a short, strong bill, naked at the base; the upper mandible convex, bent down at the
tips; the wings and tail short, the tarsi as well as the toes naked, the t:ir.-i no! spurred.
— The COMMON PARTRIDGE, or GRAY PARTRIDGE (P. cina-m), i< the most plentiful of
all the game-birds in Britain, and becomes increasingly plentiful as cultivation is
extended, whilst the range of the moorfowl is restricted. It is not found in the outer
Hebrides. On the continent of Europe it is abundant in almost all districts suitable to
its habits, from Scandinavia to the Mediterranean, and is found also in the n. of Africa,
and in some parts of the w. of Asia. It varies considerably in size; those found in rich
lowlands being generally the largest, and about 124 in. in entire hngth; while those
which inhabit poorer and more upland districts are rather smaller. Th<- rather
smaller than the male. The upper parts of both are ash-gray, finely varied with brown
and black; the male has a deep chestnut crescent-shaped spot on the l'na--t, which is
almost or altogether wanting in the female. A variety called thcfnouutain partridge has
the plumage brown. The partridge is seldom found far from cultivated land. It feeds
on grain and other seeds, insects and their larvae and pupae, and the pupai of am
generally the food sought at first for the young. The nest is usually on flic ground,
among brushwood and long grass, or in fields of clover or corn, and generally contains
from 12 lo 20 eggs. The young run as soon as they are hatched. Eoth parents show a
very strong attachment to their young, and great courage in repelling assailants; they
have also recourse, like many other birds, to stratagem, to draw off the n:o.-i powerful
and dangerous enemies, such as dogs, in another direction, fluttering close before them
as if broken-winged, whilst the brood escape. Until the end of autumn, Uie parent birds
and their brood keep together in ncwcy; late in the season, several coveys oit< n unite into
a. pack, when it becomes much more difficult for the sportsman to approach them. The
flight of the partridge is strong and rapid for a short distance, but it does i;o< seem to be
capable of a long-sustained flight. The eggs of partridges are often hatched, and the
young birds reared, by the domestic hen, the chief requisite being a plentiful supply of
ants when the birds arc very young. Partridges thus reared become very tame, but they
seldom breed in the aviary. — The RED-LEGGED PARTRIDGE (P. 111 f UK, or ruft/x,
the genus orsubgenus caccabis being distinguished by a rudimentary blunt spur on the
tarsi) is a native of the s. of Europe and of ilic Channel islands, and is now also plentiful
in some parts of England, particularly Norfolk and Suffolk, into which it has b< en intro-
duced. It is rather larger than the common partridge, stronger on the wing. a;.d less
easily approached by the sportsman, whilst it is also less esteemed for the table. The
upper parts arc of*a reddish-ash color; the throat and checks white, bounded by a
collar of black, which expands in black .spots on the breast; and the sides exhibit bars
of black. The plumage is smooth. — Two other species, nearly allied to this, are found
in some of the southern parts of Europe. India has a number of species. The habits of
all the species much resemble those of the common partridge. — The name partridge is
sometimes extended so as to include the species of ortyx (see VIRGINIAN QUAIL), and iu
South America is sometimes given to the tinamous.
PARTRIDGE, ALDEN, 1785-1854; b. Norwich, Vt.; graduated from the V. S. mil-
itary academy 1806, Dartmouth college, 1812, and was appointed 1st lieut. of engineers;
Part-owners.
Parts.
capt. in 1810. In 1813 he was appointed professor of mathematics at West Point, having
been assistant professor for a year previous, and in Sept em her follow ing- became professor
of engineering-; afterward superintendent of West Point academy till 1818, when he
resigned. In "1819 he went out as leader of the surveying party sent to the n.w.
frontier of the United Slates to determine the boundary line. He was the: founder of a
military school at Norwich, Vt., in 1820, subsequently attached to Norwich university,
of which he was made president. In 1833 he was appointed surveyor-gen, of Vermont,
and was several times a member of the legislature. He gave lectures on military topics
in the leading cities of the country, and established schools for military instruction in
Portsmouth, Va., 1840; in Reading, Penn., 1850; and in Delaware ami New Hampshire.
In 1823 he published An Excursion; in 1837 Letters on Education, and on National De-
fense; Journal of u Tour of Cadets, etc.
PARTRIDGE, GEORGE, 1740-1838; b. Duxbuiy, Mass.; graduate of Harvard, 1762_;
studied divinity, r.ud taught school at Kingston. In 1774-75 he was a, delegate to the
provincial congress. lie was representative from his state 177.5-79, a delegate to the
continental congress 1779-83, and 1783-85; in 1780 and for several years sheriff of Ply-
mouth county. At his death he left a large share of his estate for the advancement of
religion and popular education.
PARTRIDGE BERRY, or CHECKER BERRY, a genus of rubiaceae (madder family),
represented by one species in America, and one in Japan. The American species, mitch-
ella repeus, named in honor of Dr. John Mitchell, a correspondent of Liunieus, and an
excellent botanist of Virginia, extends from Canada to Mexico and South America. It
is a small trailing evergreen, having- a branching stem, a foot long, often more, usually
covering the ground witli a mat. Its favorite habitats are dry, sandy knolls in piney
woods, but it may be found in most dry woods. Its leaves are smooth and shining,
round-ovate, opposite with short petioles, and traversed with light lines; flowers m pairs
with ovaries united; calyx four-toothed; corolla funnel-form, fbur-lobed; the lobes
spreading densely bearded inside; white, tinged with rose or purple: fragrant; stamens
four, style one; stigmus four, linear. Fruit, a beautiful scarlet berry crowned with the
calyx teeth of the two flowers, each with four small seed-like, bony nutlets (gray). Tho
berry is about the size of that of the winter-green, but broader, and short; also varies,
some of them being four times as large as others. They remain on the plant during the
winter. Blossoms in June and July. The berries are often eaten, but are pitchy and
, rather tasteless, much inferior to the winter-green berry, which is also often erroneously
called partridge berry.
PABTEIDCrE BESSY. See GAULTIIERIA.
PARTBIDGE PIGEON (Geophaps), an Australian genus of columUdce, approaching
more than most of the pigeons, in character and habits, to the true gallinaceous birda,
and particularly to partridges. Their plumage is beautiful, and generally with a bronze
tinge and lustre on the wings, which causes them to be sometimes called bronze-wings.
There are several species. They live mostly on the ground, and rise with a whirring
noise, like the pheasant when disturbed. They are highly esteemed for the table. — Geo-
trygon montaim, a species of another genus of columbidce, bears the name of PARTRIDGE
DOVE in the West Indies. It also seeks its food chiefly on the ground, although it affects
well-wooded districts.
PAKTBIDGES, in artillery, were very large bombards formerly in use at sieges and
in defensive works. They are mentioned in Froissart.
PASTEIDGE WOOD, a very pretty hard wood from the West Indies and Brazil; it jg
usually of a reddish color, in various shade from light to dark, the shades being mingled
in thin streaks; but in some choice sorts they are curled upon one another so as to resem-
ble the feathers of the partridge, whence its name. One variety occurs in which the
colors are remarkably bright, and it is consequently called pheasant-wood. In Brazil,
this beautiful wood is so plentiful that it is employed in ship-building, and it is said to
be used in our navy-yards under the name of cabbage-wood, but this is doubtful; many
woods arc known as partridge, and several as cabbage-wood. Among the Brazilians, it
is called "Angelina,*' and they describe four sorts — Angelim de pedra (the stone angelim),
A. vermeUio (red angelim), A. amargo&o (bitter angelim), and A. varzea (cultivated ang'o-
lim). Its chief use in this country is for cabinet-work, Tunbridge-ware, parasol-sticks,
fans, and other small matters for which its beauty recommends it. *It is said to be
yielded by the leguminous tree (Andira mermia), which is found not only in the Brazils,
but in other parts of South America and the West Indies.
PASTS OF SPEECH are the several kinds or classes into which the words of a language
are divided. There is nothing in the outward form of words that would enable^us to
divide them into classes. The distinction lies in Ihe offices that the several words perform
in a sentence (q.v.). All words performing the same ofce in sentences belong to the
same class. The essential parts of speech are the noun, adjective, pronoun, verb, adverb,
preposition, conjunction (see these several heads). The articles (q.v.) are not distinct
parts of speech, being essentially pronouns; and interjections (q.v.) hardly belong to
articulate speech. To name the class or part of speech to which, each word of a sentence
belongs is called to parse it.
U. K. XL —33
Parturition.
Paschal.
PART TTEITIOHT. See MIDWIFERY.
PAKTY, in Heraldry. Sec PARTITION LINES.
PARTY-WALL is the wall dividing two houses or tenements, and which is. in a cer-
tain sense, one and indivisible, though the property of two or .more parties. The ques-
tion us to who is the owner of any particular part of the party-wall, is solved by ascer-
taining who is the owner of the soil on which it is built. In the absence <>!' evidence to
the contrary, it is presumed that half of the soil belongs to the owner on one side, and
the other half to the owner of the other side; and, unless the wall has stood twenty years
and upwards, each owner can do what he likes with his own half, and can [Kin: it away
if he likes. But in general, mutual interest prevents each party from resorting to his
strict legal rights. A practice exists for one who builds a house adjoining the wall of a
neighbor, to pay for half the expense. In Scotland, a party building close to the wall
of another's house can compel the owner of the first house to give him half of the wall
or gable, on paying half the expense; while in England there is no such compulsion.
In Scotland, where the practice exists of building houses in flats lying each upon the
other, the law is not clearly settled, and requires to be cleared up as to what is the nature
of the property or interest which each proprietor of a flat has in that part of the gable
bounding his own flat. The better opinion is, that each is the entire owner of his half
of the gable, the others Laving merely cross servitudes; and hence it follows, that if the-
flats on l)oth sides of a gable belong to one owner, lie can make a communication through
the gable, provided he do not injure the chimney-flues of the lower flats or the stability
of the structure.
PABVATI (from the Sanskrit parvata, mountain, literally, mountain-born) is one of
the names by which Durga, the consort of S'iva, is usually called, she being the daugh-
ter of the mountain Himalaya.
PAEVISE, a porch or open space in front of the door of a church.
PASARGA'DyE, the ancient capital of Persia, before the foundation of Persepolis,
apparently s.e. of that city, near the Carmanian border, on the Cyrus or Kores river in
Loele-Persis. Its modern site is not known; some maintain that Persepolis and Pasarga-
da3 were the same place, while others identify the ruins near Murgab with !
Near Murgab is a tomb known to the natives as the tomb of Solomon's mother, but sup.
posed by Oppert to be the tomb of Cassadane, and by Rawlinson and others to lie that
of Cyrus. It consists of a quadrangular marble chamber, oa a square marble base, mad'i
of great white blocks rising in steps. The chamber probably once contained a sarcoph.
agus. On pillars in the vicinity the inscription in Persian and Achnemenian is frequently
found, " I am Cyrus the Achxmenian." The Persian kings were anciently consecrated
at Pasargado; by the Magi, and the royal palace and treasury were situated there. 1^
was the chief place of the tribe of the same name, the greatest of the three tribes of tin
Persians, and of whom the royal family of the Achaeineuidae were a branch.
PASCAGOU'LA, a river, and bay at its mouth, in Mississippi. The river, formed
by the junction of the Leaf, the Chichahay, with numerous branches, drains the south-
eastern portion of the state, and flows into Mississippi sound through two mouths which
form the bay. It is navigable 100 m. through a sandy region of pine-forests, supplying
turpentine. The villages on the bay are summer resorts from Mobile and New Orleans,
and on the shores at night are heard sounds like the ^Eolian harp, supposed to be caused
by some kind of shell-fish.
PASCAL, BLAISE, one of the most distinguished philosophers and scholars of the 17th
c.. was 1). at Clermont, in Auvergne, France, June 19, 1623. His father, Etienne Pas-
«-:d. was president of the cour des aides at Clermont. His mother, Antoinette Bezon,
died while he was little beyond infancy. He had two sisters — the elder, Gilberte,
Madame Pcrier, afterwards his biographer; the younger, Jacqueline, who became n
nun of Port Royal, under the celebrated Mere Angelique, sister of Antoiue Arnauld.
"From childhood, Blaise gave evidence of extraordinary abilities; and when he reached
his eighth year, 'his father resigned his office at Clermont, and came to Paris, in order
personally to direct the boy's education. For the purpose of concentrating all the boy's
<'{forts upon languages, his father kept out of his reach all books treating the subject of
mathematics, for which he had early evinced a decided taste; and it is recorded that by his
<t vn unaided speculations, drawing the diagrams wilh charcoal upon the floor, he made
pome progress in geometry. One account represents him as having thus mastered the first
f liirty-two propositions of the first book of Euclid's Elements— & statement which carries
ils own refutation with it. Thenceforward he was allowed freely to follow the bent of
his genuis. In his sixteenth year, he produced a treatise on conic sections, which
extorted the almost incredulous admiration of Descartes. In his nineteenth year, he-
invented a calculating-machine; and turning his attention to the novel questions as to
the nature of fluids, 'which Torricelli's theories had raised, he produced two essays,
which, although not published till after his death, have established his reputation as an
experimental physicist. His father having accepted an office at Rouen, Pascal was there
brought much into intercourse with a distinguished preacher, Abbe Guillebert, a mcm-
l>er of the Jansenists, but a man of great eloquence, a great master of ascetic theology,
from whom and other members of the same rigid sect, as well as from the writings of
Parturition,
Paschal.
Arnauld, St. Cyran, and Nicole, Pascal's mind received a deeply religious turn; and his
health having suffered much from excessive study, be gave himself up in great measure
to retirement and theological reading, and to the practice of asceticism. Tiie death of his
father, and his sister Jacqueline's withdrawal to Port Royal, confirmed these habits; and
it is to this period that we owe his magnificent though unfinished Petiseey, which have
extorted the admiration even of his unbelieving, and therefore unsympathizing, critics.
Having fully identified himself with the Jansenist party, he was induced (1655) to take
up his residence at Port Royal, although not as a member of the body, where he resided
till his death, entirely given up to prayer and practices of mortification, among which
practices may be mentioned that of wearing an iron girdle, studded with sharp points,
which he forced into his flesh whenever he felt himself assailed by sinful thoughts. In
the controversy to which the condemnation of Arnauld by the Sorbonne (l'J55) gave
rise, Pascal took a lively interest; and it was to this controversy that he contributed the
memorable Lettres Provinciates, published under the pseudonym of Louis de Montalt.
These famous letters (eighteen in number, not reckoning the nineteenth, which is a frag
ment, and the twentieth, which is by Lamaistre), are written, as if to a provincial friend,
on the absorbing controversial topic of the day. The first three are devoted to the vin-
dication of Arnauld, and the demonstration of the identity of his doctrine with that of
St. Augustine. But it was to the later letters that the collection owed both its contem-
porary popularity and its abiding fame. In these Pascal addresses himself to the casu-
istry and to the directorial system of Arnauld's great antagonists, the Jesuits; and, in a
strain of humorous irony which has seldom been surpassed, he holds up to ridicule their
imputed laxity of principle on the obligation of restitution, on simony, on probable
opinions, on directing the intention, on equivocation and mental reservation, etc. In
nil this, he professes to produce the authorities of their own authors. Of the extraordi-
nary ability displayed in these celebrated letters, no question can be entertained; but the
Jesuits and their friends loudly complain of their unfairness, and represent them as in
great part the work of a special pleader. The quotations with the exception of those
from Escobar, were confessedly supplied by Pascal's friends. It is complained that
many of the authors cited are not Jesuits at all; that many of the opinions ridiculed and'
reprobated as opinions of the Jesuit order, had been in reality formally repudiated and
condemned in the society; that many of the extracts are garbled and distorted; that it
treats as though they had been designed for the pulpit and as manuals for teaching,
works which in reality were but meant as private directions of the judgment of the con-
fessor; and that, in almost all cases, statements, facts, and circumstances are withheld,
which would modify, if not entirely remove, their objectionable tendency. See JESUITS.
To all which the enemies of the Jesuits reply by arguments intended thoroughly to vin-
dicate Pascal. Pascal himself entertained no compunctious feeling for the production
of these letters, but even at the approach of death declared his full sal isf action with the
wor-k, such as it was. His later years were made very wretched by continued, or at
least, frequently recurring hypochondria, under the influence of which he suffered from
very painful fantasies, which he was unable to control; His strength was completely
worn out by these and other infirmities, and, prematurely old, he died at the early age
of 39, in Paris, in the year 16G2. His Pensecs sur la Religion, et sur quelqy.es mitres Sujets,
being unfinished, were, published with suppressions and modifications in 1669; but their
full value was only learned from the complete edition which was published at the
instance of 31. Cousin (Paris, 1844). Of all his works, the Lettres Provinciates have been
the most frequently reprinted. They were translated into Latiujn the lifetime of Pas-
cal by Nicole, under the pseudonym of a German professor, " \\ilhelm Wendroc;" and
an edition in four languages appeared at Cologne in 1684.
PASCHAL. See PASSOVER.
PASCHAL I., b. Rome, 8th c.; d. 824; abbot of the monastery of St. Stephen at
Rome, made cardinal bj Leo III., and pope in 817. The donation of Louis the pious
was said to have been made to him. In 823 he crowned Lothaire, son of Louis, as
emperor.
PASCHAL II. (RANIERT OF BIEDA), Pope, b. in Tuscan}', about the middle of the llth
c. ; d. 1118. He was a monk of the order of Clugny, and, having been sent to Rome on
the affairs of the monastery, he was made cardinal by pope Gregory VII. He succeeded
Urban II. as pope in 1099. He had a contest in regard to investitures with Henry V.,
king of the Germans, who went to Italy with an army in order to be crowned as emperor.
Pa -dial proposed a compromise, but when Henry entered with the pope into the Vatican
to be crowned the negotiation was broken off, and the pope refused to consecrate the
fmporor. Henry ordered his soldiers to seize the pope. A scuffle ensued; and the
Roman people, enraged at the indignity put upon their pontiff, fell upon the German
soldiers, killing some, and drove t lie rest" back to their camp, outside the city. Henry
stripped the pope of his pontifical ornaments, bound him with cords, and after keeping
him prisoner for two months compelled him to issue a bull giving up the right of inves-
titure to the emperor, and to consecrate him. Henry then returned to Germany. Pas-
chal then summoned a council in the Lateran, which condemned the cession of the right
of investiture, and pronounced the investiture of churchmen by lay 'hands a heresy.
Henry again marched to Rome; the pope escaped to Benevento, and Henry caused him-
Paschal.
Pasquier.
self to be crowned again by the bishop of Bcnevonto. After Henry's departure Paschal
returned to Home, made preparations for war, but died before he could take the field.
The question of the investiture was compromised in 1122 under Calixtus II., so that tlio
bishops elected according to the canonical forms should receive their regalia from the
emperor, and do homage for them, but that in the ceremony of investiture the emperor
should use the scepter only, and not the ring and crosier, the emblems of spiritual
authority.
PASCHAL CHRONICLE, so called because part of it was compiled from the Pas-
chal canons (rules for the Easter festival) of various districts and towns, contains a sum-
mary of events ill chronological order from Adam to 629 A.D., which was the 20! h year
of Heraclius. It was at one time named also AlvMiinli-innm, because then attributed io
a writer of Alexandria. The name of the author, however, is not known. It at first
extended, according to the opinion of some, only to 354 A.U., in the reign of Consian-
tius; the continuation of it with additions to the first part being the work of a later
compiler. Others, however, regard it all as the work of one man. It is sometimes
calk-d also Fasti Siculi, because it had been found in an old library in Sicily, from which
it was taken to Rome. Notwithstanding its numerous faults both of matter and style,
it contains much valuable chronological information. An appended list of emperors
from Augustus to Constantino Monomachus is evidently the work of a later author. A
convenient edition, 2 vols., 8vo, was published by Dinuorf at Bonn, 1832.
PASCO, or CEBKO DE PAECO, an important mining,city in Peru, in the department of
Junin, stands at an elevation of about 14,000 ft. above sea-level, 80 m. n.e. of Lima, in.
a direct line, but upwards of 130m. by the winding mountain road. It consists of a
collection of huts spread over an area that has been hollowed out and perforated in all
direction* by mines. The number of the inhabitants varies according to the state of the
mines, being sometimes considerably more than 12,000, and often much less. It pos-
sesses a journal of literature and mining. The Cerro, or "mountain knot" of Pasco,
rises in Sacshuanata, 16,000 ft. above the level of the sea. Coal is found.
PAS-DE-CALAIS (Fr. for strait of Dover), a department in the u. of France, bounded
on the n. by the department of Nord and the strait of Dover, and on the, w. by the strait
of Dover and the English channel. Area, 2,540 sq.m., of which 883,300 acres are culti-
vated, and 236,707 in meadows. Pop. '76, 793,140. The surface is level, with the
exception of a ridge of hills running from the s.e. to the n.w., ending in Gris-nez capo
(q.v.), and forming the water-shed between the North sea and the English channel. The
rivers, which are of no considerable length, are the Scarpe and Lys in the basin of the
North sea, and the Authie and Canche belonging to the basin of the English channel.
The rivers are navigable within the department, and are connected by canals. The
coast-line is 80 m. in length, and the shores are in certain parts low and sand}'; while
for several miles on either side of Gris-nez, cliffs similar to those of Dover front the SIM.
The climate is mild, but exceedingly inconstant. The soil is very fertile — all the usual
cereal and leguminous crops are produced in abundance — and the country is very pro-
ductive both as regards agriculture and manufactures. Fishing is actively carried on
on the coast, particularly in the neighborhood of Boulogne. Coal of an indifferent
quality is raised, the excellent quarries of the department are worked, and considerable
quantities of turf are cut. The industrial establishments are numerous and important,
as iron-foundries, glass-works, potteries, tanneries, and numerous bleach-works, and mills
and factories of various kinds. Boulogne and Calais are the principal harbors. There
are six arrondissements — Arras, Bethune, St. Omer, St. Pol, Boulogne, and Moutreuil.
The capital is Arras.
PASENG. See GOAT.
PA'SEWAIK, a t. of Prussia, In the government of Stettin, 25 m. w.n.w. of the city
of that name, on the Uker. It contains two churches, two hospitals, and several woolen-
cloth and leather factories; and carries on an active general trade. Pop. '75, 8,538
PASHA', or PACHA, a title used in the Ottoman empire, and applied to governors of
provinces, or military and naval commanders of high rank. The name is said to be
derived from two Persian Avords — pa, foot or support, and *hn?i, ruler — and signifies
" the support of the ruler." The title was limited in the early period of the Ottoman
empire to the princes of the blood, but was subsequently extended to the grand-vizier,
the members of the diviin, the seraskier, capitan-pasha, the begler-begs, and other civil
and military authorities. The distinctive badge of a pasha is a horse's tail, waving from
from the end of a staff, crowned with a gilt ball; in war this badge is always carried
before him when he goes abroad, and is at other times planted in front of his tent. The
three grades of pashas are distinguished by the number of the horse-tails on their stand-
ards; those of the highest rank are pashas of three tails, and include, in general, the
highest functionaries, civil and military. All pashas of this class have the title of vizier;
and the grand-vizier is, par excellence, a pasha of three tails. The pashas of two tails are
the governors of provinces, who generally are called by the simple title of "pasha."
The lowest rank of pasha is the pnsha of one tail; the sanjaks, or lowest class of provin-
cial governors, are of this rank. The pasha of a province has authority over the military
force, the revenue, and the administration of justice. His authority was formerly abso
OK >7 Paschal.
Pasquierw
lute, but recently a check was imposed on him by the appointment of locnl councils.
The pasha is in his own person the military leader and administrator of justice for the
province under his charge, and holds office during the pleasure of the sultan — a most
precarious tenure, as the- sultan can at any moment, in the exercise of his despotic power,
exile, imprison, or put him to death; and this has frequently been done :.n cases where
the pasha's power has excited the apprehension, or his wealth the avarice of his royal
master.
PASIPHAE. See MINOS, ante.
PASKEVITCH, IVAN FP:ODOROVITCH, Count of Erivan, Prince of Warsaw, and a Rus-
»ian field-marshal, was b. at Poltava, May 19, 1782. He was descended from a Polish
iamily, and was at first a page to the czar Paul, but entered the army, and served in the
campaign in 1805, which was ended by the defeat of Austerlitz; and then against the
Turks. He took a prominent part in the campaign of 1812, and several times defeated
the French under Eugene, Ney, and St. Cyr; he was also present at Leipsic and the
conflicts under the walls of Paris. In 1825 he was appointed Commander-in-chief against
the Persians, whom he completely defeated, conquering Persian Armenia, taking Erivan,
and ending the war by the peace of Turkmanshai (q.v.), a peace exceedingly favorabie
to Russia. In recompense for these services he was created count of Erivan, and received
a grant of 1,000,000 rubles (£158,600). In 1828 and 1829 he made two campaigns against
the Turks in Asia, signalized by the taking of Kars, Erzerum, and other important
provinces, and terminated by the treaty of Adrianople in 1829. In 1831, Paskevitch,
now a field-marshal, was appointed viceroy of Poland, put an end to the revolt within
three months after his appointment, and reconstructed the administration on the basis of
a complete incorporation with Russia. Such was the vigor and severity of his rule that
the eventful year of 1848 passed over without any attempt at revolution. When Russian
intervention in Hungary hud been resolved upon, Paskevitcli, though now 67 years of
age, inarched into that country at the head of 200,000 men, and, after a junction with
the Austriaus, defeated the Hungarians in several battles, and by mere force of numbers
crushed out the last spark of insurrection. The 50th anniversary of his military service
was celebrated at Warsaw, in 1850, with the utmost rejoicings, and on this occasion the
sovereigns of Austria and Prussia conferred on him the rank of field-marshal in their
respective armies. In 1854 he unwillingly took the command of the Russian army on
the Danube; but fortune, which had bitherto invariably smiled upon him, deserted him
at Siiistria; and after undergoing a succession of sanguinary repulses, and being himself
grievously wounded, he withdrew" his army, and resigning the command retired to
Warsaw, where he fell into a state of profound melancholy, and died Jan. 29, 1856.
PASMA is the name given to a non-officinal healing-powder, Avhich is regarded as
very, serviceable in burns, ulcers, excoriations, etc. It is composed of 80 parts of silica,
12 of magnesia, 6 of alumina, 2 of protoxide of iron, and 50 of starch from the olgra
root.
PASPALUM, a genus of grasses, with spikes either solitary or variously grouped,
one-flowered spikelets, and awnlcss palese. The species are numerous, natives of warm
climates. — P. (scrobiciilatuin is cultivated as a cereal in India, where it is called koda.
See MILLET. It will grow in very barren soils, and delights in a dry loose soil. P. exifo
is cultivated in like manner in the w. of Africa, where it is called fundi (q. v.) or fun-
dungi. — Other species are valuable as fodder-grasses. P. purpureum is a very important
fodder-grass in the coast districts of Peru during the dry months of February and March,
P. xtoloniferum, also a Peruvian species, has been introduced into France; but it is apt
to be injured by frosts, and seldom ripens its seeds in the neighborhood of Paris.
PASQTTE FLOWER, Pulsatilla, a genus of plants of I lie natural order rantinculacece, by
many botanists still included in anemone, the chief .distinguishing characteristic being
the long feathery awns of the fruit. The species are perennial, silky, herbaceous plants,
with doubty pinimtifid or doubly trifid leaves, and a simple one-flowered scape. They
are narcotic, acrid, and poisonous. The common pasque flower (pnlsatina vnlgnris or
anemone pulsatilla) is a native of many parts of Europe, and of chalky pastures in sev-
eral mrts of England. It has widely bell-shaped bluish-purple flowers. Another species,
P. or A. pruiensis, a native of the continent of Europe, not of Britain, has smaller and
more perfectly bell-shaped blackish-purple flowers. — These plants emit, when bruised, a
pungent smell; and contain, as their principal constituent, a peculiar pungent essential
oil, which, in combination with nnf/mnnic acid, forms an acrid- and very inflammable
substance called unemonine, or pulxaHlla camphor, and is sometimes used in medicine.
PuI:-iiiiUa is a favorite medicine of the liomeopathists. Efixter er/ys are colored purple in
some places by the petals of the pasque flower. — More acrid than any of the species just
named is pulsatilla potens, which occasionally even blisters the skin.
PASQUIER, ETJENNE, 1529-1615; b. in Paris, of an esteemed family; educated for
the bar, under the ablest jurists of France and Italy, and at the age of 20 received as an
advocate in Paris courts. In 1560 he cbnunenced the publication of his most important
•work, entitled Recherekesde la France, and another, entitled Pourparler du Pniire. The
former lias ever since been a classic authority. In 1564 he distinguished himself at the
bar by a defense of the university of France against the claims of the Jesuits to establish
Fasquier. o K Q
Passau.
their authority within its circle; and by the lofty ground upon which he based the objec-
tion for the state itself rather than for the university, the masterly fullness of his
arraignment of all the elements of dangerous political power that lay in the nature of
their organization, his speeches became the first great arraignment of the order, then
only 44 years from its origin. Immediately translated into all the continental languages.
Pasquier's pleadings for a long linn; were the chief weapons of opposition to the grow-
ing power of that order. Henry III. made him advocate-genera] in 15K">, deputy to the
Btates-gcti'M'al at Blois in 1588, and member of a parliament of magistrates in 1589. The
eight volumes of the lUcherches, etc., above mentioned, treat, 1st. of the establishment of
the French — the origin of the nation; 2d, of magistrates, parliaments, states-general ;j
3d, of ecclesiastical affairs, the power of the popes, and the liberty af the Galilean!
church; 4th, of judgments, procedures, and customs; 5th, various historical questions;
6th, celebrated trials; 7th, of the origin of French poetry and of the language; Hlh, of
the French language, 9th. of French literature, the university, and its studies. Selec-
tions from his works, entitled (Hurras C/ioixfc.*. were published by M. I-Ytigerc, Paris.
1840. The letters of Pasquier, published in 1586, and again in 1(519 in 4 vols. quarto,
originally appeared in 22 vols. They form a picturesque panorama of the life and thought
of the times in which he lived; sketches of history and law, of biography, of manners
and customs, all given with a liveliness and warmth of style equal to the models of similar
writings with which later French literature abounds.
PAS.QUIER, ETIENNE DENIS, Due de, 17G7-18G2; a descendant of the great jurist
author Etienne; born, educated, and died in Paris. He was early in government employ;
in 1806 attracted the favor of Napoleon, nnd not long after became prooircur-general of
the seals, and of titles, and then prefect of police; director of roads and bridges under
Louis XVIII.,, and minister of the interior; minister of justice in 1817; of foreign affairs
in 1819. In 1820 he became conspicuous for his advocacy of absolutism, and used the
expression, become famous, that "despotism specifically expressed becomes a salutary
remedy in great perils." After 1821 he sat in the chamber of peers; in 1880 gave adhe-
sion to Louis Philippe; was made chancellor, and in 1844 duke. In 1842 he became a
member of the French academy by the same courtier-skill which made his road smooth
to royal favor through four different reigns, which favor he seems to have partly merited
by a wise business ad ministration.
PASQUINADE, an anonymous or pseudonymous publication of small size, sometimes
prinied, sometimes only posted up or circulated in manuscript, and having for its object
the defamation of a character, or at least the turning of a person to ridicule. The nume
is derived from Patquino, a tailor remarkable for his wit and sarcastic humor, who lived
in Rome towards the close of the loth c., and attracted many to his shop by his sharp
and lively sayings. Some time after his death, a mutilated fragment of an :;•
statue, considered to represent Meut-laus supporting the dead body of Patroelns, was dug
up opposite his shop, and placed at the end of thcBraschi palace, near the pia/./a Navoni.
It was named after the defunct tailor, and thus the practice originated of aflixing to it
placards containing satires and jests relative to the affairs of the day — the pope and the
cardinals being favorite victims of the invisible satirists. It till recently continued to be
the only outlet which the Roman had for his opinions and feelings. One or two may
be quoted as specimens of the mordant style of the Pasquin statue. " Great sums," said
the satirist one day, in an epigram addressed to pope Paul III., "were formerly given to
poets for singing; how much will you give me, O Paul, to be silent?" On the marriage
of a young Roman called Cesarc to a girl called Roma, the statue gave the following
advice: " Cave, Cirsar, nc tua Roma respublica liat." Next day the rival statre of Mar-
forio, in the capitol, replied: " Caesar imperat;" to which Pasquin, with exquisite malice,
retorted: "Ergo coronabitur."
PAS'QUOTANK, a co. in n.e. North Carolina, having the Pasquotank river for its
e. boundary, flowing into a bay of- the same name, and Albemarle sound on the s.e.;
bounded on the w. by Little river, an outlet like the Pasquotank, of a lake in the n. sec-
tion; 250 sq.m. ; pop. '70, 8,131 — 8,102 of American birth. It is intersected by the Dis-
mal Swamp canal; connecting its co. scat with Norfolk through the Pasquotauk river.
Its surface is low and swampy, the Dismal swamp extending into it's n. portion. Its soil
is very fertile along the water courses, and produces grain, cotton, sweet-potatoes, and
pork. Its leading industries arc the manufacture of lumber and coaches. Co. seat,
Elizabeth City.
PASSAGE, WEST, a sea-port town upon the western shore of the estuary of the river
Lee, in the county of Cork, Ireland, which has risen into importance chiefly" as a water-
ing-place, and.as the shipping-port and marine suburb of the city of Cork, from which
it is distant, by the Cork and Passage railway, about 6 miles. As the river above Pas-
Wge is not navigable for ships above 400 or 500 tons burden, ships of higher tonnage
discharge their cargoes at Passage. It is also a ship-building station. Pop. 2,;W». about
four-fifths of whom arc Catholics. The rest belong mainly to the Protestant Episcopal
church, other denominations being sparsely represented. — There is another small town
of the same name, EAST PASSAGE, near the mouth of the Suir, in the county of Water-
ford, Ireland.
Pasquier.
Passau.
PASSAGLIA, CAKLO, a Roman Catholic theologian of great eminence, who has
obtained much notoriety in connection with the recent movement for the unity of Italy,
is a native of the duchy of Lucca, where lie was born May 2, 1813. His origin is very
humble, and lie entered extremely young as a scholar of the Jesuit society, of which he
was enrolled a member in the year 1827. Having obtained much distinction in tho
schools of the order, and having, as is usual with its members, taught for some time in
the lower schools, he completed his theological studies in the Komau college, and was
appointed professor, of canon law, and eventually of dogmatical theology. His reputa-
tion for learning stood in the very first rank of Roman Catholic theology, and his lectures
were exceedingly admired for their eloquence and erudition, but were considered i.i
some respects too diffuse for the class of pupils who frequented his school. During thy
temporary withdrawal of the Jesuits from Rome in 1848-51, Passaglia, with some of his
brethren, came to England, where he taught theology to the young brethren of his order,
and on the re-establishment of the Jesuits in the Roman college, he resumed possession
of his chair. During the discussions which preceded the definition of the doctrine of
the immaculate conception of the blessed Virgin Mary (q.v.), Passaglia published an elab-
orate treatise on the doctrine and history of that question, which was published at the
cost of the Roman government. Soon afterwards, however, the dissatisfaction which
was expressed at the unsuitable character and method of his lectures by the authorities
of the order led to his resignation of the professorship of theology. Still, however, hq
continued a member of the society; and the pope, who felt a warm friendship for him,
established in tho Roman university a special chair of philosophy for him, which he did
not long retain. In 18o8 or 1859 he left the societ}' of the Jesuits, and entered warmly
into the discussions as to the temporal power of the pope, in connection with which he
undertook a voluntary mission to Turin, which, however, led to no results. Having
fallen under suspicion in Rome, and his house having been invaded by a domiciliary
visit of the police, he withdrew from that city to Turin, where he established a journal
entitled 11 .^[ediatore, which appeared till 1866. He was appointed by the king professor
of moral philosophy, and subsequently of theology in the university of Turin. In 1863
he became a member of the Turin parliament, but his success fell far short of his repu-
tation. He is said to have sought reconciliation with the church, but to have failed
to make the required retraction.
Passaglia's principal \\orks are the treatise on the immaculate conception already
referred to (4 vols. 4to); a treatise (Latin) on the primacy of St. Peter (8vo. 1850); a
scholastic treatise entitled Coinmeiitarius Theologieua de Partilwne Divinm Voluniatis (8vo.
Rome, 1851); an apology for the cause of Italian unity, entitled Pro Caunsa Italica; ad
Episcopys Catlwlieoit (Florence, 1861), in which he recommends the church to make peaco
with the nation ; several essays on religious and political subjects, and recently a, learned
and very detailed reply to Reuau's Vie de Jesus (Italian).
PASSA'IC, a river of New Jersey, rises in Morris county, and after a circuitous
south-easterly course of 90 m., empties into Newark bay. It is navigable for sloops fora
short distance; and its falls of 72 ft. at Paterson furnish water-power to numerous fac-
tories, and are an attraction to tourists.
. PASSA'IC, a co. in n. New Jersey, bordering on New York; drained by the Passaic,
Pequunnock, Ringwood, and Ramupo rivers; intersected by the Erie, the New Jersey
Midland, the Delaware, Lackawunua and Western, and the New York and Greenwood
Lake railroads, ami by the Morris canal; 220 sq.m.; pop. '80, 68,716—46,123 of Ameri-
can birth. The soil is fairly fertile, and there are extensive manufactures of silk goods
and sewing silk, and of machinery and iron-ware. Iron is found in the county. Co.
eeat, Paterson.
PAS3AMAQTJOD DY BAY opens out of the bay of Fundy, between Maine and New
Brunswick, North America. It is 12 m. long by 6 wide, and shut in by a cluster of
islands so as to form an excellent harbor. It receives the St. Croix, Didgequash, and
other rivers, and forms the harbor of the flourishing town of Eastport. The~bay abounds
in fish, and has tides of 25 feet.
PASSANT, a heraldic term used to express the attitude of an animal in a walking
position, with his head straight before him.
PASSA'EQWITZ, or POPHAREWATZ (Servian, Po~aremz), at. in the principality of Servia,
5 m. s. of the Danube. Its streets are wide and unpaved. its houses detached, and sur-
rounded with palisades. Pop. '74, 7,^29. The town is chiefly noteworthy for the treaty
which was signed here by prince Eugene and the grand vi/.ier, July 21, 1718. By this
treaty, which put an end to the war undertaken by Hie Turks against Venice in 1714 for
the conquest of the Morea, a truce of £5 years was established, and the Banat of Temes-
var, the western portion of Wallachia and' Servia. the town and territory of Belgrade, and
a part of Bosnia, were secured to the house of Austria.
PASSATI, an ancient, picturesque, frontier t. of Bavaria, at the confluence of the Inn
and the II/ with the Danube, 90 m.'e.n.e. of Munich. It consists of Passau proper
(triangular in shnpo, and occupying an eminence on the tongue of land between the right
bank of the Danube and the left bank of the Inn, and the suburbs, Innstadt, on the
right bank of the Inn; Anger and fort Oberhaus, between the Danube and the
Passion.
Ilz; and Tlzstn<!t, on the left bank of flic Ilz. At flic point of junction, the Inn is
both wider and has had a longer course than the Danube, the former being 8<M ft. ;
while the latter is only 61)6 ft. wide. The railway bridge and another iron bridge on
eight piers of granite, connect Innstadt with Passau, and the Danube is eroded by a fine
bridge resting on seven piciv. al>o of granite. Fort Oherhaus, on the left hank of the
Danube, stands on steep, wooded cliii's, at an elevation of upwards of 400 ft., and is
connected with the castle of Nicderhaus hy old walls; both are now u.-ed ;is j);isoi)s for
criminals from the upper classes and mililary oll'enders. The appearance of Passau,
situated at the contlueuce of two great rivers, and rising like an amphitheater on the
most be-iutiful spot of the Danube, is strikingly effective and picturesque. Among the
chief buildings are the cathedral, the bUhop's palace, the poM-oiliee, where, the treaty of
Passau was signed in 155:2; the Jesuits' college, a large building now used as a school;
and the church of St. Michael's. In the cathedral square (Domplatx.) is a bron/e statue
of king Maximilian Joseph, erected in 1828. Passau contains also numerous picture
galleries, collections of antiquities, and benevolent and charitable institutions The
women of Passau are famous for their beauty. Pop. '75, 14,752*
The natural advantages of this site, in a military point of view, were appreciated at
an eaily period by the Komans, who (reeled a strong camp here, garrisoned it with
Batavian troops, and from this circumstance named it Batata Custra. Passau was long
the seat of an independent bishopric founded in the 7th c , but, secular!/. --d in 18():>. IJy
the treaty of Passau, signed here in 1552 by the emperor Charles V. on the one side, and
the Protestant princes of Germany on the other, public recognition of the Lutheran faith
among the institutions of the empire was granted. The cathedral of Passau and great
part of the town were consumed by tire in 1662.
PASSAVANT, JOIIANN DAVID, 1787-1861; b. Frankfort-on-thc-Main; theoretical
painter and art critic, studied in Home and Paris, eventually became inspector of the
IStadel museum at Frankfort. He published, 18i]9-58, Itafacl ron L'ri>i:,<> nim'
Oivcanni Saiiio, 8 vols. ; in 1853, Die C/u-indHie Kuimt in Sjxaucu; and IfcUO-U-i, Lo
Peintre-Graeeur, 6 vols., a history of engraving highly esteemed.
PAS3ECAILLE AND PASSEPIED, two old French dances, the music of the former
being in f, the latter in f time. Compositions under these names, suggest ive of ihe dances
in question, though not meant for dancing, occur among the "suites," «>r collections of
short pieces for the harpsichord or clavichord by Sebastian Bach, and Handel.
PASSENGER PIGEON, Ectoptetes migratoriw, a species of pigeon, native of North
America, and particularly interesting from the marvelous numbers of which its Hocks
are often composed. The genus to Avhich it belongs has, like the turtle- doves, a bill
more slender than the ordinary pigeons, notched, and with a tumid ileshy cove-ring
above at the base ; the head is small in proportion to the body, the legs are short, and
strong, the feet naked, the tail either rounded or wedge-shaped, the wings lomr and
pointed. The passenger pigeon, generally known in Nonh America as the wild pigeon,
has a lonsr wedge-shaped tail; the whole length being from 15 to 17 in., of whiel- the tail
occupies nearly one half. It is a beautiful bird, of very graceful form and finely colored
•plumage. The plumage of the female is duller than that of the male. — The
pigeon is found in almost all parts of North America, from the gulf of Mexico to the
Arctic regions. It is not, properly speaking, a bird of passage; its migrations being
apparently altogether consequent on the failure of the supplies of food in one locality,
and the necessity of seeking it in another, and not connected with the breeding season or
the season of the year. Its power of flight is very great, and it issuppos, d to IK- able to
sustain a long flight at the rate of 6') m. an hour. Passenger pigeons have !><rn killed in the
neighborhood of New York, with their crops full of rice, which they must have collected
in the. fields of Carolina or Georgia not 'many hours before. It is not, therefore, very
wonderful that wanderers of this species should occasionally appear in Britain and in
other regions far from their native abode. The nest of the passenger pigeon in the
American forests generally consists of a few dry twigs placed in a fork of the branches
of a tree, and containing two eggs, sometimes only one egg. They breed two or three
times in-a season. In the backwoods, vast numbers of pigeons building in one breeding-
place, many nests, sometimes 100 or more, are often to be seen in one tree. These great
breeding-places extend- over a tract of forest, sometimes not less than 40 in. in length;
but in the more cultivated parts of the United States the passenger pigeon builds singly
and not in communities. The numbers of birds forming the communities of the western
forests surpass calculation. Flocks of them are to be seen flying at a great height in
dense columns, 8 or 10 in. long; and there is reason to suppose, from the rapidity
of their flight, and the number of hours taken by a column in passing a particular
spot, that in some of their great migrations the column, a mile broad, is more than
150 m. long. Their roost ing-places, as well as their breeding-places, are of pro-
digious magnitude.. The graphic descriptions of Wilson and Audubon are too long
to be quoted; but there is perhaps nothing of the kind so wonderful in relation
to any species of bird. The noise of wings and of cooing voices is as loud as thunder,
and is heard at the distance of miles. It drowns the report of guns. The multi-
tudes which settle on trees, break down great branches by their weight, so that it
is dangerous to pass beneath. They crowd together, alighting one upon another, till
OO't
Passfivant.
they form solid masses like hogsheads, and great numbers are killed when the branches
break. The inhabitants of the neighboring country assemble, shoot them, knock them
down with poles, stifle them by means of potsof burning sulphur, cut down trees in order
to bring them in great numbers to tne ground, eat them, salt them, and bring their hogs to
fatten on them. Wolves, foxes, lynxes, cougars, bears, raccoons, opossums, polecats,
eagles, h.nvks, and vultures all congregate to share the spoil. The flesh of the passenger
pigeon is of a dark color, but tolerably pleasant. That of young birds is much esteemed.
The nestlings are in general extremely fat, and are sometimes melted down for the sake
of their fat alone. The food of the passenger pigeon consists chiefly of beech-mast and
acorns, but it readily eats almost any kind of nut, berry, or seed.
PASSENGERS UY LAND AN D SEA. The law affecting passengers by land, in a car-
riage or public conveyance, may be stated as follows: The owner's of the railway or
other carriage do not contract to carry the passenger with perfect safety; they do not
warrant that he will not be injured; but they merely contract to carry him without any
negligence on their part. Hence, in case of accident, though it is not strictly correct in
point of law to assy, me that the accident arose from some negligence of the carrier, unless
there is evidence to support it, this presumption is in point of fact always made, and it
lies on the carrier to show that it was from no fault or neglige nee on his part that the
accident happened. As questions of negligence must almost always be decided by a
jury, and their prepossessions are against admitting the idea that accidents arise from
any cause except negligence of the carrier — which is a wholesome doctrine — it seldom
ever happens that a railway or public company attempt to dispute their responsibility
on that ground. The rule is that a railway company is responsible for the negligence of
any of their servants; and hence in case of accidents, all passengers injun-d, and in case
of death, the parent, husband, wife, or children of the deceased passenger, invariably
make a claim of compensation, except when the accident was car. red by the passenger's
own personal negligence. For while a carrier is bound to use due care to carry the
passenger with safety, it is equally true that the passenger is at the same lime bound to
take ordinary care of himself, and not act in a rash or foolish way, so as to lead to an
accident. Before railways raid, canals were in use, it was sometimes doubted whether it
was not the duly of the carriers by coach to carry all persons who presented themselves
and offered to pay their fare; bnt this notion is exploded, and even railway companies
are not bound to cany everybody \vho comes, but merely to give reasonable accom-
modation to the ordinary number,' otherwise their liability would be enormous on par-
ticular occasions 'where crowds assemble. Their interest is usually a sufficient induce-
ment on such occasions to provide the accommodation required. A passenger has a
right to carry along with him luggage (q.v.).
In the case of passengers by sea, a peculiar code has been constructed, owing to the
peculiarity of their situation. * The fundamental rule of the common law is Ilie same as
on' land carriage — that the carrier by sea does not engage to carry with absolute safety,
but merely to omit nothing in his power, and to use due care. The legislature, however,
has pa: s"(i statutes to regulate the duties of carriers by sea, so as to secure due care; and
their minute and detailed regulations apply to every sea-going vessel, whether British or
foreign, carrying more than 50 passengers. Payment of the passage money must be
made before commencing the voyage, and the owrners are not bound to forward steerage
passengers by the \vryship contracted for, if an equally eligible f4iip be offered, provided,
however, that families are not to be separated. If the ship is disabled on the voyage,
the owners are bound to repair the ship in six weeks, or send on the passengers. If the
passengers exceed £00, a medical practitioner must be on board, and the provisions
must he according to a certain scale of diet. The emigration commissioners require to
inspect emigrant ships, and to give a certificate as to fitness. As to passenger steamers
in this country, a certificate is required from the board of trade, specifying the voyage
and number of par sengers allowed to be carried, and their survey, once every year.
PASSEPJNE I5IEDS. See IKSESSORES.
PASSING-BELL, a bell tolled during the death agony of a dying person, at the
moment of the soul's "passing" from earth to its eternal abode. Its use in Catholic
countries is to invite the hearers to join in the prayers which are ordered "for the dying
in their hour of agony," and which the priest with his attendants recite in the death.
chamber. Sec BELL.
PASSING 1TOTES, in music. In passing from one chord to another, an intervening
note, not belonging to either chord, may be used to assist the progression. Such a note
is called a passing note or note of transition, as the notes D and F in the upper part of
the subjoined example:
PASSION CEOSS, a cross of the form on which our Savior suffered, with a long stem
and a short traverse near the top. It is of occasional occurrence as a heraldic charge,
Passion-floTrex,
Fasaport.
though less frequent than many other varieties of cross. A passion cross, when elevated
on three steps or degrees (which have been said by heralds to represent the virtues of
faith, hope, ;ind charity), is called a cross Calvary.
PASSION-FLOWER, Pass! flora, a genus of plants almost exclusively natives of the
warm parts of America, and belonging to the natural order jMxxij'ifi-dc, •/• ••; an order of
exogenous plants, of which more than 200 species arc known, mostly climbers, having
tendrils which spring from the axils of the leaves, herbaceous or half shrubby, na'ive.s
of tropical and subtropical countries, but rare in Asia and Africa. The haves of the
passifloracecB are alternate, simple, and various^ lobed. The Mowers are generally
hermaphrodite, with a colored calyx, generally of live segments; the segments of
the corolla equal in number to those of the calyx or absent, and sever.il rows of fila-
mentous processes springing from within the cup which is formed by tii" consoli-
dated calyx and corolla; the stamens, generally five, and generally unit d by their lila-
inents. inserted at the base of the tube of the calyx; the ovary free, generally elevated
on a long stalk, one-celled; three thick styles with dilated stigmas; ovules mum
The fruit is either fleshy or capsular. In the passion-flowers it is fleshy. This
genus has received its name from fanciful persons among the first Spanish set-
tlers in America, imagining that they saw in its flowers a representation of our
Lord's passion; the filamentous processes being taken to represent the crown of
thorns, the nail-shaped styles the nails of the cross, and the live anthers the marks of the
wounds. The species are mostly half shrubby evergreen climbers, ot rapid growth;
and most of them have lobed leaves, with from two lo seven lobes. The flower of
many are large and beautiful, on which account they are often cultivated in hot-house;.
Some of the species are also cultivated in tropical countries for their fruit, particularly
those of which the fruit is known by the name granadilia (q.v.). The fruit of P. t'll'/L'y
is also somewhat acid and of a pleasant flavor, and ices flavored with it are deb-
its fruit is about two inches long, and an inch and a half in diameter, of a livid purple
color, with orange pulp. — The fruit of some species of passion-flower, however, is not
only uneatable, but felul; and the roots, leaves, and flower of some, as well as of other
passifl-jinc-ce, have medicinal properties, narcotic, emmenagogue, anthelmintic, febrifu-
gal, etc. P. rubra is called Dutchman's laudanum in Jamaica, because a tincture of the
flowers is used as a substitute for laudanum. The most hardy species of passion-flower
s the BLUE PASSION-FLOWER (P. cxorulea), which grows well enough in some parts of
Prance, and even in the s. of England. Where the climate is suitable, passion-flowers
form an admirable covering for arbors end trellises.
PASSIONISTS, a religious congregation of priests of the Roman Catholic church, the
object of whose institute, indicated by their name, is to preach "Jesus Christ and hi'ii
crucified." The founder, Paul Francis, sur named Paul of the cross, was born in 1694
at Ovada, in the diocese of Acqui in the kingdom of Sardinia. Having commenced his
career as a hermit, he formed the design of enlisting others in the missionary life; and
being ordained priest in 1737, he associated himself with ten others, and obtained for
his plan the approbation of successive popes, together with the convent on the Celian
hill at Rome, which still forms the mother-house of the congregation. The special
object of the institute was to instill into men's minds by preaching, by example, and by
devotional practices, a sense of the mercy and love of God as manifested in the passion
of Christ. Hence the cross appears everywhere as their emblem, in their churches, in
their halls, and in the courts and public places of their monasteries. A large crucifix,
moreover, forms part of their very striking costume. They go barefooted, and practice
man)r other personal austerities, rising at midnight to recite the canonical hours in tho
church; and their ministerial work consists chiefly in holding what are called "mis-
sions" wherever they arc invited by the local clergy, in which sermons on the passion
of Christ, on sin, and on repentance, together with the hearing of confessions, hold the-
principal places. Paul of the cross died in 1775. For a time his congregation remained
in obscurity; but it has risen into notice within the last half century, new houses having
been founded in England, Ireland, Belgium, America, and Australia.
PASSION PLAY. See MYSTERIES. '
PASSION- WEEK, the name commonly given in England to the week immediately
preceding .Easter, and otherwise called 'holy week (q.v.). But by the proper rubrical
usage, passion-week is that which precedes holy week, commencing on PASSION SUNDAY,
the fifth Sunday of Lent. In the Roman calendar, the whole of the last, fortnight of
Lent is known by the name of passion-tide, and all the services of that lime differ in
manj' respects from these, not alone of the year, but even of the rest of Lent. The
verse Gloria Patri is discontinued both in the mass and in the breviary, and all pictures,
crucifixes, statues, and other sacred representations, are veiled during. the whole of
passion-tide.
PASSIVE TITLE, in the law of Scotland, is the liability of an heir, or one who repre-
sents and interferes with the estate of a deceased percon, to pay all the debts of the
deceased. It was considered that so great an opportunity of fraud in secreting the
goods of n deceased person existed, that the heir was presumed to be liable for all
the debts of the deceased, unless he took good care to give up an inventory, and so show
Passion-flower.
Passport.
what property there was. The barbarous doctrine of holding an hc-ir universally liable
has latterly been much restricted; but the explanation is entirely technical.
PASSOM'ETER. a watch-shaped instrument carried about the person to register the
steps taken in walking. It consists of a dial and two hands, which are moved by a
ratchet worked by a weight which the motion of walking causes lo vibrate.
PASSOVER, Pewch, patcha, the first and greatest of the three annual feasts (rcf/alim)
instituted by Moses, at which it was incumbent upon every male Israelite to make a pil-
grimage to the house of the Lord. It was celebrated on the anniversary of the exodus
from Egypt — i.e., on the 14th day of Nisan, otherwise called Abib, the period of the
first full moon in the spring — and lasted eight days. In commemoration of the incidents
connected with th'e great event of the liberation of the people, it Ayas ordained that
unleavened bread only should be eaten during this festive period, whence it also bore
the name chug hamazzoth (feast of unleavened bread); and, further, that a lamb one year
old, and free from all blemish, roasted whole, together with bitter herbs, should form
the meal in every house on the eve of the feast. Prayers and thanksgivings, all with a
reference to the redemption from bondage, accompanied the repast, at which the mem-
bers of the family or families who had joined in the purchase of the lamb had to appear
in traveling garb. At a later period, a certain number of cups of red wine were super-
added to this meal, to which, as its special ceremonies and the order of its benedictions
were fixed, the name seder (arrangement) was given. The name passover was more
strictly limited to the first day in which the paschal lamb was entirely consumed, the
reserving of any part of it to the next day being expressly forbidden (Ex. xii. 10); and
the name fea-t of unleavened bread belonged rather to the remaining days, on which
other animal food was eaten; but the names were often used indiscriminately.
The passover is generally regarded by Christian theologians as at once a sacrifice and
a sacrament, and in the former character as an eminent type of the sacrifice of Christ.
The death of Christ at the very time of the passover is regarded as corroborative of this
view, which is indeed plainly adopted in certain passages of the New Testament, as John
xix. 86, and 1 Cor. v. 7, in which last place our Saviour is designated "Christ our Pass
over." The passover is regarded as tj'pical of Christ, in its connection with the deliver-
ance of Israel from the bondage of Egypt, held to typify our salvation from the bondage
of sin; in its being a sacrifice, and that of a lamb without blemish — the perfection of
the paschal lamb, as of the other sacrificial victims, being supposed to signify the per-
fection of the great sacrifice; and in many other minor particulars, of which one is that
referred to in John xix. 36, that no bone of the paschal lamb was to be broken.
The pasciial meal, as at present celebrated among the Jews, has more the character
of a hallowed family feast, with reference, however, to the great national event. The
greater part of those, it may be added here, who live out of the Holy Land celebrate it
on the two first evenings, as owing to the uncertainty prevalent at one time with respect
to the fixing of the new moon by the sanhedrim at Jerusalem, it was ordained that the
"exiles" should celebrate all their festivals — except the day of atonement — on two suc-
cessive days, a law still in force among the orthodox. The regulations of the " lamb for
each house," the traveling garb, etc., are abrogated, but many further symbolical tokens
have been superadded; reminiscences, as it were, both of the liberation from Egypt and
the subsequent downfall of the sanctuary and empire. The order of prayers and songs
to be recited on these evenings has also received many additions, and even mediaeval
German songs have .crept in, as supposed to contain a symbolical reference to the ulti-
mate fate of Israel. See HAGGADA (xhel pcsach), FESTIVALS, EASTER, LORD'S SUFFER.
PASSOW, FRANZ LTJDWIG KARL FRIEDRICH, 1786-1833; b. Germany; educated at
Leipsic, where he studied philology and theology. He was called in 1807 to the chair
of Greek in the Weimar gymnasium, and in 18*15 to that of ancient literature in the
university of Breslau. His principal work is his Dictionary of the Greek Language, 1831,
which formed the basis of Liddell's and Scott's Lexicon.
PASSPORT, a warrant of protection and permission to travel, granted by the proper
authority, to persons moving from place to place. Every independent state has the
right to exclude whom it pleases from its territory, and may require that all strangers
entering it be furnished with properly authenticated documents, showing who they are.
and for what purpose they are visiting the country. Passports are sometimes issued by
the ministers and consuls of the country which the traveler intends to visit, which can-
not, however, be done without the consent or connivance of the state of which the holder
of the instrument is a subject; they properly proceed from the authorities of the state to
which the traveler belongs, and ought to bear the ma or countersignature of the minister
or consul of the country which he is about to visit. In somo European states no one is
allowed to go abroad without a passport from his government authorizing him to leave
the country — a provision used as a means of detaining persons charged witli crime; and
passports are even required by the natives to enable them to go from place to place ia
their own country. The regulations of different states have varied much regarding the
use of passports; and of late years there has been a great relaxation of the stringency of
the regulations connected with them. Since the facilities of traveling have 5-0 greatly
increased, it seems to have become the prevalent opinion that the passport system tends
to obstruct tlie free intercourse that is desirable between citizens of different countries;
Passy. q.'» I
Pastor.
while it is hu-fTci tun! to prevent the entrance of dangerous or suspicious characters, who
can obtain passports on false pretenses, or make their way in without them. Within
the UuHed Kingdom no passports are required; but for a British subject traveling in
some parts of the continent they are still requisite. At one time the greater part of
British subjects trave-!i>:g abro.nl used to he 1'urmVhed with passports from the ministeis
or consuls of the countries which they purposed to visit; the lord provost of Edinburgh
was also in the way of inning pa.-.-ports to Scotchmen. Of late years the pas-post
used by British subjects is that of the British secretary of state for foreign affairs, which
is now granted to any British subject lor a fee of two shillings, and is good for life. If
the applicant lie not p:T-u;u!ly known to the secretary of state, he must either be recom-
mended to him by some pen-on who is known to him, or produce an application in his
favor by some banking linn established in London or elsewhere in the I'nited Kingdom,
OT a certificate of identity signed by a mayor, magistrate, justice of tlie peace, miui.-ter
of religion, physician, surgeon, solicitor, or notary, resident in the United Kingdom. In
certain cases ihe production of a certificate of birth may be required. If the applicant
be a n:\tur.dized British subject, his certificate of naturalization must be forv.anied to
tlie foreign ollice. If it be dated subsequently to Aug. 24, 1850, and previoi;. U in Arg.
1, 1858, his passport will be good for one year only; if subsequently to Aug. 1* 18-"J8. for
six months only. The passport of a British subject naturalized by act of parliament is
good for life. Where the passport system is in full force, it is required that tin
port be countersigned by the minister or consul of the country which the holder n.eatiH
to visit, the visa being only of force for a year. Ihe French government allo\\s British
subjects to enter ami leave France, and travel in it without passports; but they aic said
to be sometimes asked for when France is entered from the s. and east In l]i •!•
Holland, Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Italy. Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. \i-.^n-
ports are no longer required. For Greece and Portugal the}' are ncces-ary, and the visa.
is insisted on in Russia, Turkey, and Egypt. A British subject traveling in countries
where passports are not tie riyucur, will sometimes find it an advantage to have- one as
an evidence of his identity and nationality. Till lately, throughout the greater part of
Europe, a traveler was liable to be called on to produce his passport, not only at every
frontier town, but at every garrison town through which he passed. In several of the
countries where passports are not required of travelers they are of a deeieleel advantage,
if not a necessity, to those who propose to settle there for some time — for example in
Germany, especially since the anti-socialist legislation.
In time of war, passports or safe-conducts are granted by the supreme authority on
the spot — i.e., the officer in command — to insure safety to the holders when passing from
vpot to spot, or while occupied in the performance of some act specified in and permit-
ted by the passport. Passports may be granted for goods as well as individuals; ar.d, in
time of war, the passport of a ship is the formal voucher of its neutral character. It
purports to be a requisition on the part of the government of a state to allow the vessel
to pass freely with her company, passengers, gooeis, and merchandise, without hindrance,
seizure; or molestation, as being owned by citizens or subjects of such state.
PASSY, a t. of France, in the department of Seine, a suburb of Paris, and included
within the fortifications of that city. See PAKIS.
PASTA, GICDITTA (JUDITH), one of the most distinguished opera, singers of modern
times, was b. near Milan in Italy in 1798, ami received her musical education partly at
Como, und' r the chapel-master of the cathedral there, and partly in -the conservatoire at
Milan. After 1811 she appeared at various theaters of the second rank in northern Italy,
and obtained a respectable success, but did not give any particular indication <>i
more than average ability. Her first great triumph was achieved at Verona ir.
The year following she was engaged at the Paris Italian opera, where her singing excited
great" admiration. "From this moment she labored incessantly to reach the ideal perfec-
tion she had set before her mind. From 1825 to 1830 was the period of IK r n;rst
splendid triumphs, which were won principally in London and Paris. Vienna, where
she accepted an engagement in 183'3, witnessed the last. Some Time afterwards she
withdrew from the staire and purchased a villa on the banks of lake Como, where, and
at Milan, she resided till she died in 1S6.1 Pasta, in her best days hnd a magnificent
voice, which easily passed from clear shrill soprano notes to the graves! contialto tones.
In addition she h;iel a tine dramatic energy and statcliness of manner that suited lofty
and imposing characters. Her principal roles were Medea. Ihwhi.. iimiih-, La
Sonnnmlnda (the opera of this name was written for her by Bellini), and Giulin in liomco
e Ginlin.
PASTS, a term applied to various compositions in which there is just sufficient moist-
Mi re to soften without liquifying the mass.
Common or adhesive paste is made by mixing wheaten flour with cold water in the
proportion of about two pounds to a gallon. The water is added by degree's. ai:d well
uHrred in so as to prevent lumpiness. About an ounce of powdered alum :s sometimes
added to increase its adhesiveness, and for shoe-makers, and book-binders about an ounce
and a half of finely-powdered rosin is substituted for the alum, which thickens it much
and rrmlovs it much more tenacious. When the ingredients are thoroughly mixed, they
are boiled, great care being taken to stir them thoroughly whilst boiling to prevent burn-
Fassy.
Pastor.
Ing. This pnste is used for a great variety of purposes, more especially by paper-hangers,
bill-stickers, book-binders, pasteboard makers, etc. An adhesive paste, called Chinese
paste, is made by reducing to peri'ect dry ness bullock's blood. It is then powdered and
mixed with one-tenth of its weight of" finely-powdered quicklime. When used, it is
mixed with water sufficient to form a paste, which is a strong cement for pottery, wood,
stone, etc.
Fruit patte is made by taking the juice of any fruit and dissolving in it an ounce to
a pint of gum-arabic, or gum-senegal, which many prefer; then evaporate by a gentle
heat until the liquid is as thick as syrup, and add to every pound of u a pound of linely-
powdered refined sugar; continue the heat, and siir it until the sugar and juice are thor-
oughly incorporated, after which it is poured out on a marble slab slightly oiled. When
cooled, it may be formed into lozenges for use. An imitation of this is made very
genera! 1}' by mixing :J parts of citric acid, 24 parts of gum, and 48 parts of refined sugar,
and dissolving the whole in water, and gently heating it to insure complete solution ai:d
mixture. It is thon variously colored and flavored with any of the fruit essences. This
pu<te is often sold under the name of jujubes, which were formerly lozenges of fruit paste
prepared from the juice of the jujube fruit, ziziphusjiijuba.
Polishing PdKics vary according to the materials upon which they are to bo employed.
For bra;*, the best kind is a mixture of 2 parts of soft soap with 4 parts of rottcii-
Btoae in very fine powder. Another sort is 8 parts of fine rotten-stone powder, 2 parts
of oxalic acid powdered, 3 parts olive oil, and enough of turpentine to make them
into a paste. For iron, a mixture of emery powder and lard is used; and for pewter a mix-
ture of finely-powdered bath-brick and soft soap. For wood, a paste called furniture
paste is made by adding spirit of turpentine to beeswax, sufficient to form it into a soft
paste, which is rubbed on thinly with a brush and woolen rag, and afterwards polished
with a dry woolen cloth and soft brush.
Shaving pastes are very numerous, but the base of all is soap. The best of all is the
true Naples soap {see SOAP), but it is often mixed with other ingredients r.ccording to
the fancy of the vender. For other applications of the word paste, see GEMS (IMITA-
TION), and MACARONI.
PASTEL, chalk mixed with other materials and various colors, and formed into
pencils or crayons (q.v.).
PASTEL. See WOAD.
PASTEUR, Louis, b. Dole, France, 1822; made a special study of chemistry, took
his degree 1847; appointed professor of physical sciences at Dijon 1818; professor oJ
chemistry at Strasbourg 1849; organized the new faculty of science at Lille 18.14. In
1856 he received the Ruin ford medal of the royal society of London. In 1857 he went
to Paris as scientific director of the normal school, and was elected member of the insti-
tute. In 1863 lie became professor of geology, physical science, and chemistry at
the school of line arts, and was at one time professor of chemistry at the Sorbonne. In 1873
he was elected an associate member of the academy of medicines. He was granted s\
pension by the French government, in 1874, of 20,000 francs. He contributed several
essays to Annales de Chrmie; in 1863 published JVouvel Ewmple cle Fermentation; 1866,
Ela.des Kiit' leViii; 18G3, Etudes sur leVincriyre; 1870. Etudes snr la Maladie des Vers d«
Sate. His opposition to Pouchet on the subject of spontaneous generation awakened,
much interest 1862-65.
PASTILE, PASTIL, or PASTILLE, a diminutive of paste. This term was originally
applied to lozenges as little portions of confectionary paste, but it has been of late chiefly
confined to a mixture of odorous materials, as in the case of the fumigating pastilles,'vrhich
are burned either as incense or as a means of diffusing an agreeable odor. They are
composed of charcoal powder, with such aromatic gums as benzoin, labdanum, etc.; and
powders of sweet-scented woods and barks, as sandal-wood, cinnamon, and especially
casearilla barks. Essential oils are also added, and the whole are worked into a paste
with a little gum-mucilage, and formed into small sharp-pointed cones about an inch and
a half high, and half an inch broad at the base. When perfectly dry they are used by
lighting at the point, and as they burn down an agreeable odor is given out with the
smoke. Very tasteful vessels, called pastille burners, usually of porcelain, arc made
for using them. Another kind of pastille, usually in the form of a small pill covered
with gold or silver leaf, is used for perfuming the- breath; it is made of the same kind of
ingredients, excepting the charcoal.
PASTO, a t. of the United States of Colombia, on a high plateau between two ridges
of the Andes, 148 m. n.e. of Quito. Height above sea level upwards of 8,500 feet. It
is in the direct route from the Popayan pass to Quito. Pop, about 7,000.
PASTOR, a genus of birds of the starling family (sturnida*), differing from starlings
in the compressed and slightly-curved bill. In habits, as in characters, they are very
nearly allied to starlings. The name pastor is supposed to be derived from thei'r
being frequently seen with flocks of sheep. The only European species is the ROSE-COL-
ORED PASTOR, or rose-colored ouzel (P. rnscus), a rare visitant of Britain and of the northern
parts of Europe, and more common in the n. of Africa, Syria, and India than in any part
of Europe.
Pastoral.
PASTOEAL IETTEB, a letter addressed either at certain stated times, or on the occur-
rence of some notable occasion, by a "pastor," but especially by a bishop to the clergy
under his jurisdiction, to the laity of his Hock, or to both. Of the former cla>s, in the
church of Rome, are the so-called lenteii mandates, or instruct ion-, issued before
the commencement of lent, and making knows the regulations enacted for the observ-
ance of the lenten fast, the dispensations granted, and the devotions and other pious
•works prescribed. Such also are the letters issued by a bishop on man}- of the chief
festivals of the year. It is usual for bishops, besides their stated letters, to address to
their clergy or people instructions suited to any particular emergency which n. ay arise,
and sometimes to take occasion from the Issuing of the slated pastoral letter to oll'er
instruction on some topic of importance which may engage public attention at the time,
on some prevalent abuse or scandal, or some apprehended danger to the faith or to mor-
als. To this class belong many of the remains of the early fail'ers. < .-p.-ially in the
western church. In some countries the government, as formerly in 'Austria, claimed a
right to exercise a censorship over the pastoral letters to be issued by the bishops. This
right, however, is regarded by churchmen as a usurpation, and although submitted to.
is admitted only under protest. See PLACETUM KEGIUM, FEUKONI.VMSM.
PASTORAL POETEY is that kind of poetry which professes to delineate the scenery,
sentiment, and incidents of shepherd life. It is highly probable that the first attempts
to give a rhythmic expression to human feeling were to some extent of this character.
Men were originally shepherds, and their festal songs and hymns would derive at least
substance and imagery from their primitive occupations; but as a distinct branch of
poetic art, pastoral poetry was not cultivated till a comparatively late period; for although
critics are fond of pointing to the lives of the Hebrew patriarchs, and to the story of
Iluth, as specimens of the antiquity of the pastoral in the east, yet, as these profess to
bo history, and not fiction, they can be instanced only to prove that the umicrial for this
kind of poetry existed from the earliest ages. In point of fact, it was ouiy after innocence
and simplicity had passed away, or were thought to have passed away, from real life,
that men began, half from fancy, and half from memory, to paint the manners of the
past as artless, and the lives of their ancestors as constantly happy. It was tlmstln
age that made the golden. The oldest specimens of the classic pastoral arc the Idylls of
Theocritus (q.v.), which appeared about 275 B.C. — long after Greece had produced her
masterpieces in epic narrative, in the war ode, and almost all other kinds of the lyric, in
tragedy, comedy, history, philosophy, and rhetoric. Theocritus was imitated by Dion
and Moschus, whose pastorals approximate inform to the drama. Among the Lathis,
the refined and courtly Virgil, in the reign of Augustus, wrote his Bucolica- or E
the model of his Greek predecessors; but, however beautiful and melodious the verses
of these urban writers are, we cannot suppose for a moment that the rude shepherds ai:d
shepherdesses of Italy or Sicily indulged in such refined sentiments, or spent their time
so poetically as there they are made to do. Virgil, we may rest assured, is as far from
giving a genuine picture of pastoral life in his verse as any modern poet who prates of
Chloe and Phyllis.
During the" middle ages, pastoral poe*ry in this artistic, and therefore conventional,
sense of the term, was almost unknown ; but with the first glimpse of reviving classicism,
the pastoral reappears. The earliest specimens are afforded by Boccaccio (q.v.), about
the first modern Italian who studied Greek. It is to the countrymen of Boccaccio thai
we owe the creation of the pastoral drama, of which there is no trace in ancient litera-
ture. The Farola di Orfcoof Politiau (q.v.), performed at the court of Mantua in 1483,
is the first dramatic poem which pretends to represent the sentiments, incident^, and
forms of pastoral life. Critics have forgotten this work when they make Tansillo the
inventor of the f avoid pastorale, or boscareccin, on account of his I due Pettc.grini (15-19). or
Agostino Beccari, whose pastoral comedy, II Sacrijizio, was played at Ferrara in 1554.
However, it is true that the extraordinary popularity of Beccari's piece originated a crowd
offarolc boseareccie, the finest and most poetical of which is the Aminta of Tasso, repre-
sented at the court of Ferrara in 1572. A later, but hardly less famous production is the
Pastor Fido of Guarini (q.v.), published at Venice in 1590; and in the 18th c. the poet
Jlctastasio (q.v..) revived for a moment the interest in this graceful and picturesque, hut
unreal branch of literature. In Spain, during the first part of the ]6th c., it abundantly
flourished. The first who wrote pastoral dialogues was Juan del Elcina (dr. 1500); he
was followed by Garcilaso de la Vega, and others. During the reign of the emperor
Charles V., one may say that Spanish imaginative literature was almost wholly of a
bucolic character; but in Spain, as elsewhere, it took largely the form of prose-romance
(see NOVELS) rather than of poetry, deriving its inspiration from the Daplnri* and Ch'oe
of Longus, the Byzantine romancist, not from the tuneful strains of the Mantuan swan.
England, however, can boast of Spenser's SJiep/ierd'n Calendar, which is at least full of
charming poetry, and is appropriately dedicated to sir Philip Sidney, whose pastoral
romance of Arcadia outstrips in point of literary beauty all other fictions of that class.
The Germans reckon Shakespeare's As Yon Like It'm the list of pastoral dramas; but its
right to be so classified is by no m"ans clear, although we may admit that it betrays the
influence of the pastoral poetry and romance that had just ceased to be the rage among
the scholarly geniuses of Euro'pe. A similar influence is visible in the writings of other
387
Pastoral.
Elizabethan dramatists, as, for example, in the Faithful ShcpJierdess of Fletcher. In
France, pastoral poetry is perhaps older than in any of the western nations. The comedy
of Adam de Lehaile, surnunied Le Bossu d' Arras (The Hunchback of Arras), entitled Le
Jeu de ll'ibin et Marion (and which exists in MS, in the Bibliotheque Impenale), belongs
to the middle of the 13th century. During the civil wars in the latter half of the 16th c.
the pastoral was turned to political uses. In the following century, it continued for
some time to be popular, or rather, let us say, fashionable. Even the great Richelieu
alleviated the caves of office with the composition of La Grande Pastorale; but here, too,
the poem soon, gave way to the prose-romance, which. was hardly less unreal, and fai
more exciting.
Perhaps the best pastoral, ancient or modern, is the Gentle ShepJierdot Allan Ramsay
(q.v.), published in 1725. "It is." says Mr. Curruthers (Chambers's Cyclopedia of Eng-
lish Literature, vol. i., p. 601; p. 523 of 3d ed.), "a genuine picture of (Scottish life, but
of life passed in simple rural employments, apart from the guilt and fever of large towns,
and reflecting' only the pure and unsophisticated emotions of our nature. The affected
sensibilities and feigned distresses of the Corydons and Delias find no place in Ramsay's
clear and manly page. He drew his shepherds from the life, placed them in scenes which
he actually saw, and made them speak the language which lie every day heard — the free
idiomatic speech of his native vales." His English "contemporaries, Pope, Ambrose
Phil'ps, Gay, and others, who form the "Augustan," or queen Anne school of poets,
also ad.lickd themselves to the composition of pastoral poetry; but though there is much
fine description in the verses, they are, in general, purely conventional performances, in
imitation of the classic poets, Yv'ho, as we have said, did not themselves imitate nature.
From this censure, however, must be excepted the six pastorals of Gay, entitled the
Shepherd's ](«/.', which are full of honest country humor, and contain charming pictures
of English country life. Since the early part of the 18thc., however, pastoral poetry,
strictly so called, has ceased to be cultivated in England and almost every where else. In
the pages of Wordsworth, who lived all his days among the Cumberland shepherds, we
indeed find many exquisite glimpses of pastoral life, as it presented itself to the profound
and tender imagination of that great poet, of nature, but few direct delineations of pas-
toral manners. Germany imitated abundantly the French and Italian models during the
greater part of the 18th century. The last and bcsfof the German series is the Encin
11 ad Ehiiii'v of Goethe's youth. The general impression appears to be that the age of
pastoral poetry has passed away forever, and that Damon and Chloe will never reappear
iu ver.se.
PASTGHAL STAFF, sometimes also, although not properly, called crosier (q.v.)
(I at. Ifirnliis paxtorali*), one of the insignia of the episcopal office, sometimes also borne
by an abbot. It is a tall staff of metal, or of wood ornamented with metal, having, at
least in the western church, the head curved in the form of a shepherd's crook, as a
symbol of the pastoral office. The head of the pastoral staff of an archbishop, instead
oV the crook, has a double cross, from which its name of crosier is derived. In the Greek
church the staff is much shorter, and the head is either a plain Greek cross or the form
of the letter Tail, or it is a double-headed crook, which sometimes appears in the shape
of the upsilon, T. It is difficult to determine the time at which the pastoral staff first
came into use. The first distinct allusion to it is in St. Augustine's commentary on the
124th psalm. Gregory of Tours, in his life of St. Martin, mentions the pastoral staff of
St. Severinus, who was bishop of Cologne in the end of the 4th century. From ?.n early
time the pastoral staff was connected with the actual possession of the jurisdiction which
it symbolizes. The giving of it was one of the ceremonies of investiture; its withdrawal
was part of the form of deprivation; its voluntary abandonment accompanied the act oJ
resignation; its being broken was the most solemn form of degradation. So also th«
veiling of tin; crook of an abbot's pastoral staff, during the episcopal visitation, signified
the temporary subjection of his authority to that of the bishop. An abbot being required
to carry his pastoral staff with the crook turned inwards, showed that his authority was
purely domestic. The pope alone does not use a pastoral staff. In the later mediaeval
period the material was often extremely costly, and, referring to the relaxation of the
times, it was said "that formerly the Church had wooden pastoral staves and golden
bishops, but that now the staves are of gold and the bishops of wood." • The workman-
ship was sometimes extremely beautiful. The Irish pastoral staff is of a type quite
peculiar, and some of the sculptured specimens preserved in the British museum, at the
royal Irish academy, and elsewhere, are very interesting as illustrating the ecclesiastical
costume of the period.
PASTOEAL THEOLOGY, that branch of theological science which regards the duties
and obligations of pastors in relation to the care of souls. It comprises two parts; first,
that which treats of the obligations of the pastors themselves, and which is therefore
designed for the training and preparation of the candidates for the pastoral office. The
other part of pastoral theology, which might perhaps better be called popular theology,
comprises the objective teaching which is to be employed in the instruction and direction
of the Hock committed to the pastor's charge. This branch of theology has long formed
a leading portion of the training of candidates in the evangelical churches of France and
Germany. Numerous works on the subject represent tli2 practice of the various sections
Pastry O(\O
Patagonia.
of the Protestant church; and more recently Catholic manuals of pastoral theology have
appeared.
PASTRY, articles of food in which the chief part consists of a paiMe made of flour.
This would of course apply to broad, but it 1ms been limited by custom io such lighter
articles as are made by the pastry-cook, and chiefly to tho.-e in vvhicii the past-.- is made
to assume a light flbky character by the addition of butter, etc., and by the mode of
working it up. The commonest kind is made of a dough of flour and water, into which
butter or lard is worked by hand, in the proportion of six ounces to the pound. The finest
kind is usually termed puff panic, and considerable skill is required to make it well, tor
it depends, next to the goodness of the materials, upon lightness of hand in kncadieg
the ingredients together. These ingredients consist of line win atcn flour and butter m
the proportion of four ounces of butter to a pound of flour, with cold water j a -t suilicient to
make a good stiff elastic dough; this is rolled out with a rn'-Umj- inn, and double ti'C
previous qmntity of butter is then spread over it. It is then roiled up and lightly
kneaded, .-,o as to work the butter in thoroughly. Coolness is very important in making
pastry; a marble slab is therefore most desirable for making it upon. The thinner it is
rolled out before the butter is then spread the better, because; when it is put in the oven
the lamina? which have been formed by folding or rolling up the b it;er with the dough,
sepanite by the disengagement of the watery vapor, ami the thinner and lighter the
flakes are the better is the puff paste. Another kind is called «//«/•/ pn*!, ; in this tluj
flour H made warm, and the butter or lard used is often melted, and a little sugar and a;i
egg or two are added. This, when baked, has none of the flaky character of pull paste,
but it is better adapted for meat and some other kinds of pies which require to be !n'.;< d
without a dish. Game pies, with elaborately-decorated crusts, are made of this pastry.
PASTURAGE, in English law called common of pasture, is classed amo:ig rights of
common or profits dprendre, and is the right of o:ie who is not, the owner oi' land to put
his sheep or cattle 0:1 such land to feed there. In Scotland it is called a servitude of
pasturage. In both countries the right can bo established by prescription, in England nf
thirty years, and in Scotland of forty years. Where the parties entitled to pasturago
dispute as to their rcspsctive proportions of cattle, the suit to redress the mutter is callc.i
in Scotland an action of "so win ing and rowming."
PASTURES (Lat. pasco, to feed) are fields or tracts of land devote;! to the feeding of
oxen, sheep, and other herbivorous animals, which eat the grass and other herbage as it
grows. Grass ia grown sometimes in the rotation with grain and other crops, when it
remains on the ground for one or more years, is frequently mown during the lirst sum-
mer, and grazed afterward, butyls again plowed up to be succeed •<! usually by oats or
wheat. For such purposes, rye-grass, red, white, yellow, and alsike clovers, are us d
either alone or mixed in varying proportions. On the uplands of Great Britain, wher-
ever from any cause grain crops cannot profitably be grown, and throughout many of
the richest plains and valleys, especially of England .and Ireland, there are thousands of
acres of land which have been under grass from time immemorial. Such permanent pas-
tures are estimated to occupy fully 14.000,000 .acres in England, nearly 8.000,000 in
Scotland, and about 9,000,000 in Ireland. Sometimes they have been self-sown, occa
sionally they have been laid down with care, seldom are they as highly cultivated and
liberally managed as they should be. The best of them are used for feeding heavy bul-
locks; those of somewhat poorer description arc often grazed by dairy stock; while tlrs
down or upland pastures are especially profitable for sheep. It has now become a com-
mon practice, and is every year becoming more and more general, to give additional
food of various kinds to animals fed on pastures. Even cattle grazing on the richest
pastures are supplied with linseed cake, etc., to hasten the procc.-s of fattening, and to
improve their quality; roots are given to sheep when fattening for the market, and Iny
to those which are to be kept as stock; whilst when oats or beans are cheap, many sheep-
farmers find it advantageous to give them even to the hardy stock of exposed hill-paft-
tures. All pastures are much improved by thorough drainage. The application of
farmyard dung, soil, lime, and almost every sort of top-dressing is beneficial. Irrigation
is sometimes profitable, and in some other countries is far more common and far more
requisite than in Britain. Rich pastures on which oxen arc fed are injured by sheep, which
reject the coarsest grass, and pick out the finest; but a few horses turned into them dur-
ing the autumn or winter help to consume the coarser tufts. The coarsest and rankest
grass may once or twice a year be cut over by the scythe; and either made into
rough hay, or if left on the ground, the cattle, when it has partially dried, will readily
eat it .up. A dressing of lime and salt scattered over the rougher parts of the fields in
autumn will sweeten the herbage, and induce the stock to eat it down regularly,
which is a great pest in many pastures, may 'oe got rid of b}' penning sheep, well fed
with swedes, cake, or corn, regularly over the field; or by harrowing the surface in
several different directions during January or February, applying then a top-dressing of
soil or clung, and in March or April sowing some clover or other seeds, which will be
firmed clown by the bush harrow, clod-crusher, or heavy roller. The droppings of the
cattle ought to be broken up and scattered over the ground. Rich pastures intended for
the fattening of cattle ought not to be used during winter, but allowed to become lux-
uriant before the cattle are turned upon them in spring. Very lean animals, whether
Pastry.
Patagonia.
oxen or sheep, cannot with advantage be at once placed on very rich pasture, but must
be gradually fitted fc-r it. In some of the hill districts in Scotland, devoted to sheep-
fanning, increased productiveness has resulted from breaking up portions of the pas-
ture, and after two or three crops have been taken, laying them down as pastures again.
All good pastures produce a very mixed herbage, not consisting merely of one kind of
grass, but of several or many, with clovers and other plants. Different species of
meadow-grass (poo), fescue (festuca), foxtail (alopecurus), oat grass (axtna), cock's-foot
(dactylis glomerata), rye-grass (lolium), hair-grass (aim), vernal-grass (anthomnthum), and
timothy or cat's-tail (phlewm), are among the most common grasses of British pastures.
Yarrow (achillcea millefoUum) is very abundant in some pastures, and is sometimes sown
with grass, clover, etc., in land meant for permanent pasture. Different kinds of clover
are adapted to different soils and situations. The presence of rushes is very indicative
of the want of drainage. Thistles and docks are injurious, and are to be extirpated as
mudli as possible. Some of the plants naturally abundant on high hill-pastures, as
nardus stricta and ju.icus bitfonius, are very unnutritious; and the substitution of others
in their stead, is one of the benefits derived from the breaking up of such lauds.
PATAGONIA, the most southern region of South America, extending from lat. 38°
southward to the strait of Magellan, and occupying the extremity of the continent. The
name Patagonia is sometimes confined to the territory e. of the Cordilleras; the district
to the westward forming now a province of Chili. The possession of the country e. of
the Andes is disputed by the Chilians and the Argentine republic. Length upwards of
1000m., greatest breadth about 480m.; area about 350,000 sq.m.; pop. estimated by a
recent traveler, Mr. Musters, at not more than 3,000. The coast of the Atlantic has
extensive bays and inlets, none of' which, however, are of much importance or advantage,
in a commercial point of view. Along the western coast, and stretching from 42° s. to the
strait of Magellan, are numerous islands, with precipitous shores, belonging apparently
to the system of the Cordilleras. The principal islands are Chiloe, the Chonos archipel-
ago (q. v.), Wellington island, the archipelago of Madre de Dios, Queen Adelaide's archi-
pelago, and Desolation island. These islands— which, together with several peninsulas,
form a coast almost as rugged as that of Norway- — are mountainous; but in none of
them, except in Desolation island, do the mountains rise to the snow-line.
Surface, Soil, etc. — The country of Patagonia divides itself into two regions, very
unequal in size and very different in character. These are eastern and western Pata-
gonia, which are divided by the great mountain range of the Andes. Western Patagonia,
comprising this range, the "coast districts, and the islands, is rugged and mountainous.
Opposite the island of Chiloe are two active volcanoes, one of which, Minchiumavida, is
8,000 ft. high. The slope of the country from the Ancles to the Pacific is so steep, and
the strip of shore so narrow, that the largest river of this district has its origin only about
13 m. from its embouchure on the coast. In the island of Chiloe, in the n. of western
Patagonia, the mean temperature of winter is about 40°, that of summer rather above
50°; while at port Famine, in the extreme s. of this region, and 800 m. nearer antarctic
latitudes than Chiloe, the mean temperature is not much lower, being in winter about
33°, and in summer about 50°. This unusually small difference in the mean tempera-
ture of the extremes of western Patagonia, which extends over about 14° of lat., is due
to the great dampness of the atmosphere all along the coast. The prevailing winds of
this region blow from the w. ; and heavily surcharged with the moisture they have
drawn from the immense wastes of the Pacific ocean, they strike against the Andes, are
thoroughly condensed by the cold high mountains, and fall in rains that are almost per-
petual from Chiloe to the straH of Magellan. South of 47° s. lat., hardly a day passes
without a fall of rain, snow, or sleet. This continual dampness has produced forests of
almost tropical luxuriance. A kind of deer wanders on the e. side of the mountains;
guanacos, pumas, and water-fowl abound in the region between the Andes and tho
Atlantic; and along the coast, seals, otters, sea-elephants, fish, and shell-fish are found.
Eastern Patagonia comprises by far the larger portion of Patagonia, and extends east-
ward from the Andes to the Atlantic. Its surface has not yet been thoroughly explored,
but the recent wanderings of Mr. Musters have at last furnished us with some authentic
information. It mainly consists of high undulating plains or plateaus, frequently inter-
sected by valley's and ravines, or rising into successive or isolated hills, which generally
occupy the crest of the country. These plateaus are occasionally covered with coarse
grass, but more frequently the surface is sterile, with a sparse vegetation of stunted
bushes and round thistle clumps; and even these are sometimes wanting, absolutely
nothing clothing the bare patches of clay or gravel; elsewhere it is strewn with huge
round bowlders, and again rugged with confused heaps or ridges of bare, sharp-edged
rocks, many of them of volcanic origin: this more particularly applying to the northern
part of the country. Piercing blasts sweep almost incessantly from various points, but
chiefly from the w. ; and snow, sleet, and rain seem to prevail during the greater part of
the year. The descent from these plains or pampas to the valleys or more sheltered and
fertile ground bordering the banks of the streams and rivers, is commonly termed
"barranca," or bank, from the scarped slopes, varying in depth from 50 to 2 or 3 ft.,
and in angle from an easy to an almost perpendicular descent. The soil in many places
ifi strongly impregnated with saltpeter, and salt-lakes and lagoons are numerous. North
U. K. XI."— 24 ,.-
i'a'.ala.
370
of the Rio Chico, and towards the sea-coast, there is a wild, weird, desolate region called
l>y the Indians " The Devil's Country;" it is said to he almost impassable. Several
inhospitabk: wastes of this kind fringe the Atlantic, and liave probably induced the
belief that Patagonia is a barren ami waterless desert ; hut the interior, though not fer-
tile, really abounds in lagoons, spring-;, and streams and the banks oi' tin; Ilio Negro
and even the Santa Crux are capable of cultivation. Along the eastern base of the
Andes, a!>o, there is a great tract of territory which is astonishingly picturesque- ai:d
fertile. Here great forests abound, to which the Indians retire for shelter iroiu the
freezing winds of winter. There are also dtep valleys furrowed liy ]i;>,i n!:iin lonvuts;
and numerous lakes, the haunts of wild-duck and other water-fowl. The largest of
these lakes are Nahuel Iluapi in then., Coluguape in the middle, and Viedma in the
south. Except pasture, eastern Patagonia has no productions. However fertile the soil
in some place.-; may be, it is nowhere cultivated. The Indians live upon the produce of
tMe chase alone, and seem, to desire no better sustenance. The principal rivers ore the
Rio Negro (q.v.); the Chnpat, which flows through a good soil, producing excellent
pasture and good firewood; the Rio Desire, probably rising in lake Coluunnp^: and the
Rio Chico, which flows out of hike Viedma, through a valley sometimes opening out
into wide grass-covered plains dotted with incense bushes, and sometimes risi
bare ridge and burrow-like undulations. All these rivers rise in the Amies, and 11
or s.e. Herds of horses arc reared, dogs abound, and, in the more favored regions, cat-
tle are bred; pumas and foxes are met with, as well as condors, hawks, pam
water-fowl. But by far the most important animals are the guanaco or huannca (q. v. );
the rhea darwiiiii, called by the' Patagonians nukyuslt, and by the .Spaniards accflrus or
ostrich; and the gama, a kind of deer.
Inhabitants. — The Patagonians have been hitherto' described only in the most general
terms, and in many cases very inaccurately. Little was known of their a]
habits, and employments. The work of M. Guinnard. Trois Ans d"E*clataff> d
gons (1864) was for a time believed to form a valuable addition to our ki.> Pata-
gonia and its inhabitants; but the publication of Tir. Musters's record :•!' i
the straits of Magellan to the Rio Negro, under the title of At lli.im iri'.h //,,• /
(1871), has utterly destroyed the Frenchman's claim to be an authority. Mr. .Mi
decidedly of opinion that M. Guinnard was never in Patagonia at all, and that his
"experiences" were confined to the Indians north of the l{i<> 3
The Patagonians or Tehuelehe Indians are divided into two gr< at IrIVs, the northern
and the southern. They speak the same language, but are distinguishable by difference
i»f accent; and the southern men appear to he on an average talicr and finer, ;.
more expert hunters. The northern range chiefly over the district betwet n the ( \ nai-
lera and the Atlantic, from the Rio Negro to the Chupat, ami even the Santa Cruz rivi r.
The southern occupy the rest of Patagonia as far south as the strait of Magellan. TIic
two divisions, however, are much intermixed, and frequently intermarry. The quesiiou
is often asked: " Are the Patagonians of gigantic stature?" Mr. Musters's statement is.
"The average height of the Tehuelehe male mer H-is of our party with which 1 traveled
•was rather over than under 5 ft. 10 inches." T-JVO uthers, measured carefully b;
Clarke (while resident at Santa Cruz), stood 6 ft. 4 in. each. The muscular development
of the arms arid chest is extraordinary, and in general, 4he Patagonians are weli p.
tionecl. They are splendid swimmers, can walk great distances without being tired, and
can go for two and even three days without being tired. As an illustration of their
strength of arm. Musters mentions that he has seen them "ball" an ostrich over 70 yards
distant. The expression of their face is ordinarily good humored, except in the M-Hic-
ments: their eyes are bright and intelligent, their noses aquiline and •well-formed, their
foreheads open and prominent. The complexion of the men, when cleansed from paint,
is a reddish brown. Thick flowing masses of long hair cover their hcids, and ;;re
combed out by their wives at least~once a day. The scanty natural growth oi heaid,
mustaches, and even eyebrows, is carefully eradicated. The young wonun are fre-
quently good-looking, displaying healthy, ruddy cheeks when not d!>vu::-' -u v, ith \
The dress of the men consists of a chiripa or undergarment round the loins, mau<
Soncho, a piece of cloth, or other material; a long mantle of hide, worn with ih
iside, and drooping in unbroken outline from their shoulders to the ground; and
boots or buskins made from the skin of horse's hock, and occasionally from the leg
large puma. The dress of the women is similar, except that the undergarment is made
of calico or stuff sack, and extends from the shoulders to the ankle. l>u!h se.v
fond of ornaments, wearing huge ear-rings of square shape, suspended from ^mal!
passing through the lobe of the ear; also silver or blue bead fiocklaci s. The r
assigned for the use of paint is that it forms a protection against sun and wind, ar.d
Musters states that he "found from personal experience it proved a complete preserva-
tive from excoriation or a chapped skin."
The arms of the Tehuelches consist of gun or revolver; sword or dagger; along,
heavy lance, used only by dismounted Indians, and altogether different from th
lance of Araucanian and Pampa Norsemen; and the bold, pcrdida, or single ball, so called
because, once thrown from the filing, it is not picked up again.
Their houses, called toldos, are formed of three rows of stakes driven into the ground.
The middle row is higher than the others, and the three rows are tied together wiiii
371
Patala.
strings of hide, and so kept in their place. This frail framework is covered with hides
which reach the ground on all sides, and are fastaued to it by small stakes of bone. At
night-fall, guanaco hides are spread on the ground within the tents, and the men and
women, laying aside their mantle, their only garment, and which sometimes serves as a
blanket, go to sleep under the same roof and in the same apartment. Bathing in cold
water every morning, throughout the whole year, is a custom to which men, women,
and children conform; and although the morning bath may not free them from vermin.
— a national characteristic — yet it has the effect of preventing disease, and of enabling
them the more easily to endure the severities of winter. Their only manufactures are
mantles of guanaco hide, and saddles, bridles, stirrups, and lassos. The lassos and the
articles of harness are chiefly plaited, and evince wonderful ingenuity and nicety of exe-
cution.
The religion of the Patagcnians (according to Mr. Musters) is distinguished from that
of the Pampas and Araucunians by an absence of any trace of sun-worship. They
believe in a great and good spirit who created the Indians and animals, and who dis-
persed them from a, place which they call "God's hill:" but Mr. Musters is inclined to
think that this belief owes its origin to a confused apprehension of the story of creation,
as told by the Christian missionaries. Curiously enough, this great and good spirit takes
no concern with the beings whom he has created. Idols are unknown, and during the
whole of his wanderings Mr. Musters saw no trace of any periodic religious festival.
Whatever religious acts the natives performed were prompted by their dread of mali-
cious demon-;, the chief of whom, Gualichu, is always on the watch to cause mischief.
To propitiate or drive away this spirit is the function of tiie wizard, doctor, or medicine-
ma;], who (as in other countries) combines the medical and magical arts. The Gualichu
lurks outside the toldos. He is invisible (except to the " doctor," who has the gift of
second-sight), and he can enter into the bodies of p-jople, and cause sickness and disease
of every sort. Besides the Gualichu, there are, a-; !ia ; been said, many other evil spirits,
who are supposed to inhabit subterranean dwellings, underneath certain woods and
rivers and peculiarly shaped rocks, all of whom are saluted on occasion with special
incantations. The cry of the nighjar on the Cordillera betokens sickness or death; a
certain toad-like lizard mysteriously lames horses; a fabulous two-headed guauaco is a
sure forerunner of epidemic disease, etc. To counteract the influence of tnese, charms
and talismans are liberally employed.
Their language is quite different from either Pampa or Araucanian. " Though able
to converse in Tehuclche," says Mr. Musters, "I could not at all understand the Pam-
pas a-id this is noted with reference to statements made in M. Guinnard'swork, which,
coupled with other internal evidences .... compel me to doubt that the author was
ever in the hands of the real Patagonian's." The same writer has a more favorable opin-
ion of their character than is common. He found them "kindly, good-tempered, impul-
sive children of nature, taking great likes or dislikes, becoming firm friends or equally
con tinned enemies." They are, however, •" steadily and rapidly decreasing," through
the combined effect of disease and bad liquor supplied'to them by traders at the stations;
and before long the race will be extirpated. The largest of these stations is Patagones
(formerly El Carmen), at the mouth of the Rio Negro, in the extreme n.e. of the coun-
try, and bordering on the Argentine territory. It' has a pop. of about 2,000, composed
of Spanish and other settlers, negroes, and convicts from Buenos Ayres. At the mouth
foment have established a colony
a penal settlement. ,
See At Home with the Patarjonuins : a Tear's Wanderings orer the Untrodden Ground
from the Siraits of Magellan to the Rio Nearo, by George Chaworth Musters (Lond.
1871).
PATALA (from pat, fall) is. in Hindu mythology, the name of those inferior regions
which have seven, or, according to some, eight divisions, each extending downwards
10. (KX) ii'ijunai, or miles. The soil of these regions, as the Vishnu- Purdna, relates, is sev-
erally white, black, purple, yellow, sandy, stony, and of gold; they are embellished
wi'ii magnificent palaces, in which dwell numerous dauavas, daityas, yakshas, and great
snake-god^, decorated with brilliant jewels, and happy in the enjoyment of delicious
viands and strong wines. There are in these regions beautiful groves, and streams and
lakes, whore the lotus blows, and the skies are resonant with the kokila's sonars. They
are, in short, so delightful, that the saint Narada, after his return from them To heaven,
declared among the celestials that Paiala was much more delightful than Indra's heaven.
Prof. AVil.--on, in his Vishnu-Purdna, says "that there is no very copious description
of Patala in any of the Pardnas ; that the most circumstantial are those of the Vdt/u
and Bfidffnvaia PurAnat; and that, the Mahdbhdrata and these two Purdnns assign dif-
ferent divisions to the danavas, daityas, and nagas. . . . The regions of the Pdttila and
their inhabitants are oftener the subjects of profane than of sacred fiction, in conse-
quence of the frequent intercourse between mortal heroes and the serpent-maids. A
considerable section of the Vrihat-Katltd consists of adventures and events in this sub-
terraneous world." For inferior regions of a different description, sec NARAKA.
ratanjuH. Q7O
Patent. ° • *
PATANJALI is the name of two Celebrated authors of ancient India, who arc gener-
ally looked upon as the same personage, but apparently lor no other reason than that
they bear the same name. The one is the author of the system of philosophy (railed
Yoga (q.v.), the other the great critic of Kfdyayana (q.v.) and Panini iq.v.j. "Of the
former, nothing is known beyond his work — for which see the article YOCJA. The few
historical facl.s relating to the latter, as at present ascertained, may be gathered from his
great work, the Mahdbhdnhya, or "the great commentary." The name of Ids mother
was Gouikii; his birthplace was Gonarda, situated in the east of India, and he it '.
temporarily in Cashm. re, where his work was especially patroni/.i d. From circumstan-
tial evidence, prof. Goldstiicker has, moreover, proved that lie wrote between 1-ii) -uid
120 ».c. (Pdniiii, Tlii Place in Suiixkrt't Lit, i-iitnr,;. p. 235, ft'.). The J///-<r' I'aian-
jali is not a lull commentary on Piiuiui, but, with a few exceptions, only a commentary
on the Varttikas, or critical remarks of Katyuyana on Panini. "Its method is analo-
gous to that of other classical commentaries: it establishes, 'usually by repetition, the cor-
rect reading of the text, in explaining every important or doubtful word, in sin. wing the
connection of the principal parts of the sentence, and in adding such observan*
may be required for a better understanding of the author. But frequently Pataniali
also attaches his own critical remarks to the emendations of Katyayana. oiicn in support
of the views of the latter, but not seldom, too, in order to refute his criticisms, and
to defend Panini; while again, at other times, he completes the statement of one of
them by his own additional rules." Patanjali being the third of the grammatical triad
of India (see PANINI), and his work, therefore, having the advantage of profiling by the
scholarship of his predecessors, he is looked upon as a paramount authority in all mat-
ters relating to classical Sanskrit grammar; and very justly so, for as to learning, inge-
nuity, and conscientiousness, there is no grammatical author of India who can be held
superior to him. The Mahabhdshya has been commented upon by Kaiyyata, in a work
called the Bhdahya-Pradipa; and the latter has been annotated by Nagojlbhatta, in a
•work called the Bltdshya-pradipodj/ota. So much of these three latter works as relates
to the first chapter of the first book of Pauini, together with the Vftrttikos connected
with them, has been edited at Mirzapore, 1856, by the late Dr. J. II. Ballautyae, who
also gave a valuable literal translation of the first forty pages of the text.
PATAP SCO, a river of Maryland, rises on the northern boundary of the state, and
flows south-easterly 80 in. to the Chesapeake bay, 14 m. s. of Baltimore, to which city it
is navigable. Its falls furnish water-power to numerous factories.
PATCHOGUE', a village in Brookhaven township, Suffolk cp , X. Y., on the shore
of Great South bay, and the eastern terminus of the South Side railroad of Long Island;
54 m. e. of Brooklyn; pop-jO, 3,000. It has flour-mills, rope and carpet-warp facto-
ries, and a natural bed of "Blue Point oysters," large quantities of which are exported;
there is also a good fishing trade. . •
PATCHOU'LI. This very interesting material is the dried branches of
patchouli (natural order labiata;), which was first introduced to this country as an article
of merchandise in 1844. The plant is a native of Silhet, the Malay coast, Ceylon. Java,
the neighborhood of Bombay, and probably also of China; but owing to the fondness
of Asiatics for the perfume which it yields, it is difficult to say where it is native or
cultivated. Every part of the plant is odoriferous, but the younger portions of the
branches with the leaves are chosen; they are usually about a foot long. The odor is
peculiar and difficult to define, b^t it has a slight resemblanc • to sandal-wood; it is very
powerful, and to many persons is extremely disagreeable. The odor of patchouli was
known in Europe before the material itself was introduced, in consequence of its use in
Cashmere to scent the shawls with a view of keeping out moths, which are averse to it;
hence the genuine Cashmere shawls were known by their scent until the French found
the secret, and imported the herb for use in the same way. Its name in India is pnclni-
pat, and it is there used as an ingredient in fancy tobaccos, and as ft perfume for the
hair. It is also much prized for keeping insects from linen and woolen articles.
The essence of patchouli is a peculiar heavy brown oil, with a disagreeably powerful
odor; it is obtained by distillation, and requires extreme dilution for perfumery pur-
poses.
PATE DE FOIE GRAS, sometimes called Strasburg pie, a dish greatly esteemed
by epicures, and, as the name indicates, made of the livers of abnormally fattened
geese or ducks. Strnsburg and Toulouse are the chief places of manufacture, the pates
are exported to every part of the world, and the trade amounts to several hundred thou-
sand dollars annually. The fowls are fed to repletion with salted maize, and by this
means the liver is increased to the unnatural weight of 2 or even 3 Ibs.
PATEL LA, or KNEE-CAP, is a sesamoid bone (q.v.), developed.in the single tendon of
the rectus, vastus externns, and rastus intemus muscles — the greater extensor muscles of
the leg. It is heart-shaped in form, the broad end being directed upwards and the apex
downwards. The anterior or external surface is convex, perforated by small apertures
for the entrance of vessels* and marked by rough longitudinal stria?, while the posterior
or internal surface is smooth and divided into two facets by a vertical ridge, which cor-
responds and fits into the groove on the lower articulating surface of the femur or thigh-
Patanjall.
Patent.
bone, while the two facets (of which the outer is the broader and deeper) corresponds to
the articular surface of the two condyles. •
This bone is liable both to dislocation and fracture. Dislocation may occur either
inwards or outwards; but it is most frequent in the outward direction. The displace-
ment may be caused either by mechanical violence, or by too sudden contraction of the
extensor muscles in whose conjoined tendon it lies; and is most liable to occur in knock-
kneed, flabby persons. It may be readily detected by the impossibility of bending the
knee, and by the bone being felt in its new position-, and, except in one rare variety, the
dislocation is capable of being reduced without any difficulty. Fracture of the patella
may (like dislocation) be caused either by muscular action or by mechanical violence. |
Fracture by muscular action is the more common of the two forms, and occurs thus:
A person in danger of falling forwards attempts to recover himself by throwing the body
backwards, and the violent action of the extensors (chiefly the rectus) snaps the patella
across, the upper fragment being drawn up the thigh, while the lower portion is retained
in situ by that portion of the common tendon which is continued from the patella to the
tubercle of the tibia, and which is called the ligamentum patellae. The treatment con-
sists in relaxing the opposing muscles by raising the trunk, and slightly elevating the
limb, which should be kept 'in a straight position. In consequence of the great diffi-
culty of bringing the broken surfaces into exact apposition, it is very difficult to obtain
bony reunion of the parts, and the case generally results either in mere ligamentous unioa.
or in no true union at all.
PATELLA and PATELLID.E. See LIMPET.
PA' TEN (Lat. patina, a dish), the plate employed for the elements of bread in the
eucharistic service. Anciently it was of considerable size; and while the practice of
the offertory (q.v.) continued, there was a special paten for the bread-offering. In the
Roman Catholic church, in which the unleavened wafer-bread is used, and the commun-
ion is distributed from a distinct vessel called pyx (q.v.), the paten is a small circular
plate, always of the same material with the chalice. It is often richly chased or carved,
and studded with precious stones. It is used only in the mass.
PATENT is an exclusive right granted by the crown (in letters patent or open, whence
the name) to an individual to manufacture and sell a chattel or article of commerce of
his own invention. The policy of the present law of patents has latterly been much
canvassed, and it has been suggested that, instead of the present monopoly, with the
drawback of litigation to which it uniformly gives rise, the use of all inventions should
be dedicated to the public at once, and the inventor rewarded by a pension from the
state, according to the merits and utility of the invention. The present law allows the
inventor to have a monopoly of his invention for 14 years, with a further privilege at
the end of that time, provided he has not been sufficiently remunerated, to have the
patent renewed for a further term of 14 year* That some mode of rewarding the indi-
vidual whose perseverance and ingenuity have enabled him to discover a new invention
should be established is universally admitted, but whether it should be at the expense of
that part of the public who are purchasers, and therefore benefited by his discovery, or
by the public at large in the shape of a pension, is a matter still undecided. The evils
of the present law are that there is a great deal of uncertainty in the mode of ascertain-
ing what is a new invention. Hence, when a patent has been granted, if it is of such a
nature as to lead to competition, infringements are almost matters of course, and the
only mode of discovering and checking the infringement is so tedious, costly, and inef-
fective that inventors generally pass their lives in constant litigation, fighting in detail a
succession of imitators who often have nothing to lose by defeat, and therefore entail all
the greater burden on the legitimate manufacturer. It has been said that not more than
three patents per cent are remunerative. A royal commission has latterly been engaged
in inquiries as to the best mode of remunerating inventors, and improving the law in
reference to infringements; but it is doubtful how far the subject is capable of being put
on a better footing, so many difficulties being inherent in it. The crown seems always
to have enjoyed the prerogative right to grant monopolies, and this had been so greatly
perverted in the time of Elizabeth that the popular clamor led to a statute in the fol-
lowing reign having for its object to prevent the crown in future making any grants of
that kind which should be prejudicial to the interests of trade. By that act an excep-
tion was expressly made in favor of new inventions. At first the judges construed grants
of monopoly to inventors very strictly; but afterwards it was seen that they were for
the benefit of trade, and were dealt with more liberally. An important modification of
the law was introduced by a statute of queen Anne, which required every inventor to.
describe in detail the nature of the invention in an instrument called a specification.
Another statute of 5 and 6 Will. IV. c. 83 further altered the law by allowing parties
who had a difficulty in .separating what was new from what was old in their invention
to enter an express disclaimer of that part which was not new. But the most important
alteration was made in 1852, by the statute of 15 and 16 Viet. c. 83, whick reduced the
fees, and otherwise improved the practice attending the obtaining of patents for the
United Kingdom. Before stating shortly the substance of this act, it may be observed
that there has always been a difficulty in defining what is an invention that is patent-
able — a difficulty which no act of parliament can get rid of, for it is inherent in the sub-
Patent.
374
ject-m.itter. It hrjs been held that a pnfcrt must he not merely a discovery of ft new
substance or article of food, but it must be a combination of processes producing some
new result, or an old result by different means. It, is of tbc essence of the patent that
it be entirely ne\v; that is, that it should not have been described in a published book,
or well known in the business of the world, nor publicly u.^ed before. "What amounts
to. a public use is necessarily difficult of definition, but the thing must have been so
used that others may have known and used il besides the inventor. The specifica-
tion must be so drawn as to give a 'full disclosure of the secret, and describe it so
that an intelligent person could from the description make or produce the article itself.
There is a patent-office in London, in Edinburgh, and in Dublin. All the business
connected with patents is now transacted at the office in London, the Scotch and Irish
Offices being used only as places for inspecting copies of patents, specifications, and
documents. The commissioners of patents are the lord chancellor, master of the rolls,
attorney and solicitor general of England and Ireland, and the lord advocate and solici-
tor general of Scotland. The mode in which an inventor proceeds is, first to present a
petition for a grant of letters-patent, accompanied by a statement in writing of ti.e spec-
ification, a copy of which must be left at the patent-office. These papers, as also draw-
ings, must be in a certain prescribed form. The application is referred, as a matter of
course, to one of the law officers of the crown, who may call to his aid a scientific person
to be paid by the applicant. A provisional patent may be applied for in the first
instance, and the complete patent deferred for six months — an arrangement which gives
the benefit of priority to the applicant of time to prepare and test his specification, and
of paying the expenses more gradually; but the effect is the same in the end, the patent
dating from the first application. After a patent has been granted, and been in exist-
ence for three years, a fee of £50 must be paid; and, at the end of the seven years, a fee
of £100. The letters-patent extend to the whole of the United Kingdom. The practice
with reference to patents, especially as to the drawing of the specification, is too minute
to justify an inventor to attempt to take out a patent without professional aid; and a
class of persons called patent agents (a business for which no qualifications a.v ai pres-
ent required by any constituted authority) devote themselves to this branch of Irishie.ss.
But great caution is required in selecting those only who are competent and honorable
Their charges are generally ascertained by estimate beforehand, and are usually m.i le in
a round sum. The fees payable to the law officers are as follows: On leaving petition
for grant of letters-patent, £5; on notice of intention to proceed with appli-ci'.m. L'5;
on warrant of law officer for letters-patent, £5; on sealing of letters-patent, £5; on filing
specifications, £5: at or before expiration of third year, £50; at or before expiration of
seventh year, £100.
Besides these fees, if opposition is entered to the grant, additional fees are incurred,
both by the party applying and the party opposing.
A patent obtained in this country does not extend to the colonies, but several of the
colonies have machinery for granting patents for a like period. In the United I-'
patents are also granted for a term of 14 years. In France, the term is 5, 10, or 15 years,
at the option of the applicant; in Prussia, for 15 years; in Russia, for 3, 5, or 10 years;
in Spain, for 5, 10, or 15 years; in Belgium, for 20 years; in Holland, for 5, 10, or 15
years; in Austria, not more than 15 years; in Sardinia, 15 years. In all cases, fees are
exigible from the patentee. See PATENT LAWS and PATENT OFFICE.
PATENT LAWS. Since the introduction of the amended patent law in 1S.V3 (see
PATENTS), many manufacturers have boldly advocated the abolition of the paient system
altogether; on the plea, that the good results, whatever they may be, are overbalanced
by the bad. The great majority of advisers, however, call for further reform, not aboli-
tion. The economic section of the British association has discussed this matter during
a long scries of years. The society of arts, also, have had many discussions on the sub-
ject; and the arguments 'pro and con will be found at length in the trnusHrtiona of these
bodies. The various chambers of commerce throughout the kingdom have likewise
debated the subject at length. The actual operation of the system may be bri -fly illus-
trated. Mr. Bennett Woodcroft, in 1864, examined 100 patents out of those which had
been applied for in 1855. Of the 100, he found 96 frivolous in character, of little or no
value as to the merit of the inventions; 4 of moderate value; and not one of striking
promise. Out of the 100 applications, 70 patents were granted, of which 1 bec;.m<- void
at the end of six months, 51 more at the end of three years, and 15 more at the end oj
seven years — because the patentees declined to pay the successive installments of fees.
There were therefore, in 1863, only 3 patents left out of the 100 which had been applied
for in 1855. Mr. Woodcroft finds that about the same ratio is exhibited in the whole of
the 3,000 or so applied for every year. In 100 of the average applications in 18r>s. he
pronounced that there was not one invention of much value, 3 of some, and 1)7 of littlo
or no value. In 1863 he found 1 of much, 1 of some, and 98 of little or no value. As
to statistics of actual numbers, see PATENT OFFICE, LIBUATCY, AND .Mt si:t M.
In 1862 a royal commission was appointed to consider the whole subject of tho
patent laws, and to suggest alterations which might be useful. The commission col-
lected evidence in that and the two following years, and made its report in iy<il. Other
commissions and committees have made later inquiries, aud offered suggestions founded
375
Patent.
on the evidence collected; but the opinions expre?sed, on almost every point, are most
conflicting. The divided opinion of practical men has hitherto discouraged any attempt
to legislate on their recommendations; atid the act of 1852 remains still in force.
PATENT OFFICE, LIBRARY, AXD MUSEUM. The present organization of these
establishments arose mainly out of the act relating to patents (q.v.) passed in 1852.
Rooms were rented in Southampton buildings, London, for the office as re-organized; a
superintendent of specifications was appointed; and a plan was adopted for making the
system as useful to the public as possible.
The Ojfiw. — All the specifications of patents from the earliest date wore examined, and
minutely classified according to their contents. The patents from 1711 to 1852 were
found to nmount'to the large number of 12,977; and the specifications of the whole of these
were printed between 1853 and 1858. There were a few of earlier date, between 1617
and 1711, but none in so complete a form as to render them worth printing. The whole
lill many hundred quarto volumes, with the lithographed illustrations bound in separate
folio volumes. The expense of the whole undertaking — for paper, printing, and litho-
graphing— was £92,000; the number of copies printed was small; but any single specifi-
cation can be reprinted if a demand for it should arise. The next work was to utilize
this immense collection by a thorough system of indexing. Three indexes were pre-
pared— chronological, alphabetical (according to the names of the inventors), and subject-
matter. Arrangements were at the same time made for printing and indexing the speci-
fications of all patents obtained under the new law (1852); and this has been done year
by year. (The total number of patents from 1617 to 1878 exceeded 100,000.) These speci-
fications are sold to the public at the price of paper and print, varying from l-£d. to about
4s., averaging about 8d. each. The printing and publishing are completed within three
weeks of the time when each final specification reaches the hands of the superintendent.
Any copy of any of these, if stamped and certified, is received in any court of law or
equity in the kingdom, in evidence of the patent to which it relates, without the neces-
sity of producing the original document itself. There are generally over 4, 000 petitions
for new patents every year; about 800 of the petitioners usually fail to give notice of
their intention to proceed, and 200 more fall away before the actual sealing of the
patent; so that, roughly speaking, about 3,000 specifications of patents are added to tho
list every year. Of this number, not more than 500 to 600 overlive three years. In
1878, 5,343 applications for patents were made; but 1905 of these lapsed during the year,
for various reasons. The old and new specilications from 1711 to 1878, amounting to
110,334, have all been printed and published. These works are acquiring ever-increasing
value as standards of reference for intending patentees. To render the new specifica-
tions equally available with those of older date, three indexes are prepared for each
year's collection, of the kinds already described. There has also been prepared a refer-
ence, index to the whole series. In 1871, a new plan was adopted, of publishing weekly
abridgments of the specifications of new patents: dispensing with any further alpha-
betical ;'4id subject-matter indexes. Besides this, abridgments have been drawn up of
most of the specifications, and will be eventually of all: setting forth, in a few words, the
general nature of the invention. These abridgments are collected into 12mo volumes,
one or more to each class of subjects; and the volumes are sold at 6d. to 10s. each, accord-
ing to their bulk. At the end of 1878, there were 115 volumes of these useful works,
relating to no less than 94 groups or classes of abridgments. By reference to one of
these handy volumes, or to the subject-matter index, an inventor can see w7hether any
person has preceded him in the particular subject for which he desires a patent.
The Library and Reading-room. — Special arrangements are made to render the speci-
fications, and all that relates to them, as available as possible to the public. Complete
sets of the printed specifications, indexes, etc., have been presented to universities, gov-
ernment offices, provincial towns, colonies, and foreign governments; and partial sets
to 300 mechanics' institutes and scientific and literary societies. A complete set com-
prised in 1880 above 3,600 volumes, from folio to 12mo, and cost no less than £3,500 for
paper, printing, and lithographing; about 160 of these complete sets have been presented.
At the head ofiice in Southampton buildings, a reading-room has been provided, open to
such of the public as may wish to consult the specifications at their leisure. But besides
this, the commissioners have gradually become possessed of a large and valuable col-
lection of scientific and technical bocks and periodicals, to winch additions are every
year made by purchase. A new library and reading-room, occupying the upper part of
the old building, has been constructed at a cost of £15,000, and was finished and opened
in 1867. All the scientific and technical works of the library of 80,000 volumes, as wclL
as the specifications of the patents, may here be consulted.
The Museum. — The commissioners having come into possession, by gift and other-
wise, of several models illustrating patented inventions, had no place of their own to
deposit them for preservation and exhibition. But an arrangement Avas made with Urn
authorities at South Kensington for the reception of these models; nnd, greatly aug-
mented by specimens, drawings, diagrams, and portraits, the patent museum now
occupies a site adjacent to the South Kensington museum.
The commissioners have for many years sought permission to erect a large and hand-
some building to accommodate the whole of their departments — offices, library, reading-
Patents.
376
room, and museum. They possess the pecuniary means, but lack the authority. Theii
receipts exceed £100, (XXX a your, in the form of fees from patentees; and alter a very
liberal expenditure for salaries, superannuation allowances, editing, compiling, printing,
purchase of books and periodicals, etc., there is a considerable surplus. A clause in the
act of 1852 prevents them from buying land and electing buildings \vilhout the consent
of the treasury. One suggestion made by tin; commissioners is lor permission to build
in a new street, to be formed from the iloi>;c-guards to tiie Thames embankment; and
another is, that the. new building should be ou the embankment itself, a still more prom-
inent site. •
PATENT OFFICE (ante). The business of the I". S. patent oflice previous to 1836
was conducted by a single clerk in the oilier of the secretary of state. The act of 1836
provided for the appointment of 4 c!erks, one to act as examiner, and also of a draughts-
man, machinist, and messenger. PiovUion \v;is also made for the c>tabli.-hmcm of a
library. From this slender beginning lias grown the immense cstabiisl.nu nt i.nw occu-
pying nearly the whole of the building of tin- department of the interior at Washi
and employing between four and live hundred persons. The patent oll'icc. as il.e build-
ing is usually called, is of marble, freestone, and granite; 45') fi. long, 331 ft. \\iue, and
75 ft. high, in Do.ic architecture. The model rooms occupy the upper story, and con-
sist of 4 halls, 1350 ft. in length, and containing more than 200,000 models of patents.
The capacity of the building is now taxed to its uUnost, and it is thought by many that
models have been required in many cases where drawings would answer the purpose.
A recent rule of the office provides that applicants need not furnish models unless offi-
cially notified to do so. The model rooms are open to the public. Below are the ollices
of the commissioner, his assistant, and about 70 examiners divided into several < :
In the ten years ending Jan. 1, 1850, 5,941 patents were issued; from 1850 to 1800,
21,428; from 1860 to 1870, 77,315; from 1870 to 1880, 140,375. The ratio of this increase
to that of the increase of pop. is sixfold. As compared with foreign nations the
amount of business done in the Washington ollice is the largest in the world. The
charge for appl'cation for a patent is $20 in the United Hates, against .^.".O in Canada,
$75 in England, $100 in most continental countries, f 300 in Russia and most British col-
onies, and $400 in Portugal and British India. These fees are for the application only,
and subsequent fees are in proportion. In the year ending June 30, 1880, the number of
patents issued was 12,471 (1629 less than in 1879); of trade marks, 1141; and of labels,
4U3. The total expenditure of the ollice was $548,051.47, and the receipts ^Tti::. 14U.79.
By authority of congress the office issues weekly a Gazette, containing listsof the patents
issued, description, and specifications of the more important, with engravings, notice
of new rules adopted, and accounts of patent litigation, and decisions of the t'.
8. courts. The department also issues a pamphlet entitled How to Obtain Patenit, sent
free on application, which contains minute direction as to the course to be taken by
inventors. We add a, schedule of the present patent fees of the United States: On tiling
application, $15; on issuing original patent (17 years), $20; on implication for reissue,
$80; on application for extension, $50; on granting extension of patent (7 years.', ; 50;
on each caveat, $10; on appeal to examiners-in-chief, $10; on appeal to commissioner of
patents, $20; on tiling a disclaimer, $10; on application fcr elesigu (8.; 10; ou
application for design (7 years), $15; on application for design (14 years), $30; on each
trade mark (30 years), $25; on each label (28 years), $6.
PATENTS, LAW OF (PATENT; PATENT LAWS, ante), though originally used to
include the alleged authority for granting monopolies and the law of copyright, is now
confined to the granting by the sovereign power in the state of certain immunities, privi-
leges, and authority as to the making, use, and sale of useful articles newly discovered or
invented and not already openly or by implication surrendered to the public; or as to the
employment of some newly discovered process in art or manufactures. The p-i \ihgcs
are continued for a limited time. To the inventor the consideration is the pv< lit to be
derived from the sale or use of the invention; to the public the consideration is, fir t. the
stimulation of invention; secondly, the free public use of the invented article after the
limited time expires. It is noticeable that the first patent granted in this country, 1641,
was for anew process, that of making salt. Several others were granted before the revo-
lution, under the royal charter, or by the authority of colonial statutes, the most impor-
tant instances occurring in Connecticut and Massachusetts. By the U. S. constitution
power was conferred -upon congress to pass statutes "securing for limited times to
authors and inventors the exclusive right of their respective writings or discoveries. '
The first statute was that of 1790. This fixed the limit at 14 years, or less-, at the discre-
tion of the grantors, who were fo be the attorney-general and the secretaries of state and
;iof war. The approval of any two of these. sufficed. A foreigner could receive a patent.
Fees were fixed; inf ringers were made liable to punishment, but no provision was made
for the examination of the claims. The act was found deficient, and in 179! a second
was passed which introduced the principle of deciding interfering claims and made the
form of petition to tke secretary of state alone. Triple damages were to be paid by
infringers; the fee was fixed at $30, and a method was provided for bringing disputed
claims before a U. S. district court. The act of 1600 compelled the applicant to make
oath that the invention had not been previously known or used in this or any Jon ign
377
Patent*.
country. These and other acts and amendments, in 1819 and 1832, were rendered void
by the act of 1836, which, though changed in many points by subsequent statutes (1837,
'39, '-i'2, '48, '49, '52, '60, '61, '70, '?:>), forms the basis of our present regulations. This
statute had for its marked features the establishment of a separate office (see .PATKXT
OFFICE), the appointment of a commissioner as its head officer, and of another officer to
examine the patentability of claims, and the introduction of the system of caveats. The
fee to foreigners (except aliens resident here one year) was $500 if subjects of Great
Britain ; to others $300. A board wus appointed to which appeal could be made from
the decisions of the commissioner an 1 examiner. The power of extending the patent for
7 years, after the expiration of the 14 was granted to a board of three commissioners.
Reference must be made to the statutes fur the details of changes made by later acts.
Among the more important were: that of 1839, providing that an "abandonment" to the
public must have taken place two years before the application for the patent, to justify
refusal of the grant; that. -of 1848, extending the powers of the commissioner; of 1849,
transferring the office from the department of state to that of the interior; of 1801,
extending the term from 14 to 17 years, withdrawing the power of extension from the
commi --sioner, removing the distinction tetwcen U. S. citizens, and those of nations not
discriminating against this country in the matter, fixing the fees at $15 on application
and $20 on issue of the patent, and establishing a "board of examiuers-in-chief," to
whom there is an appeal from the decisions of the primary examiner. The act of 1870
differed from the then existing statutes only in unimportant particulars. Under the
present law patents are granted to aliens as well as to citizens, the only requirement being
that the invention shall be original; and to this rule the exception exists that as against
a previous knowledge or use in other countries it is necessary for the applicant to show
only that he believed himself to be the original discoverer at the time of application.
Executors and administrators of a deceased inventor may receive the patent, and the
gram may i^sue to two or more jointly. An extension for 7 years may be obtained oa
paying an application fee of $50. and the same sum oa issue. In applying for a patent
a specification m:i>t be presented describing the nature and principle of operation of
the invention, with a detailed account of the relation of the different parts, and a distinct
statement of what is claimed as new. This must be signed and attested by two witnesses,
and accompanied by a sworn statement of the applicant's bonafida belief of the original-
ity of his invention. Wherever possible, a model, not to exceed a foot in the length of
any dimension, must be furnished; and in case of a composition of matter, samples of
the ingredients anil specimens of the composition should be forwarded. The application
i .-. by petition to the commissioner of patents; by him it is referred to one of a number of
primary examiners, each having charge of a special class of invention. On the approval
of1 -uch examiner the patent is granted; if adverse cause be found, an opportunity is
given the applicant to remove the objection by explanation or proof. If unsuccessful he
may appeal to the three examiners-in-chief ; from this board he may again appeal to the
commissi iner, whose decision is final, unless reversed by the supreme court of the dis-
trict of Columbia. A aioeat is a paper tiled by an inventor, briefly stating the nature of
his intended claims, and accompanied by a feo of $10. Its effect is to secure the appli-
cant for one year from the granting of any patent interfering with his claim, and thus
allow him time to mature his invention. The cnvetit may be renewed from year to year.
If application for an interfering patent be made, notice is given to the filer of the caveat,
and he must Uien within three months make the regular application. The question of
priority of invention is then tried as in other ea-*s; and in all, appeal lies to the district
supreme court. A re-iwte is granted ou the surrender of the old grant and a request to
amend it in certain specified, points; new claims cannot be introduced into the re-issue;
th :• amendment must be for mistakes or errors by which the original intent of the grant
was rendered void or incompletely carried out." No extension" beyond the term of 17
years is now allowed. Patents are granted for designs, artistic, "ornamental, or con-
nected witii manufactures. The question of trade marks (q.v.j was formerly closely con-
nected with the patenting of designs. The patent takes effect from the day of issue.
What subjects- matter are properly within the domain of patent law and what is neces-
sary to constitute a patentable invention or discovery, are important questions. As to
the first the language of the statute provides for the granting of patents to the inventor
"of any new and useful art. macfane, mnnnfit-cture, or composition of matter, or any new
and useful improvement thereof." The term manufacture is construed in a more limited
sense than in the patent laws of most foreign countries, as it is used exclusive of machin-
ery and compositions. Under the head of "art" are included all patentable processes,
or methods. It is often difficult to' tell within which classification a specified invention
properly fall--., but it is sufficient that its nature is such as to bring it within the limits of
one or more of the four classes. Every discovery does not entitle the discoverer to an
invention. Thus a mere enunciation of a scientific theory, abstract principle, or philo-
sophical truth, is not patentable. But if such principle be so reduced to a practicable
and tangible form, so as to be a concrete construction of component partc., or structure
capable of producing useful results, this will be patentable. It is nof necessary that all
parts of the invention be new, but what is new must produce some tangible useful effect
or improvement. Where two or more existing processes or parts of machinery are for
the first time united, if a new effect be produced, the combination is patentable; other-
Patera.
Pathological.
•wise not. No invention injurious to public morality, or which would assjgt crime, can
be patented. Bui an invention of a process or tool which would be useful in legitimate
business cannot be rejected on the ground that it might also lie of aid to burglars or
counterfeiters. That which is useful is also to be distinguished from that which is trivial
or frivolous, but a glance at the patent office models will quickly dispel any fear that
undue severity is exercised on this point. " Double use" is not patentable, that is. a new
use of a process or machine already in use for a different purpose, is not considered a
new invention. A mere substitution of one substance or element (or, in a process, of a
chemical ingredient) will not be considered, if the two have the samo function only. .V
patentable process is one which by the application of some principle or natural law, Mirh
as the application of one form of matter to another, or by chemical action, produces some
new and useful effect. Important instances are the patented pp.. i in manufactur-
ing vulcanized india-rubber, in smeltingores, and in making high grades of sin -1. An aban-
donment by an inventor may be inferred from his neglecting to make objection to the
use of his invention by unauthorized parties within his knowledge, or from unreasona-
ble delay in making application after the completion of the invention. If the alter be
in public use for two years before the time of application the inventor's claim is abso-
lutely forfeited. To constitute such public use it is necessary to show only a si;iLrle
instance. When a patent Ins been granted and application is made by a .second p
claiming priority of invention, it is too late for the " interference" investigation by the
patent office, and the only course for the commissioner to pursue is to gran: ;! second
patent to the applicant, if he feel warranted by the facts, and thus bave the parties to
contest their rights on an equal footing in the courts.
Patents afe the subject of sale iiv whole or in part, and may be mortgaged ornssigned.
Such assignment must be recorded at the patent office to protect the a.->;i:n<'e air;;;
vendee or mortgagee claiming through the original patentee. Licenses to use an inven-
tion may be written or oral, but cannot be assigned to a third party without special
authority. A contract to sell or assign an invention not yet patented is a good executory
contract, but actual sale or assignment is null. To constitute infringement of a patent
there must be the making, use, or sale to another of that which is the subject matter of
an existing patent. The test is whether the two are not substantially identical.
Changes in form, relative position, or substitution of one material for another, will not
save an inf ringer from the penalties attached to infringement. Damages may be rc.-ov-
ered by the patentee in an action on the casein courts of common law, or by equity pro-
ceedings. In the former method the measure of damage is the actual damage incurred;
in the latter theinfringer may be compelled to sccount for the profits received by him,
and a temporary or permanent injunction may be obtained. Notice must be given of the
patentee's right by marking the article with the word "patented" and the date of i>sue.
Penalties are provided for the wrongful use of such mark or stamp. The best work on
patents in this country is that of George Tickn or Curtis; Phillips and Fessendeii are also
standard authors. The latest English work is that of Agncw.
PA'TEEA (Lat.), a round dish, imitations of which were carved by the Romans in the
panels of their ceilings, etc. The name is also applied to the foliated ornaments used in
the same position.
PATEE'CULUS, C. VELLEITJS, a Roman historian, descended from an ancient nnd
wealthy Campahian family, is thought to have been b. about 19 B.C. lie. entered the
army at an early age, and from 4 to 12 A.D. served under Tiberius as prefect or legate in
Germany, Pannonia, and Dalmatia. He was a great favorite with Tiberius, and when
the latter became emperor, 14 A.D., Paterculus was appointed pretor. lie was alive in
30 A.D., as his history comes down to that year; but it is conjectured tint in the following
year he was probably put to death as one of the friends of Sejanus, of whom he speaks
highly in his work. Patcrculus's claim to remembrance is his J/itttoria Romn^a1, a com-
pendium of universal, but more particularly of Roman history, in two books. The
work, as we have it, is not complete; the beginning, and a portion following the 8th
chapter, being wanting. It seems to have commenced with the fall of Troy; and
describes only the most prominent historical incidents, but these, fortunately, with con-
siderable fullness of detail. Scholars arc satisfied that it is a work of a man who is, on
the whole, impartial and discriminating. The style is based on that of Sallust. The
tditio princeps of the Historic Romance appeared at Basel in 1520; the most valuabl'1 is
Ruhnken's, on account of its excellent notes (Lugd. Bat. 1789), reprinted by Frotscher
(Leips. 1830-39); but Orellis (Leips. 1835) has the least corrupt text.
PATERE ROS, were small pieces of ordnance, now obsolete, worked on swivels; most
commonly used on board ships, where they were mounted on the gunwale, and dis-
charged showers of old nails, etc., into hostile boats. The French called them pierriers,
from loading them with stones.
PATER'NO (anc. Hybla Major), a t. of Catania, Sicily, 11 m. n.w. by w. from Catania,
at the southern base-of Mt. ./Etna. Near Paterno are salt-springs and a salt-mine. Pop.
'71, 14,790.
PA TERNOSTEE (Lat. "Our Father") called also THE LORD'S PRAYER, a short form
of prayer suggested or prescribed by our Lord to his disciples (Matt. vi. 9-13, Luke xi.
Patera.
Pathological.
1-4) as the model according to which, in contrast with the prayers of the Pharisees, their
petitions ought to be composed. The paternoster has been accepted as, by excellence,
the form of Christian prayer. It formed part of all the ancient liturgies. 80 sacred,
indeed, was its use, that it was reserved from pagans and catechumens under what is
known as the discipline of the secret. The early fathers — Origen, Tertullian, Cyprian—
refer to it in terms which show that even then it was a recognized form of private
prayer. It was recited in baptism, and one of the privileges of the baptized was the use
of the paternoster. More than one of the fathers, and very many later writers, have
devoted special treatise.-; to the exposition of this prayer, as embracing all the titling and
legitimate objects of the prayer of a Christian. The catechism of the council of Trent
contains a detailed: exposition and commentary of it, and iu all the services, not only of
the Roman missal, breviary, ritual, processional, and ordinal, but in all the occasional
services prescribed from time to time, it is invariably introduced. In the rosary (q.v.) of
the virgin Mary, it is combined with the hail Mary (whence the larger beads of the
"rosary" are sometimes called paternoster x), and perhaps the most -isual of the shorter
devotions among Roman Catholics is the recitation of the "pater, "with one or more
"Ave Marias, concluding with the doxology. The paternoster as commonly used by
Protestants concludes with 'the clause, "for thine is the kingdom, and^ the power, and
the glory for ever. Amen." This clause is not used by Roman Catholics. Of the two
gospels — that of Matthew and that of Luke — in which the prayer is contained, that of
Luke has not this clause; and even in the gospel of Matthew it is found only in the later
MSS., in which it cannot be doubted that it is a modern interpolation. It was retained,
however, in Luther's German translation, and in the authorized ver.-ion, whence its use
became common among Protestants. Many polyglot collections of the paternoster have
been published from the 16th c. downwards, the most remarkable of which are those of
John Chamberlayue in 150 languages (1715), of Conrad Gesner in 200 (1748), and that of
Padre Hervaz in' 307 (1787).
PAT ERSON, a city of New Jersey, at the falls of the Passaic river, on the Morris
canal, and New York and Erie railway, 17 m. n.w. of New York, a city with 25 corpora-
tions or firms engaged in the manufacture of silk, machine factories, paper-mills, and
factories of carriages, cotton, flax, hemp, etc, to which the falls of the Passaic furnish
abundant water-power. The manufacture of locomotives is conducted on an extensive
scale. The city contains county buildings, an academy, 2 banks, G newspapers, and o9
churches. Pop. in '70, 33,579.
PATERSON (ante), the co. seat of Passaic cc., on the New Jersey Midland, and
the Delaware. Lackawanna and Western railroads; pop. '80, 50,887. It is on a curve of
the Passaic, which bounds it on three sides, and falls perpendicularly 50 ft., supplying a
great water-power. There is a small park near the falls. Among the public buildings
are a court-house, jail, opera-house, and market. It has a public library and a soldiers'
monument. Its silk factories are the most extensive in the United States, employing
some 8,000 persons. The locomotive works also employ many hands. The city is sup-
plied with water from the Passaic, has a fire department, and a police department.
There arc two lines of horse cars.4 Paterson was incorporated in 1792, and received its
name from gov. William Paterson, who signed the act of incorporation. It was founded
by a manufacturing corporation, in which Alexander Hamilton was interested. It became
a city in 1851.
PATEES01T, WTLT.IAM, the most celebrated, after John Law (q.v.), of the commercial
schemers of the 17th c., was, like Law, a Scotchman, and was b. in the parish of Tiii-
wald, Dumfriesshire, in 1658.* His early career is obscure, but before he was oO lie was
a merchant, carrying on considerable transactions with the West Indies and other
countries. It was lie who first projected the bank of England (incorporated in 1694),
and he was one of the original directors. He is best known, however, in connection
with the famous Darien scheme (q.v.), of which he was the prime mover, and which
obtained the royal sanction iu 1695. This project came to ruin in a few years: but Hie
scheming activity of Paterson continued unabated. When, in- 1701, William resolved to
carrv the contest with Louis XIV. into the heart of Spanish America, Paterson was
taken into the king's confidence, and, but for that monarch's death, might have seen his
dreams of Darien realized. He had a considerable hand iu the union of Scotland wiih
Paterson-, by S. Bannister (1858); The Birthplace of W. P., by W. Pagan (1865).
PATHOLOG ICAL ANATOMY, or the anatomy of diseased organs, is included in, but
must not be confounded with pathology, as until comparatively lately was often the
case. It is merelv a section — although a most important section — of pathology, con-
tributing (as prof . Vogel has well remarked "to practical medicine the solid materials
from which to construct a basement, without having the power to erect a perfect edifice."
Pathological anatomy enables the surgeon to decide whether a suspicions tumor is malig-
nant or of a comparatively harmless nature, and in many other ways is of the gr-T.test
importance to surgery; and although at first sight it might appear to be of small impor-
tance in relation to "therapeutics, this is not in reality the case. Scientific treatment
EffiS0157- 380
necessarily demands nn accurate knowledge of the material chancres •which lie nt the
foundation of the various morbid symptoms. Hence pathological anatomy not only
forms a portion of flic positive basis of therapeutics, but it also points out the processes
by which the ditlVrc'nt altered parts may be gradually restored to their normal condition.
It not merely indicates what requires healing, but in many eases also the course that
must be adopted in order to aid the curative tendency of nature. It likewise ser\e- afi a
check on therapeutics, cxpo.-ing, in a most conclusive manner, the absurdity of many
pretended methods of cure. It points out, for example, that in a certain slave of inllam-
mation of the lungs (pneumonia) a. h'brinous Huid separates from the blood, and by its
coagulation renders a portion of the tissue of the lung impermeable to air; and further
that it requires several days for this coagulated matter to resume tiie fluid condition and
to be removed. If any one should assert — and such assertions have often been made —
that in this stage of the disease he could apply a remedy which would cure the patient
in a few hours, a very slight knowledge of pathological anatomy would show the lolly
of such an assertion. The best English works on this subject are Yogcl's Pathological
Anatomy of the Human, Body, and Jones and Sieveking's Manual of Pathological Ann'mity.
PATHOLOGY (from the Gr. path™, disease, and logos, a discourse) is that department
of medicine which tVeats of the doctrine of morbid actions or diseases. In this country
the term is so far restricted as not to include the causes, treatment, etc., of diseases, but
the most eminent French and German -writers regard it as equivalent to " the theory amj
practice, of medicine," and consider it a-; treating not only of the classification, cau-e;,
symptoms, and physical signs of diseases, but as also including their seat, the phenomena
which precede and follow them, their progress, their duration, their modes of termina-
tion, the different forms in which they occur, their complications, the changes to which,
they give rise in the solids and fluids of the body, and their treatment.
PATKUL, JOHANN REINHOLD, 1660-1707; b. in a prison at Stockholm; of a noble
Livonian family; educated for a soldier, attained the rank of capt., but his fame rests
principally on his talent for diplomacy, lie was prominent in the controversies between
the Livonian nobility and the king of Sweden. Having incurred the displeasure of the
king he was summoned to Stockholm for trial, "was condemned *as a rebel, sentenced to
death, and his writings destroyed. "He escaped to Courland, but his estates were confis-
cated about 1694. ife resided subsequently in Switzerland and France, and busied him-
self with scientific studies. In 1698 he sued for pardon, was refused, and entered the
service of Augustus II. of Saxony, king of Poland; was appointed one of his privy-
council, and was influential in bringing about the alliance formed against Charles XII.
by Augustus II., Peter the great, and Frederick IV. of Denmark. He made a journey
to Russia as ambassador, won the favor of the czar, and became Russian ambassador to
Dresden with, the rank of gen. In 1705 Augustus II. had him .arrested and imprisoned
at Konigstein, and surrendered him to Charles XII. as one of toe conditions of peaOB
(giving secret orders to further his escape), but he was taken out of Saxony by the
' Swedes, ami by the command of Charles was broken on the wheel and beheaded at the
convent of Kazimierz near Poseu.
PATMORE, COVENTRY KEARSEY DIGHTON, b. England, 1823; appointed an assist-
ant librarian at the British museum in 1846, and held that position till 1868. His first
publication was a volume of Poem* in 1844. His subsequent works are : Tamerton Ch uirh
Toir-T and other Poems, 1833; a domestic poem in 4 parts, called The Anyd in the llo/ixt,
1854-62; an anthology called A Garland of Poems for Children, 1862; The Unknown Eros,
1877; A Memoir of Barry Cornwall, nod Amelia, 1878
PAT MOS, a bare and rocky island in the ^Egean sea, about 45 m. in circumference. Tt
belongs to the group called the Sporades, lies to the s. of Samos, and is now called Patino,
but in the middle ages Palmosa, although there is now only one palm-tree in the whole
island. It is celebrated as the place to which the apostle John was exiled, and where he
saw the visions recorded in the book of Revelation. On the top of a mountain stands
the famous monastery of ." John the Divine," half way up to which a cave is pointed
out to the traveler in which, according to tradition, the apostle received his revelations.
See Ross's Reissn atif den Grieclmchen Inseln des Agdischen Mewes,. and Gueriu's De-
scription de rile da Patmos, etc. (Paris, 1856).
PATNA, a district of British India, bounded n. by the districts of Sarum, Tirhoot,
and Monghyr; e. by that of Monjhyr; s. by those of Monghyr and Behar; wr. by that of
Shahabad: the length from e. to w. is 85 in; breadth. 45: 1.228 sq. miles. The Ganges
flows along its n. border, and the Son, a tributary of the Ganges, forms the w. and n.w.
boundary, and is navigable for a considerable distance. The soil is fertile and well culti-
vated. Rice, wheat, and barley are grown in abundance. The opium poppy is extensively
raised. The climate is very hot in summer, but the winters are mild. * The district is
traversed by the East India railway, and by several roads. Patna was ceded to tin- Eng-
lish in 1765 During the mutiny of 1857 every part of the district except the capital
was occupied by the rebels.
PAT NA, or more correctly, PATTANA (i.e. , the town), an important trading town of
Hindustan, chief town of a British district and division of the same name in Rahar,
presidency of Bengal, stands on the right bank of the Gauges, and 397 m. by land n.w.
OO1 Patholosjy.
Patiia. " '
of Calcutta. The city proper, forming a quadrangle, extends a mile and a half along
the river-side, and is half that extent in breadth. Patna is generally supposed, however,
to include the suburbs, which stretch on each side of it, on the s. bank of the Ganges.
The European quarter is on the \v. of the town proper. Here are a church, chapel,
Roman Catholic cathedral, government officer, sciiool, the nabob's palace, the great
tank, and several noteworthy mosques and tombs. The streets of Patna are covered
with mud and slime in winter, and its air is thickly impregnated with choking dust in
(jummer. Pop. '71, 158,900.
Patna, under the former name of Padmavati, is supposed to have been the capital of
Bahar, 419 years B.C. Here, at an early period, the English established factories, and
traded in opium, rice, etc. In 1763 disputes about transit-duties arose between the
Company's servants and the native government. A war ensued, resulting in the British
taking possession of the district. Patna was the headquarters of the \Vahabi or Mussul-
man conspiracy in 1864. Chief seat of the opium .trade; trade also in table-linen, wax
candles, toys, bird-cages, and talc-pictures. The division of Patna lias an area of
23,733 sq.m., and a pop. of '72, 10,12;?, 743; the district, an area of 2,101 sq.m., and a
pop. of 1,559,638.
PATOIS (of uncertain derivation), the French term applied to corrupt dialects of a
language spoken bj- llic uneducated. See DIALECT.
PATON, Sir JOSEPH NOEL, R.S.A. , one of the most distinguished living Scottish
artists, was born in Dunfermline in 1823. It is understood that in early life he emplojred
himself in making 'designs for the damask manufacturers of his native place, and for
the muslin and lace embroiderers of Paisley. He, however, soon turned his attention to
the walk of art proper, and his cartoon sketch, " The Spirit of Religion," gained one of
the three premiums at the Westminster Hall competition in 1845. Two years thereafter
his oil picture of "Christ bearing the Cross," and his "Reconciliation of Oberon and
Titania," jointly gained the prize of £300. He subsequently exer;uled a companion-
picture to the " Reconciliation," entitled the " Quarrel of Oberon and Titania;" and
both now adorn the royal Scottish academy's galleries iu Edinburgh. These pictures
made the artist's reputation Although somewhat hard and dry in color, and without
any retiring and shadowy depth, they are full of brilliant fancy; and the multitudes of
figures, and the variety of fairy incident, affect the spectator much in the way that the
constant sparkle of Congreve or Sheridan affects the reader. He has since painted much
more simply and powerfully. " Dante Meditating the Episode of Franco.-ca,'' was
exhibited in Edinburgh in 1852; and the "Dead Lady," a work of great and solemn
pathos, in 1854. In 1855 his great picture, ' The Pursuit of Pleasure," was exhibited
in that city, where it was much criticised and much admired. He has since painted
" Home from the Crimea," a replicn of which is in the possession of her majesty; and
" In Memoriam," a scene from the Indian mutinies; and for the association for the pro-
motion of the fine arts in Scotl nul, a series of picture illustrations of the "Dowie Dens
o' Yarrow." Among his other pictures of importance are "Dawn: Luther at Erfurt,"
"The Fairy Raid," "Faith and Reason," " Gethsemane," "Christ and Mary at the
Sepulchcr," " The Man of Sorrows," "More Janua Vitoe," "The Spirit of Twilight,"
" Thy Will be Done" (1879), etc. Many of his works have been engraved, and are
deservedly popular. Along with his brother he illustrated Aytoun's Lays of the Scoftixh
Cavaliers, and in 1864 he executed twenty illustrations of the Ancient Mariner. Patou
"was appointed queen's limner for Scotland in 1865, received the honor of knighthood iu
1867, and iu 1876 was made LL.D. by Edinburgh university. He has published two
volumes of poems.
PATDNCE, CROPS, in heraldry (Lat. patens, expanding), a cross with its terminations
expanding like early vegetation or an opening blossom.
PATOS, LAGO DES. See Rio GRAND DO SUL.
PATRAS (ancient Patrce, Turk. Baliabadra), a fortified sea-port, and the most impor-
tant trading town in the w. of Greece, in the government of Achaia and Elis, stands on
tlyg eastern shore of .the gulf of the same name, 12 m. s.s.w. of Lepanto. It is over-
looked by the strong citidel — on the site of the ancient acropolis — crowning a ridge, on
the southern slopes of which the ancient city, as well as the modern one before the revo-
lution, was built. The Patras of to-day stands on a level space close to the sea. The
plain of Patras is exceedingly valuable for the currants grown, and which are the most
important export of the town. Its harbor, though protected by a mole, is unsafe, and
exposed to heavy seas. Earthquakes; frequently occur, and most of the houses are on
that account only of one story. Capotes are made here of mixed wool and goat's hair;
and. besides currants, oils, valonia, raw silk and cotton, AVOO!, hides, wax, etc., are
exported. Patras is by far the most important commercial town on the continent of
Greece, though it suffered severely during the Greek revolution. Pop. about 24,000
Ptttrw is the only one of the " twelve cities" of Achaia which still exists as a town;
but most of its relics have been swept away by earthquake and revolution.
PATEIA POTESTAS is the term used to express the power which the civil law gave
to the Roman father over his children, and which has been the foundation of the greatly
modified pqterual authority recognized in modern systems of jurisprudence. The right
If atr 1 arch. o o n
Patrician. >o^
of a parent to control his child not come to years of discretion is a part of natural law,
but the more cxiensivc /itiir/n ii»!ix1<tx of the Romans was probably a relic of those early
times in which families, or tribes considered as families, l:-d a wandering pastoral lite in
dread of eacli other, under the guidance of a chief, whom it wan necessary to invest with
an almost unlimited authority.
By the Roman law, tiie jmtn'ti potcxliix was acquired naturally, by the birth of a child
in wedlock, or civilly, by legitimation or adoption. An uncmaneii>ated son or dan
u grandchild by a son, or any other descendant by males, was viewed as a part of the
parent's properly. In early times a father had the powvr of life and death over l.is
children: by the laws of the twelve tables he could sell them as slaves. <,r could tra
them to another family by adoption. Under the republic, the despotic authority
cised by fathers over their offspring was practically limited to a considerable extent by
the ccn-ors, and several emperors issued constitutions to restrain the cruelties ofu-n per-
petrated by fathers towards their children. First the right of sale, and then that, of life
and death was taken away. Alexander Scvents restricted the right of the lather to
moderate chastisement, and Constantine declared that the father who should kill his son
was to be held guilty of murder. By the early Roman law, the son, being in his father's
power, could not acquire property for himself; his acquisitions all belonged to his father;
hence he was incapable of making a testament. There were, however, particularly in
later times, modes, by which he could acquire peciilium, or properly which should 1 e
independent of his father. A father might give his son property to trade on, which
\vonid be his own; and latterly a son acquired for himself whatever lie gained in military
service, or by the discharge of certain civil functions. In all matters belonging to the
jiamiblicwn a son was independent of his father; lie could vote at the elections, hold the
most important offices of state, or command the army. He could also be a tutor, lutory
being considered a munus public-urn. In later times a son piomotcd to the consular
dignity ceased to be under the restraints of paternal control, but, unlike an emancipated
son, he retained his rights of succession. Lawful children were entitled to aiimc nt from
their parents; an obligation attached in the first instance to the father and mo: her, and,
failing them, to the grandfather. Until the time of Justinian, illegitimate children bad
only a claim for support against their mother; that emperor gave them a right to demand
aliment from their father.
In no modern system has the paternp.l power been carried so far as under the Rom;ui
law. According to the French "code civile," a child is under the authority of his
parents till majority or emancipation; up to that time he cannot quit the paternal resi-
dence without leave of his father, except for enrollment in the army at IS years of age.
Majority is attained at the age of 2.1, but a minor is emancipated by marriauc. At 15 a
minor may be emancipated by his father, or, if his father be dead, by his mother, by a
simple declaration before a magistrate. The father possesses somewhat extensive powers
of chastisement. He may obtain a warrant to arrest his child under j(i, and detain him
in prison for a month; and an order maybe obtained for the incarceration for six months of
a child above 16, on cause shown to the satisfaction of the magistrate. Parents are entitled
to the usufruct of their children's property till the age of 18 or emancipation, subject to
the burdens of maintenance and education; but this right does not extend to property-
acquired by the industry of the children, or bequeathed by a -stranger under the condi-
tion of an exclusion of paternal interference.
By the law of England, a father is guardian to his lawful children in minority, though
this right ceases to some extent at 14. He lias the power of moderate chaMiscment. As
guardian he receives the rents of any real estate which the child may possess, which he
must account for when majority is attained. The paternal power never extends beyond
majority, and, to some effect, marriage acts as an emancipation. A father main by deed
appoint a guardian to such of his children as are unmarried at his death till tiiay attain
majority.
In Scotland a father has a general control over the persons of his children durii <*
Eipilarity; that is, till the age of 14 in the case of sons, and 12 in the case of daughters,
e may fix their place of residence, direct their education, and inflict reasonable chastise-
ment. The limits of the patria potestas as regards children who have attained pub- riy.
but are under 21 years of age, arc not very exactly defined; but it seems to be um'<
that in ordinary circumstances minors are not entitled to choose their own pi:.
dence in defiance of paternal authority. The father is administrator-in-law, and tutor
and curator of his children, unless in the case of an estate left by a stranger and placed
under separate management. This guardianship ceases on majority, or on the marriage
of a daughter
PA'TRIAECH (Gr. prttnarches, the head of a tribe) is the name given to the heads of
the families in the antediluvian period of Scripture history, and is still more familiar as
the designation in Jewish history of the three progenitors of the Jewish people, Abraham,
Isaac, and Jacob. In the later history of the Jews, too, after the destruction of Jerusa-
lem, the name was used to designate the bends of the sanhedrim, one of whom, the
patriarch of the west, resided at Tiberias, in Galilee, and the other, the patriarch of the
eastern Jews, at Babylon. The most familiar use of the word, however, is in the history
of the Christian church.. It is the name given to the bishops of certain great uielropoh-
Q O o Patriarch.
Patrician.
tan (q.v.) sees, who not only held rank beyond other metropolitans, but also enjoyed a
jurisdiction almost identical with that of the metropolitan in his own province over all
the metropolitans themselves (with their provinces) included in their district, which was
called a PATRIARCHATE. The name patriarch originally seems to have been given com-
monly to bishops, or at least was certainly given in a less special sense than what it
eventually assumed; nor can the date at which the title first assumed its now received
use bo exactly determined. It is certain, however, that the name and the office were
bothi'ecognized before the council of Nice, at which time, as we learn from the sixth
canon, the patriarchal sees, acknowledged by "ancient custom," were three in number,
Home, Antioch, an4 Alexandria. After the translation of the seat of empire to Byzan-
tium, thenceforward called Constantinople, that see, originally subject to the metropoli-
tan of Heraolea, obtained, first metropolitan, and afterward patriarchal rank; and event-
ually established a precedency over the patriarchs of Antioch and Alexandria, being
second only to Rome. The contests between the patriarchs of Rome and Constantinople
•were among the chief causes of the GKEEK SCHISM (q.v.). To these four patriarchates
was .added a fifth, in the year 451, that of Jerusalem, which was formed out of the
ancient patriarchate of Antioch. The limits of these five patriarchates can only be
loosely assigned. The authority of a patriarch was, in the main, that of a metropolitan,
but extended over the metropolitans themselves. He had a right to consecrate the met-
ropolitans, and to preside over the councils of his patriarchate. After the Greek schism,
and particularly after the establishment of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, Latin prel-
ate ; were appointed with the title and rank of patriarch in the four great eastern sees.
It was hoped that the union of the churches, effected at the council of Florence, would
have put an end to the contest thus created; but that union proved transitory, and the
double series of patriarchs has been continued to the present day. The Nestorian and
Kutychian sections of the eastern churches, too, have each their own patriarch, and the
head of that portion of the former which in the 16th c. was reconciled with the Roman
see, although known by the title of Cutholfcos, has the rank and authority of patriarch.
After the separation of the Russian church from that of Constantinople, the name and
authority of the metropolitan in the end was transformed into that of patriarch. But
the ollice was suppressed by Peter the great.
Besides these, which are called the greater patriarchates, there have been others in
the western church known by the name of minor patriarchates. Of these the most
ancient were those of Aquileia and Grado. The latter was transferred to Venice in 1451 ;
the former was suppressed by Benedict XIV. France also had a patriarch of Bourges;
Spain, for her colonial missions* a patriarch of the Indies; and Portugal a patriarch of
Lisbon. These titles, however, are little more than honorary.
In the non-united Greek church, the ancient system of the three prtriarchates of Con-
stantinople, Antioch, and Jerusalem is nominally maintained, and the authority of the
patriarchs is recognized by their own communion. But the jurisdiction-limits of tho
patriarch of Constantinople, who is acknowledged as the head, have been much modi-
fied. The Russo-Greek church withdrew from him partially in the 17th, and finally in
the 18th century. That of Greece proper has been practically separated since the inde-
pendence of the kingdom of Greece; and some years since it formally declared its inde-
pendence. The patriarchs of Jerusalem and Antioch have few followers of their own
rite.
PATRIARCHAL CROSS, a cross which, like the patriarchal crosier, has its upright
part crossed by two horizontal bars, the upper shorter than the lower. A cross patri-
archal fimbriated or was a badge of the knights templars.
PATRICIAN (Lat, palrichis, from pater, father), a name given to the members of
Roman gentes, of whom the pnpuliis Romanus consisted, and to their descendants by
blood and adoption. Patres, and patricii were in the early days of Rome synonymous;
they were so named from the patroctnium which they exercised over the whole state,
and all classes of whom it was composed. jSTiebuhr's researches have established that,
until the plebx became a distinct order, the patricians were the entire citizens or popvlus
of Rome; a select number of them were senators: and the original inhabitants, reduced
to a condition of servitude, were known by the name of dientes or plebs. The amalgama-
tion of the three tribes of Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres, gave rise to a distinction between
patres mn jorum gentium and pat rest minor um gentium — the latter term being applied to
families recently elevated to an equality with the old patrician class. On the establish-
ment of the plebeians as a distinct order, sharing certain rights with the patricians, the
patriciate became an aristocracy of birth, in the exclusive possession of a number of
important privileges. A long struggle between the two orders ended in the attainment
by the pleliehns of a political equality, and the establishment of a new aristocracy of
nnbUe?! based on wealth and office. Under Constantino the dignity of patriciiis became a
personal title; not hereditary, but conferring very high honor and certain privileges. It
was created at Constantinople, and not confined to Romans or subjects of the empire,
but sometimes bestowed on foreign prince*. These patricians, unlike the old Roman
order, were distinguished in dress and equipage from the ordinary citizens. The popes
in after times conferred the same title on eminent persons and princes, including many
of the German emperors. In several of the Germanic kingdoms the title of patrician
Patrick.
Fairou.
was bestowed on distinguished subjects; and in some parts of Itaty the hereditary
nobility are still styled patricians.
PATRICK, a co. in s.w. Virginia, having the state line of North Carolina for its s.
border, a range of the Alleghauy mountains on the w. and n.w., drained by Dan,
iSmilhs ^lavo, and North and iSonth forks, affluents of the IJoanoke, rising iff its w.
section; 500 sq.m. pop. '.SO, 1 2. W33— 12,828 of American birth, 2, 734 colored. Its .surface?
is mountainous in the w. portion, containing features of great natural beauty for which
the region is celebrated; in the e. it stretches into broad plains extensively covered with
forests. Live stock is raised, and the soil is adapted to the production of grain, honey,
i:\virt-potatoes, cotton, tobacco, and dairy products. Iron ore is fhe principal minera!
product which is abundant. Co. wat, Patrick Court-House.
PATRICK, SAINT, a distinguished missionary of the 5th c., commonly known as the
apostle of Ireland. There is souie uncertainty as to the date and place of his birth.
The year of his birth is variously assigned to the year-; :>?r and :>.ST, of which the latter,
if not even a later date, is more probable. Of the place, it is only known for certain,
from his own confession, that his father had a small farm near Bonavem Taberni:v; and
in one of the ancient lives lie is saM to have been born at Ncmthur. Arguing on these
data, connected with other collateral indications, some writers assign his birthplace to
the present Boulogne -sur-Mer; others to a place in the estuary of the Clyde (called from
Him Kilpn trick) at or near the modern Dumbarton. His father, he himself tells, was a
deacon named Calpurnius; his mother, according to the ancient biographers, was named
Conches or Conchessa; according to some of these authorities, a sisier of St. Martin of
Tours. Patrick's original name is said to have been Succat, Patricius being the Roman
appellative by which he was known. In his ICth year he; was sei/.ed, while at. his
father's farm of Bonavem Tabernite, by a band of pirates, and with a number of others
was carried to Ireland, and sold to a petty chief, in whose service he remained for 6
years; after which he succeeded in effecting hi* escape, and. probably after a ;•
captivity, went to France, where he became a monk, first at Tours, and afterward-^ in
the celebrated monastry of Lerius. In the year 431 lie went to Home, whence he was
sent by the pope of the" day, Celestiue, to preach in Ireland; Palladius, who had been
sent as missionary to that country a short time before, having died. Such is the received
account of his mission; but Dr. Todd, his latest biographer, regards this statement as
erroneous, and fixes the date of his coming to Ireland 8 years later. He was ordained
in Fiance, and arrived in Ireland in 432. His mission was eminently successful. He
adopted the expedient of addressing himself first to tl«* chiefs, and of improving, as far
as possible, the spirit of clanship, and other existing usages of the Irish for the. further-
ance of his preaching; nor can it be doubted that he had much success in Christianizing
the ancient Irish system of belief and of practice. By degrees he visited a large portion
of the kingdom, and baptized great numbers as well of the chieftains as of the people.
According to the accounts of his Irish biographers, he founded 365 churches, ami bap-
tized with his own hand 12,000 persons. He is said also to have ordained a vast number
of priests, and to have blessed very many monks and nuns. After he had been about 20
years engaged in his missionary enterprise, he is said to have fixed his see at Armagh
about the year 454; and having procured two of his disciples to be ordained bishoj
held probably more than one synod, the decrees of which have been a subject of much
controversy. He di.'d at a place called Saul, near Downpatrick; and his re lies were pre-
served at Downpatrick down to the period of the reformation. The place is still vener-
ated by the people. The date of his death is much disputed; the Bollandists placed it
in 460, while Usshcr holds it to have been 493. Dr. Todd inclines strongly to the latter
opinion, in which case Patrick's age would have been 126, or at least 116. The only
certainly authentic literary remains of St. Patrick are his "confession" and a letter,
both of very rude Latinity, but of much historical interest. The letter is addressed to
Coroticus, who is supposed to have been a Welsh chieftain named Caradoc (from whom
Cardigan is named), who had made a descent on the Irish coast, and glain or carried off,
with circumstances of great cruelty, a number of the Irish, many of whom were neo-
phytes. These, with some other remains ascribed to him, as also decrees of synods, were
published in Wilkins's Concilia, and separately by Ware, Opiiucula S. Patncii Adscripts
(1656) and by Villanueva (Dublin. 1835). The latest biography of St. Patrick is that of
the rev. .1. II. Todd, 1 vol. 8vo (Dublin, 1863).
PATBICK, SAINT, ORDER OF, a national order of knighthood for Ireland, established
by George III. on Feb. 5, 1783, and enlarged in 1833. As originally constituted, it con-
sisted of the sovereign, the grand-master (who was always the Iord4ieut. of Ireland for
the time being), and 15 knights. By the statutes of 1833 the number of knights was
increased to 22.
The collar of the order (of gold) is composed of roses alternating with harps, tied
together with a knot of gold, the roses being enameled alternately wiiite within red, and
red within white, and in the center is an imperial crown surmounting a harp of gold,
from which the badge is suspended. The badge or jewel is of gold, and oval ; surround-
ing it is a wreath of shamrock proper on a gold field ; within this is a band of sky-blue
enamel charged with the motto of the order, Quis SEPARABIT MDCCLXXXUI. in gold let-
ters; and within this band a saltire gules (the cross of St. Patrick), surmounted by a
Patrick.
Patron.
shamrock or trefoil slipped vert, having on each of its leaves an imperial crown or. The
field of the cross is either argent, or pierced and left open. A sky-blue ribbon, worn
over the light shoulder, sustains the badge when the collar is not worn. The STAR,
worn on the left side, differs from tiie badge only in being circular in place of oval, and
in substituting for the exterior wreath of shamrocks eight rays of silver, four of which
are larger than the other four. The MANTLE is of rich sky-blue tabinet, lined with
white silk, and fastened by a cordon of blue silk and gold wiih tassels. On the right
shoulder is the HOOD, of the same materials as the mantle.
The order is indicated by the initials K.P.
PATRICK, MARSENA R., b. N. Y., 1811; graduated at West Point in 1835 and
received his commission in the2d infantry, promoted to Istlieut. 1839; capt. 18-17; served
in the Mexican war as commissary under gen. Wool, and was brevetted maj. for his con-
duct there. In 1850 he laid down his commission and interested himself in practical
farming and in the scientific and experimental teaching of agriculture. In 18G1 he was
made inspector-gen, of the 1ST. Y. militia, rendered great service in organizing the troops,
and in 1303 was made brig.gen. of volunteers, took part in the Shenandoah valley and Vir-
ginia campaign, and at Aulietam commanded a brigade of the 1st corps. In 1862 he
was appointed provost-martial-gen, of the Potomac army, held the position till the
close of the war, and then held the same rank in the military department of Virginia. In
1865 he resigned and became president of the N. Y. state agricultural society, with
which lie had been connected before the war. He resides in Brooklyn, N. Y. •
PATRICK, SIMON, P.D., 1626-1707; b. Gainsborough, Lincolnshire, Eng. ; entered
Queen's college, Cambridge, a,t the age of 18; and received a fellowship in 1648; took
orders, and in 1658 was received as chaplain into the family of sir Walter St. John, of
Battersea. In 1662 he was appointed rector of bt. Paul's, Covent Garden, London,
endearing himself to his people by his faithful instructions, and especially by his remain-
ing with them during the plague of 1G65. In 1666 he was made chaplain in ordinary to
the king. In 1672 he was made prebendary of Westminster, and in 1679 dean of Peter-
borough. During the reign of James II. he defended Protestantism against the papists.
He was appointed to preach before the prince and princess of Orange. In 1689 lie was
made bishop of Chichestcr, and in 1691 transferred to the see of Ely. In his early life,
he wrote against the Non-conformists, in a pamphlet entitled A Fiiendty Debate bdireen a
Conformist and a Non-conformist, but after he became bishop he changed his opinion,
regarded them with favor, and used his great influence to allay strife. He stood next
to Tillotson in learning and influence. Of his numerous works were, Mensa Mystica, or
A Discourse concerning the Sacrament of the Lord's- Supper; ?he Heart's Ease, or a Remedy
against all Troubles; Jewish Hypocrisy, a Caveat to the Present Generation; Sermons;
Tracts against Popery; Paraphrases and Commentaries vpon the Holy Scriptures. The
last are published usually with the commentaries of Louth, Arnald, "VVhitby, and Low-
man,- entitled A Critical Commentary and Paraphrase on the Old and New Testament and
the Apocrypha. The historical and poetical books of the Old Testament are by bishop
Patrick. A complete edition of his works was published in 1858 by the rev. Alexander
Taylor, in 9 vols. His Autobiography was published at Oxford in 1839.
PATRIPASSIANS (Lat. pater, father, and paafMS, suffered), the name of one of the
earliest classes of anti-Trinitarian sectaries, who, in maintaining the oneness of the God-
head, held that all that is ascribed in the Scriptures, according to the Trinitarian expo-
sition, to any of the Three Persons, is in reality true of the one Principal, whom alone
these sectaries admitted, being in consequence called " Moriarchians" (Gr. monos, one,
and archv, principle). The leader of this sect was Praxeas, a native of Phrygia, who
lived in the end of the 2d century. The name Patripassiaus, for which the Greek equiva-
lent was Patropi whites, was in some sense a sobriquet, being founded on what their
antagonists regarded as the absurd consequence derivable from their doctrine — viz., that
as it was true to say that Jesus, in whom dwelt the Logos, or the Son, suffered, there-
fore it would be true on their principles to say that the Father suffered. The sect in this
particular form was chiefly known in Rome; but their principles are in the main the
same with those of the Sabcllians. In Rome, Praxeas was succeeded by Noetus, but the
party does not appear to lyxve been numerous or influential.
PAT ROCLUS. See ACHILLES.
PATROL is a detachment of 5 or 6 soldiers, fully armed, sent out, under a sergeant.
from the mainguard or picket to traverse the streets of a garrisoned town, etc., and arrest
disorderly persons or soldiers out of barrack without proper passes. Prisoners are taken
to the guard-house, and brought before the town-major. In a besieged fortress, patrols
are strong bodies of men employed to promenade the lines of defense, and watch against
any assaults on the part of the enemy.
PATRON (Lat. patronus, from pater, father), among the Romans originally signified a/
citizen who had dependents, who were called clients, attached to him. Before the time
of the Laws of the Twelve Tables, the most frequent use of the term patronus was in
opposition to libertus, these two words being used to signify persons who stood to one
another in the relation of master and manumitted slave. The Roman was not denuded
of all right: in his slave when he freed him; a tie remained somewhat like that of parent
U. K. XL— 25
Patronage. 386
and child, and the law recognized important obligations on tho part of the
toward his patron, the neglect of which involved severe punishment. In some cases
the patron could claim a rk'ht to the whole or part of the properly of his freed man.
The original idea of a patron apart from the manumilter of slave> continued to exist.
A Roman citi/.cn. desiro-.is of a protector, might attach himself to a patron, whose client
he thenceforward became; and distinguished Unmans were sometimes patrons of depend-
ent states or cities, particularly where they had been the means of bringing them into
subjection. Thus the Marcelli were patrons of the Sicilians, because Claudius Marcellua
hud conquered Syracuse and Sicily. The patron was the guardian of his client's inter-
est, public and private; as his legal adviser, he vindicated his rights before the courts of
law. The client was bound, on various orca-ions to assist the patron with money, as
by paying the costs of his suits, contributing to the marriage portions of his daughters,
and defraying in part the, expenses incurred in the discharge of public function-. Matron
nml client were under an obligation never to accuse one another; to violate this ln\v
amounted to the crime of treason, and any one was at liberty to slay the o!l'"nder wiili
impunity. One obvious effect of the institution of die lit t- la was the introduction of ao
element of union between classes of citizens who were otherwise continually brought
into opposition to each other. As the patron was in the habit of appearing in support
of his clients in courts of justice, the word },<tti->/>i>m acquired, in course of time, the sig-
nification of advocate or legal adviser and defender, the client being the party defended;
hence^the modern relation between counsel and client. — Patron, in after times, became
a common designation of every protector or powerful promoter of the interests of
another; and the saints, who were believed to watch over the interests of particular per-
sons, places, trades, etc., acquired in the middle ages the designation of their patron
saints. The saint in whose name a church is founded is considered its patron saint.
The term patron has also been applied to those who endowed or supported churches
and convents. See PATKONAGE, ECCLESIASTICAL.
PAT'HONAGE, ECCLESIASTICAL, the right of presenting a fit person to a vacant eccle-
siastical benefice. The patron, in the original and more strict sense, was the person who
founded or endowed the church. In the early ages of Christianity the countries where
the new religion had been adopted were parceled out into large districts or dio<
under the superintendence of a bishop, who usually resided in the neighborhood of ono
of the religious houses. Within such district the bishop had the nominal ion of the priests,
who supplied religious instruction to the people. The priests were paid out of the epis-
copal treasury, and traveled about in the exercise of their duties, having their re: ideiu o
with the bishop, and forming that episcopi clem* which constituted the notion of cathedral
churches and monasteries in their simplest form. Occasionally a bishop endowed a
church in hi; diocese and attached a priest permanently to it; and in Gaul, in the 5th c.,
a bishop who founded a church in a neighboring diocese was allowed to appoint an
incumbent of his choice. As Christianity became more universal, and the population
increased, the means of worship supplied by the bishoprics, the monasteries, and
sional episcopally endowed clmivhes, became inadequate for the demands of the people,
and the proprietors of lands began to build and endow churches in their own po - >ssions.
In such cases the chaplain or priest was not paid by the bishop, but allowed to reccivo
for his maintenance, and for tiie use of his church, the whole or a part of the profits nf
the lands with which the founder had endowed it, and the offerings of tho--e who fre-
quented the church for worship. A district was defined by the founder, within which
the functions of the officiating priest were to be exercised; and both the burden and tho
advantages of his ministry were limited to the inhabitants of that district. As these pious
foundations tended both to the advancement of religion and to the relief of the episcopal
treasury, they were encouraged by the bishops, who readily consecrated the churches
thus established, and consented that the incumbent should be resident at the church, and
receive the tithes and offerings of the inhabitants and what endowment the founder had
annexed to the church. Eventually, it came also to be stipulated with the bishop lhat
the founder and his heirs should have a share in the administration of the property, an-!
have the right to nominate a pen-on in holy orders to be the officiating minister whenever
a vacancy occurred. It also became a not unusual arrangement that when owners of
estates rebuilt such churches as were dependent on the cathedral, or undertook to pay the
incumbent, to the relief of the cathedral, the right of presentation wan transferred from
the bishop to these persons, who Thenceforward stood in the same relation i<. the«c«
churches as if they had been the original founders. Out of these private «•;• iowments
arose the parochial divisions of a later time, which thus owe their origin i;.ihe- to acci-
dental and private dotation than to any legislative scheme for the ecclesiastical si;bdi\ I.MOII
of the country. The bounds of a parish were at first generally commensurate with those
of a manor, and the lord of the manor was the hereditary patron. The person en joying
the privileges of a founder was called patronus and <idi-i>.-nt,i*. He had a pn'-eminont seat
and a burial-place in the church; he enjoyed a precedence among the clergy in proces-
sions; his name and arms were engraved on the church and on the church-hells, and ho
was specially named in the public prayers. He ha-! the right to a certain porti'-n of the
church fund's, called patron-agium, and enjoyed the fruits of the benefice during a vacancy.
In the course of time it sometimes happened that, with the concurrence of all parties
387
Patronage.
interested, the patronage, and the church with its revenues and appurtenances, were,
made over to a religious house, which thus became both patron and perpetual incumbent
of the parish, while the immediate duties of the cure were devolved on a vicar or stipen-
diary curate. In France the right of patronage was often extended to churches not
originally private foundations by the necessities of the sovereigns, which led them to take
possession of church property, and bestow, it in fee on laymen, who appropriated the.
greater part of the revenues, and took the appointment of the clergy into their own hands.
For a length of time not merely the nomination but the investiture of the clergy came to
lie exercised by lay patrons, a state of matters which roused the indignation of successive
popes and councils: until it was at last ruled by the third and fourth lateran councils
(1179 and 1215 A.D.) that the presentation of the patron should not of itself suffice to
confer any ecclesiastical benefice, even when qualified by the discretionary power of
rejection given to the bishop, when the presentee was a layman. It was declared neces-
sary that the presentee should not merely have the temporalities of the benefice conferred
on him by induction, but also be invested with the spiritualities by institution. Wheu
the bishop was patron of the benefice the ceremonies of induction and institution wen;
united in that of collation. With the growth of the papal power, however, a practice
aro^e by which the right of presentation or induction, which had nominally been left to
the patrons, became in some degree nugatory. Toward the close of the 12th c. letters of
request, called mandates or expectatives, began to be issued by the popes to patrons,
praying that benefices should be bestowed on particular persons. What had at first been
requested as a favor was soon demanded as a right, and a code of rules was laid down
with regard.to grants and revocations of expectatives. In the 18th c. the patronage of
all livings whose incumbents had died at the court of Rome (vacantia in curia) was claimed
by the pope ; and, as ecclesiastics of all ranks from every part of Europe frequently visited
Rome, the number of benefices -racantiu in curia was always very great. Clement V.
went so far as broadly to declare that the pope possessed the i'ull and free disposal of all
ecclesiastical benefices. The practice next arose of the pope making reversionary grants,
csilled provisions of benefices, during the lifetime of the incumbent, and reserving what
benefices he thought fit for his private patronage. By means of permissions to hold
henenVes -in coinmindnin, and dispensations for non-residence and holding of pluralities,
i'p\vards of fifty benefices were often held by one person; and throughout all Europe the
principal benelices were filled by Italian priests, nominees of the popes, who were often
ignorant of the very language of the people among whom they ministered. In the 14th c.
t:icsu claims encountered much opposition. England took the lead in an organized
i nee, which was in the end successful. A series of English statutes was passed,
beginning with the statute of provisors, 25 Edw. III. c. 6, solemnly vindicating the rights
of ecclesiastical patronage, and subjecting to severe penalties (see PnyEJirNiRE) all per-
s;>n-i who should attempt to enforce the authority of papal provisions in England. The
principles adopted by the third and fourth lateran councils have since been substantially
the law of patronage in Roman Catholic countries. A lay patron is, by the canon law,
bound to exercise his right of presentation within four, and an ecclesiastical patron
within six months, failing which the right to present accrues jure decaluto, to the bishop
of the diocese. Patronage has always been more or less subject to alienation, transmis-
sion, and tin- changes incident to other kinds of property. The modern practice of patron-
age in the Roman Catholic church is detailed under the head provision (q.v.).
In England, where the modified canon law, which was in use before the reformation,
is still in force, the rights of patrons do not materially differ from those which they pos-
sess in Roman Catholic countries. For some details regarding the right of presentation
in England see ADVOWSOX.
In Scotland, at the reformation, the rights of patrons were reserved, and presbyteries
were bound by several statutes to admit any qualified person presented by the patron.
The principle of these statutes was retained in the enactments introducing episcopacy.
On the establishment of presbytery under favor of the civil war, patronage was abolished
by act 1649. c. 23, and the election of the clergy was committed to the kirk-session. At
the restoration this statute fell under the act rescissory, and patronage was replaced ou
i:s former footing. On the re-introduction of presbytery at the revolution patronage was
again canceled, and the right t<5 present conferred on the Protestant heritors and the.
elders of the parish, subject, to the approval or rejection of the whole congregation. In
consideration of being deprived of the right of presentation, patrons were to receive from
the parish a compensation of 600 merks (£33 0*. sterling), on payment of which they were
to execute a formal renunciation of their rights. Only three parishes effected this
arrangement with the patron, and patronage was permanently restored in all the parishes
where no renunciation had been granted by 10 Anne, c. 12. 'This act, with modifications
introduced by 6 and 7 Viet. c. 61, was law till 1874. If a patron failed to present for six
months after the occurrence of a vacancy, the right to present fell to the presbytery ,;?/r<!
di'rohito. The presentee, before he acquired a right to the emoluments of the benefice,
required to be admitted to it by the presbytery of the bounds. He was first appointed to
preach certain trial sermons, after which a day was fixed within six weeks for moderat-
ing in his call. On that day the people were invited to sign a written call to the presentee
to be their minister, and however few the signatures to (lie call might be, the presbytery
were in use to pronounce a formal judgment sustaining it. They then proceeded to
Patrons. •> w o
Patterson.
examine into the qualifications of the presentee, and, provided tlie result were satisfactory,
the ordination followed (if he had not been previously o-dained), and he was formally
admitted minister of the parish by the presiding minister. Soon after the above-men-
tioned act of queen Anne, a feeling which had sprung up in favor of popular election,
in opposition to patronage, led to various acts of resistance tot lie sell lenient of presentees,
and brought about two considerable seces.-iuiis from the church of Scotland. It continued
for a length of time to he a subject of dispute how far the right of the church to judge
of the h'tness of presentees could entitle her to make rules tending to disqualify them,
and in particular whether she could legally make the dissatisfaction of the congregation
a disqualification. For a long time prior to 1834 there had been no attempt to give cil'ect
to any dissent on the part of the congregation. In that year the law of patronage again
.became a ground of contention, when a majority of the general assembly embodied their
views on the subject in the so-called veto act, which declared that no minister was to l>e
imposed on a congregation when a majority of heads of families and communicants
should dissent from his admission. The decision of the court of session, confirmed by
the house of lords, finding this act to be ultra vires of th^ general assembly, led to the
.Accession of 1843 and formation of the Free chwch (q.v.). After that event an act, 0 and
7 Viet. c. 71, commonly called lord Aberdeen's act, was passed to fix by a legislative pro-
vision the effect which the church courts were in future to be entitled to give to the dis-
sent of the congregation in the collation of ministers. It was there enacted that aficr the
trial sermons, the presbytery should give to the parishioners, being members of the con-
gregation, an opportunity to state objections which did not infer matter of charge to be
proceeded against according to the discipline of the church. The presln terv were either
to dispose of the objections, or to refer them to the superior church judicatory; and if
they were considered well founded, the presbytery might reject the presentee. No power
Avas given to reject him on the ground of mere dislike by any portion of the congregation.
By an act of parliament in 1874 patronage was abolished, and the right of choosing their
minister transferred to the congregation, provision being made to compensate the previous
patron to the extent of one year's stipend of the parish.
In the Protestant churches of Germany, Sweden, and Denmark, patronage exists to
some extent, subject to restrictions, which differ much in different localities. The right
Jo present is sometimes divided between the patron and the consistory. The paiishioners
have in many instances a voice: the appointments may be entire!}' in their hands, or they
may have merely a right to reject the presentee after he has been subjected to the otdeal
of a trial sermon; and in either case this right may be exercised, according to local i,
either by the parishioners at large, by a committee of their number, or by the burgcr-
meister. When there is no patron, the choice generally rests with the consistory in c.,
and with the parishioners in w. Germany. Induction by the superintendent completes
the right of the presentee.
. In the Greek church the right to present is generally in the hands of the bishops,
excepting in Russia, where lay patronage exists to a limited extent.
PATRONS OF HUSBANDRY. See GRANGE.
PATEONYM 1C (Gr. pater, father, and onoma, name), properly a name taken from
one's father, but generally applied to such names as express descent from a parent or
ancestor. In Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin, patronymics are very numerous. They may
be derived from the name of a father, mother, grandfather, or remoter ancestor, as
Atrides, i.e., (Agamemnon), son of Atreus; Philyrides, i.e., (Chiron), son of Philyra;
.tftacides, i.e., (Achilles), grandson of ^Eacus. The names of the founders of nations
have also been used to form a sort of patronymic, as when the Romans are called Romu-
lidae. In Greek arid Latin the commonest terminations of patronymics are iilcx and /*.
Patronymics have no fewer than thirteen recognized terminations in Sanskrit. A num-
ber of the surnames in use in modern times are patronymics, as Johnson, the son of
John; Thomson, the son of Thomas. Originally these names fluctuated from genera-
tion to generation, as still is, or very recently was, the case in Shetland, where Magnus
Johnson's son calls himself John Magnusson or Manson. In the course of time, it was
generally found more convenient to take a surname from one well known ancestor,
which should descend unchanged to the children of the- bearer of it. The termination
n is sometimes used as equivalent to son, as in Jones, Rodgers. To patronymics he-
long Norman, Highland, Irish, and Welsh surnames with the prefixes of Fits, Mac, 0,
and Ap, respectively. In many cases the Mac of the Highlands of Scotland ceased to
have a fluctuating character only a few generations ago. In 1465 an act of the parlia-
ment of Ireland was directed against the use of patronymics. Every Irishman " dwell-
ing betwixt or among Englishmen in the counties of Dublin, Myeth, Uriel, or Kildare,"
was ordered " to take to him an English surname of a town, as Sutton, Chester, Trym,
Skryne, Corke, Kinsalc; or color, as White, Blacke; or arte or science, as Smith or Car-
penter; or office, as Cooke or Butler; and that he and his issue should use the same. "
In Wales it was long the practice to use a string of ancestral names, each with the sylla-
ble Ap prefixed to it. Camden relates that "in the time of king Henry VIII. an ancient
worshipful gentleman of Wales being called at the pannell of a jury by the name of
Thomas Ap William Ap Thomas Ap Richard Ap Hoel Ap Evan'Vaghan, etc., was
advised by the judge to leave that old manner; whereupon he afterwards called himself
<>QQ " Patron*.
Patterson.
Moston, according to the name of his principal house, and left that surname to his pos-
teritic." See NAME.
PATTEE, Cuoss, in heraldry (Lat. patulus, spreading), also called cross formee, a
cross with its arms expanding towards the ends, and flat at their outer edges.
PATUXENT, a river of Maryland, rises 20 m. e. of Frederick City, and after a south-
easterly course of 90 m., empties by a broad estuary into Chesapeake bay; navgable
for small vessels for 50 miles.
PATTERSON, CARLILE POLLOCK, b. Miss., 1816; appointed midshipman 1830. lie
afterwards graduated at Georgetown college as a civil engineer, and was attached to the
coast survey, 1838-41. He was 2d lleut. of the U. S. ship Buxer till 1845, when he
re-entered the coast .survey, and led a hydrographic expedition to the gulf of Mexico.
In 1861 he was appointed hydrographic inspector in the U. S. coast survey, of which
he was appointed superintendent in 1874.
PATTERSON, DANIEL TOD, 1786-1839; b. Long Island, N.Y.; entered the navy in
•1800. He was on board the frigate Philadelphia in the expedition, commanded by capt,
William B.iinbridge, engaged in the blockade of Tripoli Oct. 31, 1803, when the frigate
ran upon the rocks and the vessel and entire crew were captured, all on board being held
as prisoners in Tripoli for 13 mouths, or until peace was declared. On Jan. 24, 1807, he
was promoted to the rank of lieut,, and on July 24, 1813, to master-commander. Ha
co-operated with gen. Andrew Jackson in 1814-15 in the defense of New Orleans, com-
manding the naval forces, and lending such support as to assure the victory over the
British, and elicit an expression of appreciation from congress. He commanded the
expedition to capture the defenses of the corsair Latitte on the island of Grand Terre in
Barataria bay, took the settlement and all his vessels in port at the time, but failed to
sciize the pirate and his comrades. He was made capt. Feb. 28, 1815; commanded the
frigate Constitution, 1838-28; and was appointed navy-commissioner in the latter year,
holding the position 4 years. In 1832-36*he was sent to the Mediterranean in command
of a squadron, and on his return accepted the position of commandant at the navy-yard
at Washington, which he held at his death.
PATTERSON, JOHN, 1744-1808; b. Conn.; educated at Yale, and admitted to tha
bar. He settled in Lenox, Mass., in 1774, and was elected a member of the Massachu-
setts provincial congress. The day after the news of the battle of Lexington reached
Lenox, Patterson gyt out for Cambridge with a regiment of minute-men. They arrived
in time to work upon the lirst redoubt along the lines around Boston. Patterson after-
wards went to Canada, and took part in the battle of the Cedars. His regiment then
.vent to New Jersey, and was in the battles of Trenton and Princeton. He was
appointed a brig.gen. in Feb., 1777; led his brigade at Stillwater; ard continued in the
service through the war, witnessing the surrender of Burg.iyne and the battle of Mon-
motith. He held a command in the Massachusetts militia during Shay's rebellion in
1786. He afterwards settled in Lisle, New York, and became county judge of Broorae
county. He served 4 terms in the slate legislature, was a member of the state constitu-
tional convention of 1801, and of congress, 1801-3.
' PATTERSON, ROBERT, LL.D., 1743-1824; b. Ireland; emigrated to Philadelphia in
1768; was principal of an academy in Wilmington. Dei., in 1774; was assistant surgeon
and brigade niaj. in the revolutionary war in "1776-78. In 1779-1814 he was professor
of mathematics in the university of Pennsylvania, and vice-provost; in 1805-24 was
lirector of the U. S. mint; was chosen in 1819 president of the American peace
society, and later, president of the American philosophical society. He is the author of
The Newtonian Sf/xtem; an Arithmetic; and contributed many papers to the Transaction* of
the American philosophical society. He also edited Ferguson's lectures on Mechamcx,
his Astronomy, and, Webster's and Ewing's Natural Philosophy. He was an elder in the
Scotch Presbyterian church nearly half a century.
PATTERSON, ROBERT, 1753-1827; b. Penn.; in 1775 emigrated to Kentucky and
became noted as a frontiersman and Indian fighter. He was concerned in col. Clarke's
expeditions against the Indians from 1778 to 1781, and in Bowman's attack on Chilli-
cothe (1779). He also took part in the battle of Lower Blue Lick under Daniel Boone.
HQ was the original owner of a large part of the land now occupied by the city of Cin-
cinnati, Ohio.
PATTERSON, ROBERT, b. Ireland, 1792; came to this country while very young,
and was employed in the counting-room of a merchant in Philadelphia. Subsequently
he received a collegiate education and decided to enter the army. He was commissioned
1st lieut, 2M infantry, 1813; in 1814 was made capt. 32d infantry. After the war he turned,
his attention to manufactures, owning a number of factories, and when the Mexican'
war broke out resumed his sword and was appointed mai.gen. U. S. volunteers,
July 7, 1846, and participated in the battle of Cerro Gordo, April 18, 1847, under gen.
Winfield Scott, leading the cavalry charge and keeping his position in the front during
the flight of the defeated Mexicans. In the war of the rebellion he entered the volunteer
army as maj.gen. of Pennsylvania volunteers at the first call April 15, 1S61, for 75.000.
3-months men, and was assigned to the command of the department which included the
states of Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and the district of Columbia. He was
Patterson. QQA
1'aul.
mustered out of the service at the expiration of his commission July 27. 1861, and has
since resided in Philadelphia engaged in manufacturing. In 1865 lie published a JVarra-
tice of the Citnrpn/f/a in the Valley of the Khtmimli/nh in 1861, a vindication of the course
pursued by him while in command at Winchester, prior to the unfortunate battle of Bull
Hun.
PATTERSON, WILLIAM, I,L.P.. 1745-1806; b. at sea, his parents being Irish cmi
grants; educated at the college of New Jcisey. where he graduated in 176'.!; afterward
studied law and was admitted to pi-act ice in 17(iD. He was a member of the New Jersey
constitutional convention of 1776. and for the next ten years was state attorney -gcflWal.
.He was a member of the constitutional convention of 17$9, and the saint- year was elected
U. S. senator. In 1794 he was appointed judge of the I". S. Miprcme 'court and held
that position until his death. In 1799 he publislied a revision of the laws of N. J. under
the authority of the legislature.
PATTERSON (BONAPARTE), ELIZABETH, 1785-1879; b. Baltimore, Md. ; educated
chiefly by her mother, and noted tor her remarkable beauty. Dec. 24, 1803. -Jerome
Bonaparte, brother of Napoleon!., who was visiting the United Slates, married her after
much resistance on the part of her family, the ceremony being performed by tin- Roman
Catholic bishop of Baltimore. This marriage greatly incensed Napoleon, then tir>t consul
of France, who ordered his brother who Avasin the French naval service, to return imme-
diately to France, while prohibiting all French captains from receiving the wife of lieut.
Bonaparte on board their vessels, and refusing to give her an asylum in France. The
French senate, by special act, ret used to recognize the ceremony of marriage in this
instance as valid, on the ground that it was without consent of the mothor of Jerome,
and without previous publication in France. On the accession of Napoleon to the
imperial throne. Jerome was excluded from the dynasty in company with his brother
Lucien, who had also made a marriage obnoxious to the emperor. The latter offered to
make an allowance of 60,000 francs per year to Jerome's bride if she would surrender
the name of her husband. But this offer was rejected. Jerome and his wife proceeded
to Europe in 1804, but on reaching Lisbon, only the former was permitted to land, and
his wife sailed for Amsterdam. No efforts could induce Napoleon to reconsider hi*
determination, and in the end he even induced or forced his brother to contract another
matrimonial alliance. Jerome was married on Aug. 12, 1807, to the princes* 1- 'redcricka.
Catharina, daughter of the king of "Wurtcmherg. In 1815 Mmc. Bonaparte was
divorced from her husband by a special act of the legislature of Maryland. She again
visited Europe, where she achieved a profound impression by her beauty and intellectual
gifts. She lived abroad for many years, only occasionally returning to her native land
for a brief visit. By Jerome she had one son, Jerome Napoleon Bonaparte, who was
eventually recognized by Napoleon III. ns being legitimately a member of the family,
and who was established in his rights as of French birth by a decree dated Aug. 30.
though he was denied all right of succession. The last 18 years of Mine. Bona-
parte's life were passed in Baltimore in obscurity, in a quiet boarding-house. See-
BONAPARTE. JEROME, ante.
PATTESON, JOHN COLERIDGE, n.ix. 1827-71; b. London; a relative of the cele-
brated Samuel Taylor Coleridge; and his father judge Patteson was an eminent lawyer.
He was educated at Merlon college, Oxford, became a fellow in 1850; was ordained in
1853 and made curate of Alfington; went in 1854 with bishop Selvvyn to New Zealand,
where he assisted the bishop in a missionary coNege, and labored as a missionary until
1861, when he was made bishop of the Mclanesian islands. He learned the languages of
the islands with great facility, reduced the different dialects to writing, obtained a print-
ing-press and types, and printed the grammars of nearly 30 of them. He translated
hymns and portions of the Scriptures. He was a man of uncommon versatility, apply-
ing his mind or hands to whatever function high or humble, in whi^h he might benefit
the people. He made frequent excursions to the different islands, which were attended
with great peril, either from shipwreck or from the hostility of the natives. In April,
1K71, he set out on a voyage of visitation, and in September found himself off the Santa
Cruz group where he had long desired to preach the Gospel. The natives had become
distrustful of the whites, as many of their number had been captured by traders from
Australia; and the traders having painted their ship like the bishops, the danger was
great!}' increased. The bishop landed on the beach, but was slain by the savages. His
life has been written by Miss Yonge, 2 vols., and also by Francis Aw dry, Ike Sloi-y of a
Fellow-Soldier.
PATTI, ADEITNA MARYA CLORINDA, a popular operatic singer of Italian extraction.
,h. at Madrid, April 9, 1843. After a course of professional study, she sang at an early
age in New York. Her debut in London took place in 1861 as Amina in La Sonnambuta ;
and she has ever =ince been looked upon as one of the first singers of the day. Her voice
is an unusually high soprano, of rich, bell-like quality, and remarkable evenness of tone;
to thc-e qualities she adds purity of style and high artistic finish Equally at home in
the tenderness of deep passion and the sprightly vivacity of light comedy, she has al«-
Bung with success in oratorio. She has also won golden opinions on the continer.
wherever she has appeared, receiving, in 1870, the order of merit from the emperor <>.
liussia. Her greatest success is generally considered to be in the part of Marguerite in
OA"J Patterson.
Paul.
Gounod's "Faust. In May. 1868, she married the marquis de Caux, from whom she was
divorced in 1876. She had never retired from the stage.
PATTI, CAULOTTA, sister of the above, is also one of the leading singers of the day,
though a slight degree of lameness lias prevented her from appearing much in opera.
Her voice is a soprano of unusual compass, and of a clear silvery quality, and much
power in the upper register. Her peculiarly high notes, and a 'graceful abandon of
manner, have brought her into favor with the public, though, in quality of tone, she
does not come up to her sister. She made her debut in London in 1862, but had for some
time before been in the enjoyment of a high reputation in the United States.
PATTISON, DOROTHY WYKDLOW (SISTER DORA), 1832-78; b. 'England; daughter
of rev. Mark James Pattison, rector of Hauxwell. Of a restless nature, she had an
ambition for a broader field of usefulness than was possible in her home life, and in 1861
became a village school-mistress. In 1864 she joined a sisterhood of the Anglican church,
called the Good Samaritans, whose headquarters were at Coatham, in Yorkshire. Here
she became "sister Dora," under which name she was ever. after known, and she now
went into training for the position of a nurse, and for a time acted in that capacity at
the cottage hospital at North Ormesby. In 1865 she was sent to Walsall, a town of
35,000 inhabitants, in the "black country," the coal and iron district of South Stail'orG-
shire, where she entered the cottage hospital, under the direction of the sisterhood, as a
nurse, and where she soon came to have entire charge of the institution, continuing sc
to do until disabled by her last sickness. The story of her remarkable experiences, her
tmfliuching courage and unflagging zeal, her Christian faith, tenderness, and extraordi-
nary ability, lias been completely told in Sister Dora; a BMgrapJty, by Margaret
Loutdale.
PATTISON, ROBERT EVERETT, D D., 1800-74; b. Vt. ; graduated at Amherst college,
1820; w;;s tutor in Columbia college, Washington, D. C. ; ordained as a Baptist minister
at Salem, Mass., 1829: and settled, in 1880, pastor of the First Baptist church in Provi-
dence, R. I. In 1836 he was elected president of Waterville college, Maiue, retaining the
position until 1840, wdieii he returned to his former pastorate in Providence. In 1846
lie became professor in the theological seminary at Covington, Ky. In 184^ he was
elected professor of theology in the Newton theological institution, Massachusetts, and in
1853 was again president of Waterville college. Subsequently he held other collegiate posi-
tions. He contributed to periodicals, and was the author of Commentary on the Epistle
to Uie Eplie&ians.
PAU, a flourishing t. of France, capital of the department of Basses-Pyrenees, on the
right bank of the Gave-de-Pau, 105 m. s.s.e. of Bordeaux. It occupies a rocky height,
cloven into two portions by a ravine through which a streamlet flows into the Gave-de-
Pau. and united by a high bridge. Toward the s. it commands most magnificent views
of the western Pyrenees; indeed, for mountain views its situation is hardly surpassed by
that of any town in France. As seen from this town, the distant Pyrenees rise in peaks,
coney, and serrated ridges, and present an outline as varied as it is strikingly beautiful.
The town contains a palace of justice, a promenade, royal square, with a bronze statue
of Henri IV., beautiful theater, university-academy, museum, and library of 25,000 vols.
Linen and cloth manufactures are the chief branches of industry; in the vicinity Juran-
con wine (good but strong) is grown. Many swine are fed in the vicinity, and from the
pork the famous Jambona de Bayonne are made. Pan is a favorite resort of the English,
especially during winter, and is a general rendezvous for those who wish to explore the
Pyrenees. Pop. '76, 27,553.
The principal building, however, of Pau, and that to which it owes its existence^ is
the old castle which stands on the ridge overlooking the river, and forms both the most
conspicuous and most interesting feature of the town. It has live towers, united by an
outer wall, and is supposed to have been founded by Gaston de Foix about the year 1363.
Pau was the capital of the kingdom of Beam, and its castle was the birthplace of the
famous Henri IV.
PAUCHON'TI TREE, Isonandra polyandra, a large forest -tree, of the same genus with
the guttn-percha tree, and producing a substance similar to gutta-percha, abundant in
pome of the forests at the base of the western Ghauts in India. It is now supposed that
there are several species of isonandra in western India, the produce of all which has
begun to be sent to the market as gutta-percha, although it is said that none of the
kinds is equal in quality to the true gutta-percha, obtained from isonandra gutta. The
wood of the pauchonti tree is very heavy, and its tenacity is equal to that of leak. A
pauchonti tree having been tapped'in 40 places, from the base to 60 ft. high, has yielded
in twelve hours about eight pints of sap, aach pint being equal to about a pound of gutta
percha.
PAUL, the great apostle of the Gentiles, was born of Jewish parents at Tarsus, in
Cilicia, and inherited from them the rights of Roman citizenship. His original name
was Saul. lie was educated first in his native city, then in the zenith of its reputation
for its schools of literature and philosophy, where he doubtless learned to speak and
write Greek; and afterwards, to be perfected "in the law of his fathers," was sent to
Jerusalem, where he studied under Gamaliel, a great Jewish doctor, and became one of
Panl.
392
the strictest, most zealous, and most ardent Pharisees. "Whether it wns here or at Tarsus
that ho acquired his knowledge — which we have no reason to believe, was ever very
deep — of the philosophy and literature of Greece, cannot be ascertained. According l<>
the wholesome rule observed among tin; .lews, iliat every person should Icaru some
trade, Saul became, a tent-maker, ami at this trade he afterwards labored (Acts xviii. <j)
for his support. A few years after the death of Jesus, he became, as might have been
expected from his training and temperament, a furious adversary of the ne'.v seel of
Christians. We are told (Acts vi. 9) that the Jews of :ue. Cilician synagogue at Jerusalem
were among those who disputed with Stephen, and it is natural to suppose that the
young and brilliant zealot, eager for disputal ion, was conspicuous among the crowd of
Jewish students who poured out of their synagogues (of which, according to the Talmud,
there were 480 in the holy city), in the insolence of their youth and scholarship, to crush
the ignorant followers of the Nazarene. This supposition is rendered highly probable
by the fact that he was present at the martyrdom of Stephen, which followed almost
immediately, having charge of the raiment of them that slew him. He now became a
prominent actor in the great persecution of the Christians that broke out at Jerusalem.
The mysterious circumstances that led to and attended his conversion are familiar to all
readers of the Acts of the Apostle-;, and need not be recapitulated here. After a solitary
sojourn in Arabia — perhaps to calm his perturbed spirit in communion with (Jod, and to
solemnly prepare himself for his new mode of life — on his return to Damascus, lie
Changed his name to Paul, and resumed or began (it is not quite clear which) his apos-
tolic labors. Naturally lie bc-cami- an object of intense hostility to the unbelieving Jews
in that city. They resolved to kill him; but his friends contrived a way of escape, and
he fled to Jerusalem, where at first, he was received with suspicion by the di-ciples but
afterwards, through the kind offices of Barnabas, with great cordiality. He now "spoko
boldly in the name of Christ," disputing also against the "Grecians" — i.e., the Hellenistic
Jews — with dangerous success, for his opponents sought to take his li'e. Again lie was
obliged to flee, and betook himself to his birthplace, Tarsus, where lie seems to have
remained till Barnabas brought him to Antioch (not far off), to assist in the great work
of evangelization going on in th:it city. After a short visit to Jerusalem in the year of
the famine, 44A.D., they were set apart by the prophets and elders of the church at
Antiocli for the evangelization of the more distant Jews. From Seleucia they proceed
on their first missionary expedition to the southern districts of Asia Minor, Pamphylia,
Pisidia, and Lycaonia, where thev met, especially in some places, with considerable
success, in preaching the gospel. It is very interesting to notice how gradually the light
of Christianity dawned on the mind of the apostle. He did not grasp all at once its
grand design. It was not even by abstract reflection that he arrived at it. Circum-
stances of quite an outward sort forced him to the sublime conclusions of his creed. It
was when the Jews of Pisidiari Antioch, enraged at his preaching the gospel indiscrim-
inately to their Geulile fellow-townsmen and themselves, "contradicted and blasphemed"
him, that lie boldly announced Christ as the universal Redeemer. After the return of
Paul and Barnabas to Antioch, they continued to labor in that city for a long time, till
dissensions having arisen about tiie circumcision of Gentile converts, he, along with
Barnabas and others, was chosen to go up to Jerusalem, to get the opinion of the apostles
and elders there on the question, about 51 A.D. Paul and Barnabas now returned to
Antioch, where they continued to teach and preach, till a yearning grew up in the heart
of the former to revisit his Gentile converts in Asia Minor. In his second expedition,
Paul was accompanied by Silas instead of Barnabas, and traversed the win;:, of Asia
Minor from south to north, evangelizing with great success, after which the two mi-sion
aries crossed the ^Egeau and landed in Europe, planting at Philippi, the capital of
Thracian Macedonia, the first Christian church in that continent. The details of his
visits to Thessalonica, Bjrea, Athens, and Corinth are, doubtless, familiar to our readers.
and need not us given here. We can only notice his appearance at Athens, \vliere. on
Mars's hill, before a crowd of the citizens, among whom were Epicurean and Stoic phi
losophers. he delivered that magnificent discourse in which he declared to the Athenians
the character of the "unknown" God. On his return to Asia Minor he visited Kphcsiis,
where, as usual, he "reasoned/" with the Jews in tiieir synagogue; sailed thence to
Csesarea, in Palestine, and proceeded to Jerusalem "to keep the feast;" after which he
again returned to Antioch, the center from which his operations radiated. Thin dosed
his second evangelistic journey. The third journey of Paul commenced probably about
54 A. D., and extended over much the same district as the previous one. At Kpi
where he remained for a period of two years and three months, his efforts were power-
full)'' seconded by the eloquence of the great Alexandrian convert, Apollos. Here it is
recorded (Acts xix.) that "God wrought special miracles by the h:\.-dof Paul, so that
from his body were brought unto the sick handkerchiefs or aprons, and the di-
departed from them, and the evil spirits went out of them." In explanation of this very
curious procedure, which has a disagreeable resemblance to ordinar\' legerdemain, it has
been suggested, that as Epliesus was a city noted for its exorcisms', spells, and incanta-
tions— the famous Ephe-nia Grammata sold at a high price to the ignorant and supersti-
tious populace — this style of miracle was an accommodation to their belief in magic and
demonism, and intended to show them, according to their own way of regarding things,
the superiority of Christ's power to that of the evil spirits of heathen worship.
393 PauL
From Ephesus Paul went up to Jerusalem with a presentiment that heavy evils were
about to fall upon him through the ever-maddening malice of the Jews. The Jewish
populace were goaded into the wildest fury by the very sight of Paul. The capt. of
the Roman guard, Claudius Lysias, had to interfere to save him from being torn to
pieces; but as 40 Pharisees had sworn neither to eat nor drink till they had taken his
life, he was sent by night, under a strong escort, to the Roman governor Felix, afc.
Csesarea, where he was unjustly detained a prisoner for two years. Having finally
appealed to the Roman emperor, according to the privilege of a Roman citizen, he was
sent to Rome. On the voyage thither he suffered shipwreck at Meliia (probably Malta),
in the spring of 61 A.D. At Rome he was treated with respect, being allowed to dwell
"for two whole years in his own hired house." His first thoughts were, as usual,
directed towards his Jewish brethren in the city; but, on the whole, he made little
impression ou them. "Whether he ever left the city or not cannot be positively demon-
strated, but it. is believed by many critics, from a variety of considerations, that he did
obtain his liberty about 64 A. r>., and that he made journeys both to the e. and to the
w., revisiting Asia Minor, and carrying out his long-cherished wish of preaching the
gospel in Spain. Meanwhile occured the mysterious burning of Rome, generally attrib-
uted to Nero, who threw the blame ou the Christians, and in consequence subjected
them to a severe persecution. Among the victims was Paul, who, according to tradi-
tion, suffered 67 A.D. — See Life and Epistles of St. Paul, by Conybeare and Howsou;
Baur's Pa-ulna; Lipsius, Der Apoatel Pa ul us (18G9); Renan, iSaint Paul (18G9); PHeiderer,
Der Paulinismus (1873; trausl. 1878).
PAUL, the name of five popes, of whom the following appear to call for special notice.
— PAUL III., whose pontificate falls upon one of the most critical periods in the history
of the church, was originally named Alessaudro Farnese, and was born at Carino, in
Tuscany, in 14G8. Having been created cardinal he served in several important trusts,
and eventually became bishop of Os'.ia and dean of the Sacred college. On the death of
Clement VII. in 1534 he was elected pope, just at the crisis when the world was alive
with expectation of the general council which was to decide all the controversies at that
time agitating the public mind of Europe. Aftersome delays Paul convoked the council
to meet at Mantua in 1542; but it did not actually assemble (in Trent) until 1545. These
delays are by some charged upon Paul; but it can hardly be doubled that much of it
was due- to the difficulties of the times. The bull of excommunication and deposition
which he issued in 1538 against Henrv- VIII. of England is one of the last examples of
the exercise of the temporal power claimed by the mediaeval popes. In the contest of
Charles V. with the Protestant league in Germany, Paul sent a large force to support
him, and he opposed the pacification proposed by the emperor upon the basis of the
interim (q.v.). Paul's conduct in aggrandizing the fortune of his son, Pietro Luigi
Fartic-e, has been severely criticised by historians; the more so, that this son was born
out of wedlock, in the early youth of his father. Paul died Nov. 10, 1549, in his 82d
year. — PAUL IV., named John Peter Caraffa, a member of the noble family of that name
was born in Naples in 1476. His early career was distinguished for ascetic rigor. He
was appointed bishop of Ciiieti, in which see he labored most earnestly for the reforma-
tion of abuses, and for the revival of religion and morality. With this view he estab-
lished, in conjunction with several congenial reformers, the congregation of secular clergy
called thealines (q.v.), and was himself the first superior. It was under his influence that
Paul III. organized the tribunal of the inquisition in Rome. On the death of Marcellus
II. in 1555, although in his 79th year, he was elected to succeed. He entered upon the
wider career of reformation which his new position opened for him with all the ardor of
a young man, and with all the stern enthusiasm which had characterized him during life.
He enforced vigorously upon the clergy the observance of all the clerical duties, and
enacted laws for the maintenance of public morality. He established a censorship, and
completed the organization of the Roman inquisition; he took measures for the allevia-
lion of the burdens of the poorer classes, and for the better administration of justice, not
sparing even his own nephews, whom he banished from Rome on account of their cor-
rupt conduct and profligate life. His foreign relations, too, involved him in much labor
and perplexity. He was embroiled with the emperor Ferdinand, wilh Philip II. of
Spain, with Cosmo, grand duke of Tuscany. Having condemned the principles of the
peace of Augsburg, he protested against its provisions. Under the weight of so many
cares, his great age gave way. He died Aug. 18, 1559, in his 84th year. At his death
the populace broke out into an insurrectionary tumult, which lasted till the conclave for
the appointment of his successor. — PAULV., originally named Camillo Borghese, Avas
born in Rome in 1552. In his early life he was a distinguished canonist and theologian;
and after the ordinary prelatical career at Rome he rose first to the post of nuncio at the
Spanish court, and afterwards to the cardinalate under Clement VIII. On the death of
Leo XI., in 1005, cardinal Borghese was elected to succeed him. His pontificate is ren-
dered mcrnocible by the celebrated conflict with the republic of Venice, into which he was
plunged at the very outset of his career. The origina.l ground of dispute was the ques-
tion of the. immunity from the jurisdiction of civil tribunals conceded to the clergy, who
claimed to b<> tried by ecclesiastical tribunals alone. This claim the senate resisted; and
further causes of dispute were added by a mortmain law, and a law prohibiting the estab-
1'a.il.
394
lishmcnt of new religious orders or associations unless with the sanction of the senalp.
Each party remaining inflexible in its determination, Paul issued a brief, dirceiing a .-.en-
tence of excoinmunieation against the doge and senate, aud placing the republic under
tvn interdict u.iless submission should be made within tweniy-1'our days. The senate
persisted, and an animated conflict, as well of acts as of writings, ensued, in the latter of
.which the celebrated Km Paolo Sarpi, oil the side of the republic, and on the papal side,
Bellarmiuo and JJaronius, were the leaders. Preparations wrre even made lor actual
hostilities but, by the intervention of Henry IV. of France, the dispute was accommo-
dated and peace restored in 1607, although dissatisfaction after wards arose o;i the subject
of the nomination of a patriarch. A misunderstanding of a similar nature arose between
the pope, and the crown in France as to the rights of censorship 011 book.-, and as to the
receiving of the disciplinary decrees of the council of Trent: but it was removed by
mutual explanations. His administration was vigorous and enlightened, and he did it
great deal for the promotion of useful public works, for the embellishment of I he city,
the restoration and preservation of antiquities, the improvement of the mu-eums and
libraries, and, above all, for the pious and charitable institutions of Home. Paul died
iu hi*-. GDih year, Jan. 28, 1G21.
PAUL (PKTUOWITSCII), Emperor of Russia, the second son of the unfortunate P< t< r
III. and the empress Catherine II., was b. in 1754, became heir-apparent on the death of
his elder brother in 17(>3, and succeeded his mother on the imperial throne in 17%.
The tragical death of his father when he was still a child, and the neglect and want of
confidence with which his mother treated him. exerted a baneful inllui me on the char-
acter of Paul, who was kept in compulsory seclusion while Catharine! shared the admin-
istration of the government with her favorites. In 1776 Paul, on the death of his first
wife, a princess of Hesse-Darmstadt, married the princess Dorothea of Wiirtcmbcig. by
whom he had four sons — the late emperors Alexander and Nicholas, and the grand dukes
Constantine and Michael, and several daughters. After spending some years in travel-
ing with his wife through Germany, France, and Italy, Paul was recalled by his mother,
who assigned to him the palace of Gatchina, CO m. from St. Petersburg, as his settled
residence, while she too!: his children under her own immediate care. The dcrlh of the
empress in 1796 released him from his unnatural restraint, and he ascended the throne
with no practical acquaintance with the mechanism of government, and no knowledge
of the people whom he was called to rule over. A determination to change everything
that had existed under the previous reign, and to wreak vengeance on the murderers of
his father, were the predominating influences that guided his actions; and his cnrlie!-'.
measures, which were the disgrace of his father's murderers, and the pardon of all Polish
prisoners, gave hopes of a good reign; but the capricious violence of character and inca-
pacity for business which Paul betrayed, soon disappointed the hopes that he had
awakened. Xo department of the state was free from his frivolous intcrfererce. and i,r>
class of the nation exempt from the effect of his arbitrary legislation. While lie initated
the soldiery by vexatious regulations in regard to their dress, he offended the nol
imperious enactments as to the ceremonials to be observed in his presence. His fon ign
policy was marked with similar caprice. After having adopted a system of neutrality
in the war between France and the rest of Europe, he suddenly declared in favor of the
allied powers, and sent an army of 56,000 men under Suwaroff into Italy. The su'-cess
of his general encouraged him to send a second army of equal strength to co-operate
with the Austrians; but their defeat in 1709 induced Paul to recall Buwaroff with the
Russian troops; and having retired from the allied coalition without having given any
reason for his conduct, he quarreled with England, because she would not comply with
his whimsical demand for the surrender of Malta, and his own recognition as fraud
master of the order of Malta, and entered into a close alliance with Bonap; Tie, who was
then first consul. The jealousy and hatred of England by which both were actuated,
proved a powerful bond of union between them; aud in furtherance of their scheme of
uniting all the smaller maritime powers into one vast confederation against England,
Paul concluded a convention with Sweden and Denmark for the purpose of opposing
the right insisted on by England of searching neutral vessels. The result was that the
English government sent a fleet into the Baltic under Kelson to dissolve the coalition, at
the close of March, 1801. Paul was preparing to give material aid to the Danes, when
a conspiracy was formed at St. Petersburg to put a stop to the capricious disjotism
under which all classes of men in Russia were groaning. The eonspincors, wl ose num-
bers included count Pahlen. the most influential man at court, gen. Benvigsen, I v.arow,
and many oilier distinguished nobles and officers, appear originally to have intended
only to force Paul to abdicate, but his obstinate disposition led to a scuffle, in which the
emperor was strangled, Mar. 24, 1801.
PAUL I., Pope, d. 767; h. Rome; brother of Stephen III., whom he succeeded "57.
Hewas the candidate of the Prankish party, wldch was opposed by the Italian party, who
presented Theophylactus for the vacancy; and the latter at first refused to acknowledge
him. but finally submitted. lie secured the favor of Pepin I., as a protection a;
the Byzantines and Lombards. He strengthened the papal power, and in 7GP> was iccon-
ciled to Desidc"'us, king of the Lombards, who endowed the church with some of nis
property. His anniversary is June 28.
Paul.
PAUL II., Pope, d. 1471; b. Italy; nephew of Eugenius III. His name was Pietro
Barbo, and ho had been archdeacon of Bologna, and bishop of Cervia before his elevation
to the pontificate in 1464. At the beginning of his reign he reformed a number of abuses in
the papal court, and attempted to forma general alliance of Christian sovereigns against
the Turks. His relations with many of those sovereigns were unfriendly. He demanded
from Louis XL the revocation of the pragmatic sanction, attacked Podiebrad, king of
Bohemia, as a Hussite, and caused a civil war in that country, and quarreled with Fer-
dinand in regard to spine fiefs in Naples. In 1468, after the capture of Negropont by
the Turks, lie ordered a general peace throughout Italy, on pain of excommunication,
but he died before the arrangements for a combined campaign against the Turks had
been completed.
PAUL OF SAMOSATA, so called from his native city: b. early in the 3d century.
Concern ing his childhood ami youth little is known. He was at first a sophist and
obtained admittance among the clergy in some unknown way. He became bishop of
Antioch 260 A.D., probably through the influence of Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, who
admired his learning and genius. His enemies assert, but without proof, that his char-
acter previous to his appointment was in some respects unworthy of the episcopal office.
After his elevation, if the current accounts are to be trusted, he was rapacious, arro-
gant, and vain. In addition to his spiritual office, he obtained the secular appointment
of procurator, which, yielding him large emoluments, prompted him to surround him-
self i;i the church with greater pomp and ceremonial than had hitherto been witnessed.
He built an episcopal judgment seat and a lofty throne which were screened from public
view. He traveled, attended by a large retinue, reading letters and dictating answers
along the road to display his manifold and urgent engagements. During public wor-
ship he allowed persons of both sexes to applaud nim according to the custom in theaters.
In his preaching lie freely denounced others, and praised himself more, as Eusebius says,
"after tlie manner of a rhetorician, or a mountebank, than of a bishop.'' lie allowed
praises of himself to be sung publicly in church during the Easter services, and encour-
aged bishops of less important cities around him to extol him in their sermons as an
angel from heaven. Besides these definite charges he was under suspicion of others
more secret. His theological heresies, which closely resemble those of Sabi'llius, aroused
more opposition against him than his notorious faults or suspected crimes. Over his
wickedness many declared that "they groaned in secret, yet feared to accuse him, but
when he set himself in opposition to God they were compelled to depose him, and elect
another bishop in his place." Several councils were convened to consider his case; by
the lust of which, held about 269 A.D., he was divested of his office and excommunicated.
Trusting to the favor both of queen Zenobia and of the- populace, he refused to vacate
the episcopal residence, in which also the meetings of the church were held. In 273
the emperor Aurelian, having conquered Zenobia, referred Paul's casa to the bishops of
Rome and of Italy. They decided against him. There is no notice either of the time
or place of his death.
PAUL, VINCENT DE, one of the most eminent saints of the modern CathoMc
church, was bqrn of humble parentage at lianq nines, in the diocese of Dax. in the year
1576. The indications of ability which he exhibited led to his being sent to school at.
Toulouse. He became an ecclesiastical student, and was admitted to priest's orders in
1600. On a voyage which he was making from Marseilles to Narbonne his ship was
captured bv corsairs, and he with his companions sold into slavery at Tunis, where he
passed through the hands of three different masters. The last "of these, who was a
renegade Savoyard, yielded to the exhortations of Vincent, resolved to return to the
Christian faith, and, with Vincent, made his escape from Barbary. They landed in
France in 1607. Having gone thence to Homo, he was intrusted with aii important
mission to the French court in 1603, and continued for some time to reside in Paris as
the almoner of Marguerite de Valois. The accident of his becoming preceptor of the
children of M. de Gondy, the commandant of the galleys at Marseilles, led to his being
appointed almoner-general of the galleys in 1619. It was at this time that the well-
known incident occurred of his offering himself, and being accepted, in the place of one
of the convicts, whom he found overwhelmed with grief and despair at 'having been
ohlig;'d to leave his wife and family in extreme destitution. Meanwhile he had laid the
foundation of what eventually grew into the great and influential congregation of priests
of the missions, an association of priests who devote themselves to the work of assisting
the parochial clergy by preaching and hearing confessions periodically in those districts
to which (hey may be invited by the local pastors. The rules of this congregation were
finally approved by Urban VIII. in 1632; and in the following year the' fathers estab-
lished themselves in the so-called priory of St. Lazare, in Paris, whence their name of
Lmariiti is derived. From this date his life was devoted to the organization of works
of charity and benevolence. To him Paris owes the establishment of the foundling
hospital, and the first systematic efforts for the preservation of the lives, and 'the due
education of a class theretofore neglected or left to the operation of chance charity.
The pious sisterhood of charity is an emanation of the same spirit, and Vincent was
intrusted by St. Francis of Sales with the direction of the newly-founded order of sisters
of the visitation. The queen, Anne of Austria, warmly rewarded his exertions, and
Puulowuia.
Louis XIII. chose- him as his spiritual assistant in his last illness. He was placed by the
queen-regent at the head of the consul de conscience, the council chiefly charged with the
direction of the crown in ecclesiastical affairs; and the period of his presidency was long
looked back to as the golden era of impartial and honest distribution of ecclesiastical
patronage in France. Vincent was not, in any sense of the word, a scholar, but his
preaching, which (like that of the fathers of his congregation of La/.arists) was of the
most simple kind, was singularly affecting and impressive. He left nothing behind him
but the Rules or Constitutions of tin- Congretjratton <>f tin- .lAWo//. H>.>': <'<n/ji n m-es on
these constitutions, 4to; and a considerable number of letters, chielly addressed to the
priests of the mission, or to other friends, on spiritual subje-N. He died at tin: advanced
age of 85, at St. La/are. Sept. 27, 1660, and was canoni/.ed by Clement XII. in 1737.
His festival is held on July 19, the day of his canonization.
PAULDING, a co. in n.w. Georgia, drained by the Tallapoosa and Etowah rivers;
450 sq.m.; pop. '80, 10,887—10,882 of American birth, 984 colored. The surface is
uneven and hilly mid the soil only fairly fertile; Indian corn, cotton, and pork are the
chief products. There are extensive forests of pine and several kinds of oak. Co.
seat, Dallas.
PAULDING, a co. in n.w. Ohio; bounded on the w. by Indiana; drained by th-
Maumee and Auglaize rivers and several creeks; intersected by the Wabash, Si. LouU
and Pacific railroad; and by the Miami and Wabash, and the Erie canals; about 400
sq.m.; pop. '80, 13,490 — 12,747 of American birth. The surface is level and much of
it is morass. Oats, hay, Indian corn, and wheat are the staples. Co. sent, Paulding.
PAULDING, HIRAM, 1797--1878; b. N. Y.; son of John Paulding, one of the Ameri-
can soldiers who captured Andre; entered the navy Sept. 1, 1811; served with di -tin' -
lion under commodore Macdonough in the battle of lake Champlain, and received a
sword- from congress in recognition of his services, he was made lieut. l.SKJ: afterwards
master commander; and in 1823 accompanied navy commissioner David Porter on a
successful expedition to suppress piracy in the gulf of Mexico. In 184 1 he was raised
to the rank of capt., and in command of the Vinccnues, cruised in the \Vc.-t indies. He
captured gen. William Walker the filibuster, on ids second landing at Punta Arenas,
Nicaragua. In Dec., 1860, he was presented with a sword by the republic of Nicaragua,
in acknowledgment of his services, and received an offer of a tract of land, which he
was not permitted by the U. S. senate to accept, but instead was censured by president
Buchanan, who released gen. Walker. In April, 1861. he was commander of the Norfolk
navy yard, and in December was made rear admiral on the retired list. In 1802-65 he
was in command at the Brooklyn navy yard, and in 1866 was appointed governor of the
Philadelphia naval asylum. In 1831 he published a Journal of a Cruise among the
Island* of the Pacific.
PATTLDING, JAMES KIRKTC. an American author, was born nt Pleasant Valley,
N. Y., Aug. 22, 1779. His father was a farmer, descended from the early Dut( '
tiers. Self-educated, and early developing a tendency to literature, he was a fiiend
of Washington Irving, and wrote a portion of Salmagundi. During the war of 1812 he
published the Dirertiiiff History of John Bull and Brother Jonathan; in 1813, a parody of
the Ijfiif of the Last Minstrel, entitled A Layofilie Scottish Fiddle: and in 1814. a more
serious work. The United States and England, a defense against articles in the Qua
Revieic. This work attracted to him the attention of president Madison, and caused him
to be appointed a member of the board of naval commissioners. In 1817 he published
a defense of the southern states and of slavery in Letters from the S»»f?i. by a Northern
Man; in 1819, a new series of Salmagundi; in 1822, A Sketch of Old England, b>/ a New
England Man; and in 1824, John Bull in America, or the New Munchansen, a satire on
the writings of certain British tourists. This was followed bv Konirwniu-ke. a novel
(1825); Merry Tales of the Three Wise Men of Gotham (1826); The New Pilgrim* Pror/rem
(1828); Tales of a- Good Woman (1829); Book of St. Nicholas (1830). These works, mostly
humorous and satirical, had various degrees of local popularity; but in 1831 he pro-
duced The Dutchman's Fireside, a novel that Avas reprinted in England, and translated
into French and Dutch: and in 1832, Westward Ho! which attained to a similar popu-
larity. These were followed by a Life of Washington (1835), Slarery in t/i- I'niifd
States (1836), in which the institution is defended on social, economical, and physio-
logical grounds. He held at this period the lucrative post of navy agent of New York.
and was by Mr. Van Bureu appointed secretary of the navy, which gave him the posi-
tion of cabinet minister. At the close of Mr. Van Bnren's presidency in 1841, Mr.
Paulding retired to a country residence at Hyde Park, N. Y.. where he wrote The OM
Continental, a novel (1846); The Puritan and hi* Daughter (1849); and with his son, a
volume of Plays and Fairy Tales. He died at Hyde Park, New York slate, April 6, 1860.
PAULDING, JOHN, 1758-1818; b. N. Y., a revolutionary soldier who served
through the war, taken prisoner three times; one of those who" captured maj. Andre
1780. receiving for the service a silver medal from congress, bearing the inscription
Fidelity, on one side, and on the reverse Vinci t amor juitrfa. In 1827 the city of New
York erected a monument to his memory at Peekskill, where he was buried; and he
OQ'r aulding.
Paulownia.
as wefl as his comrades in the capture, Van Wart and William?, have had counties in
Ohio named in their honor.
PAULI CIANS, an ancient sect of the eastern empire, who, by Catholic writers, are
reckoned an ott'shoot of the Manicha>ans (q.v.). According to Peter of Sicily and
Pliot ius, the sect originated in Armenia from two brothers, named Paul (from whom it.
is alleged to have received its name) and John, who flourished in the 4th century. Others
trace it to an Armenian named Paul, who lived under Justinian. II. The Patricians
were at all times treated with much suspicion, and repressed with great severity, by the
eastern emperors; Constans, Justinian II., and Leo the Isaurian especially labored to
repress (hem, and indeed, with the exception of Niccphorus Logotheta (802-811), it
may be said that all the emperors, with more or less rigor, persecuted them. Their
greatest enemy, however, was Theodora (S41-8«o^ who, having ordered that they should
be compelled to return to the Greek church, hud all the recusants cruelly put to the
sword or driven into exile. A bloody resistance, and tin ally an emigration into the
Saracen territory, was the consequence; and it is from the Paulician settlers in Bulgaria
(Catholic historians) that the Mauichasan doctrines which tinged the opinions of most of
the mediaeval sects are supposed by Roman Catholic historians to have found their way
into the eastern provinces of the western empire. Even so late as the 17lh c., according
to Mos-heim (ii. ^38), there was a remnant of this sect existing in Bulgaria.
It is proper, however, to notice that a very different view of the character and doc-
trines of the Paulicians has been advocated by such modern writers on ecclesiastical
history as Gieseler and Neander, according to Avhom they had their origin from one
Constantino of Mananalis (near Samosata), an Armenian, who had received a present of
two volumes— one containing the four gospels, and the other the epistles of Paul — and
who afterwards assumed the name of Paul, in testimony of his great veneration for that
nposile. The distinctive characters of his doctrine and that of his followers were the
rejection of the worship of the Virgin, the saints, and the cross, the denial of the
material presence of Christ in the eucharist, and the assertion of a right freely to search
the Scriptures; and ihe charge of Mauiehseism was falsely brought against them by their
persecutors.
PAULINUS, SAINT, d. 644; sent to England by pope Gregory I. in 601. In 625 he
was made bishop by Justus the archbishop, and went to Northumbria, in attendance
on ^.Ethelburga, daughter of ^Elhelbort, king of Kent, and wife of Edwin, king of
Northumbrian In 637 king Edwin, with many others, was baptized. Soon afterwards
Pa'ulinus was consecrated archbishop of York, founded the cathredral. ar.d in 631
ordained Honorius archbishop of Canterbury. On the death of king Edwin in 6o3 the
Northumbrians relapsed into heathenism, and Pauliuus fled to Kent, wliefe he Avas raised
to the see of Rochester.
*. PONTIUS MESOPFTJS ANIGHTS, SAINT, 353-431, b. France; a pupil of the
.
poet Ausonius, who secured him the favor of the emperor Gratian. He attained the
dignity of c.onwl suffctiis, and was married to a wealthy lady named Therasia. Through
the efforts of St. Ambrose he was converted to Christianity, distributed most of his
property among the poor, and continued, for a time, to reside in Spain. He was
ordained a presbyter in 393. at Barcelona, but soon left Spain for Rome. On his way
he was warmly received by St. Ambrose at Florence. He failed to win the favor of
pope Siricius, who regarded his ordination as irregular. In 894 he went to Kola, where
he had an estate. Near the city was the tomb of the martyr Felix, over which a church
had been built, and a few cells for pilgrims. Here Paulinus lived for fifteen years in a
strict monastic fashion, except that his wife seems to have been with him. In 409 he
was made bishop of Nola, a position which he retained till his death. He was present at
the council of Ravenna in 419. Of his works there have been preserved 50 epistles, 32
poems, and a tract called Passio 8. Genesii Ardatensts. His name is of frequent occur-
rence in the letters of Augustine and Jerome.
PAULIST FATHERS, a society of missionary priests of the Roman Catholic church,
founded in New York in 1858 by" the rev. Isaac T. Hecker and some other priests. It
is called the congregation of the missionary priests" of St. Paul the apostle. Hecker and
his associates belonged to the order of the Redemptorists engaged in home mission
work in New York, but desired to form an organization composed chiefly of those whose
native tongue was English. Archbishop Hughes approved, and Pius IX sanctioned, the
plan. The congregation reports a house and church in New York, a superior, six other
priests, and twelve students preparing for the ministry. The Paulists originated- the
Catholic publication society, and the monthly periodical The Catholic World. Hecker,
Stone, and Hewitt have published several theological works. These priests are very
earnest in their preaching, holding " missions," which correspond to revival services iu
Protestant churches.
PATJLLI'NIA. See GUARANA BREAD.
PAULOWNIA, the common, and also generic name of an ornamental tree brought
from Japan in 1840, named in honor of the princess Anna Paulovna of the Netherlands.
afterwards queen. It belongs to the order ScropJiulaiiaceai or figwort family, of which it is
a remarkable member, attaining a height of 20 to 30 feet. It has somewhat the appear
Pun Ills.
Pauperism.
ance of a cat;-,] pa. the leaves being similar, but much more downy. The flowers make
their appearance in April and May. They are somewhat, cylindrical, with rounded lobes
at the moutU. and clustered in large panicles. Each flower Is from one and a half U>
two inches long, of u beautiful violet color, and having a slight agreeable odor. Calyx,
fine, segmented, thick, and leathery, densely covered \\ith a ri'sty down. Ca;
2-valveil. ovate, and pointed, an inch or more in length, containing numerous small,
wing; (1 seeds. The tree was at one time much sought alter in the United States, as it
was preceded by a great reputation, but it has eince fallen somewhat from its high favor.
It is not hardy north of New York, and even there and further south it often fails to
bloom for several seasons in succession. The flower buds are formed in the previous
season, a severe winter generally blights them, and the tree is not ornamental without
its flowers. The growth of the tree in ^favorable climate is very rapid and vigorous, and
the leaves are remarkable for their si*and flue appearance, often mea>uring two feet in
breadth on young trees. It is said that a good way to cultivate the tree is to cut it down
to the ground every year and use it as a sort of hedge or division, the young shoots
growing very rapidly and becoming ornamental on account of their luxuriant lea-.
PAULUS, HEINRICH EBEKHARD GOTTI.OB, a German theologian of great note in his
day. and one of the leaders of the Rationalists at the close of the lost and the first quarter
of the present c., was b. at Leonberg, near Stuttgart, Sept. 1, 17G1. He gave himself to
the study of oriental languages at GOttingcn, and afterwards prosecuted it in London
and Paris. In 1789, he was called to the professorship of oriental languages at Jena,
and in 1793 became professor of geology, on the death of Doderlein. Here he especially
signalized himself by the critical elucidation of the Scriptures of the Old and New Testa-
ment, in so far as they presented oriental characteristics. The results of his labors may
be seen in his Philolw/i»ch-kritiscJien. -und Jiisiorischen (Jommentar uber das Neue Tex! ;
(4 vols. Liib. 1800-4); Clutis fiber die Psalmen (Jena, 1791); (Jlnri* ubcr den J
and other writings belonging to this period of his literary activity. In 1803 he removed
to AViirzburg; in 1808. to Bamberg; in 1809, to Nuremberg; and in 1811, to Ansbach.
During these various changes he had ceased to be a professor, and become a director of
ecclesiastical and educational affairs; but in 1811 he accepted the professorship of
exegesis and ecclesiastical history at Heidelberg. In 1819 lie started a kind of historico-
political journal entitled Sophronizon, in which he continued to write for about tea
years. His contributions were marked by weighty sense, moderation, and kno"
of his various subjects, and won him great applause at the time. As a theologi.ai, he is
generally looked upon as the type of pure unmitigated rationalism — a man who sat down
to examine the Bible with the profound conviction that everything in it represented as
supernatural wjis only natural or fabulous, and that true criticism consisted in endeavoring
to prove this. From his numerous writings, we select for mention the following.
Memorabilien (Leip. 1791-96); Sammlunrj der merkwurdigsten II i ••< n in <!• a '• h-i> r<! (',
Jena, 1792-1803); I^eben Jesu alt (rrundlar/e drier reinen QenrMclite dcs Ur.--Jti /•;/<•;<//>•
vols. Heidelb. 1828); Aufkldrende Beitrdge zu'r Dorjme.n-Kirchennnd I.' •' frlit«
(Bremen, 1830); and Eiiegetlsches Handbuch fiber die drei crsten Ecanf/elten (3 vols. Hcidelb.
1830-33). Paulus died Aug. 10, 1851, at the advanced age of 90 — having liv-.-d lung
enough to see his own rationalistic theory of Scripture give place to the "mythical"
theory of Strauss, and that in its turn to be shaken to its foundations partly by thu
effort's of the Tubingen school, and partly by those of Neandcr and the " broad church "
divines of Germany. See Paulus's Skizzen <tus runner Bihlnisrjx-nn'1. L<1» rinji^rhirhtf. zum
Andenken an incin 50-jdhrif/es Jubilaum (Heidelb. 1829), and Reichlin "Meldegg's //. K.,
O. Paulus und Seine Zeit (2 vols. Stuttg. 1853).
PAU'LUS .EGINE'TA, a celebrated Greek physician, was b. in the island of JEgina,
and flourished during the conquests of the caliph Omar in the 7th century. Of his life
we know almost nothing more than that he pursued his medical studies first at Alexan-
dria, and afterwards in Greece and other countries. His forte lay in surgery and
obstetrics, in the latter of which departments of medicine his practice was great. He
abridged the works of Galen, and was deeply read in those of /Etius and Oriba iu«.
while he always exercised an independent judgment in forming his conclusions. His
descriptions of diseases are brief and succinct, and also complete and exact. He 'of ten
grounds his explanation of morbid phenomena on Galen's theory of thecardinal hi:
while in surgery his writings abound with novel and ingenious views. His works. — the
principal of which is commonly called De Me Medica Libri Septcm (Lond. 1834) — have
passed thro.igh many editions, of which the best is that completed at Lyons in 1507. and
they have also had many translators, of whom the best in English is Dr. Fiaiu i< A
PAULUS DIACONUS (also called PATTLUS LEVITA, both surnames being derived from
his ecclesiastical office), one of the most learned men of his time, and the greatest Lombard
historian, was born of a noble Lombard family at Friuli about 730. His father's name
was Warnefrid. He received a superior education at Pavia, at the court of the Lombard
king Ratchis, and appears to have continued at court during the reigns of his successors,
Aistulf and Desidcrius, and to have accompanied Adelperga, the daughter of Desidcrius,
whose education he had conducted, to the court of her husband, duke Arichis of J'.en-
ventum. For her he wrote, in 781, after he had become an ecclesiastic, one of his prin-
cipal works, lus Hidoria Romano,, a work of no authority, as it is a mere compilation
OQQ
Paul us.
from works which we pospess, but which was greatly used during the whole of the mid-
dle ages, as the many manuscripts, recensions, and continuations of it attest. An
edition of the genuine text is siill a wanting, but a great part of it is given in Muratori's
Rernni Itnliciiruiii Scriptorex, vol. i. (Milan, 1723). In 781 Paul us became a monk of
Monte Casino; but afterwards went to France, and won the esteem of Charlemagne in a
high degree by his character and learning. He aided that monarch in his schemes for
the promotion of learning, and introduced tlie study of the Greek language into France.
He made a collection of homilies from the best sources, f.t the emperor's desire, known
as the iLomilanum, often printed between 1482 and 1569, and translated into German
and Spanish. At the request of Angilrm, bishop of Metz. he also wrote a history of the
bishops of Met/, Gesta EpiscoporiDit Mattensiitm (printed in Peru's Monumentu k'm/xr /«'<."
llistorica, vol. ii.), the first work of the kind on the n. of the Alps, but the example of
which was soon very generally followed, In 787, he returned to his convent, where lie
remained till his death, which is said to have taken place in 797. In the latter years of
his life he wrote his history of the Longobards (De Gesti* Langobardum, Libri 6), but did
not live to complete it, bringing down the history only to the dath of Liutprand in
744. There are several editions or this work, the best of which is contained in the work
of Muratori. It is characterized by remarkable candor, and a style unusually pure for
that age. The high repute in which this work also was long held is attested by the
great number of manuscripts and continuations. Paulus was likewise the author'of a
number of theological works, and of some hymns and letters still extant.
PAUL VERONESE. See CAGLIARI, PAOLO, an*.
PATTPER COLONIES are establishments at Frederiksoord and Veenhuizen in the.
Netherlands, province of Drenthe, and at Willemsoord and Ommerschans in Overyssel.
They were erected by a benevolent society to employ poor people in cultivating land
and various industries. In 1858 the society suspended payments, and the state took the
temporary management, arranged with the creditors, and finally retained Ommerschans
and Veenhui/en, leaving Frederiksoord and Willemsoord to be managed by the society.
Jan. 1, 1875, the government colonies contained 8,809 persons. There were 2,223
men and 507 women; 54 boys and 36 girls under 16 years. Protestants, 1948; Roman
Catholics, 834; Jews, 38. Could read and write. 2,071; able for work, 2,657. They
have all been convicted, by a magistrate, of begging: and are employed in agriculture
and various handicrafts. Peat is largely prep 'red; coffee-bags and other coarse fabrics
are manufactured. Rye, oats, buckwheat, potatoes, etc., cover 2,000 acres, and 1200
are in grass. These institutions are a great expense to the nation, but have reduced the
numbers and improved the social condition of destitute people.
The coloniesof the benevolent society extend to about 6,000 acres, and the inhabitants
are either tenant cotters, with about 7 acres of land to each house, or labor for the com-
pany. The cotter families pay for a house and land a yearly rent of £4 3s. 4d. ; the use
nf a cow being also obtained for a small hire. The factory-workers weave, sacking,
coarse cottons and linens, make baskets, mats, straw-hats, etc. There are two Protestant
churches, a Roman Catholic chapel, and a synagogue. These colonies have not been
self-supporting, and are partly maintained by the annual contributions of 5,070 mem-
bers, gifts, legacies, etc. Jan. 1, 1875, pop. 1956. Land produce, hay, rye, oats,
buckwheat, potatoes, oak wood and bark, etc. Stock — 803 cows and oxen, 34 calves,
27 horses, 251 sheep, and 40 swine. In 1874, 1028 acres were cultivated. The property,
stork, etc., of the society are valued at £78,615, and the debts at £12,300. The position
af the colonists has been greatly improved, and their homes show signs of industry and
.comfort. When working in the factories, a tenth part of their earnings is placed in a
reserve fund, to be paid to them in winter or in time of sickness.
PAUPERISM, the state of indigent persons supported or aided at the public charge,
was recogni/.cd: 1, under the Mosaic economy, by special enactments authorizing the
nght of gleaning, setting apart portions of the produce of the land in sabbatical years.
providing for re-entry in years of jubilee, enjoining loans without interest, forbidding
perpetual bondage and regulating the manumission and redemption of bondsmen and
hondswomen, allotting portions of the tithes, providing for the participation of the poor
on festal occasions, and instituting the daily payment of wages; 2, among the Greeks.
by public donations, such as the free distributions of corn, the so-called dcrvcltice among
colonists (who, being mostly poor, were to be raised to a state befitting the dignity of
Athenian citizens), the revenues from the mines, and the thcorica, in the first instance
designed to enable the poorei classes to attend theatrical exhibitions at the public cost,
but afterwards considerably extended; 3, among the Romans, as one of the duties
of government, the many rru men tartan laws providing not only for the purchase and
sale of corn to the people at a low price and at a price below cost, but also for its
gratuitous distribution. The first legal provision of the second nature was made 123 B.C. ;
that of the third in the lex Clodia, 58 B.C., wTith the result that the free distribution of
corn absorbed one-fifth of the entire revenue of the state. The great danger of the prac-
tice induced Caesar to apply a remedy, iti reducing the number of the recipients, by the
rigorous exclusion of all persons unable to prove their Romnn citizenship from the list
of corn-receivers, from 320,000 to 150,000, and it wns enacted thr.t this number should
not be exceeded. The conyiaria, which in the early times :>i the republic were contrilm-
Pausanias.
400
tions of nconyius, of oil or wine (= about 6 pints), designated afterwards liberal donations
to the , '-ontrastedwith the ilonntim, or donatives to the wMirr*) of oil, vine, corn,
money, or other things, and always denoted that they were gratuitous. The limits fixed
by Cicsur were soon exceeded, and the number of recipients had risen, 5 B.C., to
320.000. Augustus, 2 B.C., revived many of Ca>sar's regulations, reducing the number
to 'J'.i-O.OOO entitled to receive corn on payment of a small sum, and providing for the
gratuitous distribution to the absolutely indigent, who were furnished for the purpose
with certain tokens, called A-«,W<B •nummurue or fruinfittnritp. These t'.-^nf became
very valuable property in course of time, when the distribution of corn had become
entirely gratuitous, and could be sold and bequeathed by will. At a still later period
the public bounty, instead of supplying corn, furnished wlicatcn bread, baked at the
public charge. Constantino extended the same privilege to Constantinople, wiih the
amplification that the privilege, which at Home was personal, became in the new capital
attached to the houxr*. The daily allowance at Constantinople was, according to Socra-
tes eight myriads of corn, i.e., either of modii or of loaves. The history of Constan-
tinople proves the disastrous consequences of the emperor's short-sighted policy, \\
in the decline and fall of imperial Koine the policy of congiaria and donatives Avas a
powerful factor of disintegration. When Odoacer reigned in Italy (47.6-90 A. D.), aad
the tributary harvests of Lgypt and Africa were withdrawn, pope Qelofius .-.liinncd,
with strong exaggeration, that in ./Emilia, Tuscany, and the adjacent provinces the
human species was almost extinct. The plebeians of Koine were reduced to starvation,
and actually perished when the cessation of the congiaria, a soil exhausted by famine,
war and pestilence, the decay of agriculture, habits of idleness, and the interruption of
commerce, left them in the most deplorable state of helplessness (see Gibbon, ch. ;!6».
The care for the poor, at that period, passed from the hands of an impotent govern-
ment into those of the church, and was dispensed <;n the principle of Christian charity.
Tli rough the instrumentality of the church the globe has been cove led with countless
institutions of mercy, of which the pagan world was utterly ignorant. But that sui j- et
belongs elsewhere, and is here only referred to for the purpose of indicating that, the
evil and spread of poverty have increased with the multiplication of charitable institu-
tions. That aspect of the case, which is a stubborn fact, belongs to the venue of polit-
ical economy, which has proved beyond nil doubt that charity ceases to be charity when
it supports and fosters idleness and destroys what has been felicitously called the parsi-
mony of foresight. It is not the whole truth to say that charity is an unproductive expendi-
ture: discriminating charity & productive expenditure, and to the latter belong certainly
popular education, savings banks, insurance companies, law associations, and bread efforts
for the suppression of vice. We have todeal with two forms of pauperism — one i!;e result
of improvidence, the other the result of providential visitations; anil to ihe alleviation of
both the attention of legislative bodies and philanthropists should be directed. — A brief
survey of what has been done and is doing in that direction among the leading civil i/.ed
nations is now in place. Beginning with Komc under papal rule, and the Latin Catholic
countries, excepting France, the affairs of the poor were generally administered, and
with the qualifications above-named, well and exhaustively, though not without a tinge
of bigotry, through ecclesiastical channels. The convents, monasteries, hospitals, and
asylums were often liberally endowed and supported by public and piivate munificence.
Many of the latter, even since the suppression of religious orders, are maintained, %\ holly
or in part, at the public charge.. Relief is often afforded by means of money, food,
fuel, clothing, and tools. Jn Austria the "Institutes of the Poor," composed of the
parochial minister, two persons called " fathers of the poor," and a controlling officer,
all duly recognized by the state, are charged with the administration of hospitals, asy-
lums, etc., and the dispensation of relief to the indigent. The system in cities is muni-
cipal, in country districts parochial in the English sense. In Switzerland, the communes
must provide for their poor if disabled, and find work for (hose who are able. In Ger-
many, a poor-tax is raised either by state assessment or self-assessment; communal and,
in many instances, congregational boards afford relief; poor-houses, asylums, orphan-
ages, aiid hospitals, mostly supported at the public charge, arc abundant. In 1:
most of the comparatively few charitable institutions are supported by gov< rnment.
Hospitals outside the large cities are not frequent. In Norway and Sweden Ihe public
charities are administered by the church which is established; the system resembles that
of Germany. The characteristic feature of the Danish system is the provision of mone-
tary relief by loans. Holland compels all able-bodied paupers to support then: selves by
work in certain public institutions. The relief of destitute families in free j
colonies flows from private sources. In Belgium, besides the vast array of charitable
religious institutions taking cognizance of multifarious forms of distress, < xisl the public
alms-houses in the different departments, in which able-bodied paupers are compelled
to work for their support. In France, besides the religious charitable work cor.e in
hospitals, asylums, homes, etc. .which began at a very early period (the Hotel Dicu at 1'aris,
formerly known as the Maison Dieu, was founded 'in the 7th c.), public relief dates 1 :;ek
as far as the edict of John II. in 1350. The institution of boards of charity, begun at
Lyons in 1531, enlarged at Paris in 1544, and extended in 15(50 over France, wiih :
to levy a poor-rate on all properly, continued in operation until 1791. In successive
reigns, in periods of general distress and destitution, paupers found employment in
401
Pausanias.
industrial Qospitals; public works were constructed to give employment to the poor;
and tin.- colonies were to be stocked with the surplus pauper population, which at limes
increased to a prodigious extent. The public almshouses (depots de iwrulicite), originated
in 1703, >vere extended over all tlie departments in 1808, but speedily used for other
purposes, revived in 1830, with the important modification that they should be for the
reception of paupers required to work for their support. Inadequate to meet the evil,
private benevolence, cf strictly voluntary character, has created a large number of local
bureaux or' charity, which, however, as well as all philanthropic institutions, are under
the supervision of government, which, in the administration of those of Paris, fs repre-
sented by the prefect of the Seine as presiding officer of a council of clerics and laymen.
Similar boards exist throughout the country. See POOR and POOK-LAWS, ante.
In the United States pauperism has from a very early period attracted the notice of
the state legislatures and philanthropists, and originated a large number of charitable
institutions, supported either at the public charge, or by private benevolence. In most
of the states are state, county, or district almshouses or poor-houses, asylums for the
inline and other forms of distress, orphanages and hospitals. The states generally
assume the charge of the "pauper insane, the counties and cities that of the strictly poor,
an.l private charity that of the sick poor. The state legislatures make also very liberal
grant^ to the different charitable institutions. The systems are by no means uniform,
and differ in the various states, and the want of system is painfully apparent in tha
great paucity of statistics. Pauperism has grown with the growth of the country,, and
its i:ic -e after the rebellion was very marked; it prevails to a greater extent in winter
tha:i i summer, and thrives more in cities than in the countiy. It speaks well for the
ame:. orating conditions of our republic that the vast immigration, which includes of
course large numbers of paupers, adds a hardly perceptible percentage to our pauper
population. The majority of those who leave Europe as paupers swell the ranks of the
industrious and productive. The manifest tendency of pauperism to assume formidable
dimensions in large cities suggests the expedient of devising a system for transferring
the redundant unproductive labor collected in our large cities, to localities where it may
at once become productive. There are not less than 100,000 unemployed persons in
New York and Brooklyn, who might find profitable work in the interior of New York,
Pennsylvania, and notably in certain portions of the south and west. Savings' banks
for tho benefit of those who have employment in summer and none in winter are also
a step in the right direction. According to the U. S. census of 1870, the pauper element
is set down as 116,103 in a population of 38,558,371; this is a palpable understatement
of that number. New York and Pennsylvania are credited with 50.000; the same census
naino* .$10. 930.429 as the cost of our pauper population, and allots $5,039,018 of that
amo'.mt to New York, Pennsylvania, and Massachusetts. This is a fair sample of the
and the small states of Holland and Belgium have the largest. Holland has 1 pauper to.
every 7 inhabitants; France 1 in 29| (a Swiss authority says 1 in 9); Great Britain 1 in
23; Germany and Austria together, 1 in 30. It is mere guess-work to give the propor-
tion in the United States, but it is safe to say that it exceeds 1 in 100. "The practice of
administering relief varies in the different countries. In-door relief in France is restricted
to the insane, the sick and decrepit, and to abandoned children. Illegitimate children
are given to their mothers, who receive out-door relief ; the gfeater number of other
children are boarded out at the public charge. Out-door relief is practiced on a large
scale with very satisfactory economical results. In Prussia, likewise, out-door relief "is
the favorite mode. The system adopted at Elberfeld (and imitated elsewhere) com-
bines features worthy of all acceptation. Judicious persons, representing both public
and private charity, seek for the deserving poor by systematic house-to-house visitation
and dispense to them the relief flowing from both sources. Similar work is done in
some of our large cities, and the urgency of measures blending public charity and
private benevolence is very widely felt. A petition .signed by eminent philanthropists
)Ut to be presented to the state legislature of New York,, which prays for the pas-
sage of an act conferring upon the state charities aid association the power to visit,
t, and examine any of the state charitable institutions, county poor-houses, and
e state of New Yor
sults of its passage, a
nough for the joint
co-operation of official and volunteer workers. See MENDICANCY.
PATJSA'NIAS, a famous Spartan regent and general, the son of Clcombrotus, and
nephew of Leonidas. He commanded the confederate Greeks in the important battle of
Plataea(479 B.C.), in which the Persians were totally routed, and their leader, Mardonius,
slain. He then marched his troops against Thebes, and compelled the inhabitants to
give up the chiefs of the Persian party to him for punishment. Elated by this victory,
however, lie became in an extreme degree haughty and vain-glorious, took all the crcd'it
to him-f]f, and allowed none to the Athenian generals, Aristides and Kimon, who com-
(: d under him, and treated all the other Greeks as if the Spartans were their lords.
U. K. XI.— 26
Pausaniitft. 4 HO
Pavement. kWB
Nevertheless, he still continued his conquests, capturing Cyprus and Byzantium. It
was hero lie first began to play false to Greece. He entered into secret negotiations with
Xerxes, with the view of becoming ruler, under the Persian monarch, of the whole
country, and in his journey through Thrace, even adopted the dress ;u.d luxurious
hal.i:sof:i Persian satrap, and surrounded himself with a body-guard of Persians and
Ivryptians. Being recalled, on account of these things, by (he Spartan*, his former
services procured his acquittal. He then returned to Hy/.antium, when- lie renewed hi*
traitorous intrigues, was expelled from the city for a criminal assault upon a Byzantine
lady, Withdrew to the Troad, and there continued his treachery, lie \va •; a second time
called to account by the Spartan ephors, but again escaped, though with greater difli'-ulty.
Yet Ins p-.usion for the sovereignty of Greece, even though at the expense of the national
liberties, once more drove him to play the traitor, lie tried to stir up the Helots, but
was taken in his own net. A Helot betrayed him. "When Pausanias found his position
desperate, he took refuge in a temple of Athene. Hereupon the people blocked up the
gate of I he temple with heaps of stones, and left him to die of hunger, his own mother
depositing the first stone.
PATJSANIAS, one of the most eminent of Greek geographers and historians, was
probably a native of Lydia in Asia Minor, and was born some time in the 2d century.
lie traveled through almost all Greece, Macedonia, and Italy, and also through part of
Asia and Africa, and composed from his observations and researches an Itinerary,
entitled Hdladba Periegcuis, in ten books, describing the (life rent parts of Grtcee, and
giving a particular account of the monuments of art and of the legends connected with
them. His style is by no means pure; but in matters of his own observation he is most
trustworthy, and his work is, on many subjects, one of the most valuable sour
information that we possess. There are numerous editions of his work: the oldest was
printed at Venice in 1516 by Aldus; and the most recent is that by J. II. C. Schubart
and C. Walz (o vols. Lcip. 1838-40). Translations of Pausanias exist m English, German,
and French.
PAUVV, CORNELIS DE, 1739-99; b. Amsterdam; educated at Gottiugen. He is
known as the uncle of the revolutionist Anacharsis Clootz. He became c-inon of Xanten
the duchy of Cleves; was afterwards appointed reader to Frederick 11. of Pru>sj:>.
He declined" the place of an academician of B.'rliu and a bishopric at Bivslau. He
published works on the history and physiology of several nations and countries, among
which were RecJterches xur la* Americans, designed to show the native inferiority of tile-
savages of America; liecherchcs snr les Egyptians et les Chinois, 2 vols. : !,'« /«
Greet, 2 vols. These were translated into English. They contain curious information,
but many unproved assertions made in a dogmatic spirit. His attacks on the Je-uils
rendered him unpopular with the Roman Catholic clergy, though they respected iiis
t dents and learning.
PAUWELS. FERDINAND, b. Belgium 1830; studied painting at Antwerp and under
Woppers. and lived in Rome, 1852-57. His first picture, exhibited in 1S51, was the
"Meeting of Baldwin I. with his daughter Joan at Constantinople in 1206." His
" Coriolanus" attracted much attention the next year, and gave him the means of living
'in Rome, where he still further improved himself, taking his subjects from the Old
Testament and the hagiologies. From 1862 to 1872 he was professor al Wt imar. He now
lives in- Antwerp. Among his pictures maybe mentioned "Banished by Alva," 1S61;
" Reception by Louis XIV. of a Deputation from the Doge of Genoa." 1864: "Queen
Philippaof England Relieving the Poor of Ghent,'' 1866; " Hans Pleinhorn. a Merchant
of Nuremberg, surprised with his Family while engaged in Protestant worship," 1868.
PAVEMENT, flat stones or "flags" used for the flooring of halls, kitchens, and other
apartments, and frequently for footpaths; also the stone covering of the roadway of
streets; The stones used for flags vary in different districts, according to the geological
'formation of the neighborhood. " The pavements now most commonly us^d in E- :
and Scotland are the Arbroath and Caithness stones — the former a softer and more
agreeable stone than the latter, which is exceedingly hard and slippery when wet.
Pavement should be carefully laid on n solid dry foundation, and set in a good bed of
concrete or lime, and the joints pointed with cement. It may also be laid on small
dwarf Willis, built of brick, so as to support all the edges — this is a good method for
keeping the floor dry.
The PAVING OF STREETS is of early date, and is, in fact, necessary to any consider-
able degree of civilization and traffic. The Romans paved their streets in the s:1ine
elaborate and solid manner in which they paved their highways. See ROADS. Portions
of the ancient pavement of the streets of Rome are in use to the. present day, and the
pavement of Pompeii remains entire. It is laid with large blocks of stone of polygonal
shape (I ike Cyclopean masonry), very carefully fitted together, and of considerable <.
and below there is a carefully prepared basis, often composed of several distinct strata.
Some of the Italian towns — Florence, for instance — have still pavement of this descrip-
tion, and no foot pavement.
The mediaeval cities were almost all unpaved till about the 12th c., when the main
streets of the chief towns began to be protected with stone. The plan now adopted is
Dearly the same; in all the cities of Europe. The first thing to be done is to secure or
Pausauias.
Pavemeut.
make a solid foundation. This is done, where the natural substratum is not of a solid
kind, by laying the street with a solid bed of concrete, having a slope from the middle
to the sides to throw off the water. On the concrete is placed the real pavement, which
is composed of blocks of granite, trap, or other tough rock. These should be rectangu-
lar, and the deeper the better. They are generally about 10 in. to. 12 in. in depth, and 6
in. or 7 in. broad, and from 1 to 2 ft. in 'length. They should be all bedded and jointed
m strong mortar. This is not often done, as it is thought sufficient to bed the stones in
sand, and grout them with hot lime on the top. It is clear, however, that the more
equal the stones are in de.ptk, and the more solidly they are bedded, the longer they will
lust. Other materials besides stone have been tried for the paving of streets — such as
blocks of wood with the end up, and blocks of cast-iron. The wooden pavement, is
delightfully easy, and not noisy, but in wet weather it is exceedingly slippery. Cast-iron
is too hard, and causes too much jolting and noise.
The great obstacle in the way of really good pavement in modern streets is the
necessity of frequently breaking it up for the laying and repairing of pipes for gas,
water, etc. The true remedy — and, in the end, the cheapest — would be to have, in the
chief streets at least, sub-ways or tunnels for drains and pipes, accessible without break-
ing up the pavement.
PAVEMENT (ante). Although the term pavement is really only applicable to a single
kind of covering for a roadway, it is better here to regard it as including all the various
materials used in constructing durable roads, and especially the streets of cities. The
oldest, the best, and the most durable of all roads, the Roman, was built under wholly
different conditions from any modern road. The raised center-part on which was the
pavement was first excavated and rannncd,»then a double layer of flags was set, on this
a kind of rough concrete some 18 in. thick, and on this the large thick paving-stones,
random-jointed, but cut and butted to match with perfect accuracy, the whole in mortar
and cement. This is a Hat wall, not a roadway, and, costing more than any modern
race would put into such an improvement, remained just as good as at first when, as at
Pompeii, the chariot-wheels had worn ruts 4 in. deep in the stones.
Modern road-making dates only from the French superintendent of 1775, Tresaguet.
He m;.de a foundation of large flat flags, double thick, if desired; on this laid broken
si.vr.c; and over all sand and fine stones. The system was good, but the administration
of the time was without means of timely repair. Macadam's system, of about 1820,
if sta on two prints; a dry road is a good road, therefore the compact earth itself will
serve as a foundation, and there is no need of heavy flags beneath the surface proper; again,
-tones never air, alga mate, and dirt, sand, and soft stones, only turn to dust or mud.
rammed and rounded surface, dry and in good condition, are successively spread
two layer? of medium cracked stone, and on these one or two more of fine cracked stone.
All materials must be clean, and all stone must be hard. ' As soon as the materials are
amalgamated by traffic, the road must be carefully surfaced and continually repaired.
His whole thickness was of about 91 in., and the crown of 1 in. to the yard. Telford
made certain changes in construction, and Polonceau invented the heavy roller, to
avoid the wen.r and tear of vehicles in consolidating the surface. At present the
"im-falcd" mad is laid on a foundation of clear screened gravel, on rammed cobble-
stones or on a compacted clay; two layers of stone will be sufficient, and these
ar:1 amalgamated by the roller. It is a mistake to suppose that the surface needs
ropicking and re-roiling at intervals; the surface is lightly picked when new materials
are added, but all further disturbance should be avoided. Paved roads are usually
made by ramming to a crowned surface, throwing on this i to £ in. screened sand,
laying the pavings on this, and ramming to an even surface with a pavior's rammer.
All old work, both in this and other countries, was done with cobble-stones; and although
some modern work has been made of small flags with cuts upon them, the best and only
satisfactory pavement is a block. These are either square or oblong, and should be
about If to 2, as deep as wide, and not tapered, as they must be turned and relaid when
worn smooth. Joints should always break, nor should they ever be allowed to get in
line with the street, since wheels immediately start a rut at the point. At the crossing
of two streets, we usually set the blocks in circles, but abroad they are set at right angles
to the X joining the corners. The best material for our common square-block pavement
i- the blue gneiss or the trap, but for long blocks, exposed to more fracture, any of the
granites. For bridge-stones at crossings, greywack, quart zoze gneiss, the oolite limestones,
or ihe compact granites. No gutter stones are needed, nor is there, as once supposed,
an enormous pressure outwards, as if the thrust of an arch. The rounded surface, or
crown, has been much reduced; originally ^. ^ is now enough. Metaled roads should
be kept rather flat in the center, with a quicker slope at the sides; paved roads, the
opposite. Friction is greater on paved roads, but traction is easier; in other words,
carriages take the macadam; wagons, the pavement. The life of a pavement depends
on the stone, and on the traffic, but in a city street of average use it may be called about
14 years. Some of the London pavements laid in mortar exceed this, and the Paris
pavements, constantly repaired, do better yet. A road must be capable of drainage,
since no road bed is waterproof, the surface water being thrown off; but, infiltration
taking place continually if on a sand, no impervious bed must be interposed, and if on
Paviu. 404
I'uwnbvokiiig.
a clay, and it bo found impossible to sand fill below frost level, a crowned surface and a
layer of cobble-stones must act as sal) soil drains. The smlace of the road must, not he-
broken up. In the newer streets of Paris, sewers and pipes are beneath the sidewalks,
but in the o!d< r, as elsewhere, the streets are continually torn up by the \vorkmen.
With us the system is lax. To relay a long line of pavement over an excavation by
throwing in dirt, and setting the pavement to one long joint, is to violate c\ery known
principle of road-building. "Over a pipe the earth should be settled by water, then more
put on and rammed; finally, for heavy trailic, 2 in. com r-'le at least under the stones. In
laying block pavements eveiything depends upon careful hand-work. If a block drives
too much or too little, it should be replaced, the joints should be carefully hand liilcd
with tine screened sand, and, a light covering of sand sprinkled over when finished,
Should be thoroughly Hushed down before opening for traffic. No inch layer of sand
nerd be left; it only chokes the sewers. Above all, every defect must be immediately
remedied by competent workmen, with portable tool-boxes and equipments, under a
responsible superintendent.
A bitumen covering to a sidewalk and, for easy traction and lessening of noise, to a
road-bed, was the subject of experiment at Paris from before 1840 to 1854, wheu the
first real success was effected. Many experiments with bitumen and wood wen- made in
America from 1863 to 1874. A wood pavement must expose the cross grain of the
wood; it should be kyanized or otherwise treated against rot, and it should be graveled
so that the sand, imbedding itself in the wood, offers a harder and, in wet weather, a
rougher surface. The mixture of sand and bitumen does not set, and sand, lime, and
bitumen show the effect of hot weather. The addition of asphalt, a calcareous earlli
soaked with bitumen almost supplies the needed element, but ihe MICCCSS of the process
lias never been attained without compression. Our wood pavements, and all the
asphalt or bitumen, surfaces laid on them or on sand have failed. They soaked, rotted,
burst, or sunk, because of inattention to the foundation. An asphalt pavement must he
prepared as in France, by a concrete foundation, or by a mixed foundation ending in
rolled gravel, as for a Telford metaled road; or it may be laid on a well-rammed, well-
repaired block pavement. The asphalt, whatever mixture may be selected, is applied hot
and rolled slightly and gradually, then heavily. It need be only thick enough to make a
surface; it is easily cut out and easily repaired; and in fact, a street made piece by piece,
is, if rightly done, after some traffic, homogeneous. The asphalt must, however, be per-
fectly free from damp, and in wet weather repairs can oniy be made by heat and under
cover. The real objection is its slipperiness in wet weather, and the disagrecah:
muddy condition it always shows in wet weather, unless continually swept and watered.
PA VIA, a province of Austrian Italy in the compartlmento of Lombardy, having the
Milanese on the n., Lodi on the e., Sardinia on the w., and the rive •:• ""icino; and on the
s. the river Po separating it from Sardinia and Parma; 1286 sq:m . ; op. 448.4:];"). The
length from n.w. to s.e. is about 40 m., the breadth at the narrowe>i portion 10 mi!
is drained by thePo, theTicino, and other small streams. It is intersected by two canals,
the Naviglio-Grande, and the Naviglio-di-Pavia, supplying communication by water
between Milan and the lago Maggiore, the Ticino and Po, and by the Po with the Adri-
atic sea or gulf of Venice. Its surface is generally level, consisting exclusively of the
broad plain of the Po. Its soil is remarkably fertile, and the vine, olive, and fruit trees
yield abundant crops. Hemp is raised, the pasturage is excellent, and much at ten;
paid to the raising of cattle; buff aloes be ing numbered among the domestic animal-. Silk
and cheese are the principal manufactures. It is divided Tnto 8 districts and i'J3 com-
munes. Capital, Pavia.
PAVI'A, a city of northern Italy, capital of the province* of the same name, on the lei't
bank of the Ticino, 20 m. s. of Milan, and 8 m. above the confluence of the Ticino and
the Po. A covered bridge of eight arches connects the city with the suburb of Jhrr/o
Ticino, on the right bank of the river, and from this bridge the Strada .A'"»/w. or '
the principal thoroughfare, leads north, and extends to tlic outskirts. The city is large,
surrounded by walls, and has an imposing appearance, bearing the impress of anti<.
In former times, it was called the "city of a hundred towers;" but the palace of rl
oric, and the tower where BoC thins wrote the treatise De Consolati&ne Ph&osopki
longer exist; among the remaining ones are those of Belcredi and Del Maino, which am
each 169 ft. high. Its oldest church, and perhaps the oldest in Italy, is that of San
Michele, which, although the date of its foundation is uncertain, is first mentioned in
661. The cathedral, containing some good paintings, was commenced in 1 HI. lv.it was
never finished. In a beautiful chapel attached to it are the ashes of St. Augustine, in a
sarcophagus ornamented with 50 bassi rilievi, 95 statues, and numerous grotesques. In
the church of San Petro in Ciel d'Auro are deposited the remains of the unfortunate
BoGthius. The Certosa of Pavia, the most splendid monastery in the world, lies four
miles north of the city. It was founded in 1396, contains many beautiful paintings, and
abounds in the richest ornamentation. It has an octagonal cupola, painted ultramarine,
and enameled in gold. It was sacked by the French in 1796. Its church is in the form
of a Latin cross, and is 249 ft. long, and 173 ft. wide. The university of Pavia is said to
have been founded by Charlemagne in 774, and was one of the most famous seats of learn-
ing during the middle ages. Its efficiency was much increased by Galeazzo Viscouti.
Pavia.
Pawnbroking.
who bestowed many privileges upon it in the year 1396. It consists of numerous col-
leges, and attached to it are a library of 120,000 vols., a numismatic collection, anatomi-
cal, natural history, and other museums, a botanic garden, a school of the tine arts, etc.
The university is atteuucJ by about 700 students. It has numbered among its professors
Alciati, Fidelfo, Spallanzaiii, Volta, Sc.irpa, Foscolo, and Monti. The other chief editicea .
comprise private palaces, theater, gymnasium, etc. Pavia carries ona good trade in wine,
rice, silk, and cheese. Pop. '72, £'J,ol8.
Pavia, the ancient Ticinum (afterwards P.i.f,-ia, whence the modern name), was founded
by the Ligurii; it was sacked by Brenuus and by Hannibal, burned by the Huns, con-
quered by the Romans, and became a place of considerable importance, at the end of the
Roman empire. Then it carne into the possession of the Goths and Lombards, and the
kings of the latter made it th'j capital of the kingdom of Italy. It became independent
in the 12th c., then, weakened by civil wars, it was conquered by Matthew Visconti in
1345. Since that period, its history is merged in that of the conquerors of Lombardy.
Here, in 1525, the French were defeated by the imperialists, and their king taken priso-
ner; but in 1527, and again in the following year, it was taken and laid waste by the
French. It was stormed and pillaged by Napoleon in 179Q, and came into the possession
of Austria by the peace of 1814. Since 1859 it has been included within the kingdom of
Italy. — The "province of Pavia has an area of 1290 sq.m. ; pop. '72, 448,435.
PAVIA. See HORSE-CHESTNUT.
PA VIE, THEODORE MARIE, 1811; b. at Angers; traveled at an early age in the
United States, Central America, and Asia, where he mastered the Chinese language,
Sanskrit, and other Asiatic languages; became a contributor to the Revue desDeux Maudes
and the Bulletin de la Societe de Geogmphie, and was professor of Sanskrit literature in the
college of France, 1852-57. His most important work is the San-koue-tchi, a history of
China in the 13th c., published, Paris. 18.>1, 2 vols. His works descriptive of his travels
are numerous. HLs latest works are Recits de Terre et de Mcr, 1860, and Re.cits des Landes
et des Graves, 18G3.
PAVILION, a portion of a building, under one roof, of a tent-like form, with the
slope of the roof either straight or curved. This form is much used in France — the
higiier parts of the new buildings at the Louvre are good examples of pavilions. Pavil-
ion roofs are sometimes called French roofs.
PAVLOGKAD , a t. of south Russia, in the government of Ekaterinoslav, and 38 m.
e.n.c. of the town of that name, on the Voltcha, an afiTuent of the Dnieper. It was
founded in 1780, during the reign of the empress Catharine II., and its first colonists
were the Zaporogsky Cossacks. But in 1782 a great portion of the English garrison of
fort Magon in Minorca, kaving been subdued by the Spaniards, and being forced by the
terms' of their capitulatron to renounce the English service, obtained liberty from the
empress Catharine to settle in Pavlograd. The garrison was composed chiefly of Cor-
sicans. Pop. of the town '67, 8.691.
PAVON ID2E, a name sometimes used to designate the family of gallinaceous birds
more commonly called phasianidce (q.v.), sometimes applied as a designation to a portion
of that family separated from the rest on very slight grounds, the chief distinction being
the greater expansion of the tail. See PEACOCK and POI,YPLECTRON.
PAWCATUCK' RIVER is formed by the union of Charles and "Wood rivers in
Washington co. , R. I., flows w. and then s.w., forming the boundary line between Wes-
terly co., R. I., and Stonington co., Conn. It empties near Stonington and Watch Hill,
and is navigable for several miles.
PAWHE'A, a t. in Guinea, Africa, on the road from Dahomey to the coast.; pop.
16,000. The mining and exportation of iron is the principal business.
PAWL, on shipboard, is a catch or hook to prevent the capstan from flying round
backwards during a pause in the heavyjg. A similar catch is used in the common wind-
lass.
PAY/N'BROKBTG (Du. pand, Ger. pfand, Fr. pan, a pledge). The business of lend-
ing money on pawns or pledges appears to have been carried on in England by certain
Italian merchants or bankers as early at least as the reign of Richard I. By the 12th of
Edward I., a messuage was confirmed to these traders where Lombard-street now exists;
the name being, according to Stow, derived from the Longobards who used to congre-
gate there for business purposes. Subsequently, these merchant adventurers became
known generally by the name of Lombardeus. Their wealth became proverbial. Among
the richest of them were the celebrated family of the Medici; from whose armorial bear-
ings it is conjectured that the pawnbroking insignia of the three balls have been derived.
The bankers of Lombard-street appear to have exercised a monopoly in pawnbroking
until the reign of Elizabeth. The trade is first recognized in law by the act 1st James I.
c. 21. In the perilous days of Charles I. the goldsmiths -were very frequently chosen as
the custodiersof plate and money; which circumstance seems to have suggested to them
the profitable business of lending on pawns and discounting bills. From this time, the
oppression and extortion often exercised by brokers has continued to attract much public
attention and discussion; and an effort has been made, both in England and on the con-
Pawnee.
Pax.
tiuent, to obviate the evil by the establishment of what are called Monts de Piete, the ob-
ject of which is to advance small sums to the very poor at a moderate interest, See
MONTE DE MIETK In England, after many abortive efforts, a Mont de Piete ollire v. as
started in 1708; but in 1731 it came to a disastrous end. The bubble mania of 1824-26
ffcverisetoa similar scheme. In this instance upwards of £400,000 was subscribed;
ut the undertaking miscarried and the capital was lost. A similar fate attcntk-d the
Irish Monts de Piete, of which there were eight in 1841. lu 1848 they had all disap-
peared except one, which lingered to 1853; when it also expired. It would thus si cm
hopeless to attempt to establish a pawnbroking ollice in England on any other looting
than an ordinary commercial one. The cause of failure will be found to lie. generally,
in the great difficulty of conducting a commercial undertaking on charitable principles,
with sufficient energy and ability to compete successfully with others originating in the
ordinary motives which lead men to engage ill trade.
It hardly admits of dispute that the pawn-shop, in its practical working, is an evil —
necessity, it may be, but still an evil; and the having recourse to il is strongly to be dis-
couraged. There are, doubtless, cases where men are driven to pawn their go. ui> from
causes which are not discreditable, and which do not render it certain that they arc on
the road to ruin; but such cases' are rare exceptions to the general rule, lie-ides making
borrowing too easy, and thus encouraging the fatal habit of anticipating income, the
pawn-shop is, in nine cases out of ten, the door to the drinking-shop. Even where the
one does not directly lead to the other, it generally does so in the end. That " borrow-
ing dulls the edge of husbandry" applies with a force increasing in a geometrical ratio
as we descend in the scale of society. Admitting, however, that with all its tendency to
demoralize, pawnbroking is, in many cases, of value in tiding over unforeseen pecuniary
difficulties, it is sufficient to say, that so long as improvidence prevails among large clashes
of society, and so long as even the most prudent are liabk to unforsccn accidents, the
accommodation of the pawn-shop is to a certain extent a necessity, and like other demands
of the public will continue to be supplied. Xor are those who supply this demand to
blame, any more than the caterers for many other expenses which economists pronounce
to be wasteful. The fault, where there is a fault, is in those who borrow, not in those
wbo lend. The legislature, accordingly, instead of trying to put do\\n pawnbroking,
has wisely confined itself to putting it under stringent regulations so as to prevent as far
as possible its abuses.
Pawnbrokers are restricted in their business as regards loans under £10, by the statute
35 and 86 Viet., c. 93, which repealed all the prior statutes, and denned new offenses.
and it also extends to "leaving-shops." The statute requires them to take out a license
(for which they pay £7 10s.), and keep exhibited outside their names and busim
the rate of interest, and makes it necessary that a table of interest should be put up in a
conspicuous part of the shop, to keep books with correct entries of the name and place
of abode of the owners of goods, etc. If the owner of goods has just cause to si
that such goods have been pawned at a particular shop, the justices of the peace may
grant a search warrant, and if found, the goods may be restored to the owners. Pawn-
• brokers are expressly prohibited from taking in pledge linen, apparel, or unfinished
goods, intrusted to any person to wash, manufacture, make up. etc., and a'to any goods
under circumstances which should have aroused their suspicions. Goods which have
ing ,_,
be tendered with interest within the year, the pawnbroker is bound to dHiver them up,
otherwise a justice of the peace may by order compel him to do so. The mode of selling
forfeited goods is prescribed by the statue, for all pledges above 10s. to be by auction —
the catalogues to contain the names of the pawnbrokers, and the mouth when the gnods
were pawned, and the number entered in the pawnbroker's books. The result of the,
sales is to be entered in the books of the pawnbroker and auctioneer, and the surplus is
to be paid on request to the owner of the goods if claimed within three years.
case of pledges below 10,s., the pawnbroker becomes the absolute owner after 12 months.
Pawnbrokers are not to take goods in pawn from persons under the influence of drink,
or under the age of 12. In case of penalties imposed on pawnbrokers for offenses ;
the act. the complainant, if the party aggrieved, and then only, generally gets half,
case of fire the pawnbroker is liable to the owner for the value of the goods (after deduct-
ing the amount of loan and profit), and 25 per cent on the amount of the loan; but this
only if the claim be made within 12 months after the pawning.
The greatest pawnbroking establishment in the world is the Mont de Piete of Paris.
It trades with borrowed capital, and with the profits of former year- temporarily capita
ized. Recent statistics are not at hand; but it has been reported to receive in one year
1,431,575 pledges, valued at £1,036,371, including renewals, and the axe-age chat:
about 15 per cent per annum. Taking one of the largest offices in England unt of
London, we find that in one year it received 142,835 pledges, valued at !'
ing renewals, and the average charge was 25 per cent per annum. Various circunv
stances render the difference between the rates really much less than these figures
indicate; still there is no doubt that the interest charged on small loans is lower at the
Mont de Piete of Paris than in the pawubroking offices in this country ; but this con-
A A>7 Pawnee.
*V « Pax.
venience is limited by the fact of the French establishment taking no loans under 3
francs.
What used to be called in England the " dolly shop," and in Scotland the "\veo
pawn" system was carried on by brokers, ostensibly buying and selling. They received
articles as bought; there being a distinct understanding that the seller was to have an
opportunity of repurchasing within a limited time, at an understood increase of price.
The general understanding was a penny a shilling a week; a month being usually
ajl owed to redeem the article. The "wee" broker V*is commonly resorted to because
the article was below the regular dealer's class of goods. The " wee pawn" was happily
abolished in Scotland 10 or 12 years ago.
PAWNEE', a co. in central Kansas, intersected in the s.e. by the Arkansas river, fol-
lowed in its course by the Atchison, Topeka and Sante Fe railroad; 750 sq.m. ; pop.
'80, 5.396 — 4.945 of American birth, 82 colored. It is drained by the Arkansas river
and its affluent. Pawnee creek, on which is fort Larned, a military post, 7 m. from
Larned railroad station. Its surface is generally level, much of it prairie land still
uncultivated, but containing all the elements of fertility. Its mineral products are
building stone, potter's clay, and ochcr. Co. seat, Larned.
PAWNEE', a co. in s.e. Nebraska, having the state line of Kansas for its s. bound-
ary; 432 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 6,920 — 5,921 of American birth, 6 colored. It is intersected in
the e. by the Atchison and Nebraska railroad, with a branch to its county seat in the cen-
tral portion. It is drained by the Big Nemaha river, the South fork, and Turkey creek,
affluents of the Missouri river. Its surface is hilly in some localities, containing exten-
sive beds of bituminous coal,_with a large proportion prairie and some woodland. Its
soil is calcareous, and by the'rivers a rich sandy loam adapted to the production of all
kinds of grain and stock-raising. Limestone is quarried for building purposes; other
mineral products are lire-clay and peat. Co. seat, Pawnee City.
PAWNEES', a tribe of Indians in Nebraska, about the Platte river and its affluents,
and comprising the four tribes of Loups, Republican Pawnees, Grand Pawnees, and
Tapage Pawnees. They are on Marquette's map in 1673. In the 18th c. numbers of
them were slaves in Canada, where Pani became a synonym for any slave Indian. Then
as now, they were always at war with the Sioux. They liv.ed in lodges roofed with earth,
raised small crops of maize and vegetables, and were in the habit of sacrificing prisoners
to the sun as a means of securing large crops. Besides the Sioux, they fought the Sacs
and Foxes, the Kiowas, and the Arapahoes. In 1832 the Delawares, who had settled
in their vicinity, destroyed the village of the Great Pawnees on Republican fork. In
1833 the tribe ceded their lands s. of the Nebraska river. They remained on that por-
tion of their territory n. of the Nebraska, and were prosperous for a time, devoting
themselves to agriculture; and schools were established among them. An irruption of
the Sioux broke up their settlements, and drove them s. of the Nebraska. This was con-
trary to their stipulations in the treaty of 1833, and in consequence they ceased to receive
the annuity which that treaty secured to them from the United States*. Their numbers,
which had some years before been greatly reduced by small-pox, were now still furidier
lessened by the cholera; and the Sioux continued to attack their settlements in spite of
an additional treaty between the United States and the Pawnees in 1857. They fur-
nished a contingent to the United States in the war with the Sicux in 1861. They are
now under the management of the society of Friends, and are granted an annuity by the
government, which maintains schools among them.
PAWTTICK ET, a t. of Rhode Island, on both sides of the Pawtucket river. 4 m. n. of
Providence. A fall of 50 ft. on the river, and its proximity to the sea, caused it to
be -elected by Samuel Slater, in 1790, as the site of the first cotton factory in the United
States. It now contains 13 cotton mills, machine shops, and manufactures of yarn,
fire-engines, beltino;, jewelry, etc. There are 18 churches, 3 banks, 2 newspapers, a
public library, with extensive steamboat and railway connections. Pop. '70, 6,619;
'75, 18,464. A part of North Providence was annexed to Pawtucket in 1874.
PAX, called also PACIPCCALE and OSCULATORIUM (Lat. osculor, I kiss), the "kiss of
"peace," and also a sacred utensil, employed in some of the solemn services of the
Catholic church in the ceremony of giving the so-called " kiss of peace" during the mass.
The practice of saluting each other — the men, men, and the women, women — during
public worship, and particularly in the agape, or love-feast, is frequently alluded to by
ancient, writers, as Cyril of Jerusalem, Catech. xv., and St. Augustine, Serm. 227. All
the ancient liturgies, without exception, refer to it as among the rites with which the
eucharist was celebrated; but they differ as to the time and the place in the eucharistic
service in which it is introduced. In the eastern liturgies it is before, in the western
after the offertory (q.v.); and in the Roman it immediately precedes the communion.
The ceremony commences with the celebrating bishop or priest, who salutes upon the
cheek the deacon; and by him the salute is tendered to the other members, and to the
first dignitary of the assistant clergy. Originally, the laity also were included, but this
has long since been abandoned. It 'is when the mass is celebrated by a high dignitary
that the utensil called the pax is .used. The pax is sometimes a crucifix, sometimes a
reliquary, sometimes a tablet with a figure sculptured or enameled upon it. Having
Paxo.
Payment.
been kissed by tlic celebrant, and by him handed to the deacon, it is carried by the latter
to t lie rest of UK- clergy. In ordinary cases Ihc pax is given by merely bowing, uud
approaching the. cheek to the per-on to whom it is communicated. The pax is omitted
in the mass <u .Maundy-Thursday (q.v.), to express horror of the treacherous kiss of
Judus.
PAXO, one of the Ionian islands, lies 10 m. s.w. of the coast of Albania, and 9 m.
s.s.e. of the island of Corfu. It is about 5 in. long, and about 2 in. broad. The capital,
or rather the chief village, is Port Gaio (pop. 2,000), on the e. coast. Olives, almonds,,
and vines are grown, and the island is famous for its oil. "Water is sometimes very
scarce. Pop. of the island about 3,600.
PAXTON, Sir .Tosi.i'ir, English architect and horticulturist, was 1). at Milton-Bryant,
near Woburn. Bedfordshire, in lbC3. lie was sent to Woburn free school, but left it at
an early age. and obtained employment as a working gardener. lie entered the service
of the sixtli duke of Devonshire, at Chiswick, and was thence transferred to Chatswonh.
where he became the duke's chief gardener. Usabilities as a horticulturist found ample
scope in the beautiful gardens'of Chatsworth. and are further attested by /'«,"t«i<'*
F.iiu-. of Botany, of which he was editor, as well as other works on plants and (lowers.
Tiie experience he obtained in designing capacious glass conservatories at Chatsworth
led him to propose a crystal palace of glass and iron for the great exhibition (q.v.) of
Ic51. It was the first time these materials had been employed on so extensive a scale.
a::d visitors found an inexhaustible theme of admiration in a fairy palace so novel,
beautiful, and magnificent. His design obtained for him great popularity and the honor
of knighthood. The crystal palace of 1851 was removed from Hyde park, but became
the germ of the nobler and more splendid palace at Sydenham, the construction of which
he superintended; the grounds were also laid out by him. Crystal palaces for exhibi-
tions of artistic and industrial objects have since 1851 been constructed at Dublin, New
York. Paris, Manchester, etc. In 1854, Paxton was returned to parliament on the
liberal interest for Coventry, which he represented for about 10 years. He was a mem-
ber of many learned societies in Europe, and his works on horticulture and botany are
much esteemed. He died in 1865.
PAY-MASTEB, MILITARY AND NAVAL. — Military pay -masters are cither "control " or
"regimental." Of the latter, who constitute by far the more numerous class, there is
one to every brigade of artillery, regiment of cavalry, and battalion of infantry. The
piy-master holds no other commission, but the appointment is nearly always conferred
upon some person who has previously held a combatant rank in the' army. The func-
tions of pay-master comprise issuing and accounting for the pay of officers and men,
;Mid having charge generally of all the finances of the corps. In discipline, the pay-
master is responsible to the officer commanding the regiment: but in all money matters
lie looks for orders to the war ofiice alone. He commences with a pay of 12s. (id. a day,
with the relative rank of captain; and after 20 years' service at tains the pay of £1. 2s. lid.
a day and relative rank as major. Regimental pay-masters were first appointed during
the French war.
Control pay -masters have financial charge in the military districts or sub-districts.
They form a separate department under. the surveyor-general of the ordinance, compris-
ing pay-masters, deputy pay-masters, and assistant pay-masters.
The NAVAL PAY-MASTER is for a ship what the military pay-master is for a regiment;
but he adds to these duties some of those performed in the army by the quartern;
commissariat, and military store-keeper, for he has charge of the provisions, clothing,
and miscellaneous stores, as well as of mere money. Pay-masters are commissioned
officers, receiving from 14s. to £1, 13s. a day, and ranking, according to service, with
lieutenants, commanders, and captains. Up to the year 1844, pay-ma.-ters were styled
pursers, and were paid by profits they made on certain of the ship's charges. At a still
earlier period these pursers had been warrant-officers.
PAY-MASTER, MILITARY AXP XAVAL (ante). It is the duty of pay-masters in the
U. S. army to pay all the regular and other troops in the service of the United States,
making correct reports to the paymaster-general once in two months. "When volunteers
or militia are called into service, the president may assign to any officer of the army the
duty of pay-master. Pay-masters are required to give bonds. In the navy the pay corps
is the outgrowth of the old system of pursers, who were formerly civilians appointed
for the cruise of a vessel only, whose duties were to supply all articles needed for the
cruise and to pay all officers and men on board, and all bills incurred. The system was
reorganized by congress, and the corps of pay-masters established, which now comprises
13 pay-directors, ranking with captains; 13 pay-inspectors, ranking with commanders;
50 pay-masters, ranking with lieutenant-commanders or lieutenants; 30 passed
ant pay-masters, ranking with lieutenants or masters; and 20 assistant pay-masters,
ranking with masters or ensigns. Pay-masters purchase all supplies, pay the officers and
men. and have charge of all ship-stores, when at sea: and when on shore duty are
employed in the naval purchasing agencies, or have charge of provisions, clothing, and
small stores in navy-yards. The senior pay-master of a fleet makes all purchases and dis-
tributes all funds to the pay -masters of the vessels of the fleet, being himself generally
attached to the flag-ship.
40Q Paxo.
Payment.
PAYMASTEK-GENERAL is an officer of the British ministry, but not of the cabinet,
chunked with superintending the issue of all moneys voted by parliament. He is vir-
tually the pay-master of the public service, having no control over the sums issued, pay-
ing merely on the order of the department concerned; and receives £2,000 a year as
chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. He is always either a peer or a member of the
house of commons, and changes with the ministry. Of late years the office has been
held in conjunction with that of vice-president of the board of trade. TLe paymaster-
general is assisted by a deputy and a staff of cjerks, the annual cost of the whole depart-
ment amounting to about £'25,000. The first notice of this office is in the early part of
the reign of Charles II., TV hen the paymaster-general was nothing more than the sole
pay-master of the army. The present extensive duties of the office have been added by
degrees during the 19; h century. •
PAYMASTES-SEEGEANT, m the army, is a non-commissioned officer, whose duty it
is to act a< clerk to the pay-master. He ranks with other staff-sergeants, and receives
from Is. 11(1. to 2s. lid. a day, 'according to his corr,s, with an increase of t.d. after 3
years' uninterrupted service as paymaster-sergeant.
PAYMENT, in law, the discharge in money of a sum due, or, in a more general
sense, the fulfilling of any obligation assumed. In order to be effectual the payment
must be made by one having a right to do it, must he in kind and quantitj* such as will
satisfy the contract, must be made to the person legally entitled to receive it t.nd at the
time and place agreed upon or implied by law. Payment may be to an tigcnl only when
the latter is authorized to receive it, either specially or by general usage or implication
of law. Thus if payment is made to the wife of a creditor it is nor. sufficient unless it be
shown that she is allowed by the husband to collect debts and transact business for him.
The payment must be made in money unless it be specially provided that goods are to be
received or personal service accepted. So if an agent have authority in general to
receive payment, and without special authority so to do, take goods, the creditor will
not be bound by the agent's receipt. The U. S. constitution gives congress the power to
declare what is a legal tender; that is what m.\, be demanded :.i;d must be taken if
offered. See MONEY. Subsidiary copper coins 'are not legal tender, The most usual
evidence of payment is a receipt, but this is onlv prim a fecit evidence and may be over-
thrown by proof of non-payment either of a pait or the whole. Where the sum is sent
by mail, express, or messenger, if the debtor re;nit in compliance with the exact instruc-
tions of his creditor, the former is relieved from responsibility for loss. The giving of a
check is not such a payment as will discharge a debt until the check has IK en cashed;
and the drawer remain's liable unless there have been gross negligence on the part of the
holder. But whore negotiable paper is given, the creditor may ,'ignify his acceptance of
the transfer as good payment. A bill of exchange drawn on a third ] e;>rn. nul by him
accepted, discharges the drawer. Where two or more parties stand in the position of
joint creditors, (as iu a bank deposit) the payment should not be to one unless the debtor
have the direct consent of the others. But there are exceptions in the cast* of partner-
ship, executors, and trustees. Thus, if money be paid to a trustee and be misappropri-
ated, the cc.'-.t't/ f/nc fruxt has no claim as against the original debtor. The compromise of
a debt by accepting a partial payment in discharge of the whole debt was until recently
considered as not being of effect, on the ground of want of consideration and to prev< nt
the exertion of undue pressure or taking of advantage. But it is now fully established
that if the compromise be untinged by fraud or undue influence, the discharge is com-
plete. Pavment of a part may go to the jury as evidence tending to show payment of
the whole. The question as to whether there have been acceptance or i:o! is <,ne for th«
jury and depends on evidence of the intent of the parties at the time. It is now gener-
'aily held that any act of a third party which i- accepted by the creditor as payment will
act as a discharge. Payment by or to an attorney is as" good as though the principal
had acted. As to the time of payment, courts of law hold strictly to 1he rule that it
must be on the exact day agreed upon, but subsequent payment may in many cases be
compelled by courts of equity. If no day be specified the payment must be on demand.
"Where payment has been m-ide in bank notes which proved to be forged or counterfeit,
there is no discharge of the obligation. Where the notes are not forged, l,ul Ihe bank of
•Ivent, the general rule is that the loss should fall on the payer, but if
the bank were solvent at the time of acceptance, and the loss occuircd through the
unreasonable delay of the payee in presenting the bills, he must sustain the loss. As in
the case of checks and negotiable paper, the question as to what is unreasonable delay
must be determined by the court in view of the special features of each case. Payment
of part of a debt bfirs the action of the statute of limitations. In England it has been
held that money paid under a mistake of law cannot be recovered, but in this country a
distinction is made between irmnmntin Iff/is and mistake. The rules for the appropria-
tion of payments are important. Appropriation consists in the application of money
paid to one or more of several debts clue from the payer to the payee. There are three
eases -.—where the debtor applies, where the creditor applies, and where the appropria
tion is made by law. The debtor has the first right to say to Avhich debt the pay-
ment shall apply, and if he neglect to do so. the creditor may exerei.se the same right;
but the latter cannot so apply the money as to revive debts barred by the statute of limita-
Payne- 41 A
Pea.
lions. Where the payment is a forced ouc, as upon judgment and execution, the money
must be applied pro rut a upon all c-luims. When the appropriation is made by order of
the court, it is usual to prefer the least secured debt, but in other respei-is the debtor is
usually favored, us m applying money to a. mortgage rather than to a contract debt.
PAYNE, JOHN HOWAISD. 1 792-1 N.")2; b. Ne\v York. lie showed great precocity, and
at 13 years of age, while a clerk in a mercantile house in New York, secretly edited a
weekly paper, The Thcxjiiuii Minor. In 1807 he issued 25 numbers of a periodical c.-.ii: d
The L'a:<!inu'. He was at that time a student of Union college, but the bankruptcy of his
father led to his departure from this institution before completing his collegiate course.
Having evinced considerable dramatic ability, lie decided to go on the i-tau<-, as the best
means of supporting the family. He made his debut at the Park theater, New York,
Feb 24, 1809, as "Young Norval." This enterprise proved an artistic and pecuniary
success, and he subsequently appeared before large and enthusiastic audiences in Boston,
Philadelphia, and Baltimore. In 1813 he sailed for England, and made his lir.-t appear-
ance in London at Drury Lane theater as master Payne, "the American lioscius," in his
original part of Young" Norval. His performances were well received by the public.
After this he supported himself in England as actor, manager, and playwright, but owing
to his lack of business ability was often in financial embarrassments. * He adopted many
plays from the FreiK'h. and produced a number of original plays, im -hiding lirtitnn,
Ther&te, Virginins, and Charles II. But it is as the author of ll»in< , »// / //•<///<. (a.i
to an old Sicilian melody) which occurs in his play Clari, or the maid of M run, that
Payne has acquired a lasting reputation. The publishers of this song are said to have
cleared by it, for the benefit of Charles Kemble, the manager of the theater, 2,000 guineas
within 2 years after its first publication; and by the year 1833 itv.a- eon. puled that
more than 1 00.000 copies had been sold. In 1826-27, Payne edited in London a periodi-
cal, the Optra (jlas*, and returned to America in 1883. In 1841 he was appointed Ameri-
can consul at Tunis, recalled in 1845, and re-appointed in 1851. He died there April 10,
•1852, and the United States government has erected a monument over hi* remains in the
cemetery of St. George at Tunis. There is also a bust of him in Prospect park, Brooklyn,
erected through the efforts of his biographer Gabriel Harrison, in connection with 'the
Faust club of that city. In 1815 he published a selection of juvenile poems, ././.-•/
tJw Muse ; of his fugitive writings the best known are a series of papers on Our Acylcckd
Poets ; and an account of East Hampton, published in the Democratic 11 cute.
PAYNIZING, a process for preserving and hardening wood, invented by a Mr. Payne.
It consists in placing well-seasoned timber in an air-tight chamber, and thin, when, by
means of a powerful air-pump, the wood is deprived of its air, a solution of *•//>// /mY •/
cidciu/ti, or of sulphuret of barium is admitted, and readily fills up the empty vc-sels all
through the wood. The air-pump is again used, and the superfluous mo: lure is drav, n
out, anil a solution of sulphate of iron is injected; this acts chemically upon the sulphu-
ret of barium or of calcium, and forms all through the wood either the insoluble sulphate
of barium (heavy spar) or of lime (gypsum). The addition of these mineral materials
renders the wood very heavy, but it b-jcoines also very durable, and almost incombustible.
PAYSON, EDWARD, D.D., 1783-1827; b. N. H. ; graduated at Harvard college in
1803; was. for three years teacher of an academy in Portland, Me. ; then studied the
with his father, the rev. Seth Pay son, pastor at Rindge, N. H.; was ordained coli<
of Mr. Kellogg, minister of the Congregational church at Portland, in LS')7. and in 1SM1
became the sole pastor, remaining there until his death. Several calls received from
Boston and New York he declined. His labors were very successful, over 700 ha\ :ng
been added to his church. He had great breadth of intellect, a rich imaginatio-i,
familiar acquaintance with the Scriptures, and intense zeal in the work of the mii-
His complete works were published in 1859, in 3 vols., with a memoir by the rev. Dr.
Cummings.
PAYTA, a seaport of Peru, on a bay of the same name, between cape Blanco ai.d
SeMiura bay; lat. 5° 5'; connected by railway with Piura; pop. 9,000. It has the be.-.t
harbor on the coast, and a fine and increasing foreign trade; hides, straw-mattings, cot-
ton, and salt, are exported. Whalers resort here for provisions. The water for drink-
ing is brought on mules, there being no fresh water in the place.
PAZ (L.\) DE AYACUCHO, a t. of Bolivia. South America, capital of a dep. of the
same name, about 20 m. from the s. shore Of lake Titicaca, is situated on the e. decliv-
ity of the Andes at an elevation of 12,000 ft. above the sea, on • both sides of a d'--p
ravine, here crossed by nine bridges. The whole city is subdivided into section.- by
numerous ravines The streets are generally irregular and steep; there are some good
public buildings, several educational institutions, a noble cathedral, and many o:i;'-r
churches. It is the seat of a bishop and a university. La Paz is the large.-t cily and
the principal commercial emporium of Bolivia — the exports consi.-ting of <rold. bark, and
other products of the country; and the imports of manufactured goods, the bulk of
which comes through Peru. This city, whose original name was Nuestra Senora do hi
Paz. was founded in 1548. The name was changed in 1825 to its present form. :n
411 Payne.
Pea.
honor of the national victory of Ayacucho (q.v.). Pop. at latest published census,
76,372, the greater part of winch is Indian. Pop. of dep., 475,822.
PEA, Pimm, a genus of plants of the natural order Leguminosce, suborder Papiliotir-
actce, closely allied to tiie genus Latkyrus (q.v.), from which it differs chiefly in the tri-
angular style. Two species, supposed to be natives of the s. of Europe and of the east,
are. very extensively cultivated for their seeds (peas), which are the best of all kinds of
pul-;e; the COMMON PEA or GAIIDEN PEA (P. saticum) in gardens, and the FIELD PEA (P.
arvcnse) in fields; both of them climbing annuals, with pinnate leaves, ovate leaflets, and
branching tendrils in place of a terminal leaflet; the garden pea distinguished by having
tvro or several flowers on each flower-stalk, the flowers either red or white, more gener-
ally white, and the seeds subglobular; the tield pea having one flower on each flower-
stalk, the flowers always red, and the seeds angular from crowding and compression in
the pod. But it is not improbable that they are truely one species, of which the garden
pea has, through cultivation, departed furthest from the original type. Peas have been
cultivated in the cast from time immemorial, although the ancient Greeks and Komaus
do not seem to have been acquainted with this kind of pulse, the cultivation of which
was apparently introduced into Europe very early in the middle ages; and its cultivation
extends from warm climates, as India, even to the Artie regions, the plant being of rapid
growth and short life. The seeds of the garden pea are used for culinary purposes both
in a green and in a ripe state; also the green succulent pods of some varieties, known a«
sugar peas or wyker peas, in which the membrane lining the inside of the pod — parch-
ment-like in most kinds — is much attenuated. Field peas are u.-.ed both for feeding
cattle and for human food. For the latter purpose, peas are often prepared by being
shelled, or deprived of the membrane which covers them, in a particular kind of mill;
they are then sold as split peas, and are much in use for making pea soup. They are
also ground into meal, which is used in various ways, chiefly for making a kind of
pottage and of unleavened broad. lu the countries bordering OH the Mediterranean,
peas are roasted in order to eating.
There are innumerable varieties both of the field pea and the garden pea, those of the
latter being so much the products of horticultural art, that they cannot be preserved
without the utmost attention. Some of the kinds of garden peas have long stems, and
require for their support stakes of six or eight feet in height; others are of humbler
growth; and certain dwarf kinds, preferred as most convenient in many gardens, suc-
ceed very Avell without stakes. The largest kinds are sown in rows about four feet
asunder. In Britain, garden peas are sown at different times from February to June, in
order to secure a supply of green peas during a considerable part of summer and autumn ;
and in the southern parts of the island they are also sown in the end of autumn, a very
little protection being sufficient for them during the winter. Certain small kinds, of
very rapid growth, known as early peas, are preferred for the first sowings, although
less productive than many others. The varieties known as mammoth peas are remark-
able for their size and tenderness in a green state, but shrivel as they ripen.
Branches of trees are generally used for pea-stakes, when they can be obtained, and
nothing can be better; but in lieu of them, strings are sometimes stretched between poles
along the rows. Field peas are sometimes sown alone, and allowed to support each
other, where the soil is not very rich, but are very generally sown with beans, to which
they cling.
Chalk}' and other calcareous soils are particularly suitable for peas, and fn other soils
a good field crop is seldom obtained unless the land has been well limed, or manured
with gypsum. The free use of lime is supposed, however, to be unfavorable to the
quality of garden peas intended to be used green.
Peas are cultivated to a considerable extent as a field crop in Britain, but are best
adapted to those districts in which the climate in least moist, the seeds being very apt to
grow in the pods when moist weather prevails in autumn, by which the crop is injured
or destroyed. The most productive kinds, being also in general the most bulky in
straw, are very apt to lodge before the pods are filled, in wet seasons, and particularly
on rich land. Ths crop is therefore rather a precarious one.
The haulm or straw of peas is used for feeding cattle; and for its sake, field peas are
often reaped before they are quite ripe, great care being taken in stacking the straw to
provide for ventilation, so that it may not heat. Pea haulm is more uitrogeuous and
more nutritious than hay.
Land to be sown with field peas should be very dean, and in particular free of couch
grass; otherwise the best management cannot prevent its becoming more foul whilst
bearing the pea crop. The seed ought always to be sown in rows, twelve inches apart,
or, in rich soils, eighteen or twenty inches apart. Various means are employed for sow-
ing peas; they are not unfrequently plowed under each second furrow; but the seed
ought not to be buried more than four inches under the surface, and indeed that depth is
too great; although many farmers sow their peas deeper than they otherwise would, to
place them beyond reach of wood pigeons. All possible means ought to be used to keep
the land free of weeds. In some districts, peas are generally sown broadcast, which
renders it impossible to do anything for this purpose. In the harvesting of peas, the
sheaves are generally left loose till the haulm is somewhat dry. In drying, it shrink*
Pea.
Peace.
very much. Broadcast peas are often rut with the scythe, and the harvesting of them is
managed much as licit of hay. — Wi/iti r fn !il /HUH. a variety with very small seeds, are
mueh cultivated in France and Germany, being sown in October, enduring the severest
frosts without injury, and ripening very early.
Besides l,eing one ol' our most important agricultural and horticultural crops peas are
largely imported into Britain, the quantity sometimes reaching IxiO.OOO quarters. We
receive them from Denmark, Prussia, the Hans Towns, Holland, Morocco, Uniicd
States. British .North America; and of the*". Denmark and our North American colonies
send the greater part. As an article of food, if not taken too often or without other
food, peas are very valuable, as they contain a large percentage of caxciii. which is a
Mesh-forming principle. This principle in the pea has been called legumtn, but chemists
are now generally agreed that it is identical with the casein of cheese. The following \»
an analysis of 100 parts of pea meal:
Water 14.1
Casein 23.4
Starch , 87.0
Sugar 2.0
Gum 9.0
Fat 2.0
Woody fibre v 10.0
Mineral matter 2.5
100.0
The unripe peas of the garden varieties are amongst our most esteemed vegetables,
and the meal of the white or yellow varieties used in soups is a highly nutritious and
agreeable food.
A plant found on some parts of the shores of Britain, as well as of continental Europe
and North America, and known as the SEA PEA, has been commonly referred to tho
genus piaitm, and called P. maritimvm, although botanists now generally refer it to
Inthyrus. It much resembles the common pea; has large reddish or purple flowers on
many-flowered stalks; and its seeds have a disagreeable bitter taste. Its abundance on
the sea coast at Orford, in Sussex, is said to have saved many persons from death by
famine in 1555. The other species of pisum are few. But the name pea is of, en
to species of other papilionaceous genera. The SWEET PEA and E\ KKI.ASTING PKA are
species of laihyrus. The CHICK PEA (q.v.) is a species of deer.
PEA. BEETLE, or PEA CHAFER, BrucJius pisi, a coleopterous insect, very des'
to crops of peas in the s. of Europe and in North America. It is about a quarter of an
inch long, black, variegated with bright brown hairs, and with white spots and dots on
the wing cases. It lays its eggs in the young pods, one for each pea, and the larva «>its
i's way into the peu, and completely hollows it out.
PEABODY, a t. in Essex co., Mass., next to Salem, 12 m. from Boston, pop. '70.
7,348. It has churches, schools, 2 banks, and a weekly newspaper. The chief manu-
factures are morocco and leather. The former name of the town, South Danver.-.
changed 1868, in honor of George Peabody, whose birthplace was in ihis portion of
Danvers. He founded here the Peabody institute, with an endowment of >•,();>, d(;(), air!
comprising a "library of some 20,000 vols., with a fund for free lectures in the public ha'J
of the building.
PEABODY, ANDREW PUKSTOX, D.D., LL.D., b. Mass., 1811; graduated at ITarva'-<i
college in 1826, and was tutor in mathematics there. In 1833 he was settled over
a Unitarian church in Portsmouth, N. H., where he remained till 1860, when he be
came Plummer professor of Christian morals in, and chaplain of Harvard university,
which position he resigned in 1881. He edited the North American litrtcir, 1854-(':5.
Among his numerous works are Lectures on Christian Doctrine, 1844; Aloi'al Philosophy,
1873; ^Christianity and Science, 1874; Chri»tian Belief^ and Life, 18'75. As a thinker.
preacher, and writer, standing firm in the Christian faith, with abounding charity, pre-
senting careful thought with natural rhetorical grace, he has won esteem from men of
various theological opinions; while as the pastor in the university, his influence has Ixm
beneficent over successive classes of students.
PEABODY, ELIZABETH PALMKH, b. Mass., 1804; educated in Salem, and in 1P>'2
became a teacher in Boston. She was one of the first to introduce object -teach ing itto
schools, and has done much to spread kindergartens 'and the views of Froebel in this
country. She. has contributed to the Dial Jonrnal of EdiK'ntion, and other periodicals.
Among her work's are Records of a School, and Chronological llixtori/ of tin1 L'nilnl btate».
PEABODY, EPHRATM, D.D.. 1807-56; b. N. H. ; educated at Bowdnin college, and
studied theology at the Harvard divinity school. He was settled over a Unitarian
church in New* Bedford. 1838-46, when he became pastor of King's chapel, Boston,
.where he remained till his death. He was the founder of the Boston Providence society.
A selection from his writings was published in 1857 under the title of Christian
*nd Thoughts.
4.1 Q Pea.
Peace.
PEABODY, GEORGE, an American merchant, whose name deserves to be held in
remembrance on account of his munificent philanthropy, was b. at Danvers, Mass.,
Feb. 18, 17'Jo. His parents were poor, and his only education was received at the dis-
trict school. At the age of 11 he was placed with a grocer, and at 15 iu a haberdasher's
shop iu Newburyport. When 22 years old, he was a partner with Eiisha Riggs in Balti-
more. In 1827 he iirst visited England, where he settled permanently ten years later
Withdrawing from the Baltimore firm in 1843, he established himself in London as a
merchant and money-broker, and accumulated a large fortune. As one of three com-
missioners appointed in 1848 by the state of Maryland to obtain the restoration of its
credit, he refused all payment, and received a special vote of thanks from the legislature
of that state. In 1851 he supplied the sum required to fit up the American department
at the great exhibition. In the following year he sent a large donation, afterwards
increased to $270,000, to found an educational institute, etc., iu his native town of Dan-
veix (which is now called Peabody). He contributed $10,000 to the first Grinnell Arctic
expedition; $1,400,000 to the city of Baltimore for an institute of science, literature, and
the line arts; $8,000,000 for the promotion of education, endowment of libraries, etc., in
the United States. From 1862 to 1838, he gave £350,000 for the benefit of the London
poor, and in his will he left £150,000 for the same purpose; half a million in all, which
has been employed in building dwellings for the working-classes. He died in London
in 1869.
PEABODY, NATHANIEL, 1741-1823, b. Mass. ; studied medicine with his father,
practiced for some years at Leominster, Mass.; and in 1761 moved to Plaistou, 1ST. H.,
where he soon obtained a large practice. In 1774 he resigned the commission of lieut.
col. of militia which he held from the king, and the same year assisted iu the capture of
fort William and Mary. He was afterwards a member of the legislature, and, as chair-
man of the committee of safety, delegate to the New Haven convention of 1779. and
state adj. gen., he rendered valuable services to the revolutionary cause. In 1779 lie was
a delegate to congress and, 1780-98, filled many positions of honor, such as member of
the legislature, senator, speaker of the house, and ma j. gen. He was one of the
founders of the state medical society of New Hampshire. Toward the end of his life he
\va-; confined several years in prison for debt.
PEABODY, OLIVER WILLIAM BOURN, 1799-1848; 'b. N. H. ; twin brother of William
O. B.; graduated at Harvard in 1816, read law at the Harvard law school, and practiced
at Kxeter, N. H., 1819-30, which town he represented in the state legislature. He set-
tled in Boston iu 1830, was associated with Alexander H. Everett in the editorship of the
North A/n"riciin Review, and was an editor of the Advertiser. He was register of probate
for Suffolk co., 183-3-42, when he became professor of English literature in Jefferson
college, Louisiana. He studied theology, and in 1845 was settled over the Unitarian
church in Burlington, Vermont. He published an edition of Shakespeare, 1844, and
wrote the lives of Putnam and Sullivan for Spark's American Biographies.
PEABODY, SELI.M HOBAUT, PH.D., b. Vt., 1829; graduated at the university of
Vermont, 1852; became professor of mathematics and civil engineering in the poly-
technic college of Pennsylvania, at Philadelphia, 1854; principal of high school at
Fond du L'u:. Wi^., 1859; superintendent of schools, Racine, Wis., 18G2 •" professor of
physics, Chicago high school, 1865; of physics and civil engineering, Massachusetts
agricultural college, at Amherst, 1871; of mechanical engineering and physics, Illinois
Industrial university, at Champaign, 1878; literary editor, American Book Exchange,
New York, 1880; from which, in the same year he was called to the regency of the
university at Champaign, the position he now holds. Among his published writings
are: EUments of Astronomy; New Practical Arithmetic; and Cecil's Books of Natural
PEABODY, WILLIAM BOURN OLIVER, D.D., 1799-1847, b. N. PI. ; educated at Harvard,
and from 1S20 till his death, settled over the Third Congregational church (Unitarian)
in Springfiel I. Mass. His Literary Remains were published in 1850. He was of a
nature gem!.- yet strong, with poetic sensibilities, fine literary ta«tc, and spiritual fervor.
The well known hymn, " Behold the western evening light," is a specimen of his verse.
His sentiment--, were evangelical.
PEACE RIVER, rising in British Columbia in about lat. 55° n., flowing n. and n e.
for about 1000 m. into lake Athabasca. It is navigable for the greater part/ of its
course.
PEACE, ARTICLES OF THE, in English -law, are certain complaints made against a
person who threatens another with bodily injury, and the redress given is to bind the
threatening party over with sureties to keep 'the peace. All justices of the peace have,
by their commission, authority to cause persons to find sufficient security to keep the
peace, and an ancient statute also gives authority. Hence any one who is threatened
either in person or property, or in the person of his wife or child, may go before a jus-
tice of the peace and complain on his oath of the fact. The justice is to consider
if the language used amounted to a threat, and if he is satisfied that it does, he issues
his warrant to bring the party before him, who is then heard in explanation, and if it is
not satisfactory, he is ordered so find sureties. If he cannot do so, he is committed to
Peace. 41 A
Peacock.
prison for a limited time, or until the next quarter-sessions. The party, when he
linds suit-lies, is hound over for a term not e.Mvediiig twelve months. If he has
entered into recognizances (i.e., given a boml with sureties), and lie break the pence,
he t'ori'eits his recoguizau.ce, and the sureties' goods can be seized to pay tiie amount or'
the l)(lll(i.
PEACE, (>! ; : N rs AGAINST THE PUBLIC, are those offenses which consist in either
actually i .miking the peace or constructively doing so by leading directly to a breach.
Tlie.-i1 oil'cns;-. arc now u-ually known under the heads of unlawful a-scmblies. -edi-
tions libels and slanders, riots, nil' rays, challenges to fight, forcible entry and detainer,
and libel and slander. Those who take part in an unlawful assembly commit a misde-
meanor against the public safety. All persons assembled to sow sedition, and bring
into contempt the constitution, are in an unlawful assembly. Thus it was held that an
attempt to hold a national convention was illegal, for it was impossible to anticipate
wilh certainty the pe-iccail result of such a meeting. It is, however, somewhat ditiicu.lt
to define precisely what amounts to an illegal assembly, except by saying that it points
to some course' inconsistent with the orderly administration of the laws. It is the duty
ol all individual citizens to resist and oppose any unlawful assembly; but the duly rests
primarily with the magistrates of the district, who are indictable for breach of d'iny in
not taking active And immediate steps to put down riots. Thus the mayor of Bristol
was indicted for not suppressing the riots at the time of the Reform bill. The magis-
trates ought to call at once upon special constables to be sworn in, and if these are
iusutlicieut, to call for the aid of the military. Seditious libels arc also offense.--, auain-t
the peace, as ineitiling directly to a breach. Such are libels vilifying the sovereign or
the houses of parliament, or the courts of justice, or even a foreign sovereign, a-- in
the case of Peltier, who was tried for a libel against the emperor Napoleon I., the ten-
dency of such a libel being to breed misunderstanding between our own sovereign and
the foreign sovereign. A riot is the most active form of an offense against the public
peace. To constitute a riot, there must be ai least three persons engaged together in
pursuance of an illegal purpose. Riots often originate in an attempt to redress sum-
marily some private wrong. On such nn occasion, before extreme ineas-
to, and as a test of the good faith of those who are spectators, instead of parties, and by
way of full notice to all concerned, the justices of the peace may read ihe riot
Geo. I. st. 2, c. 5, which commands all persons to disperse within one hour :,
proclamation is read, otherwise they will be guilty of felony. Persons not removing
within one hour thereafter may be arrested, and carried before a justice, and committed
to prison. It is, however possible -that the justices may make a mistake in thinking
that to be an illegal assembly which is not so, for the mere reading of the ri
not alter the character of the assembly, and accordingly if the party arrested prove at
the trial that it was no illegal assembly he will be discharged. An alTray is also an
offense against the public peace, being a public assault, i.e., an n^--;uii committed in
presence of third parties, for this is apt to lead to further breaches of the ]»••
others joining'in it. Thus prize-fights and duals are affrays, and all present at them are
principal offenders, and may be arrested by a constable and bound over to keep the
peace, and punished by fine and imprisonment besides. So challenges to fight, pro-
tions to fight, and forcibly entering into a house, are misdemeanors against the public
peace.
PEACH, -Amygdalvs Persicn, a tree much cultivated in temperate climates for its
fruit; a native of Persia and the n. of India; of the same genus with the almond (q.v.),
and distinguished by oblongo-lanceolate serrulate leaves; solitary flowers, ofadclkate
pink color, appearing before the leaves; and the sarcocarp of tiie drupe succulent and
tender, not fibrous as in the almond. « This xliffcrence in the drupe has been made by
some the ground of a generic distinction, but there arc intermediate slates, so that others
have doubted if the peach and almond are even specifically distinct. The nectarine
differs from the peach only in having a smooth fruit, whilst that of the pc acii is downy
or velvety, and is a mere variety, probably produced and certainly preserved by cultiva-
tion. Both peaches and nectarines are divided into freestones and clinffstoiu*. In the
former the flesh of the fruit parts from the stone; in the latter it adheres to it. The
freestone peach is the jiecJa of the French, the clingstone peach their;/' "; t he free-
stone nectarine they call pecJie lisse, and the clingstone nectarine britf/non. Of all
there are many subvnrkiies, tlve finer ones being perpetuated by budding: which in
Britain is generally on plum or almond stocks. There is a remarkable variety of
Chinese origin, with the fruit compressed and flattened, and with almost rv.-nrreen
leaves. The peach is much cultivated in the s. of Europe, in many p;.ris of the ea-1,
in the warmer temperate parts of North and South America, in Australia, etc.. as a
standard tree; in general, it is rather a small tree with a full head; in Britain, it is gen-
erally trained on walls, and in the northern parts of it on fined walls or in hot h
although even in Scotland excellent peaches are ripened on open walls without artificial
heat. "The nectarine is rather more tender than the peach. In the extensive ,
orchards of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and other states of North America,
which sometimes contain lO.OOOor 20,000 trees, the fruit is often of very inferior quality,
from want of care in cultivation — the orchards being planted by simply depo.-i ling the
4.1 a Peace.
Peacock,
seed in the ground; and much of the fruit is used for making a spirituous liquor
called peach brandy, much of it is dried ill ovens, or in drying-houses furnished with
stoves, or, in the more southern states, in the sun, each fruit "being divided into two
purts, and the stone taken out, and when dried it is sent to market to be used for
pies; the refuse of the orchards is used for feeding swine. The peach is very
pleasant and refreshing fruit, and in a stewed form is useful in slight cases of consti-
pation. The leaves, when fresh, have the smell and taste of bitter almonds; and by
bruising them, mixing the pulp with water, and distilling, the peacft wafer is obtained
which is so much esteemed by many for flavoring articles of cookery. They have been
employed as a sedative and as a vermifuge. The seeds almost entirely agree in their
properties with bitter almonds; the flowers exhale an odor of bitter almonds; and both
set'OS and flowers are employed in the manufacture of a liqueur called persico.
PEACH-WOOD, or LIMA-WOOD, a dye-wood imported from South America, supposed
to be the produce of a species of csesalpinia, allied to that which yields the Nicaragua
wood. It yields a fine peach color, whence its name, and is now much used in muslin
and calico printing and dyeing. See BRAZIL-WOOD, ante.
PEACOCK, or PEAFOWL, Pavo, a genus of gallinaceous birds of the family
or phutsianiilce, of which only two species are known, natives of the East Indies; birds of
Lrge size, and remarkable for magnificence of plumage. The bill is of moderate size,
home what arched towards the tip; the cheeks nearly naked; the head crested; the tarsi
rather long, and armed with a single spur; the wings short; the upper 1 ail-coverts pro-
longed far beyond the tail, and forming a splendid train — popularly called tlie tail —
which is capable of being erected and spread out into a great disk, the true tail being at
ui': same time erected to support it. The common peacock (P. cristatus) has for crest a
kind of aigrette of 24 upright feathers, with slender almost naked shafts and broad tip.
The tail consists of 18. brown stiff feathers, and is about 6 in. long. The train derives
much of its beauty from the loose barbs of its feathers, whilst their great number and
unequal length contribute to its gorgcousness, the upper feathers being successively
shorter, so that when it is erected into a disk, the eye-like or moon-like spot at the tip of
each feather is displayed. The lowest and longest feathers of the train do not terminate
in such spots, but in spreading barbs, which encircle the erected disk. The blue of the
neck, the green and black of the back and wings; the brown, green, violet, and gold of
the tail; the arrangement of the colors, their metallic splendor, and the play of color in
changing lights, render the male peacock an object of universal admiration — a sentiment
in which the bird himself evidently participates to a degree that is very amusing, as he
struts about to display himself to advantage, and labors to attract attention, affording a
familiar proverbial image of ostentation and pride. When the disk is erected, the pea-
cock has the power of rattling the shafts of its feathers against each other in a very
peculiar manner, by a stong muscular vibration. The peahen is mucli smaller than the
mtile bird, has no train, and is of dull plumage, mostly brownish, except that the neck is
green. As in some other gallinaceous birds, the female has been known, in old age, to
assume the plumage of the male. Individuals with white plumage not un frequently
occur, in which even the eye like spots of the tari are but faintly indicated; and pied
peacocks, having the deep blue of the neck and breast contrasted with pure white,
are sometimes to be seen. The peacock is generally supposed to have been known to
the Hebrews in the time of Solomon, but it is not certain that the word commonly trans-
lated peacock* in the account of Solomon's importations from Tarshish (3d Cbrqn. ix. 21)
does not signify parrots. It is commonly stated that it first became known to the Greeks
on the occasion of Alexander's expedition to India, but Aristophanes mentions it in plays
wriiten before Alexander was born. The peacock became common among the Greeks
and Romans; a sumptuous banquet in the latter days of Roman greatness was scarcely
complete without it- and wealth and folly went to the excess of providing dishes of pea-
cocks' tongues 'and peacocks' brains. Throughout the middle ages, also, a peacock was
often presented at the tables of the great, on great occasions, the skin Avith the plumage
being placed around the bird after it was cooked. The peacock is now common in nfost
parts of the world; generally kept, however, except in warm countries, for ornament
rather than for profit, although both the flesh and the eggs are very good. It. readily
partakes of all the ordinary food provided for the poultry-yard, and is fond of buds and
succulent vegetables.. It is hardy enough even in cold climates, except that few eggs
are laid, and the young are difficult to rear, but the adult birds sit on trees or on the tops
of houses, stacks, etc., during the keenest frosty nights, never, if they can avoid it, sub-
mitting to the confinement of a roosting-place, like that of the common fowl. Peacocks
are found in almost all parts of India, Siarn, etc., and the multitudes in which they occur
in some districts are wonderful. "About the passes in the Jungletery district," col.
Williamson says, in his Oriental Field Sports, "whole woods were covered with their
beautiful plumage, to which a rising sun imparted additional brilliancy. The small
patches of plain, among the long grass, most of them cultivated, and with mustard then
in bloom, which induced the birds to feed, increased the beauty of the scene; and I speak
within bounds when I assert that there could not be less than 1,200 or 1.500 peafowls, of
various sixes, within sight of the spot where I stood for near an hour." Sir James Emer-
son Tennent, also, in his work on Ceylon, says that "in some of the unfrequented por-
Pencock. A1 />
I'oarl.
tions of the eastern province, to which Europeans rarely resort, and where the peafowl
are unmolested by the natives, their number i-- so extraordin; .ry thai, regarded as game,
it cea=es to be 'sport' to destroy them; and tlieir cries at early morning arc so tumult-
uous and incessant as to banish sleep, and amount lo an aciual 'mcoiivcnicnce." — The
harsh cry of the peacock seems to have been imitated in its Greek name TUOK, and prob-
ably lias given rise also to the Lai in pnro and the English y/<v/-<-ock. The peacock, in a
wild state, also roosts on trees, but makes its nesl on the ground. AVlicn alarmed, as it
feeds on the ground, it cannot readily take wing, and is >ome;imes run down by dogs or
by horsemen! —The other species of the peacock is the .1. \I-AN I'KACOCK or JAVANESE
PEACOCK (/'. J/t/n>/n »xt*, Jit i-cn /<•'!*, or ni><t<<-i/x), a naliv<: of some of the south-easlern parts
of Asia and neighboring islands. It is nearly equal in size to the common peacock, but
of less brilliant although very similar plumage. The cheeks and around the (-yes are
vellow; the neck, and other fore parts, greenish with golden reflections. The crest is
longer than that of the common peacock, its leathers less equal, and webbed along tlu-ir
whole length.
PEACOCK, THOMAS LOVE, 1785-1866; b. England; from 1818-56 connected with
the East India ottice, and in the last year was retired on a pension. lie was a man of
scholarly attainments, a friend of Charles Lamb and Shelley, and the executor of the
latter. He published a number of poems, novels, and tales. Of the fir ' and
RkixlinlnuhiK' were the most noted. Of his stories, the first published, l!< «-i'<>iit/ J/n'l, is
usually considered the best. His works were published in 1875, iu 3 vois., with a bio-
graphical sketch.
PEACOCK-STONE, the name under which the dry cartilaginous ligaments of some large
lamellibranchiate mollusks, as the pearl oyster, are sold by jewelers. They are used lor
ornamental purposes, although not so much as formerly; and far more on the continent
of Europe, particularly in Portugal, than in Britain. They have. opaline reflections, and
are therefore sometimes called black opal.
PEA CEAB, Pinnotheres, a genus of brachyourous crustaceans, with nearly circular and
not very hard carapace. They are of small size, and interesting from their living withiu
the mantle-lobes of lamellibranchiate mollusks, a circumstance which was well known to
the ancients, and gave rise to many curious fables. A species (P. very com-
mon in l\\u-piiinoi of the Mediterranean, and was imagined to render important services
to its host in return for its lodging, keeping a lookout for approaching dang'
which the blind pinna itself could not guard, and particularly apprising it, that it might
close its shell when the cuttle-fish C.TMU near. It is curious tolind thi ••• repeated by Ila^-el
quist, in the middle of last century as a piece of genuine natural history. Whether the
pea crab lives at the expense of'ii: • molhisk, and sucks its juice 'ain. It is
certain that the flesh of such mollusks; is palatable to pea crabs, and tlx - dily
in the aquarium. The friendship of the pea crab and the pinna is of c<> ulous
as that of the lion and jackal, or of the rattlesnake, the owl, and the prairie-dog. .V
species of pea crab (P. pisu>/t) is very common within the manile-io'ii- of the common
mussel on the British coasts. Species are found in almost all parts of the world.
PEALE, CHARLES WILSON, 1741-1827, b. Mel. ; apprenticed to a saddler, but at the
age of 26 took lessons in painting from Heselius and Copley. lie afterward studied a
year under Benjamin West; and returning, opened a studio in Philadelphia, and for 13
years was the only professional portrait painter in the country, one of his tlrst pi
tions being a picture of Washington in the uniform of a colonel in the Virginia militia.
He rendered valuable services to the revolutionary cause, and painted many port: .
prominent officers. Probably no-mar ever had more versatile acquirements than .Mr.
IValc. Before his art studies, he was a saddler, harness maker, carver, watch-maker,
and silversmith. After he had learned his profession, he amused himseif i>v becoming!!
naturalist, sportsman, inventor of machinery, preserver of animals, maker of musical
instruments, dentist, and inventor of enamel teeth. He also established a museum, lec-
tured on natural history, and published essays on Wooden 7?;vV/^v, 7>"
and many other topics. He was one of the "founders of the American academy of fine
arts.
PEALE, REMBRANDT, 1778-1860, b. Penn.; at an early age showed much skill in
drawing, and when but 17 produced a protrait of Washington. From ITOfi to 1801. he
was a portrait painter in Charleston, S. C., and then studied for three years in London,
under Benjamin West, and afterwards spent some time in Paris. In 1SQ9 he returned i->
America, settled in Philadelphia, painted many portraits, and two other pictures, the
"Roman Daughter," and " The Court of Death;" the latter of which was exhibited
throughout the country, increasing the artist's fame and possessions. Among Mr.
Peale's published works were Note* on Italy, 1831; Biography of C. W. Peale (his
father); and Bemirvucenees on Art and Artist*.
PEA MAGGOT, the caterpillar of a small moth (Tortrix or Orapholitha pisi), which
lays its eggs in young pods of peas. The caterpillar lives in the pods and eats the peas.
This moth is very common in Britain, and in wet seasons the pods of peas are often
found very full of its caterpdlar.
Air? Peacock.
Pearl.
PE'AIT, (old Fr., pannes, furs), one of (he furs born in heraldry, differing from
ermine only in the tinctures; the ground being sable, and the spots of gold.
PEA ORE, a form of compact brown iron ore (hydrated peroxide of iron), consisting
of round smooth grains, from the size of mustard-seed to that of small pease. Some-
times the grains are still smaller and flattish. This iron ore is very abundant in some
places in France, aud is smelted.
PEANUT. See ARACHIS, EARTH-NUT; ante.
PEAE Pyrus communis, a tree of the same genus with the apple (see PYRUS), and
like it one of the most extensively cultivated and valuable fruit-trees of temperate cli-
mates. The leaves arc ovate, serrated, smooth on both surfaces, and without glands;
the flowers are produced in corymbs, which may almost be called umbels, and are
smaller than those of the apple; the styles are distinct, and not combined at the base, as
in the apple; and the fruit is hemispherical at one end, tapering gradually away, more
or less rapidly, to a point at the other. The pear-tree grows wild in woods and copses
in Britain, on the continent of Europe, and throughout the temperate parts of Asia. In
iis wild state it is usually either a large shrub or a small tree, thorny, and with small
austere fruit. lu cultivation it is without thorns, becomes a tree of 40 or 50 feet high,
sometimes more; and its stem attains a diameter of three feet. Cultivation has wrought
even greater changes in the size and quality of its fruit. The pear has been cultivated
frnm remote antiquity. Its cultivation was probably introduced into Britain by the
Romans. The cultivated varieties are extremely numerous; and many new ones of
great excellence have recently been produced. The jargonelle pear may be mentioned as
one of the most esteemed of the varieties long known in Britain. Some of the kinds
called bergamut and Beurre are highly esteemed. Manjr new kinds have recently been
introduced into Britain from France and Belgium. The varieties of pear differ much in
hardiness and in fitness for particular soils; although a deep, moderately strong, dry,
lo.-miy soil is the best for this fruit. The finer varieties are cultivated in Britain as wall-
trees. Pears succeed well as espaliers. The}r are generally grafted on seedling stocks
of ihe wild pear, but sometimes on the rowan, and sometimes on the quince. Pears
grafted on quince stocks are the best for shallow soils. The flowers and fruit of the
pear are mostly produced on spurs, which spring from branches of more than one year
old. Various modes of training and pruning are practiced for pear-trees, Among the
varieties of pears are some which ripen early in autumn, and some which do not ripen
till the beginning of winter, and whjch even require to be mellowed by keeping for a
short time; whilst some of the kinds cannot easily be kept for more than a few days.
In general, pears cannot be kept so long nor so easily as apples. Pears are sometimes
made into a preserve with syrup; and sometimes cut into pieces, and dried in the sun or
in an oven, to be afterwards used in pies, a practice very prevalent in France. — A very
agreeable fermented liquor called perry is made from pears, in the same manner as cider
from apples; and pear orchards for this purpose are to be seen in some parts of Eng-
land, especially in Worcestershire and Herefordshire. The varieties of pear cultivated
for making perry are all rather austere, and those which yield the best perry are far too
auste/e to be palatable. — The wood of pear-tree is reddish, very hard, fine-grained, and
valuable to turners and joiners. It is often dyed black in imitation of ebony, which it
then greaty resembles.
Besides the varieties of pear usually referred to pyrus communis, some are occasion-
ally cultivated which are generally regarded as distinct species. Such are the AUREI.IAN
PEAR (P. Salvifolid), a native of France, with leaves much narrower than the common
pear, and a long fruit, which is used for making perry; the SNOWY PEAR (P. nivalix), a
native of the Alps of Austria, with oval obtuse leaves, white and silky beneath, and a
globose fruit, which is very acid till it become quite ripes, or is beginning to decay, when
it is very sweet; the SAND PEAR (P. Sinensis), a native of China and Cochin-China, with
heart-shaped, shining, almost evergreen leaves, and apple-shaped warted fruit, very
fritty, and fit only for baking, cultivated in gardens in India, but hardy in Britain,
'he PASITIA. (P. pashia or P. rarivlosa), is a native of the Himalaya; the fruit of which is
only edible when blotted or partially decayed. The PALTOO (P. lanata) is another Him-
alayan species with edible fruit. Both are quite hardy in Britain.
PEAR, PRICKLY. See PRICKLY PEAR.
PEARL, a peculiar product of certain marine and fresh water mollusks or shell-fish.
Most of the molluscous animals which are aquatic and reside in shells are provided with
a fluid secretion with which they line their shells, and give to the otherwise harsh grnn-
ular material, of which the shell is formed, a beautifully smooth surface, which prevents
any unpleasant friction upon the extremely tender body of the animal. This secretion
is evidently laid in extremely thin semi-transparent films, which, in consequence of such
an arrangement, have generally a beautiful iridescence, and form in some species a suffi-
cient thickness to be cut into useful and ornamental articles. The material itself m its
hardened condition is called nacre by zoologists, and by dealers, mother-of-pearl (q.v.).
Besides the pearly lining of the shells, detached or generally spherical or rounded por-
tions of the nacre are often found on opening the shells, and there is great reason to sup-
pose these are the result of accidental causes., such as the intrusion of a grain of sand or
U. K. XL— 37
418
other substance, which by irritating the tender body of the animal, obliges it in self-
defense to cover the cause of oil'ense, which it has no power to remove; and as the secre-
tion goes on regularly to supply the growth -and wear of the shell, the included body
constantly gets its share, and thereby continues to increase in size until it becomes \\
pearl. The Chinese avail themselves of the knowledge of this fact to compel one spe
cies of fresh water mussel, uni» Ji'irin, to produce pearls. In order to do this, they keep
the uuios in tanks, and insert between the shell and the mantle of the animal either
pinall leaden shot or little spherical pieces of mothcr-of-ponrl. These are sure to receive
regular coatings of the nacreous secretion; and after a time look like pearls formal
under ordinary circumstances. These curious people also practice another trick upon
these animals; they insert small images of the Buddha stamped out of metal, which soon
become coated with the pearl secretion, and are cemented by it to the shells; to those
ignorant of its origin, the phenomenon is a supernatural testimony to the truth of
Buddhism. Examples of these curosities are to be found in many of our museums.
A plan of making pearls was suggested to the Swedish government by LimuTus. It
consisted in boring a small hole through the shell of the river mussel, and inserting a
grain of sand, so as to afford a nucleus for a pearl. The plan at first succeeded sulli-
cicntly well to prove its practicability, and he wan rewarded by a sum of money ( £
but it failed as a profitable speculation, and was abandoned.
The exact nature of the secretion has never been satisfactorily determined; it is, how-
ever, ascertained that it is deposited in thin films, which overlie each other so irregularly
that when magnified they present the appearance of sharply serrated edges, and to this
peculiar disposition of the plates, the beautiful iridescence of common pearls is attributed.
Their formation was a great puzzle to the ancients, amongst whom they were very highly
prized. Dioscorides and Pliny mention the belief that they were drops of dew or rain
which fell into the shells when opened by the animal, and were then altered by some
power of the animal into pears. This opinion, which obtained all over the east, is thus
charmingly alluded to by Moore:
" And precious the tear as that rain from the sky,
Which turns into pearls as it falls in the sea."
The most famous pearls are those from the east; the coast of Ceylon, or Taprobane, as it
is called by the Greeks, having from the earliest times been the chief locality for pearl
fishing. They are, however, obtained now of nearly the same quality in other parts of
the world, as Panama in South America, St. Margarita in the West Indies, the Coroman-
del coast, the shores of the Sooloo islands, the Bahrein islands, and the islands of Karak
and Corgo in the Persian gulf. The pearls of the Bahrein fishery are said to be even
finer than those of Ceylon, and they form an important, part of the trade of Bassora.
These, and indeed all the foreign pearls used in jewelry, are produced by the pearl
oyster (q.v.). The shells of the mollusks which yield the Ceylon, Indian, and Persian
ones, are sometimes !is much as a foot in diameter, and are usually about nine inches.
Those of the new world, although the shells are smaller and thicker, are believed to be
the same species. The chief locality of the Ceylon pearl fishery is a bank about 20 m.
long, 10 or 12 in. from shore, opposite to the villages of Condatchy and Arippo on the
northern coast. The season of the fishery lasts about three months, commencing at* the
beginning of Februar}', and is carried on under government regulations. The boats
employed are open, and vary in size from 10 to 15 tons burden; they put out at night,
usually at 10 o'clock, on a signal gun being fired from the fort of Arippo, and make for
the government-guard vessel, which is moored along the bank, and serves the double
purpose of a guard and a light-ship. The divers are under the direction of a mar
who is called the adapanaar, and they are chiefly Tamils and Moors from India. For
each diver there is provided a diving-stone, weighing about 30 pounds, which is fastened
to the end of a rope long enough to reach the bottom, and having a loop made for the
man's foot; and in addition to this, a large net-work basket, in which to place the pearl
oysters as he collects them. These are hung over the sides of the boat; and the diver,
placing his foot in the loop attached to the stone, liberates the coils of the rope, and with
his net-basket rapidly descends to the bottom. To each boat there is usually allotted a
crew of 13 men and 10 divers, five of whom are descending whilst the others are resting.
This work is done very rapidly; for, notwithstanding the stories to the contrary, the
best divers cannot remain longer than 80 seconds below, and few arc able to exceed (10.
The greatest depth they descend is 13 fathoms, and usual depth about 9 fathoi::-;. When
the diver gives the signal by pulling the rope, he is quickly hauled up with his net and '
its contents. Accidents rarely happen; and as the men are very euperstilious, their
safety is attributed to the incantations of their shark-charmers, performed at the com-
mencement of the fishing. Sir E. Tenncnt, however, attributes the rarity of accidents
from sharks, usually so abundant in tropical seas, to the bustle and to the cv
the waters during the fishery frightening away those dreaded creatures. The divers an;
sometimes paid fixed wages.'others agree for one-fourth of the produce. When a boat-load
of oysters has been obtained, it returns to shore, and the cargo, sometime'; amounting to
20.000 or 30.000. is landed and piled on the shore to die ana putrefy, in order that the
pearls may be easily found. The heaps are formed in small walled compartments, the
walls surrounding each being about one or two ft. in height. Several of these compart-
419
Pearl.
ments surround a small central inclosure, in which is a bath, and they slope toward this
bath, and are each connected with it by a small channel, so that any pearls washed out from
the putrefying mass by the rain may be carried into the bath. When the animals in the
shells are sufficiently decomposed, the washing commences, and great care is taken to
\vatchfortheloose pearls, which are always by far the most valuable; the shells are
then examined, and if any attached pearls are seen, they are handed over to the clippers,
who, with pinchers or hammer, skillfully remove them. Such pearls are used. only for
setting; whilst the former, being usually quite round, are drilled and strung, and can be
ir~ed for beads, etc. The workmen who are employed to drill the pearls also round the
irregular ones, and polish them with great ski*!!. The method of holding the pearls dur-
ing these operations is very curious; they make a number of holes of small depth in a
piece of dry wood, and into these they fit the pearls, so that they are only partly below
the surface of the wood, which they theu place iu water, As it soaks up the water aud
swells, the pearls become tightly fixed, and are then perforated, etc. These operations
are all carried on on the spot.
For many miles along the Condatchy shore, the accumulation of shells is enormous,
and averages at least -1 ft. in thickness. This is not to be wondered at, when it is remem-
bered that this fishery has been in active operation for at least 2,000 years. The place
itself is exceedingly barren and dreary, and, except during the fishing season, is almost
deserted; but at that time it presents an exceedingly animated spectacle; thousands of
people, of various countries and castes, are here drawn together — some for the fishery,
others to buy pearls, and others to feed the multitude. They chiefly reside in tents, so
that" it appears a vast encampment.
The pearls vary much in size; (hose as large as a pea, and of good color and form,
are the best, except unusually large specimens, which rarely occur, the most extraordin-
ary one known being the pearl owned by the late Mr. Hope, which measured 2 in. in
length, and 4 in circumference, and weighed 1,800 grains. The smaller ones are sorted
into sizes, the very smallest being called seed-pearls. A considerable quantity of
these last are sent to China, where they are said to be calcined, and used in Chinese phar-
macy. Amongst the Romans, the pearl was a great favorite, and enormous prices were
paid for fine ones. One author gives the value of a string of pearls at 1,000,000 sesterces,
or about £8,000 sterling. The single pearl which Cleopatra is said to have dissolved and
swallowed was valued at £80,729; and one of the same value was cut into two pieces for
ear-rings for thy statue of Venus in the Pantheon at Rome. Coming down to later times,
we read of a pe.irl, in queen Elizabeth's reign, belonging to sir Thomas Gresham, which
was valued at £15,000, and which he is said to have treated after the fashion of Cleo-
patra; for he powdered it and drank it in a glass of wine to the health of the queen, in
order to astonish the ambassador of Spain, with whom he had laid awfiger that he would
give a more costly dinner than could the Spaniard.
During the occupation of Britain by the Romans this country became famous for its
pearls, which were found in the fresh-water mussel of our rivers. See FRESH-WATER
MUSSEL. Generally the pearls of this mollusk are small, badly colored, and often value-
less; b:ifc occasionly they occur of such beauty as to rival those of the pearl-oyster.
Some years ago, in the Scotch rivers, the search for pearls was prosecuted vigorously,
especially by a merchant named linger, of Edinburgh, who had brought Scotch pearls into
great repute. Ke collected specimens ranging, as was stated, from £5 to £90 each, and
formed a necklace said to be worth £350. In Scotch pearls of the highest quality, there
is a pleasing pinkish tint, which is very permanent. The fishing for pearl-mussels is by
no means so dangerous or troublesome as for pearl-oysters; usually they are found in
the beds of streams, shallow enough to wade in, and so clear that they can be seen at the
bottom. If too deep to remove with the hand, they are easily captured by putting a
stick between their gaping shells, which instantty close upon it, and can be drawn out
with it. So profitable did this pursuit become that a great many persons engaged in it.
Very fine river pearls, known on the continent as Bohemian pearls, ace found in the
rivers of Moldau and Wottawa. There is also a fresh-water pearl fishery in Bavaria,
where the river II tz yields at times very fine specimens Even the most inferior pearls
have a market value; for pearls can only be properly polished with pearl dust, find the
inferior pearls are powered for the purpose of polishing and rounding the finer ones.
False pearls are Aery admirable imitations, made by blowing very thin beads or bulbs
of glass, and pouring into them a mixture of liquid ammonia, and the white matter
from the scales of the bleak, and sometimes of the roach, and dace. The proper way
to prepare the pearl matter is first to remove the scales of the lower part of the fish;
these must then be very carefully washed, after which they are put to soak in water,
when the pearly film falls off and forms a sediment at the bottom of the vessel, which is
removed and placed in liquid ammonia for future use. This pearl mixture, when of the
best quality, is very costly, being as much as £4 or £5 per ounce. For use it is diluted
Avlth ammonia, and injected into the glass beads, so as to thinly coat them inside;
;:f!iTward the better kinds have melted white wax poured in, which renders them much
more durable. The French and Germans produce in this way imitations of the finest
oriental pearl?, of such beauty that the most practiced eye can hardly detect the differ-
once. The bleak is procured in considerable quantities for this purpose from the Thames
and other rivers in England See BLEAK.
Pearl. 4 Of)
Peasant.
The invention of artificial poarls is due to a Frenchmen, named Jaquin, in the time
of Catharine do' Medici, and the manufacture is now chiefly carried on in the department
of the Seine, where great improvements have lately been made, especially in the art of
giving the irregular forms of large pearls to the glass bulbs, ami thus' increasing the
resemblance, and in removing the glassy appearance caused by the exterior glass co:itii. i,,r,
by exposing it for a short period to the action of the vapor of hydrofluoric acid. Mucilage
of line gum arable is also used instead of wax, which increases the translucency, gives
I greater weight, and is not liable to melt with the heat of the wearer's body — a detect
| to which those filled with wax are very liable.
Roman pearl* differ from other artiticial pearls, by having the coating of pearly
matter on the outside, to which it is attached by an adhesive substance. The art of
making these was derived from the Chinese.
PEARL, a river of Mississippi, which rises about 100 in. n.n.e. of Jackson, and, flow-
ing s. through the state, separates it in its lower course from Louisiana, and empties into
Mississippi sound, near the outlet of lake Pontchartrain. It Hows nearly 300 in. through
a fertile cotton country, and is navigable to Jackson, the capital.
PEAEL ASHES. See POTASH.
PEARL BARLEY. See BARLEY.
PEARL OYSTER, Avicula or Melmgrina, margaritifera, a lamellibranchiale mollusk,
of the family AviculMce, generally found — great numbers together — attached t/> sub-
marine rocks at a considerable depth on the coasts of tropical countries, and important
as producing almost all the pearls and all the mother of pearl of commerce. It is some-
times called the PEARL MUSSEL; but the family to which it belongs differs consideru'.iy
both from that of mussels and from that of oysters, the valves of the shell being
unequal, the hinge-line straight and long, and the animal furnished with two adductor
muscles, one of them small, and with a foot by which it produces a byssus. The pearl
oyster is of an oblique oval form, longitudinally ribbed, and with concentric foliations
when young which disappear when it is old. It attains a large size, and there are sev-
eral varieties, the most important of which are noticed in the article MOTHER-OF-PKAKI..
The whole inside of the shell is covered with a thick layer of nacre or mother-of-pearl,
compact and beautiful, forming indeed the chief part of the shell, and exhibiting very
considerable variety of color, most frequently white, but sometimes blood-red. Pearls
are formed of the same substance (see PEARL) and are generally, if not always, pro-
duced by eggs which have become abortive, and which remain lodged within the miil-
Jusk instead of being ejected into the -sea.
The pearl oyster is too rank and coarse to be eaten. When taken from the sea it is
commonly laid out in the sun to die, that the pearls may be sought for after tli
opens.
The pearl oyster is not the only mullusk which produces pearls. The Placer a pla-
centa— an oyster (family Ostrcada) with thin transparent shell, which is used in China
and elsewhere as a substitute for window glass — produces diminutive pearls. The fresh
water mussel (q.v.) of Britain produces pearls sometimes of considerable beauty and
value; and instances have occurred of pearls being found in pinnae, etc., and even in
limpets.
PEARL SHELLS. See MOTHER-OF-PEARL.
PEARL WHITE. See WHITE COLORS.
PEARSON, JOHN, an English prelate of high celebrity, was b. in 1612 at Snoring, in
Norfolk, of which place his father was rector; educated at Eton and King's college,
Cambridge, where he took the degree of M.A. in 1639, and in the same year took orders,
and was collated to a prebend in Salisbury cathedral. In 1640 he was appointed chap-
lain to Finch, lord-keeper of the great seal, and on the outbreak of the civil war )/
chaplain to lord Goring, and afterward to sir 'Robert Cook, in London. In 1650 he w.-n
appointed minister of St. Clement's, EastchCap, London; and in 1659 published tho
great work by which he is now remembered, An Exposition of the Creed It was dedi-
cated to his flock, to whom the substance of it had been preached some years before in a
series of discourses. The laborious learning and the judicial calmness displayed by the
author in this treatise have long been acknowledged, and command the respect even of
those "who think his elaborate argumentation tedious and not always forcible. It i^ gen-
erally reckoned one of the ablest works produced in the greatest age of English theol-
ogy— the 17th century. During the same year, Pearson published The Golden I\
of the Ever Memorable Mr. John Hales of Eton. At the restoration, honors and emolu-
ments were lavishly showered upon him. Before the close of 1660 he received the rec-
tory of St. Christopher's, in London; was created D.D. at Cambridge; installed pn-U Hil-
ary of Ely and archdeacon of Surrey; and made master of Jesus college, Cambridge. Tn
1661 he obtained the Margaret professorship of divinity, and was one of the most promi-
nent commissioners in the famous Savoy conference; in 1662 he was made master of
Trinity, Cambridge, and in 1673 was promoted to the bishopric of Chester. The year
before he had published his Vindiciqi Epiatolamm 8. Ir/natii, in answer to M. Daille, who
had denied the genuineness of the epistles. It was imagined for years that Pearson had
triumphed over his opponent. The history of the controversy, however (see IGNATIUS),
4.91 Pearl.
^w J Peasant.
has shown that DaiHe" was right and Pearson wrong. In 1684 appeared his Annales
Ct/priaiiici. lie died July 16, 1686. Pearson's Opera Posthuma Chronologica were pub-
lished by Dodvvell (Lond. 1688), and his Omtiones, Condones et Determination's lheo~
'li'^i^tK contain much valuable matter, for, as Bentley used to say, Pearson's " very dross
was gold." Bishop Burnet thought him "in all respects the greatest divine of his
age. "
PEASANT WAR, in German history, the name given to that great insurrection of the
peasantry which broke out in the year 1525, and which Zschokke has described as the
•• terrible scream of oppressed humanity." The oppression of the peasants had gradu-
ally increased in severity, as the nobility became more extravagant and the clergy more
sensual and degenerate. The example of Switzerland encouraged the hope of succe.ss, and
from 1476 to 1517 there were risings here and there among the peasants of the s. of Ger-
niau}'. A peasant rebellion, called from its cognizance the BundscJiuh (laced shoe;, took
place in the Khme countries in 1502, and another, called the "League of Poor Conrad,"
in Wurtemberg, in 1514, both of which were put down without any abatement of the
grievances which occasioned them. The reformation, by the mental awakening which
it produced, and the diffusion of sentiments favorable to freedom, must be reckoned
among the causes of the great insurrection itself; although Luther, Melanchthon, and
the other leading reformers, while urging the nobles to justice and humanity, strongly
reprobated the violent proceedings oi the peasants. The Anabaptists, however, and in
particular Miluzer, encouraged and excited them, and a peasant insurrection took place
in ihe Hegau in 1522. Another, known as the " Latin war," arose in 1523 in Salzburg,
against an unpopular archbishop, but these were quickly suppressed. On Jan. 1, 1525,
the peasantry of the abbacy of Kempteu. along with the townspeople, suddenly assailed
and plundered the convent, compelling the abbot to sign a renunciation of his rights.
This proved the signal for a rising of the peasants on all sides throughout the s. of Ger-
many. Many of the princes and nobles at first regarded the insurrection with some meas-
ure of complacency, because it was directed in the first instance chiefly against the eccle-
siastical lords; some, too, because it seemed likely to promote the interests of the exiled
duke of Wlirtemberg, who was then upon the point of reconquering his dominions by
the help of Swiss troops; and others, because it seen^ed to set bounds* to the increase of
Austrian* power. But the archduke Ferdinand hastened to raise an army, the troops of
the empire being for the most part engaged in the emperor's wars in Italy, and intrusted
the command of it to the Truchsess Von Waldburg, a man of stern and unscrupulous
character, but of ability and energy. Von Waldburg negotiated with the peasants in
order to gain time, and defeated and destroyed some large bodies of them, but was him-
self defeated by them on April 22, when he made a treaty with them, not having, how-
ever, the slightest intention of keeping it. Meanwhile the insurrection extended, and
1) 'came general throughout Germany, and a number of towns took part in it, as Heil-
bronn, Muhllmusen, Fulda, Frankfurt, etc., but there was a total want of organization
and co-operation. Toward easier, 1525, there appeared in upper Swabia a manifesto,
which set forth the grievances and demands of the insurgents. They demanded the free
election of their parish clergy; the appropriation of the tithes of grain, after competent
maintenance of the parish clergy, to the support of the poor and to purposes of general
utility; the abolition* of serfdom, and of the exclusive hunting and fishing rights of the
nobles; the restoration to the community of forests, fields, and meadows, which the
secular and ecclesiastical lords had appropriated to themselves; release from arbitrary
augmentation and multiplication of services, duties, and rents; the equal administration
of justice; and the abolition of some of the most odious exactions of the clergy. The
conduct of the insurgents was not, however, in accordance with the moderation of their
demands. Their many separate bands destroyed convents and castles, murdered, pil-
laged, and were guilty of the greatest excesses, which must indeed be regarded as partly
in revenge for the cruelty practiced against them by Von Waldburg. A number of
princes and knights concluded treaties with the peasants conceding their principal
demands. The city of Wurtzburg joined them, but the castle of Leibfrauenberg made
an obstinate resistance, which gave time to Von Waldburg and their other enemies to
collect and strengthen their forces. In May and June, 1525, the peasants sustained a
number of severe defeats, in which large bodies of them were destroyed. The landgraf
Philip of Hesse was also successful against them in the n. of Germany. The peas-
ants, after they had been subjugated, were everywhere treated with terrible cruelty. In
one instance a great body of them were perfidiously massacred after they had laid down
their arms. Multitudes were hanged in the streets, and many were put to death with the
greatest tortures. Weinsberg, Rothenburg, Wurtzburg, and other towns which had
joined them, suffered the terrible revenge of the victors, and torrents of blood were shed.
It is supposed that more than 150,000 persons lost their lives in the Peasant war. Flour-
ishing and populous districts were desolated. The lot of the defeated insurgents became
harder than ever, and many burdens of the peasantry originated at this period. The
cause of the reformation also was very injuriously affected. See Sartorius, Versuch einer
GeschicJite des Deutscheu BauernkriegK (Berl. 1795); Ochsle, Beitrage zur Gexchichte des
Deutschen, Baiiernkreigs (Heilbroun, 1829); Wachsmuth, Der Deutsche Bavernkreig (Leip.
1834); and Zimmermann, Allyemcine Geschichte des grossen Bauernkreigs (3 vols. Stuttg.
1841-13).
Pebble.
PEASE, CAT/VTX, D.D., 1813-63; b. Conn.; graduated at the university of Vermont
in 1S38; became a teacher in Montpc.lier; was professor of Greek and Latin iu the uni-
versity of Vermont in lS-ii-5."), and its president in 1855-61. In 1855 he was ordained;
in 1856 was chosen president of the Vermont board of education. Iu 1862 he became
pastor of the First Presbyterian church, Rochester, N. Y.
PEASLEE, EDMUND RAXDOLrii, LL.D., 1814-79; b. N. II. ; graduated from Dart-
mouth college 1836, and was tutor there for two years, lie studied ut the Yale medical
school, and in 1841 began practice at Hanover, N. II. He was appoint ed professor of
anatomy and physiology at Dartmouth college in 184:2, and retained the position for nearly
40 years. He was a lecturer and professor iu Bowdoin college also. In 1851 he was made
professor of physiology and pathology in the N. Y. medical college, and in 1858 of olx-iet-
rics. In the latter year ho began to reside in N. Y. city, where he bad already obtained ;•>
large practice and a high rank, especially in obstetrics and gyuecology. lie w;is ,-i
member and officer of many medical societies of both continents, published many con-
tributions to medical and scientific periodicals, and two books — Human Histology (185 »/
and Ocarutn, Tumors and Ovariotomy (1872).
PEA-STONE, PI'SOLITE, or PI'SIFOK.M LIMESTONE, is a kind of calcareous spar or lime-
stone, which occurs in globules from one-eighth of an inch to half an inch in diameter,
imbedded in a cement of similar substance. There is generally a grain of sand in the
center of each globule as the nucleus, around which it has been formed, and the con-
centric plates of its structure are easily visible. Sometimes the nucleus is merely ;x
bubble of air. Pea-stone is found in great masses near the hot springs of Carlsbad, iu
Bohemia. It is sometimes used i'or ornamentel purposes.
PEAT, a substance formed by the decomposition of plants amidst much moisture, as
in marshes and morasses; and sometimes described as a kind of humus (q.v.), form d
by the accumulation of the remains of mosses and other marsh-plants. The remains of
the plants are often so well preserved in it that the species can be easily distinguish:';!.
Reeds, rushes, and other aquatic plants may Visually be traced in peat, and stems of
heath are often abundant in it; but it chiefly consists, in the northern parts of the world,
of different species of sphagnum (q.v.), or bog-moss. Mosses of this genas grow in very
wet situations, and throw out new shoots in their upper parts, whilst their lower parts
are decaying and being converted into peat; so that shallow pools arc gradually changed
into bogs. It was at one time believed that bogs owed their origin to the destruction of
forests, the fallen trees impeding the natural drainage, and causing the growth of those
marsh-plants of which peat is formed; and this theory was supported by reference to
instances supposed to be authenticated by tradition — as that of the moor of Hatticld \\\
Yorkshire, now consisting of about 12,000 acres of peat, and said to have been a forest
of firs, till "the Romans under Ostorius, having slain many Britons, drove the rest into
the forest," which was then destroyed by the victors. There are, however, satisfactory
proofs that peat has accumulated in many places around trees; and firs remaining in then-
natural position have been found to have 6 or 7 ft. of peat under their roots, although
other trees, as oaks, are commonly found with their stumps resting on the soil beneath
the peat. Yet it is not improbable that the destruction of forests may, in some instances,
by impeding the course of the streams which flowed through them; have caused tho
stagnation of water from which the growth of peat resulted. Some of the largest in
and fens of Europe occup}r the place of forests, which were destroyed by order of
Severus and other Roman emperors; and some of the British forests, now mosses, as
well as some of those of Ireland, were cut because they harbored wolves or outlaws.
The overthrow of a forest by a storm in the 17th c. is known to have caused the forma-
tion of a peat-moss near loch Broom, in Ross-shire. Layers of trees are not unfrequently
found in peat, which seem to have been suddenly deposited in their horizontal position,
and sometimes to have been felled by human hands. It is not improbable, however,
that sometimes peat has been formed where the soil has been exhausted by the long con-
tinued growth of one kind of tree. The growth of peat is often rapid: bogs have been
known to increase 2 in. in depth in a year. The surface of a bog sometimes becomes a
floating mass of long interlaced fibers of plants, known in Ireland as Old Win-* T.»".
The vegetation on the surface is sometimes very green and compact, like a beautiful turf.
Peat is vegetable matter more or less decomposed, and passes by insensible degives
into lignite (q.v.). The less-perfectly decomposed peat is generally of a brown color;
that which is more perfectly decomposed is often nearly black. Moist peat poss<
decided and powerful antiseptic property, which is attributed to the presence of gallic
acid and tannin, and is manifested not only in the perfect preservation of ancient trees
and of leaves, fruits, etc.-, but sometimes even of animal bodies. Tims, in some instances,
human bodies have been found perfectly preserved in peat, after the lapse of centuries.
The formation of peat may be regarded as one of the most important geological
changes now in evident progress. It takes place, however, only in the colder parts of
the world. In warm regions, the decay of vegetable substances, after life has ceased, is
too rapid to permit the formation of peat. The surface covered by peat is very extensive
in all the colder parts of the world; although in the southern hemisphere no moss
to enter into its composition; and the South American peat is said by Mr. Darwin to be
formed of many plants, but chiefly of astelia, pumifa, a phanerogamous plant of the rush
Pease.
Pebble.
family. The surface covered by peat even in England is considerable; it is greater in
Scotland, ami very great in Ireland. Extensive tracts are covered with peat even in the
southern countries of Europe, and sometimes even near the sea; and in more northern
regions, the mosses or bogs are still more extensive. For their physical characters, and
the mode of reclaiming them, or converting them into arable laud, see Boo.
Mere peat is not a good soil, even when sufficiently drained, but, by the application
of lime, marl, etc., it is soon converted into good soil, yielding excellent crops. A
mixture of peat is often of benefit to soils otherwise poor. And for many shrubs, as
rhododendrons, kalmius, whortleberries, etc., no soil is so suitable as one in great part
composed of peat; which is therefore in much request with gardeners in order to the
formation of the soil for certain kinds of plants.
Peat is extensively used for fuel. The more perfectly decomposed that the vegetable
matter is, and the more consolidated that the peat therefore is, the better it is suited for
this use. It is the ordinary fuel of great part of Ireland, and is there almost always called
turf, although the term turf, in its ordinary English sense, is utterly inapplicable to it.
To procure peat for fuel, the portion of bog to be operated upon must first be partially
dried by a wide open drain; its surface is then pared off with the spade, to the depth of
about 6 in., to remove the coarse uudecomposed vegetable matter; the peat is afterwards
cut out in pieces (peats) like bricks, by means chiefly of a peculiar implement, called in
Ireland a slane, and in Scotland a peat-spade, resembling a long, narrow, sharp spade,
the blade of which is furnished on one side with a tongue set at a right angle to it. This
implement is used by the hands alone, without pressure of the foot. The soft peats are
coiivej'ed to some neighboring place, where they are set up on end in little clusters to
dry. "When, sufficiently dry, they are conveyed away, and may be piled in out-houses or
stacked in the open air. The operation of peat-cutting is always performed in spring or
summer. — Where peat for fuel cannot be obtained in the way just described, the black
mud of a semi-fluid bog is^ornetimes worked by the feet of a party of men, women, and
children until it acquires such a consistency that it can be molded by the hand.
The process is laborious, but the fuel obtained by it is good. — In countries depending on.
peat for fuel, a very rainy season sometimes occasions great inconvenience, and even.
distress, by preventing the cutting and drying of the peat.
Peat is a light and bulky kind of fuel, and cannot be conveyed to considerable dis-
tances without too great expense. Efforts have, however, been made, both in Scotland
and Ireland, to render it more generally useful, and so to promote the reclaiming of
bogs by so compressing it until its specific gravity is nearly equal to that of coal. . For
this purpose it is first reduced to a pulp. The compressing of peat has not yet been
advantageously prosecuted on an extensive scale.
Peat-charcoal, made from uncompressed peat, is very light and inflammable, and there-
fore unsuitable for many purposes, but for others it is particularly adapted, and no kind
of charcoal excels it in antiseptic and deodorizing properties. It is also an excellent
manure for many kinds of soil, and great crops have often been obtained by its use.
Peat-charcoal is highly esteemed for the smelting of iron, and for working and temper-
ing the finer kinds of cutlery. Charcoal made from compressed peat is in density
superior to wood-charcoal, and is capable of being used as coke. The Irish amelioration
society, some years ago, encouraged the conversion of peat into charcoal, but it seems
not to have paid as a commercial speculation, although the resulting charcoal was of
good quality. Various companies have been formed for the purpose of obtaining valu-
able products from the destructive distillation of peat. It appears from researches of
sir R. Kane and others that 1000 parts of peat yield about 11 of sulphate of ammonia,
7 of acetate of lime, 2 of wood naphtha, 1 of paraffin, 7 of fixed oil, and 3 of volatile oil.
The manufacture has not, however, as yet proved sufficiently profitable to be generally
adopted, although the distillation of peat has, we believe, been carried on for some years
at Athy, near Kildare. For further details on this subject, the reader is referred to a
parliamentary Report on the Nature and Products of the Destructive Distillation of Peat,
published in 1851, and to a paper by Dr. Paul in the 6th volume of The Chemical News.
A more recent contribution to the subject is The Peat Mosses of Buchan — by the rev.
James Peter, minister of Deer (Aberdeen, 1875).
Flower-pots are sometimes made of peat. It is easy to transplant flowers growing in
them without loosening the earth from the roots, the pot being readily cut to pieces; and
liquid manure applied outside finds its way sufficiently to the roots.
PEA WEEVIL, Sitona crinita and S. lincata, small coleopterous insects, about a
quarter of an inch long, which are very destructive to crops of peas and other kinds of
of pulse, devouring the leaves and other succulent parts, often soon after the plants;
appear above ground. Lime, soot, or wood ashes dusted over the plants protect them
in some measure from the ravages of these insects; and hoeing or other stirring of the' \
soil is beneficial, probably by destroying the eggs, larvae, and pupae.
PEBBLE (probably allied to bubble, from the sound of water running among stones), a
small, round, water-worn stone of any kind; but with jewelers sometimes an agate —
agates being often found as loose pebbles in streams, and those of Scotland in particular
being popularly designated Scotch pebbles. Hence the name has come even to be
extended to rock-crystal, when not in the crystalline form, and we hear of spectacles
Pecun. 4.0J.
Pectiiiibranchtata.
•with eyes of pebble, etc. Deposits of pebbles (in the sense of water-worn stones)
occur among the rocks of all periods, but the pebbles aie seldom loose; they are
generally cemented together by iron, lime, or silex, forming a pudding-stone of greater
or less haninrss. Millie pebbles are sometimes found in deposits A\hich have lieen
formed at a* distance from currents in perfectly still water, us in chalk ami line silt.
The}' must have been floated to their places entangled in the roots of trees, or atu.chcd
to the roots of large buoyant sea-weeds. — BRAZILIAN PEBJJLES (so called from Brazil
having been long famous for the purity of its rock crystal), are very pure pieces of vock
crystrl (q.v.), used by opticians for making the lenses of spectacles, etc.
PECAN'. See HICKOUY, ante.
PECCARY, Drycotdcs, a genus of pachydermata, of the family suida, much resem-
bling hogs; but having a mere tubercle instead of a tail: only three toes — no external
toe — on the hind-feet; the moiar teeth and incisors very like those of hogs, hut the
canine teeth not nearly so long and not curving outwards. An approach to ruminants
is seen in the stomach, which is divided into several sacs; also in the union of the mcla-
carpal and metalarsal bones of the two greater toes into a kind of cannon bone. A.
glandular opening oil the loins, near the tail, secretes a fetid humor. Only two species
are known, both natives of South America; and, except the tapirs, the only existing
pachydermataof the American continent. — The ( OMMON PECCAKY, COLLARED l'i:i < \I:Y.
or TAJAC.U (D. torquatus), is found in almost all parts of South America; the \Yimi:-
LIPPED PECCAUY (1). ItMulus) is found in many parts of it. Both are gregarious: the
•white-lipped peccary often assembling in very large herds, and sometimes doing great
mischief to maize and other crops. The herds of the white-lipped peccary seem to fol-
low a leader, like those of ruminants. The common peccary chiefly frequents fores'.-,
and small companies sometimes take up their abode in the hollow of a great tree. '1 MC
common peccary is about the size of a small hog, grayish; the hairs alternately ringed
with black and yellowish white, bristly; and on the neck longer, and forming a man:-.
A narrow white collar surrounds the neck. The white-lipped peccary is considerably
larger, of a darker color, with conspicuously white lips. The cars are almost concealed
by the hair. Both species are capable of being tamed, but are of irritable and uncertain
temper. In a wild slate they defend themselves vigorously against assailants, making
good use of their sharp tusks, and a whole herd combine for deferse. The hunter has
often to take refuge from them in a tree. They nre omnivcrous; and if hurtful to crops,
render service by destroying reptiles. Their voice is somewhat like that of the hog, but
iv. ore sharp. Their flesh resembles that of the hog, but is said to be inferior. The
glands on the loins must be cut out immediately after the peccary is killed, or their fetid
humor infects the whole flesh. No attempts seem yet to have been made for the
economic domestication of the peccaries.
PE-CHIH-LE'. See CHIH-LE.
PECK, a measure of capacity for dry goods, such as grain, fruit, etc., used in Britain,
and equivalent to 2 imperial gallons, or 554'548 cubic inches. It is thus the fourth part
of a bushel (q.v.) The old Scotch peck, the 16th part of a boll, when of wheat, was
slightly less than the imperial peck; but when of barley, was equal to about 1.456 of it.
"PECK, GEORGE, D.D., 1797-1876; b. N.Y. ; joined the Geuesec conference of th«
Methodist Episcopal church in 1816; appointed presiding elder of the Susquehanna dis-
trict in 1824; was principal of the Oneida conference seminary in 1835-40, and in tho
last vear was elected cditor.of the Methodist Quarterly Review, which position he filled
for eight years. In 1848 he was elected chief editor of the Christian Advocah and Jour-
nal, in New York, retaining the position for four years. He was pastor at Wilkcsbarre,
Scran ton; Providence, Dunmore; and his public labors included a period of 60 years.
His published works are Unicersalism Examined; Scripture Doctrine of C In-Main Perfec-
tion; Rule of Faith; Reply to Sascom; Manly Character; Our Country, its Trials and it*
Triumphs.
PECK, JESSE TUTJESDELL, D.D., b. K Y., 1811; joined the Oneida conference in
1832; was principal of the Gouverneur Wesley an seminary in 1837-41, and of the Troy
conference academy at West Poultney, Vt., in 1841-48; president of Dickinson college
in 1848-52; pastor of the Foundry church in Washington, D. C., two years. In 1:
he was appointed secretary and editor of the Methodist tract society; labored eight years
in California as pastor and presiding elder Returning to the east he was pastor in
Y1 1__1_!11 411 ~~A ^.... ... • . ..,,.] J« 1 OTO tv-inci fi\fir*t/*A V*?ol»/^T-v OI1C Of
jmnt.
* PECK, JOHN JAMES, 1821-78; b. N. Y. ; educated at West Point, and in 1843
received the commission of lieut. in the artillery. He served at Palo Alto, Monterey.
and several other battles of the Mexican war; at the assault on Molino del Rey displayed
great gallantry, and was brevetted major. In 1853 he resigned his commission and
became a banker in Syracuse, N. Y. He took great interest in politics, and was a dele
gate to the democratic national conventions of 1856 and 1860. In 1861 he was made
brig.gen. of volunteers, and placed in command of a brigade of the 4th corps. He was
Pecan.
Fectinibranchlata.
present at the battles of Williams! >;:i'g and Fair Oaks, at the siege of Richmond, and
had charge of the defense of Suffolk, v'a. Ill 1864 he was employed in North Carolina,
and the same year was given command of the forces near the Canadian border. He was
mustered out iu 1865, and until his death was engaged in the insurance business in New-
York, being for many years president of the New York state life insurance co. of
Syracuse.
PECK, JOHN MASON, D.D., 1789-1858; b. Conn.; removed in 1811 to Greene cq.,
N. Y., where he united with a Baptist church; and in 1814 became pastor of a church in
Amenia, N. Y. In 1817 he was an itinerant missionary in Illinois and Missouri. He
w is the principal in 1830-31 of a seminary at Rock Spring, 111. He was one of the
founders of the theological seminary at Coviugton, Ky. ; in 1843-45 he was secretary
preacher.
PECK, WILLIAM G., LL.D., b. Conn., 1820; educated at West Point, and in 1844
received a commission as lieut. in the corps of topographical engineers. From 1847
to 1855 he was assistant professor of mathematics at the military academy. In 1855 he
resigned, and was made professor of physics and engineering at the university of
Michigan. In 1857 he accepted the position of professor of mathematics and astronomy
in Columbia college, New York, where he has remained. He has published Elements
of Mechanics, 1859; an edition of Gauot's Natural Philosophy, 1860; and was joint editor
with Davies of the Mathematical Dictionary and Cyclopaedia of Mathematical Science. He
has written several text-books also.
PECOBA (Lat. cattle), a Linnaean order of mammalia, now generally called ruminan-
tia (q.v.).
PECOS, a river of Texas, rises in the mountains near Santa Fe, New Mexico, runs
south-easterly 600 m. through New Mexico and Texas, and flows into the Rio Grande-
del- Norte, in Int. about 29° 20' n., long. 102° west.
PECOS, a co. in w. Texas, bounded on the e. and n.e. by the Pecos river, and on
the s. by the Rio Grande; about 11,500 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 1807—540 of American birth.
It is well adapted to grazing, and has some good farming land. Co. seat, Fort
Stockton.
PECQUET, JEAN, 1620-74; b. Dieppe. He studied medicine at Montpellier, where
he soon made the important discovery of the course of the lacteal vessels, including the
situation of the sac, called the recepl<iculum chyli, or reservoir of Pecquet as it is some-
timqs called, and the termination of the principal lacteal vessel, the thoracic duct, into
the left subclavian vein. Pecquet was one of the first members of the academy of
sciences at Paris. His principal works are: Experimenta nova Anatomica (Paris, 1651);
and De Circulatione Sanguinis et Ghyli Motu, and De Tfwracicis Lacteis (1654).
PECTEN, a genus of lamellibranchiate mollusks, commonly referred to the same
family with the oyster (ostreadce), which is sometimes called pectinida. The shell has
neither teeth nor laminae in the hinge; the valves are unequal, one of them being often
much more convex than the other; the shape is regular; the hinge is extended by ears,
and in most of the species both valves have ribs radiating from the umbo to the margin.
Hence the name pecten (Lat. a comb), from the appearance which they present. The
animal has a small foot; some of the species are capable of attaching themselves by a
byssus; they are capable also of locomotion by opening and rapidly closing the valves,
and in this way can even regain the sea from a short distance by leaping on the shore.
Some of the larger species are often popularly called clams, a name shared by other
bivalves. P. Jacobceus, a native of the Mediterranean, is the SCALLOP-SHELL which
pilgrims were accustomed to wear in front of their hats, in token of their having visited
the shrine of St. James at Compostella. It attains a size of about 4 in. long and 5 in.
broad. P. maximus, found on many parts of the British coasts, is about 6 in. broad.
It is sometimes eaten, but is hard and indigestible. Several other species are British.
Species are found in almost all parts of the world.
PECTIC ACID AND PECTINE. See FRUITS.
PECTINIBRANCHIA'TA (Lat. comb-gilled), an order of gasterppodous mollusks, hav-
ing the gills composed of numerous leaflets or fringes, arranged like the teeth of a comb,
and» affixed to the internal surface of a cavity which opens with a wide opening above
the head. The sexes are distinct. All the pcctinibranchiata have two tentacles and two
eyes, the eyes often stalked. The mouth is produced into a proboscis, more or less
lengthened. The eggs are deposited in a mass, with an envelope often of very remarka-
ble and complicated form, which is produced by coagulation of a viscous albuminous
matter secreted by a peculiar gland of the female. The pectinibranchiata are very
numerous, the greater number of gasteropods being included ia this order; some have a
siphon, and some are destitute of it; some have spiral, and some have simply conical
shells. Almost all are inhabitants of the sea or its shores; a few are found in fresh
water. To this order belong whelks, periwinkles, cones, volutes, calyptraew, etc.
Pectoriloqny. /1 9 A
J'edigree.
PECTORIL'OQTTY is a term of such frequent occurrence in the history of chest diseases
as to require a brief notice in this work. If the stethoscope be applied to the chest
of a healthy person, and he be requested to speak, the sounds of his voice will be
conveyed to the ear of the observer with very different degrees of clearness, accord-
ing to the part of the chest on which the base of the instrument rests. If, for
example, it be applied at the top of the sternum or breast-bone the voice will reach
the ear, through the tube, with tolerable distinctness. For a short distance on either
side of the sternum, just below the collar-bones, and in the arm-pits, the voice is s'.ill
heard, but the sound is indistinct and confused. Below the third rib, and over the
remainder of the chest, the voice only produces an obscure thrilling sound which is
known as pectoral resonance. In certain morbid conditions the sounds of the voiee seem
to proceed with distinctness from the walls of the chest directly into the car ; and then, in
place of the normal pectoral resonance, we have the physical sign known as pectoriloquy
(from the Latin picture, from the chest, and ioquor, 1 speak). It occurs when a tolerably
superficial excavation, of moderate or considerable size, lies under the stethoscope; and
hence it was at one time regarded as an almost certain indication of advanced consump-
tion, but it is now known that it may also occur when solidified masses of rung lie
between a large bronchial tube and the part of the chest on which the instrument rests.
PECTOSE. See FRUIT, ante.
PECULIAR (Fr. peciilier, i.e., private) is, in English law, a particular parish or church
having jurisdiction within itself, and exempt from the jurisdiction of the ordinary. The
courts of peculiars in these jurisdictions amount to about 300 in England and Wales,
and had jurisdiction in reference to probates of wills before the recent constitution of
the court of probate. Their jurisdiction is still somewhat obscure.
PEDAL (Lat. pes, a foot), any part of a musical instrument acted on by the feet. The
pianoforte, the harp, and the organ, are furnished with pedals, which, however, serve
an entirely different purpose in each instrument. In the pianoforte their object is to
effect a change in the quality or intensity of the sound; the damper pedal prolongs the
sound after the finger is lifted from the key, and the shifting or una cordu pedal softens
the tone. The pedals of the harp are the means by which the chromatic changes of
intonation are effected. In the organ the pedals are keys put in action by the feet. The
division of the organ which is connected with the foot-keys is called the pedal-organ,
and contains the largest pipes. The introduction of pedals in the organ is assigned to
a German of the name of Bernhard, who flourished in the loth c. ; they were long of
being brought into use in England, but now few organs, except those of the smallest
dimensions, are made without them. Pedals are also used in the organ to act on tho
swell and on the stops. See ORGAN.
PEDALIA'CEJE. See BIGNONIACE/E.
PEDAL-POINT, or PEDAL HARMONY. See ORGAN-POINT.
PEDDLERS. See HAWKERS.
PEDEE', GREAT, a river of North and South Carolina, rises in the Alleghany
mountains, in the n.w. of North Carolina, and running s. by e. flows through the e. por-
tion of South Carolina, and enters the Atlantic through Winyaw bay at Georgetown. It
is navigable to Cheraw, 150 m., and is about 350 m. in length. — The LITTLE PEDEE, its
principal eastern branch, is formed by the confluence of several smaller rivers in the s.
part of North Carolina.
PEDESTAL, a base or block on which columns, statues, etc., are frequently set. The
pedestal is much used in classic architecture. Like the column, it has a base and a sort
of capital or cornice, called the surbase. The shaft, or plain block is called the dado or
die.
PEDETES, or HEL'AMYS, a genus of rodent quadrupeds of the family intiridce, allied
to jerboas, but differing from them in some of the characters of their dentil io-i. The
hind-legs, although very long, are not so long as in the jerboas. The tail is long. The
JUMPING HARE (P. or H. capensis) of south Africa is about the size of a rabbit. It can
jump 20 or 30ft. at a bound. Its fore-feet also are very strong, and it burrows very
expeditiously. The claws are long and strong. The habits of the animal are nocturnal,
and it does considerable mischief in corn fields and gardens.
PEDICELLAE I2E are very remarkable minute appendages of the integuments of many
of the echinodermata, having the form of a stalk, with a small two-bladed or three-bladod
forceps at its summit. They are of a fleshy substance, with calcareous granules
imbedded, and in a living state the blades are continually opening and closing. They
were at OTIC time supposed to be parasitic zoophytes, but are now generally believed to
be organs of the star-fish or sea-urchin, although their use is merely conjectured to be
that of keeping the surface of the echinoderm free of algae and zoophytes. The intro-
duction of a pin's point between the blades causes an immediate closing of them. They
are found both on shelly and on comparatively soft integuments, and are always present,
and always of a particular form, according to the species of echinoderm, and according
to the particular place which they occupy, being crowded chiefly around the spines, and
near the mouth of sea-urchins.
mPectoriloquy.
Pedigree.
PEDICULA'RIS, a genus of herbaceous plants of the natural order scrophulariaccce,
some of which have rather large arid finely-colored flowers. Two species, P. palustris
and P. sylvatica, are natives of Britain, common in wet grounds. Both have received
the name of lousewort, the English equivalent of " pedicularis," from their supposed
influence in producing the lousy disease in sheep; an influence purely imaginary. Their
acridity renders them injurious to sheep which eat them. Continental Europe and the
northern parts of Asia produce many ether species, and some are found in Nor'ih
America. P. sceptrum, or king Charles's scepter, is one of the principal ornaments of
marshy grounds in the most northern countries of Europe.
PEDIC ULUS. See LOUSE.
PEDIGREE (probably from Lat. pes, a foot), a tabular view of the members of a par-
ticular family with the relations in which they stand to each other, accompanied or
unaccompanied by a notice of the chief events in the life of each, with their dates, and
the evidence of the facts stated. Pedigrees are indispensable aids to the student of his-
tory. The wars of the Hoses, the claim of Edward 111. to the crown of France, the rela-
tive position of Mary and lady Jane Grey, the circumstances which brought about The
union of the crowns of England and Scotland, the Sleswick-Holstein question, which
occupied the attention of all Europe, and many other familiar chapters in the history of
nations, as well as of families, cannot be read aright without the aid of pedigrees. ?i Le
materials to be used in the formation of a pedigree are notes of the facts to be set forth,
and a recognized series of signs and abbreviations. These notes comprise the name of
every person who is to appear in the pedigree, with such dates and circumstances as it
may be considered desirable to record. Among the commonest abbreviations are dan,
for daughter of; s. and //., son and heir of; colt., coheir of; w., wife of; s. p. (nine prole),
without issue; v. p. (vita patria), in his father's lifetime; b., born, d., died; dep., deposed;
K., king; E., earl, etc. The sign = placed between two names, indicates that they
were husband and wife. All pi nous of the same generation are to be kept in the same
horizontal line; and the main line of descent is, wherever possible, to be indicated by
keeping the successive names in a vertical column. Continuous lines indicate the suc-
cession of the different generations. » The numbers of the same family arc generally
arranged in their order of birth in two groups — the sons first, and then the daughters;
but where the same father or mother has children by more than one marriage, the chil-
dren of each marriage ought to form distinct groups. The actual arrangement, however,
of a pedigree must always depend on the leading object which it is intended to illus-
trate.
Tabular genealogies, generally brief, and meant to illustrate some particular claim of
right, are found among the records, public and private, of the early middle ages; but after
the incorporation of the English heralds' college, far more attention was devoted to the
compilation of pedigrees of families, more particularly with reference to their claims to
dignities and heraldic insignia. In the course of the 16th c. the heralds obtained copies
of all such accounts of the English families of any distinction as could be supplied 1o
them, and entered them in the books which contain the records of their official proceed-
ings. Royal commissions were issued under the great seal to the two provincial kings-
of-arms, empowering them to visit in turn the several counties of Enghmd, in order to
collect from the principal persons of each county an account of the changes which had
taken place in their respective families in the interval since the last preceding visitation,
and to inquire what account could be given of themselves by families who had stepped
into the rank of gentry, or had become settled in the county since that period. The reg-
ister-books kept by the heralds and their assistants contain the pedigrees and arms col-
lected in the course of the visitations, with the signatures of the heads of the families.
The pedigrees thus collected contain a vast body of information, interesting not only to
the professed genealogist, but to every one who would know anything of the distin-
guished characters in English history. Some of these books are lost, the rest are scat-
tered among the public and-private libraries of the country, the largest collections being
in the archives of the college of arms and the British museum. After the beginning of last
century the visitations were discontinued, and there has since been no official and regular
collection of pediorees. A standing order of the house of lords in 1767 required that
before any peer should be allowed to take his seat, garter-king-of-arms was to deliver at
the table of the house of lords a pedigree of his family, to bb verified by the committee
of privileges, and eventually preserved in the records of the house, a copy being also
registered in the college of' arms. This order was rescinded by lord Thurlow in 1802,
with the view of framing a new one: but, unfortunately, this was never done. Persons
sensible of the importance of preserving an authentic account of their descent, frequently
record their pedigrees for preservation in the register of the college of arms. This regis-
ter is quite distinct from the .heraldic department of that institution, and is open to any
one who wishes to preserve 'evidence of any properly authenticated facts regarding his
descent and family. — In Scotland, in the absence of the regular system of visitations
which prevailed in' England, there is a great deal of evidence regarding the pedigrees of
the hislc
lections,
gimilar to
Pedigree.
Peel.
gives of applicants, after being proved to the satisfaction of the heraldic authorities, are
inserted with the accompanying evidence. " To what extent tliu register of genealogies
in the. lyon oilicc may be admitted as a probative document, conclusive of the facts
\vliieh it sets forth, lias not been ascertained by actual decision; but there can be no
doubt that, in questions both as to property and honor--; it would b' regarded as a mo>t
important adminicle of proof. The genealogical department of liu: heralds' college in
London is a very important one. and it is to be rcgrcited that the uses of the correspond-
ing department of the lyon office are so little understood and appreciated by the public."
— Larimer's Handbook of t/tc Law of Scotland, 3d edit. p. 446.
PEDIGREE, in point of law, is the legal relationship between individuals which is
looked to with regard to the descent of property and honors. The occasion in which it
comes into question ia where a, person dies, in which case his property, if he died intes-
tate, is divided among those who are related by blood. The real properly goes to one
set of relations, and the personal property to others. See LVIKSTACY, NKXT OF KIN,
SUCCESSION, Puterson's Comp. of English and Scotch Law, 251, :J57.
PEDIMENT, the triangular space over the portico at the ends of the roof of classic
buildings. It is inclosed by the horizontal and the nikiiiy cornices, the latter of which
follow the slopes of the roof. The pediment maybe called the gable of --la-Mc build-
ings. It is frequently enriched with sculpture, for which it forms a. fine setting. The
doors and windows of classic buildings are often surmounted by pediments, either
straight-sided or curved.
PEDOBAPT1SM. See BAPTISM, INFANT, ante.
PEDOM ETEE, an instrument for measuring walking distances. It sometimes has a
watch or clock attached. In the patent pedometer of Messrs. Payne, William, & Co.,
there is a repeating watch which shows seconds, minutes, and hoars, and also the day
of the month. They are used by pedestrians, and for measuring streets when the fares
of hired carriages are disputed. See ODO.MKTKR.
PEDRO I. (DoM PEDRO D'ALCANTARA), Emperor of Brazil, was the second son of
John VI., king of Portugal, and was born at Lisbon, Oct. 13, 1798. On the death of
his elder brother in 1801, he became prince of Beja, and heir to the throne; and after
his father's accession to the throne of Portugal and Brazil in 1816, he received the title
of prince of Brazil. He was carried along with the rest of the royal family of Portugal
iu their flight to Brazil in 1807, and from that time remained in that country. Hi-; edu-
cation, owing to political disturbances, was not carried on systematically, a;>d after his
arrival in Brazil, he was left to instruct himself very much according to hi>own inclina-
tion. In 1817 he married the archduchess Leopoldiue of Austria, and on his father's
return to Lisbon in 1821, was named regent of Brazil. At this time a great political
crisis was impending; the Brazilians had been utterly disgusted at the prcfernnMit of
Portuguese to the highest offices of state and the chief clerical dignities, and their discon-
tent was heightened by the refusal of the Portuguese cortes to accord to Brazil a liberal
constitution similar to that which had been granted to the mother-country, and by its
arbitrary command, that Pedro, who was at the head of the liberal party, should at once
return to Portugal to complete his education. Pedro, however, cast in his lot with the
Brazilians, despite threats of exclusion from the throne of Portugal, and was chosen,
Oct. 12, 1822, emperor of Brazil. His government was very vigorous, but a war which
broke out between his supporters and the advocates of republicanism, distracted the
country for a time, and prevented the liberal measures of the government from taking
full effect. In 1825 his title was recognized by the Portuguese cortes; and the death of
his father, in the following year, opened for him the succession to the throne of Portugal.
This revived the national spirit of the Brazilian chambers, who feared that they were
about to be again reduced to a dependent state, and Pedro's hasty and passionate temper
led him to measures which whetted the general discontent. . But he merely retained the
dignity of king of Portugal long enough to show his right to it, and, alter granting a
more liberal constitution, immediately resigned in favor of his daughter, Maria 11. The
disturbances in Brazil still increased, the finances fell into disorder, the emperor's second
marriage with the princess Amelia of Leuchtenburg displeased his subjects; and after
making various ineffectual attempts to restore tranquillity, he was compelled, by the
revolution of July, 1831, to resign the throne in favor of his son, Pedro II., ,-. boy of 5}
years old. Pedro then sailed for Portugal, where his brother Miguel had usurped the
throne; and with the aid of an army which was swelled by French and English volun-
teers, after a three years' campaign, he drove away the usurper, and restored his daughter
to the throne in 1834. But the ceaseless excitement by which he had been surrounded,
and the excessive demands on his energies, had produced total exhaustion, and he died
Sept. 24, 1834. See BRAZIL; MIGUEL, DOM; and PORTUGAL.
PEDRO IL DE ALCANTARA, JOAO CARLOS LEOPOLD SALVATOR BTBTANO FRAN-
CISCO XAVIER DA PAULO LEUCADTO MIGUEL GABRIEL RAFAEL GONZAOA, Dom, Emperor
of Brazil, b. Rio Janeiro, Dec. 2, 1825: ascended the throne after the revolution of 1831
li^l compelled his father dom Pedro I. to abdicate, but was not crowned emperor until
July 18, 1841. He married, Sept. 4, 1843, dona Theresa Christina Maria, daughter of Fran-
Pedigree.
Peel.
«
cis I., king of the Two Sicilies. The line has been continued through the marriage of
the emperor's daughter to Louis, count d'Eu, son of the due de Nemours, to whom a son
was born in 1875, who is the heir apparent to the throne of Brazil. The reign of dom
Pedro has been generally marked by the exercise of wisdom and good judgment, under
which the condition of the country has been measurably progressive. In 1876 the
emperor and empress visited the United States, arriving in April, and devoted their time;
to visiting the principal cities; the emperor making a thorough investigation of the public
institutions of the country, the system of government, education, facilities for transpor-
tation, commerce, and manufactures. On May 10, he assisted president Grant in the
formal opening of the centennial exhibition at Philadelphia. He visited the west, extend-
ing his journey as far .as California, and. on leaving the United States, made a rapid trip
through Europe, and to Egypt and Syria.
PEDTJN'CLE. See FLOWER.
PEEBLES. See PEEBLESSHIRE.
PEEBLESSHIRE, a co. in the s. of Scotland, also called Tweeddale, from consisting
mainly of the upper valley of the Tweed, a river which originates in the county. Peob-
lesshire is bounded by Dumfries and Selkirk shires on the s., Lanarkshire on the w.,
Mid-Lothian on the n., and Selkirkshire on the east. The county is small, containing
only 356 sq.m., or 227,869 statute acres. Its lowest point above the mean level of the
sea is about 450'ft., from which to 1200 ft. is the region of cultivation; but the county
being a group of hills, is mostly pastoral, with the arable lands chiefly in the valleys.
The highest hill his Broad Law, which reaches an elevation of 2,761 feet. Within the
county, the Tweed has for tributaries the small rivers Eddleston, Leithen, Quair, Manor,
and Lyne, besides many mountain rivulets. Peeblesshire comprehends 16 parishes, but
several being ecclesiastically united, the number of parish churches, each with a settled
minister, is 14; the number of parish schools is 15. The only town in the county is
Peebles, an ancient royal burgh, pleasantly situated on a peninsula formed at the conflu-
ence of the Eddleston with the Tweed. The principal villages are Inuerleithen, Walker
Burn, West Linton, and Carlops. In 1871 the population of the county was 12,330, of
whom 3,172 belonged to Peebles, which, distant 22 m. from Edinburgh, is the seat of a
sheriff and county administration. It is also the seat of a presbytery. Besides the parish
church, the town has several dissenting places of worship, including an Episcopal and a
Roman Catholic chapel. It likewise possesses some good schools, has three branch
banks, and a number of inns. As a means of literary and social improvement, Mr. W.
Chambers, in 1859, made a free gift to this his native town of a spacious suite of build-
ings, comprising a reading-room, a public library consisting of 15,000 volumes, a museum,
gallery of art, and a hall for lectures and concerts — the whole being designated the
Chambers' Institution. Long secluded from general traffic, Peeblesshire has been lately
opened up by railways; and the woolen manufacture has made considerable progress in
the parish of Innerleithen. In 1877-78, the valued rental of the county, town included,
exclusive of railway property, was £125,820; the valuation of railway property being
£31,099. Peeblesshire abounds in the remains of British hill-forts, border towers, and
other antiquities, and possesses numerous modern mansions of a handsome kind. For-
merly, the only account of the shire was a Description of Tweeddale, by Dr. Alexander
Pennicuik, 1715; reissued with notes. 1815; but in 1864 there was written a History of
Peeblesshire, by W. Chambers, 1 vol. 8vo, illustrated with maps and wood-engravings.
PEEKSKILL,.a village of Cortland township, Westchester co., K Y. ; 42 m. n. of
New York city, on the Hudson River railroad, and 17 m. below Newburg; pop. '70,
6,560, since increased. The village is surrounded by most beautiful river scenery, and
has many elegant country residences. The chief manufactures are of iron ware, locomo-
tives, agricultural tools, boilers, and machinery. There are water-works, a steam ferry,
2 weekly papers, an academy, 2 banks, a convent, and 15 churches. The rev. Henry
Ward Beecher has for a number of years made Peekskill his summer home, and has built
himself an exceedingly attractive residence.
PEEL, a co. in s. Ontario, Canada, on the n. shore of lake Ontario; watered by the
Humber river, on the Grand Trunk, Great Western, and Toronto, and the Grey and
Bruce railroads; 269 sq.m. ; pop. '70, 76,369. Co, seat, Brampton.
PEEL, a small but populous and thriving seaport t. on the w. coast of the Isle of
Man. It was formerly called "Holm," and was a place of great importance in the
island. The herring-fishery, the building of vessels of small tonnage, and the manufac-
ture of nets are here carried on extensively, and form a source of large profits to the
inhabitants. The bay is spacious, and abounds with fish of excellent quality.
At the northern extremity of this bay are several grotesque and romantic' caverns.
The southern extremity is formed by Pee! island, on which stand the grand old ruins of
Peel castle and St. German's cathedral. The castle was formerly the frequent residence
of the earls of Derby, then lords of the Isle of Man, and is expressly named in the origi-
nal grant of Henr}" IV, to the Stanley family. Beneath the cathedral is a strong subter-
ranean dungeon, where many noble persons were in former days imprisoned, including
Thomas earl of Warwick, in' the time of Richard II., and Elinor Cobhain duchess of
Peel.
Peer.
i
Gloucester, who was sentenced to perpf'ual imprisonment in it in the year 1440, and
who died within its gloomy recesses. In *ir Walter Scott's Pereril of the, Peak, constant
mention is made of this castle, and indeed it may be said to be the scene of the storv.
Tin: ruins arc yearly visited and admired by thousands of persons from all parts of the
United Kingdom. The to\vn of Peel is now rapidly extending its boundaries, and bids
fciir to become a place of considerable commercial importance. Pop. '71, 3,513.
PEEL, Sir ROP.KUT, a very eminent British statesman, b. Feb. o, 1788, near Bury, in
Lancashire. His falher, sir Robert Peel (created a baronet in 1800), was a wealthy cot-
ton-spinner, from whom he inherited a great fortune. He was educaK d at Harrow, and
at Christ-church. (Word, where he graduated r,.\. in 1*08 — taking a double first-class —
and entered the house of commons in 1809 as member tor Cash el, adopting the strong
lory politics of his father. Percival was then prime-minister. Peel si.-t quietly about
the business-work of the house, feeling his way with thai steady prudence and persever-
ing diligence that were the conspicuous features of his character. In 1811 he was
appointed under-seeretary for the colonies; and from 1*12 to 1818 he held theofiiceof
secretary for Ireland. In tins capacity he displayed a strong uuti -Catholic spirit
(whence the witty Irish gave him the nickname of " Orange -Peel "), and was inconse-
quence so fiercely, or, shall we say, ferociously attacked by O'Connell, that even the
cool and cautious secretary was driven to send the agitator a challenge. The police,
however, prevented the duel from taking place. From 1818 till 1822 Peel remained out
of office, but not out of parliament, where lie sat for the university of Oxford. He now
began to acquire a reputation as a financier and economist: and in 1819 was app<
chairman of the bank committee, and moved the resolutions which led to the resumption
of cash-payments. He was still, however, as averse as ever to anything like religious or
political reform. No member of the Liverpool-Cast lereagh cabinet could have been to
appearance more resolute. He even vehemently defended the infamous " Pcterloo
massacre" of 1819. In 1822 he re-entered the ministry as home secretary — Canning
shortly after becoming foreign secretary, on the suicide of lord Castlereagh. The two
worked together pretty well for some time, as Peel devoted himself chiefly to financial
matters, and especially to the currency; hut "Roman Catholic emancipation" was a
question on which Canning was considerably in advance of his brother-secretary; and
when the former was called upon by the king, after the resignation of lord Liverpool, to
form a sort of whig-lory ministry, Peel, along with the duke of Wellington and others
withdrew from office. Yet il is sigularly characteristic of this most honest and c<>n,fnti-
inixing statesman, that even when he seceded (1827). his opinions were veering round to
the liberal and generous view of the claims of Roman Catholics; and when the <!< atli of
Canning, shortly after, led to the formation of the Wellington-Peel government, its
great measure— actually introduced by "Orange-Peel" himself— was the cvcr-mcmora-
hle one for the "relief" of the Roman Catholics (1829). As home ; ecretary. he also
signalized himself by a reorganization of the London police force — since popularly called
"Peelers" and "Bobbies," their previous sobriquet being "Charlies" — from king
Charles!., who (1640) extended and improved the police system— and by the introduc-
tion of several other important measures.
Meanwhile, the university of Oxford had rejected its apostate representative, and
chosen
ary
ministry
carried the reform bill. Peel (now," by the~death of his father, sir Robert Peel), when
he saw that reform was inevitable, accepted defeat and its results with great equanimity.
He shrank from anything like factious opposition to the measure, and contented himself
with presenting as forcibly as he could the political per-ccntra. After it was passed, he
became the leader of the "conservative" opposition; and. as we have said, accepting
reform itself as a fait accompli and irreversible, he only sought by keen ami vigilant,
criticism of whig measures to retard the too rapid strides of liberalism. In 1833, when
the first " reformed" parliament assembled, Peel took his seat as member for Tamworth,
which he represented till the close of his life. On the retirement of the Melbourne min-
istry in Nov., 1834, he accepted the office of prime-minister, but. could not succeed in
giving stability to his administration, and was compelled again to give place to viscount
Melbourne in April, 1835, and resumed his place as leader of the opposition. Peel's con-
duct in opposition was always eminently patriotic. The whigs, who were being pi
on the one side by the new radical party and the anti-corn law league, and on the other
by O'Connell and the Irish repealers, gradually lost ground, and being narrowly defeated
in 1841, on a motion of want of confidence, dissolved parliament. The general election
that ensued was virtually a contest between free-trade and protection, i won;
and when the new parliament met, a vote of no-confidence was carried by a majority of
ninety-one. The conservative parly, headed by Peel, now came into olliec. The
feature of the new government was the attitude it adopted on the corn-law
tion. The'whigs, while in office, and even after their expulsion, were bent upon a fixed
but moderate duty on foreign corn; the anti-corn In.w league would hear 01 nothing
short of an entire repeal, while sir Robert was in favor of a modification of the sliding
scale of duty which had existed since 1828. He introduced and carried (1842), in spite
A Q 1 Peel.
Peer.
•f strong opposition, a measure based upon this principle. The deficit in the revenue,
which hud become quite alarming under the Melbourne administration, next engaged his
attention, and led him to bring in a bill (184'3) for the imposition of an " income-tax" of
7d. in the pound, to be levied for three years. To alleviate the uew burden, Peel com-
menced a revision of the general tariff, and either abolished or lowered the duties on
several very important articles of commerce, sucli as drugs, dye-woods, cattle, sheep,
pigs, salted meat, butter, eggs, cheese, and lard. He also showed himself resolute in
1 he repression of the clamorous and anarchic malcontents of Ireland. O'Connell (q.v.)
was tried for conspiracy, and though the judgment against him was set aside on appeal
to the house of lords, the influence of the •' agitator" was broken. The first half of 1845
was marked by the allowance to Maynooth being increased and changed into a perma-
nent endowment instead of an annual grant, and by the foundation of the Irish unsec-
tarian colleges, and other important measures. But the potato-rot in Ireland during the
autumn, followed by a frightful famine, rendered " cheap corn" a necessity, if millions
WI.TC not to starve. Cobden and the league redoubled their exertions. Lord John Rus-
sell announced the views of the whig party on the crisis, and Peel again yielded. He
told his ministerial colleagues that the corn-laws were doomed, and that their repeal was
inevitable. Some of them refusing to go along with him. he resigned; but after a few
days, was recalled, and resumed office. Lord Stanley, the late lord Derby, seceded, and
•with lord George Bentinck, Mr. Disraeli, etc., formed a " no-surrender" tory party; but
the duke of Wellington, Graham, Aberdeen, Gladstone, and other eminent conservatives,
stood by him, and the measure for the repeal was carried. He was, however, immedi-
ately afterwards defeated on an Irish protection of life bill. Not so much upon this
account, as because he felt that the course which he had pursued had produced a disso-
lution of the old ties of party, and that he could not expect for some time to find him-
self at the head of a strong government, Peel retired from office in June, 1846. giving
place to a whig administration under lord John Russell, to which he gave an independ-
ent, but general support as the leader of a middle party rather whig than tory. In the
critical times of 1817—48, he was one of the most important props of the government,
whose free-trade principles he had now completely accepted. His ecclesiastical policy
had also undergone a remarkable change, and he now frankly supported the whigs in
the efforts to carry an act. for the repeal of the Jewish disabilities. He was himself
regarded by the working and middle classes generally with much grateful respect. An <
UMexp'.'Cted catastrophe put an end to his career. On June 28, 1850, lie had spoken
with great eloquence in the debate on lord Palmerston's Greek policy; but on the fol-
lowing day was thrown from his horse in Hyde Park, and was so much injured that he
died on the evening of July 2.— He left five sons, the eldest of whom, Sir ROBERT, the
second, Sir FREDERICK, and the fifth, JONATHAN, lieut.gen. in the British army, have
all held offices as ministers.
PEELE, GEORGE, 1553-98; b. England; educated at Oxford. Coming to London he
v.-rote for the stage, and sometimes acted. He was a friend of Marlow, Greene, and
Nash; lived the life of a literary adventurer; and Meres, in his Palladia Tamia, ascribes
his death to debauchery. Six dramas are given in Dyce's edition of his works. The Old
Wives Tale, in its subject, closely resembles Milton's Comus. His non-dramatic poems
are chieily speeches for pageants, or celebrations for public occasions.
PEEL-TOWER (W. pill, a stake, a fortress; Lnt. pila, a stake, pillar, structure), the
name given to the towers erected on the Scottish borders for defense. They are square,
with turrets at the angles, and the door is sometimes at a height from the ground. The
lower story is usually vaulted, and formed a stable for horses, cattle, etc. For an
account of these old towers, now mostly in ruin, see History ofPeeblesshire bv W Cham-
bers, 1884.
PEEPTJL, PIPUL, or PIPPUL, Ficits rdigiosa, also known as the SACRED FIG of India,
and in Ceylon called the Bo TREE; a species of fig (q.v.) somewhat resembling the ban-
yan, but the branches not rooting like those of that tree, and the leaves heart-shaped
with long attenuated points. The tree is held sacred by the Hindus, because Vishnu i?
said to have been born under it. It is generally planted near temples, and religious
devotees spend their lives under its shade. It is also held sacred by the Buddhists. It
a! tains a great sixe and age. The peepul is often planted near houses, and by the sid-\"
of walks, for the sake of its grateful shade. The juice contains caoutchouc, and is used
by women as bandoline. Lac insects feed upon this tree, and much lac is obtained from
it. The fruit is not much larger than a grape, and although eatable, is not valued.
PEER (Fr. pair; Lat. par. equal), a general name applied to the titled nobility of
<.'; :it Britain and Ireland, indicating their equality of rank. The peerage includes the
various degrees of baron, viscount, earl, marquis, and duke. The peers of England, of
Great Britain, of the United Kingdom, and certain representative peers of Scotland and
Ireland, together witli certain of the bishops and archbishops, who are called lords
spiritual, ^constitute the house of lords. The dignity of the peerage is hereditary, but
iu early times was territorial. Life peerages seem at one time to have been not unknown
in England: but in 1856 sir James Parke, having been created by her mr^sty baron
Peet.
Pehlevl.
Wensleydale "for and during the term of his natural life," the house of lords, on the
report of a committee of privileges, held that he was not entitled to sit and vole in pur-
liament. Ladies may be peeresses in their own right, cither by creation or by inherit-
ance. The wives of peers arealso styled peeresses. Under the articles Nor.n.iTY, PAR-
LIAMENT, DUKE, MARQUIS, EAKI,, VISCOUNT, and HAUON. will be found notices of cadi
order of peers, and of the origin, history, and privileges of the peers as a bodv.
A certain limited number of the French nobility were styled peers of France.
PEET, HARVEY PRINDLE, LL.D., 1794-1873; b. Conn.; graduated at Ya^o college in
1822, and for nine years was the assistant of rev. Thomas II. Gallaudet in the deal1 and
dumb asylum at Hartford, the first institution of the kind in iliis country. In ls:Jl he
became president of the New York institute for the deal' and dumb. Dr. Peet was the
author of a Course of Instruction for the Deaf and Dumb, and wrote many papers on tho
same subject and on insanity.
PEEWIT. See LAPWING.
PE GANUM. a genus of plants of the natural order zygophyUacea, of which the only
known species, P. harmala, a, half-shrubby plant with linear, smooth, alino-t bipinnati-
fid leaves, and solitary, white, axillary flowers, a native of the Levant and the n. of
India, is sometimes cultivated in gardens under the name of SYRIAN Hi H. The seeds
are narcotic, and the emperor Solymau is said to Ijave kept himself intoxicated by eating
them. They were formerly used in medicine in Europe, and still are in the east The
Turks use them as a spice, and also for dyeing red. The plant is believed to be the
harmala of the Greeks, mentioned by Dioseorides as one of the kinds otptyunon.
PEGASSE, or PACASSR, Bos pe/jasuf, a species of ox, a native of the interior of western
Africa. The head is short and thick, the forehead vide; the horns long, extending
laterally from the frontal ridge, then turning downwards, and again upwards; the ears
very large and pendulous; the neck maned; the tail entirely covered with long hair; the
legs long. Little is yet known of this curious species of a most important tribe.
PEGASUS, in Greek mythology, a winged horse which arose with Chrysaor from the
blood of the Gorgon Medusa, when she was slain by Perseus. lie is said to have
received his name because he first made his appearance beside the sprint-
Oceanus. He afterwards ascended to heaven, and was believed to carry the thunder
and lightning of Zeus. According to later authors, however, he was the horse of Eos.
The myth concerning Pegasus is interwoven with that of the victory of Bellerophon over
Chimaera. Bellerophon had in vain sought to catch Pegasus for "his combat with this
monster, but was advised by the seer Polyidos of Corinth to sleep in the temple of Mi-
nerva, and the goddess appearing to him in his sleep, gave him a golden bridle and ccr»
tain instructions, upon which he acted, and made use of Pegasus in his combat with the
Chinuera, the Amazons, and the Solymi. Pegasus is also spoken of in modern times as tho
horse of the muses, which, however, he was not. The ancient legend on this subject is,
that the nine muses and the nine daughters of Pieros engaged in a competition in sing-
ing by Helicon, and everything was motionless to hear their song, save Helicon, which
rose ever higher and higher in its delight, when Pegasus put a stop to this with a kick
of his hoof, and from the print arose Hippocrene, the inspiring spring of the muses.
But that Pegasus is the horse of the muses is entirely a modern idea, being first found
in the Orlando I/inamorato of Boiardo.
PEGASUS, a genus of fishes, constituting .the family pec/asidce, of the order loplo-
branchii (q.v.). The species are few; they are small fishes, natives of the Indian se:,s,
interesting from their peculiar form and appearance. The breast is greatly expanded,
much broader than high, the gill-openings in the sides; the pectoral fins are extremely
large and strong; a long snout projects before the eyes, and the mouth is situated under
and at the base of it; the body is surrounded by three knobbed or epinous rings. One
soecies (P. draco) is called the 'SEA DRAGON, another (P. whins) is popularly known as
the PEGASUS.
PEGLI, a t. in the province of Genoa, Italy, situated on the gulf of Genoa, 6 m. w.
of the city of Genoa; pop. '75, 5,000. It has fine hotels and bathing-houses for the
accommodation of travelers, who resort hither on account of the fine climate, and'tho
beauty of the place. Orange groves and gardens surround the town.
PEGS. Small square pointed pegs of wood have of late years been introduced by the
Americans in the manufacture of boots and shoes, for the purpose of connecting the
parts of the sole and upper leather together without sewing. See SITOKMAKINO. This
invention has been so extensively adopted, that the mamifacture of wooden pegs, for
this purpose, has become an important trade in America and Bohemia, from which
countries a considerable importation is made to Great Britain. They arc chiefly made
of maple-wood, and are rarely more than an inch in length.
PEGU', a province of British Burmah, lies between the parallels of 15° 14' and 19' 27' n.
lat., and the meridians of 94° 13' and 96° 52' e. long., and is divided for fiscal purpose? into
tke following districts:
4 qo Feet.
Pelilevi.
Area in sq. miles. Population, 1872.
Thayetmyo 2.397 158,816
Prome 2,887 274,87'2
Myanoung 4,150 476,612
Bassein 8,0(56 322,689
Rangoon (including city) 9,800 431,069
Total 27,300 1,662,058
Of this number of inhabitants, about 800,000 are true Burmans; but in addition to these,
there is a sprinkling of Karens, who live in the wild and hilly districts, Taleius or
Peguers, Shans, Khyengs, Yabaiugs, Indians, Chinese, and a few "other races.*
RACES.
1. Europeans and their descendants 2,409
2. Burmese, including Araeauese and Talaings 924 091
3. Karens 249.518
4. Shans and Tourigthoos : . . . 24.689
5. Chinese 1,724
6. Khyengs 18,879
7. Indians 11 ,844
8. Mohammedans of Burmah '. 2,089
9. All races not included above 9,142
Total 1,244,385
The principal river of Pegu is the Irrawaddy (q.v ). In March the river begins to rise,
and gradually increases in volume till its waters are 40 ft. above their lowest level.
They rapidly subside in October, when the rains cease, and the n.e. monsoon sets in.
The revenue of Pegu for the year 1862-68 was 5.653,316 rupees; though, under the rule
of the king of Burmah, it did not amount to half that sum. Pegu was annexed to
British India at the close of the Burman war of 1852, since which time slavery has ceased
to exist, schools have been established, and various public works undertaken.
Rice and teak timber are the principal exports. A flotilla of steamers keeps up the
communication between Rangoon (q.v.), the principal port, and the chief stations on the
Irrawaddy, conveying troops, stores, passengers, and mails from place to place. — Win-
ter's Six Months in British Burmah (Lond. 1858); Martin's British India (Lend. 1862).
PEGU, or BASOO, a t. of British Burmah, on the Pegu river, at its junction with
ing. The streets are broad, paved with brick; the houses are built of wood, and raised
on posts. There is a pyramidal pagoda of brick, octagonal at the base, each side meas-
uring 162 ft., and tapering to 360 ft. in height, surrounded with spires and bells. The
town' was captured by the British in 1852.
PEHLEVI (valor, power; zal&n pelilevi = language of heroes) is the name of an
ancient West-Iranian (Median and Persian) idiom, in use chiefly during the period of the
Sassanides (235-640 A.D.). who, wishing fully to restore the ancient Persian empire,
endeavored also to reinstate the primitive national language, fallen into disuse as a court
language since the time of Alexander's conquest. Yet they dM not fix upon the pure
Persian as it was still spoken in the interior, but upon the dialect of the western prov-
inces, largely mixed with Semitic words, to which Aryan terminations were affixed. The
grammatical structure of thePehlevi presents almost the same poverty of inflections and
terminations as the present Persian. Although, however, less rich than Zend (q.v.) in
inflection and accentuation, it yet boasts of the same copiousness of words as that dia-
lect, to which it in reality succeeded. It is written from right to left, and the letters are
mostly joined. The remnants of Pehlevi extant consist of coins, inscriptions (found at
ITajiabad, Persepolis, Kirmanshah. etc.), and a number of books, all relating to the
religion of Zoroaster. The most important of these are the translation of the chief part
of the Zend-Avesta (Yazna, Visparad, and Vendidad), and such original religious works
as the Bundehesh, Shikandgunutni, Dinkart, Atash Baram, etc. The Pehlevi of the
books differs from that of the inscriptions and coins to such a degree — according to the
larger or smaller preponderance of the Semitic element— as to have misled investigators
(Westergaard and others) to assume that two utterly distinct languages, a purely Iranic
and a Semitic one, had been used somewhat indiscriminately at the time. The non-
Iranian element is called Huzvaresh (Huzooresh) by the Parsee priests, who, taking advan-
tage of the ambiguity of the Pehlevi alphabet, often substitute the corresponding Persian
for the foreiirn word's. The Iranian part of the Pehlevi differs little from the Persian
of our own day, and, in fact, the Pehlevi changed first into Parsee, and subsequently
into modern Persian, simply by getting rid first of its Chaldee, and then of those of its
Iranian words which had become obsolete. The chief use of the Pehlevi dyilect at
present is the assistance it offers towards the elucidation of the Zend itself. For the his-
tory of its investigation since it was first made known in Europe, we refer to PERSIAN
LANGUAGE. AHD LITERATURE.
* Lieut.col A. P. Phayre. chief commissioner of British Burmah, in his report for 1863 (Rangoon,
1863) states the population of Pegu as follows:
U. K. XL— 28
JVi-ho. A.'\A
1'ckin.
PEI-HO', a river of China, which, rising on the confines of Tnrtnry, traverses the
northern part of the province of Cbih-le (q.v.)or Pe-ehih-le, and falls into the gulf of
Pe-chih-le, in about 38° 30' u. lat.
The attack on the escort of the British and French ambassadors, whilst ascending the
Pei-ho to Pekin in June, 1859, led to the war with China of 1800. Sec CHINA.
PEINE FORTE ET DURE, the "strong and hard pain;" a species of torture fcr
racrly applied by the law of Knirland to those who, on being arraigned for felony, refused
to plead, and stood mute, or who peremptorily challenged more than Cojurors, which
was considered a contumacy equivalent to standing mute. In the beginning of the KJih
C. this penalty s»ems to have consisted merely in a severe impri>onme>il with low diet,
persisted in till the contumacy was overcome. But by the reign of Henry IV. it had
become the pructice to load the offender with weights, and thus press him to death; and
till nearly tlie middle of the 18th e. pressing to death was the regular and lawful mode
of punishing persons ">vho stood mute on their arraignment for felony. The motive
which induced an accused party, in any ease, to submit to this penalty rather than to
plead, was probably to escape the attainder which would have resulted from a convic-
tion for felony. During the lofli, 16th, 17th, and even the 18th centuries, various
are recorded of tlie infliction of the punishment in que.-tion. Latterly, a practice pre-
vailed which had no sanction from the law, of tirst trying the effect of tyinir the thumbs
tightly together with whipcord, that thu pain might induce the offender to !•
Among instances of the infliction of tiie peine forte et dare are the following: Juli-
ana Quick, in 1443, charged with high treason in speaking contemptuously of Henry
VI., was pressed to death. Anthony Arrowsmith, in 1598, was pressed to death (Sur-
tecs's History of Durham, vol. iii. p. 271). Walter Calverly, of Calvcrly. in Yorkshire,
arraigned at the York assizes in 1605, for murdering his two children and stabbing his
wife, was pressed to death in the castle by a large iron weight placed on his brea.-t
(Stow's Chronicle). Maj. Strangways suffered death in a similar way in Newgate in 1»>.~)7,
for refusing to plead when charged with the murder of his brother-in-law. M<-. l\i>scll.
In 1720 a person of the name of Phillips was pressed in Newgate for a considerable
time, till he was released on his submission; and the same is recorded in the following
year of one Nathaniel Hawes, who lay under a weight of 250 Ibs. for 7 minutes. A,
late as 1741 a person is said to have been pressed to death at the Cambridge ass.i/.us, the
tying of his thumbs having been first tried without effect.
The statute 13 Geo. III. c. 20 virtually abolished the peine forte et dun .\^\ enacting
that any person who shall stand mute when arraigned for felony or piracy shall be con-
victed, and have the same judgment and execution awarded against him as if he had
been convicted by verdict or confession.
PEI'PUS, LAKE, in the n.w. of Russia, is surrounded by the government of St. Peters-
burg, and the provinces of Esthonia and Livonia On the s.e. it is connected with lake
Pfkoff by a strait 16 m. in length and from H to 4i m. broad. The length of both lakes
is 87 m., the greatest breadth about 40, and tiie depth from 14 to 49 feet. Lake Pskoff
receives the waters of the river Velekaia, and lake Peipus is 'supplied by lake Pskoff,
and by the Embach from the w., and other rivers. The waters of the lower lake are
carried to the gulf of Finland by the Narova. The lakes are studded with several pic-
turesque islands, and surrounded with banks which are for the most part marshy and
abound in fish, the taking of which gives employment to many.
PEIRCE, BENJAMIN, LT,.D., 1809-80, b. Mass.; graduated at Harvard in 182!); tutor
there in 1831; university professor of physics and mathematics 1833; and Perkens pro-
fessor of astronomy and mathematics 1842, which position he held till his death; in 1849
consulting astronomer to the American Ephf.nwis nnd Nautical Almanac; and in is.").~>
one of the council to organize the Dudley observatory, Albany. In 1867 he suc< ••
prof. A. D. Bache as supt. of coast survey, in which service lie continued till IN?I
In his early life he was a contributor to tlie Mathematiml Mi-«',-U<iu>i. and also published
the Oambridge Mixctllany of Mathematics, Physic*, </n<1 Axfrt>/i>>nti/. in which appeared his
celebrated investigation of the motion of a top spinning on a plane sin face. !!•
prepared a series of mathematical text books for the use of the university, and it was
chiefly by his exertions that the Harvard observatory was established and perfected. In
the first volume of the Proceedings of tJie American Academy <rf Art* <n.<l »/, /,/v.v, he
published a paper on the discovery of Neptune, in which he demonstrated that the
mass, the distance from the sun, and the conditions of the planet itself differed from the
conclusions of Leverrier and Adams, and riiat the discovery of Neptune !>v (i.-ille nearly
in the place indicated bv Leverrier, although that astronomer's calculations wen- pro-
found, was due to accident. This paper was followed by another, discussing
relations of Neptune to Uranus. In 1851 he published in the Aatronomiai! .l>i>in<al
remarkable papers on the constitution of Saturn's rings, in which he considered the f«n-
ditions of statical equilibrium of a transverse section of a rini;, and came to the con
elusion that if there are separate rings, they must be more numerous than Laplace had
even supposed. From these deductions others have followed by other mathemaii'
particularly prof. J. Clerk Maxwell, which have resulted in considerable ch;niL
view in regard to the Saturniau system. See SATURN. In 1857 he gave some of the most
/«0?C PeJ-ho.
Pekiii.
brilliant results in analytical mechanics, in a volume -which also contained many original
demonstrations. Prof. Peirce made other important coutributions to mathematics
and physics, which will for a long time form the basis of future investigations by others.
Among these may be mentioned his researches upon the personal equation, and his
investigation of the forms of an elastic sac containing a fluid, a subject which led to the
theory of aualy tic morphology. His contributions to algebra are of the broadest and pro-
foundest character. They are principally embraced in certain communications on
linear associative algebra, to the national academy of sciences, which had been sug-
gested by the publication by Hamilton in 1852, of his "quaternions." These com-
munications were collected in 1870, and 100 lithograph copies. were published. This
book is a marvel of profundity and mathematical genius. Prof. Peirce was made an
associate of the royal astronomical society of London in 1849, and of the royal society of
London in 1852.- He was one of the original members of the national academy of
sciences, and was a member of various learned societies in Europe and America.
PEIRCE, BRADFORD KINNEY, b. Vt., 1819; graduated at the Wesleyan uni-
versity. Middletown, Conn., in 1841; was pastor in Waltham, Newburyport, and Charles-
town. Mass. ; and in 1847 removed to Boston to edit the Sunday School Messenger and
Sunday School Teacher. In 1855-56 he was a state senator, and afterward superin-
tendent and chaplain of the state industrial school at Lancaster, which was established
by his efforts. In 1868-72 he was chaplain of the house of refuge on Randall's island,
rs'r-w York, when he returned to Boston, and became editor of Zion's Herald. He has
published Notes on the Acts; Bible ScJiolar's Manual; The Eminent Dead; Trials of an
Inventor; The Word of God Opened; A Ha'f-century with Juvenile Delinquents. ,
PEIRCE, CHARLES SANDERS, b. Mass., 1839; graduated from Harvard college 1859.
He delivered lectures on logic and philosophy in Boston, and at Harvard in 1869, and
was the author of " The Logic of Relatives" in the Memoirs of the American Academy of
Art?* ,1,1, ,1 Sciences, 1870; and of a number of articles on kgic, published in the Journal
of Sp'Cii'atiKe Philosophy, also of a Memoir on observation of Light of the Fixed Stars, pre-
sented to the American academy in 1875. He was engaged later in the U. S. coast sur-
vey, where he conducted experiments relative to the earth's density.
PEIRCE, JAMES MILLS, b. Mass., 1834; son of Benjamin. He was educated at
Harvard, where he was tutor in mathematics 1854-58. He has published A Text-book of
Analytical Geometry; Elements of Logarithms, and other works. He has been university
professor of mathematics at Cambridge since 18 J9.
PEISHWA (minister) was the title of the personage third in rank and authority at the
court of the Mahratta Maharajahs of Satara, there being only the Priti-nidhi (delegate of
Rajah), between him and his sovereign. However, during the weak reigns of Sevajee's
descendants, the minister increased in importance, till, at the commencement of the
Itith c., BALAJEE BISWAXATH, the then Peishwa, and a man of distinguished adminis-
trative ability and diplomatic talents, made himself virtually the ruler of the Mahrattas
(q.v.).
PEISISTRATOS. See PISISTRATUS.
PEKAN, or WOOD-SHOCK, Martes Canadensis, a species of marten (q.v.), very nearly
allied to the sable, a native of the northern parts of North America. It is twice the size
of the pine marten, and is generally of a grayish -brown color; the legs, tail, and back
of the neck marked with darker brown. The "fur, although not so valuable as sable, nor
even as that of the pine marten, is useful, and large quantities are sent to the market.
The pekan lives in burrows, which it excavates in the banks of rivers; and feeds chiefly
on fish and other aquatic animals.
PEKIN', or PE-KIXG' (i.e., northern capital), the capital of the Chinese empire since
1421 A.D., is situated on a sandy plain about 13 m. n.w. of the Peiho, in lat. 39° 54r 13"
n., and long. 116° 28' 54" e., in the northern province of Chih-le, at a distance of nearly
100 in. from the sea, and about 60 m. from the great Chinese wall. The pop. of the city
is estimated at about 2,000,000; and the circuit of the walls, according to the latest
measurements is 20 miles. These walls are made of earth, with an outer casing of brick,
having embrasures for musketry or ordnance every 50 feet. Those of the Tartar city
have an average height of 50, but in some places of 61 feet. In thickness they vary
from 57 to 22 feet. The walls of the Chinese city are only 30 ft. in height, and from 15
to 25 in width. The top, to which horsemen can ascend by a ramp or sloping way, is
paved with stone. At intervals of 60 yards are square towers or buttresses, projecting
outward from the walls 50 or 60 feet. The gates which give access to the city from the
surrounding country are 16 in number. 9 of which belong to the northern or Tartar city,
and 7 to the southern or Chinese city. Over each gate is a watch-tower 9 stories in height,
and loop-holed for cannon.
The city of Pekin is divided into two parts, separated by a wall with three gates.
These two sections form respectively the northern, interior, or Tartar city, called 3W-
tchin-j ("within the walls"); and the southern, exterior, or Chinese city, called Wai-
Pekin.
Pelagianism.
taking* ("without the walls"). "Tchiug" or "ehing," it may be remarked, means both
city ami wall.
\.Rci-t<'!iinc/, or ihc northern, city, has three distinct divisions or inelosures — vi/.. : Kin-
tching, or the prohibited city; the 1I\\ -aug-tching, or imperial city; and the general city.
The first of these — the innenno-l or central Nock— is surrounded liy a red brick wall
about 2 in. in circumference, which shuts in the palaces, pleasure-ground 8, and temples
of the sacred city. Here live the emperor aud his family, the ladies of too court, and
the attendant eunuchs. The palace proper consists of four large utid two small build-
ings, called the Tcuing-kung, or ••///*• palace," the Tung-kung, Bi-kung, and Kin-luan-
*,ceu. The smaller buildings are allotted lo the dowager-empress and suite; they are
• •ailed the Ning-shou-kung, and the Kcen-tsing-kung, or the "palace of earth's r ;
< )iher notable buildings of the prohibited city are Fung -een-t< en. the "temple of imperial
ancestors;" Tching-hwang meaou, the "guardian temple of the city;" Nan-heim teen.
" the hall of portraits of the Chinese emperors aud sages;" and Wan-yucn Ko. the " hall
of the literary abyss," i.e., the imperial library. It also contains the offices of the cabi-
net, in which the members *hold their sessions, the imperial trca>ury, the court of eon
trollers for the regulation of the receipts aud expenses of the court, etc. — The in.perial
city is built around this central block, and contains the palaees of the princes, ten
Home of the government offices, and spacious pleasure-grounds, with beautiful artilicial
lakes. From Woo-ying-teen, the imperial printing-office, the /i//j><->-i<il or !'•
(r<i.~> tie is issued daily for all government officials throughout the empire. This is the
only publication in China approaching to a newspaper, and i.- named A'itif/ 1'aou, or
" jjreat report." It is not merely a report for official information, but forms the basis of
the national annals, and is compiled from the daily records of the supreme council.
Be.sides the daily edition, there is one published every two days, which is sold to the
public, and from which is withheld decrees and reports of a secret character. The jour-
nal itself is a miserable production even for China, raid consists of from 15 to 20 | ages
not so large as common note paper. — The general city — the third division or inelo.-urc —
lies between the imperial city and the outside vails;" it is more den-c ly populated than
either of the preceding divisions, and contains the most important of the public olliees.
including the six supreme tribunals or boards — the Lc-fan-yucn, or llie office of foreign
affairs; Too-cha-yueu, or the imperial censorate, etc.; Han-lin-yuen, or the grand
national college, the great medical college, the observatory, the examination hall,
with — it is said — 10,000 cells for the candidates who assemble to compete for public
offices; and the British, French, Russian, and United States legations. One ma\
notice the Lama temple, founded 1725-30 to conciliate the Thibetan priesthood; the
temple of Confucius, in which the emperor solemnly " worships" the great sage once a
year; and the Mohammedan mosque. The British minister resides in the Leang kung-
foo, or the palace of Leang. a gorgeous building, consisting of four or five large halls,
and covering about five acres of land. The principal streets of the general city — from
MO to 200 ft. wide, and unpaved — are continuous lines of shops painted red. blue, and
g/een; decorated with staring signs, and resplendent with Chinese characters highly gilt.
l>y day and by night, by the "light of the sun, or by the illv.minalion of torches and i
lanterns, the 'roar of these great thoroughfares is incessant; shopkeepers, peddlers,
mountebanks, quack-doctors, passengers on foot or on horseback, each and all con
tributing to the general hubbub. The minor streets and lanes, where the houses of the
gray
"Dog's-tooth street," "Dog's-tail street," " Barbarian street," aud many otheis with
names equally \ininviting.
2. Wai-tching, or tJie southern city, the second great division of Pekin, contains most
of the mercantile population of the capital, but does not present many feature- of
interest to the traveler. Teen-tan, or the temple to heaven, and Tec-tan, or the temple
to earth, with their grounds, occupy a considerable space. The latter is considered a
sort of temple of agriculture, and its grounds are the scene of the well known ceremony
in which the emperor, assisted by members' of the board of rites, opens the plowing
season in China at the vernal equinox. The theaters and places of public iunu-.inent
are likewise situated in the southern or Chinese city; also the golden fish-ponds, and the
execution-ground.
Outside the city there are unwalled suburbs, as about every walled town in China.
tural
maize _ , ... .
land is badly watered but well timbered, which gives a pleasing aspect to the landscape;
and when viewed toward the range of mountains extending from the w. of Pekin to the
* Northern city and southern city are the moat, correct terms. The latter was added to the more
ancient northern' city, and was originally designed to encircle it: hence it was called the exterior city.
in contradistinction 'to the northern or interior city. It was also intended to reserve the northern city
for the Tartars, and the southern city for the Chinese, as the names still imply; but in point of fact,
the Tartar city contains as many Chinese ns Tartars: and it is not surrounded by the so-called
Chinese city, which latter lias only' been added on the south side.
JQ7 Pekin.
Pelagianism.
n.o. . nrosrnts a picturesque panorama. About 8 m. n.w. of Pekin the famous Yum-
tu-. ,/y-!/i(e;i ,(!it. " round and splendid gardens")- palaces are situated, which were sacked
and destroyed by the allies in Oct., 1800. These were 30 in number, surrounded by
every variety of hill and dale, woodland and lawn, interspersed witk canals, pools, rivu-
lets, and lakes, with numerous temples and pagodas containing statues of men and gods
in gold, silver, and bronze. Here had been heaped up for centuries all the movable
riches and presents of the emperors of China, amongst which were found many sent by
the English embassies. At the approach of the allies, Hien-fung fled in haste; and when
lord Elgin learned that it was in those grounds that the British and French prisoners,
captured by treachery, had been tortured, he gave the order to sack and destroy this
favorite residence cf the emperor's, "as it could not fail to be a blow to his pride as
well as his feelings; and it became a solemn act of retribution." The palaces were
cleared of every valuable, and their walls destroyed by fire and sword.
Pekin has thus been rendered memorable by this march of the British and French
forces (1860) to the walls of the city, on which the British and French flags were raised.
The provisions of the treaty of Tieu-tsin 1858 (See CHINA) were subsequently ratified
:nid supplemented by the convention of Pekin, which was signed in the English and
French languages at Pekin, Oct. 24, 1860. The most important article of this conven-
tion is that which allows the residence of a British envoy at Pekin, a privilege formerly
enjoyed by Russia alone. The greatest benefits have resulted to both governments by
this step. The same privilege has been granted to the French and American govern-
ments. Foreigners of all nations arc allowed to visit, but not to trade within the pre-
cincts of the city.
Pekin is a very ancient city. Centuries before the Christian era, it was the capital
of the kingdom of Yen, but when this kingdom was overthrown by the Tain dynasty in
222 B.C., the seat of government was removed elsewhere. About 938 A.D. it again
became the capital of the Kit/in dynasty. In 1215 it was captured by Genghis Khan,
and ia 1261 Kublai Khan (whom readers of Coleridge will remember) fixed his residence
here. The native emperors, however, who succeeded the Mongol dynasty, removed the
• court to Nankin, which was reckoned the chief city of the empire till Yung Lo, the
third emperor of the Ming dynasty in 1421, once more mude it the imperial residence,
which it has ever since remained. — See Yedo and Pekin, by Robert Fortune (Lond.
183:5), Ciuiiese Repository (Mar., 1834), MncmMan's Magazine (Jan. 1861), Lord Elgin's
Ui*}Hitch<.>* (Oct., 1860), MS. Notes (1883), The Treaty Ports of China and Japan (1867).
PE'KIX, seat of justice of Tazewell co., 111., on the s.' bank of the Illinois river, and
on the Chicago, Pekin and Southwestern, and the Indiana, Bloomington and Western
railroads; 55 in. u. of Springfield, 1G3 in. s.w. of Chicago; pop. '75, 9,000. The sur-
rounding country is fertile, yielding about 1,400,000 bush, of corn, a part of which is
manufactured into alcohol and high wines; coal of good quality is also mined in this
vicinity, and large quantities of ice are shipped to southern points- pork packing is
extensively carried on. It contains expensive school buildings, fine residences, a court-
house, and the workshops and offices of the Peoria, Pekin and Jacksonville railroad.
The streets are well shaded with trees, and lighted with gas.
PELA GIANISM, the doctrinal system of Pelagius (q.v.), especially on the subjects of
the natural condition of man. original sin, grace, free-will, and redemption. Under the
head PELAGIUS will be found what maybe called the external history of the controversy
to which the opinions of that remarkable man gave occasion. The movement, consid-
ered in itself, is one of the most interesting in the history of the human mind At the
close of the great controversies on the trinity and inca'rnation, the speculation, which
for nearly a century had wearied itself in vain endeavors to make plain the inscrutable
in \steries of the divine nature, at length turned inwards upon itself; and no one at all
familiar with the controversy on Peiagianism can doubt that that prouder view of the
capabilities of human nature, which lies at the root of all the theories of which Pelagian-
ism was but the exponent, was a reaction against the crude and degrading conceptions
of the nature and origin of the soul which characterized the philosophy, not alone of the
M micluean teachers, but of all the dualistic religions which sprung from the prolific soi)
of Gnosticism. To the Manichaean, and to all in general who adopted the Gnostic views
as to the evil origin and nature of matter and material substances, man was, in his
psychical nature, evil and incapable of good. The Christian teacher, in combating this
view, easily passed into an opposite extreme, and overlooking or explaining away the
strong language of the Scripture, was led to represent man as endowed with full capac-
ity for all good; and so long as the only adversaries to be controverted were those who
urged the views of the Gnostic school, the line taken by Christian writers was but little
guarded by any of those limitations and reserves which have arisen in later controversy;
and thus the earlier fathers, especially those of the eastern church, where Gnosticism was
chiefly to be combated, are found to press earnestly the power for good which man pos-
sesses, without entering nicely into the origin or the motive principle of that power.
But whatever of vagueness hung over this important subject was dispelled by the bold
and precise statements of Pelagius, or at least by the discussion which at once arose
thereupon, throughout the entire church. His teaching on the subject of original sin and
on the primitive state of man has been already detailed. See ORIGINAL S^IN. The earli-
Pelagius.
est formal embodiment of these doctrines, for the purpose of obtaining upon them the
public judgment of the church, was in a number of articles presented to the council of
Jerusalem, in 415, by Orosius. Sir PIILAGHS. Of these the first Jive regarded the doc-
trines already noticed under Omr.iNM, SIN. The lalii-r poriion of the articles alleged
that no grace or aid from God was needed for particular actions, but that tree-will and
the teaching of the law siitliced; that God's grace is given in propon ion to our merits;
that free-will would not be free, if it stood in need of aid from God; that the pardon of
penitents is not granted according to God's grace and mercy, but according to their own
merit and labor; and that our victory does' not come from God's a--i-tanee, but from
our free-will. Although the final sentence condemnatory of these doctrines (see PSLA-
Gius) was very generally accepted, yet the recusant party was not wanting in energy and
ability. The great champions on each side were Aiu;T.>line for the orthodox, and
Juliauus, bishop of Eclanum, for the Pelagians. Of M> much of the controvrr-y as
regards original sin, the history has been already related; that on grace and free-will was
more subtle, and has led to more numerous divisions on the side of orthodoxy as well as
of dissent. In order to evade the condemnation of the doctrine originally ascribed to
them as to grace, Pelagius and his followers declared that they did not deny the neces-
sity of grace; but by this name they did not understand any real and internal super-
natural aid given by God in each particular action, but only either some general external
assistance, such as preaching, the Scriptures, good example, etc., or an aid given v. hich
might facilitate and secure the particular work, but which was by no means neees-ary
for its accomplishment. Whether, indeed, they at anytime admitted any real internal
grace, is a question much disputed. Grace is of two kinds — that which moves Hie will,
and that which enlightens the understanding. It is necessary, too, to distinguish twc
periods in the history of Pelagianism— one before the uppearance of the Eplxt<ii,i 7'nif-
toria of pope Zosimus; the other subsequent to that decree. In the first period it would
seem that the Pelagians did not admit the nece.-Mty of any internal grace whatever; in
the latter they admitted the necessity of a grace of the intellect, but not of the will ; or if
they seemed to speak of any internal grace of the will, it was only as "facilitating man's
act, not as at all necessary to his doing it. The Pelagian theory, in a word, v* as. that
man, as coming from his Creator's hand, posses ed in himself, and as constituents of his
own nature, all the powers which are necessary for the attainment of salvation: that by
the faithful, employment of these natural powers, without any further aid whatever iY<>m
God, lie merits eternal life, and all other rewards, by a strict title of justice; and that,
to suppose grace to be necessary, is in truth to destroy the essence of free-will. This
doctrine was somewhat modified in the semi-Pelagian system (q.v.). The Catholic
schools, all without exception, maintain the necessity of grace for the performance, not
only of all meritorious, but of all supernatural good' works; and they are equally unani-
mous in maintaining that the grace so given, even that which is called "efficacious,"
does not destroy the freedom of the will. They distinguish between the " natural" and
"supernatural " order, and between the powers and gifts which are proper to the one
and to the other. For the attainment of all the ends of the natural order, man po—
by his very constitution, all the powers and all the gifts which are necessary; and by the
proper use of these powers, he is able- to merit all the rewards which belong to the nat-
ural order. He is able, therefore, without any supernatural grace, to perform moiaily
good works (as acts of natural benevolence, the fulfillment of the ordinary duties to his
neighbor, etc.), and to fulfill the purely natural obligations. But in order to works in the
supernatural order (such as the love of God above all things for his own sake, faith in
him as the author of all good, etc.), and the" rewards which are promised for such works.
the will of man must be moved and strengthened by supernatural grace, with which the
will freely co-operates, but which is a purely gratuitous gift of God — so purely gratuitous.
that although God has promised eternal life as the reward of man's co-operr.tion. yet the
merit arises entirely from God's gift and promise, and not from the natural powers of the
human will.
Without going into the details of the teaching of the Catholic schools, it will be
enough to particularize the most remarkable among them. Of these the chief are the
Molinist, which, giving most to liberty, lies nearest to the border of Pelagianism, but is
clearly distinguished from it by maintaining the necessity of grace for every supernat-
ural act; and the Thomist and Augustinian, which give most to grace, but at the same
time expressly preserve the freedom of man's will. The Thomists are often represented
as denying the freedom of man's actions under grace; but although it is difficult to
explain, in popular language, their method of reconciling both, yet, to those acquainted
with the scholastic terminology, their distinction between the infallible efficaciousness
of grace, and its imposing necessity on the will, is perfectly appreciable. In this they.
as well as the Augustinian school, differ from the Jansenists (q.v.). The .lansemsts.
indeed, regard the Molinist school as a plain revival of Pelagianism, and they p;
that they alone represent fully, in their own system, the very same position which St.
Augustine formerly maintained against that heresy in its first origin.
In the Reformed church the Arminian doctrine may be said to correspond in the
main with the Molinist system in the Roman church. The Gomarists. in most, although
not in all, particulars, fall in with the Jansenistic views. The Pelagian views an dis-
tinctly represented in modern controversy by the Socinians and rationalists; and indeed
Pelagius.
very many of those who, outside of the Roman church, have at various times enlaced
in the predesUnarian controversy on the side of free-will, have leaned towards, if they
have not, fully adopted, the Pelagian view. In this controversy, however, the practice,
which is hot uncommon in polemics, of imputing to an antagonist the extremes! views
of the particular .side to which he leans, has been specially noticeable. The Jesuits have
been stigmatized, even by their Catholic antagonists, as Pelagians; the Thomists are
called by the Jesuits indiscriminately Jansenists and Calvinists, while both unite in
representing Calvin and his school as in substance Manicluean.-
Hardly one among the many Christian controversies has called forth a greater amount
of subtlety and power, and not one has so long and so persistently maintained its vitality.
Within the 25 years which followed its first appearance upwards of 80 councils (one of
them the general council of Ephe<us) were held" for the purpose of this discussion. It
lay at the bottom of nil the intellectual activity of the conflicts in the mediaeval philo-
sophic schools; and there is hardly a single" subjectAvhich has come into discussion
under so many dilfer<jnt forms in modern controversy. See JAXSEX, ARMIXIUS, GUACK,
PREDESTINATION, REPROBATION, OKIGIXAL Six, TRADUCIAXISM.
PELAGIUS, a celebrated heresiarch of the oth c., author or systematizer of the doc-
trine known as Pelagianism (q.v.). Of his eaviy life little is known. He was probably born
about or before the middle of the 4th c., in Britain, or, according to some, in Bretagne,
his name being supposed to be a Greek rendering (Pdugws, of or belonging to the sea)
of the Celtic appellative Morgun, or sea-born. He was a monk, but the time and place
of his entering that state are unknown; it is certain, however, that he never entered into
holy orders. He settled in Rome, and at the end of .the 4th c. he had already acquired
a considerable reputation for sanctity and for knowledge of the Holy Scriptures and the
spiritual life. Pelagius does not appear to have himself been a very active propagandist;
but he had attached to his views a follower of great energy, and a bold and ardent tem-
per, named Celestitis, who is generally supposed to have been a Scot, which, in the
vocabulary of that age, means a native of Ireland. At Rome, however, they attracted
but little notice, although they began to make their doctrine public about 4(J5; and in
410, after the sack of the city by the Goths, they withdrew to Africa. After some time
Pelagius made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, win- re he met St. Jerome, and for a time
enjoyed the regard and confidence of that eminent bui hot-tempered scholar. His opin-
ion--, however, becoming known, Jerome withdrew from this association. Celestius
having remained at Carthage, and sought to be admitted to ordination, his doctrines
became the subject of discussion, and in a synod several opinions ascribed to him were
condemned. He appealed to Rome, but leaving Carthage without prosecuting the appeal,
lie passed to EpheMis; and the proceedings taken in Carthage regarding him are chiefly
important as having first introduced St. Augustine into the controversy. Meanwhile
Pelagius remained at Jerusalem, and news of the proceedings at Carthage having been
carried to Palestine, Pelagius, in 415, was accused of heresy before the synod of Jerusa-
lem by a Spaniard named Orosius. The impeachment failed, probably from the fact
that Orosius was unable to speak Greek, the language of the synod; and in the syncd
subsequent!}- held at Diospolis in the same year, Pelagius evaded condemnation by
accepting the decrees of the synod of Carthage already referred to, and even obtained
from the synod an acknowledgment of his orthodoxy. The west, however, was more
sharp-sighted or less indulgent. A synod of Carthage, in 416, condemned Pelagius and
Celestius, and wrote to pope Innocent I., requesting his approval of the sentence, with
which request Innocent complied by a letter which is still extant. On the death of
Innocent, Celestius came to Rome in person, and Pelagius at the same time addressed a
Inter to Zosimus, the successor of Innocent; and in a council which Zosiir.us held,
Celestius gave such explanations that the pope was led to believe that the doctrines of
IMagius had been misunderstood, and wrote to call the African bishops to Rome. A
council of 214 bishops, however, was held in Carthage, in which the doctrines of Pela-
gius were formally condemned in nine canons, which were sent to Rome with full
explanations; and on receipt of these decrees Zosimus reopened the cause, cited and
condemned Celestius and Pelagius, and published a decree, called Epwtola Tractoria,
adopting the canons of the African council, and requiring that all bishops should sub-
scribe them, under pain of deposition. Nineteen Italian bishops refused to accept these
canons, and were deposed. Their leader, and the person who may be regarded as the
greatest theological advocate of Pelagius in the ancient controversy, was the celebrated
Julian, bishop of Eclaiium, near Beneventum, who is well known to every reader of his
great antagonist, St. Augustine. Pelagius himself was banished from Rome, in 418, by
the emperor II6norius. From this date Pelagius disappears. Of his after life nothing
is known in detail. Orosius gives an unfavorable account of his later career, but in a
period of such excitement we may not accept implicitly the judgment of an adversary.
The controversy, considered as an exercise of intellectual energy, is the most remarkable
in the ancient history of the church. But the most important of the writings on the
Pelagian side have been lost. Julian is chiefly known through the replies of Augustine.
Pelagius's Fuurtren Books of a Conum ntnry on St. Paul's Epistles, his Epiatle to Demetrius,
and his Ifemorinl to Pouc Junoccnt have escaped destruction probably from their being
included by collectors in the works of St. Jerome. They are much mutilated, but yet
Pelago. A < A
Pelasjjiuns.
almost certainly genuine. All his oilier works have Iwn lo-t, except some further por-
tions, cfciefly fragmentary, which (with the -above) have been published under tlie tiiie
of AJ A-'i^/ixfi/itKnii. Aiu.-r his i»;iiiishinent I'elagius is supposed to have returned
to his native country, and to have died there. Others, however, represent him as having
died in Palestine. " Of his doctrines in detail an account will be found under I'LL \-
c. IAN ISM.
PEL AGO, a t. in Italy, province of Florence, 15 m. from the city of Florence. It
manufactures earthenware and woolen eloihs: pop. in '74, !),x!;]l. Valombrosa, formerly
Ihe richest convent in Tuscany, is in this commune.
PELABGO'NIC ACID (ll<),t ',,]!,,(),) is one of the volatile fatty acid* <f the general
formula CanI-I»nO4. It is. an oily fluid, nearly insoluble in water, 'but soluble in alcohol
and ether. It derives its name from its having been originally obtained from tiie leaves
of pclit, 'Y/'niium roseu in (see next article) by distilling them wilh water. It may also be
obtained by the oxidation of oleic acid or of oil of rue by nitric acid. The pelargo-
nate of oxide of ethyl, CiH&O.C'iBHiTOs. is an oily tluid of a very peculiar smell. Accord-
ing to Franklancl, it is to this compound that old whisky owes its peculiar tlavor; and
its addition to new whisky, with a view of giving it an oid flavor, is not uncommon.
PELARGO'NIUM, a genus of plants of the natural order geraniacece, including many
of the most favorite green-house flowers, to which the old generic name <//•/•-.'/*/"//* is
often popularly given. The characters which distinguish pelargonium from geranium,
as now restricted by botanists, are given in the article GKKAMU.M. The spe ies are
numerous, and mostly s. African; Australia also producing a few. Some of them arc
herbaceous, and some are stainless; most of them are halt-shrubby. Some have tuber-
ous root-stocks. The leaves exhibit great variety in form, division, etc. The flowers
always adhere to a certain type in form, but with great variety in size, color, etc. ; they
are always in stalked umbels, which arise from the axils of the leave:;, or in the sieniless
kinds from the midst of the leaves. In no genus has the art of the gardener produced
more striking results than in this; and the number of beautiful hybrids and vari'
very great, some of them excelling in beauty any of the original species. Some sp
not possessing much beauty of flower, are cultivated for Ihe grateful odor of th;-ir 1<
which in some resembles that of roses; in others, that of apples, lemon e c.; whil-t
that of many species is rather unpleasant. The cultivation of pelargoniums is similar to
that of other geraniacece. See GERANIUM. A few of the species endure the open air in
the s. of England; many are planted out in summer even in Scotland. Water must be
liberally supplied tc- pelargoniums during the time of flowering; but no plants more
strongly require a period of rest, and water must then be very spai en. .Many
of the shrubby kinds may be taken out of the soil, hung up by the roots in a dry dark
r;>l:ar, or covered with hay, and put aside in a box, in a cool" dryjoft or garret, care
being taken, however, to protect them from frost. .Every leaf should b.a removed before
they are taken up, and young watery shoots should be cut off. Another method of
treating them is to cut off every leaf before frost comes, and to keep the plants all winter
in their pots in a dry cool room, without giving them a drop of water. ]5y such i
many of this beautiful genus are successfully cultivated by persons who have no green-
house.
PELAS'GIANS, variously explained as denoting either "swarthy Asiatic-," (P ll-Axi'-i]
or " storks" (pckirgoi) — significative of wandering habits; or as being derived from the
biblical pelcg (Gen. x. 25), from the Greek pelayos (the sea), peltizo (to app-oaeii), or
and agros (to till the field), etc. — "a name, in fact," as Niebuhr says, "odiou- to the
historian, who hates the spurious philology out of which the pretenses to knowledge on
the subject of such extinct people arise"— designates a certain tribe or number of
who inhabited Italy, Thracia, Macedonia, a part of Asia .Minor, and man;: other regions
of southern Europe, in prehistoric times. Ethnologically, they belong to the same nice
.as the great stock of the earliest known settlers, that reached from the Po and the Arno
to the Khyndakus (near Kyzikus). Yet no Pelasgian town or village existing in Greece
proper after 776 B.C., speculation has, ever since the commencement of European his-
toriography, been busy trying to supply the facts that were wanting to ascertain the
exact origin and history of these predecessors of the Hellenes and 1'omans; and so futile
have all efforts in this direction remained, that the very term Pelasgi has, from the days
•of Homer to our own, been used a'.most arbitrarily to designate eiiher a singl" ob-curc
division of a tribe like the Lelegcs and the Dolopes, or as an equivalent for all the < I
•of a very early period. In this latter sense, they are spoken of by /E<chylus. Il< rodotus.
Homer; while they are considered one of the branches of the race or race- ilia? peopled
Greece, by Tkucyaides, Strabo, and most modern writers, the word thus not being a
•comprehensive term, liks Aryan, but a narrowly circumscribed one, like Hindu. I;
investigation seems, as regards their previous history, to lead to the result, that MMI
.after the first immigration of Turanians, they, like other tribes, left their A: -ialic homes,
;and proceeded toward Europe. They are found 'at a very early period settled in Asia
Minor; and Homer speaks of them as allies of the Trojans. They then seem to have
spread themselves, by way of the Propontls and .ZEgcan, and again by Crete, over many
.of the islands between the two continents; and finally, came' to occupy a great part of
the Hellenic main-land — Thessaly, Epirus, the Peloponuese, Attica, Macedonia, Arcadia,
441 Pel ago,
Pelasjfians.
provinces which, one and all, up to the latest period, bore distinct traces of the once
ui.'di.-puted sway of the Pelasgians. According to Herodotus, the Hellenes themselves
sprang i'roia them; and there can hardly be u doubt that they formed a, most important
element in the formation as well of that most gifted of nationalities, as of the Latin
people. The early Etruscans (q.v.) were Pelasgians to a certain extent ; and the southern
tribes of the Peucetians, (Euotrians, and lapygians are distinctly declared by ancient
writers to belong to their race. The step from Greece into Italy is natural enough.
Vi'hat caused their wanderings originally is difficult to conjecture; but it may not
unreasonably -be assumed that they were caused to :i certain extent by immigrations of
eastern tribes, such as the Lydians, Phrygians, Carians, who pushed them further and
further west, as they took possession of their old homes. A special stock was formed by
the Tyrrhenian Pelasgi, whose gradual advance in Greece may be traced from Acar-
nania to Bceotia, thence to Attica, and later still, to the Hellespont, Lenin: >s, etc. A
strung protest, however, must be recorded here on the part of some modern writers
against the assumption of others, that the Pelasgians were in reality the original popula-
tion of all Italy, as they were of the greatest part of Greece (Pelasgia). It is absurd, they
argue, to suppose that a rich and populous nation, which had held a country like Italy
for many centuries, should suddenly, just at the approach of historical times, die out
without leaving even such single remnants as the Pelasgic settlements in Greece men-
tioned by Herodotus. These aboriginal Italian Pelasgians are, according to them,
neither more nor less than a mere hypothesis of ignorant ancient writers, who wished to
explain the ethnological and philological affinity between the two classical nations in an
easy matuer, and who, anticipating the questions about a contemporary colony, kill the
whole nation olf by pestilence and famine.
The Pelasgians, from what we can glean about them, would appear to have been a
highly intellectual, receptive, active, and stirring people, of simple habits withal, chiefly
ii!:cnt upon agricultural pursuits. Several improvements in this province were distinctly
traced back to them, such as the plowing with oxen — for which purpose they had to
invent tho special goad; further, the art of surveying, and the like. Yet they were no
less warlike when attacked and driven to self-defense; and the trumpet, which calls the
widely scattered troops to the attack, was supposed to have been lirst used by them.
That the art of navigation was well known to them is shown sufficiently by their inces-
sant migrations over sea and land. Of their architecture, in that style which, in default
of a better name, has been called Cyclopean (q.v.), remnants are still existing. The
names Laris-a, Argos, Ephyra, frequently met in ancient Greece, were bestowed by
them upon their fortified cities, and are only generic names, expressive of either moun-
tain I'orl I'cssc-s or strongholds in plains. Wishing to remain in peace, they endeavored
to keep oil the invader by wails so enormously strong that it really seems most surprising
howtliey ever could have been taken. Besides these, they built caivils, dams, and sub-
terranean water-works of astounding strength and most skillful construction. The tomb
or treasury of Atreus at Mycena3 was vaulted with a fine pointed "horizontal arch,'"
48tV ft, in diameter. Of their sculpture, which they no doubt likewise cultivated to u
certain degree, we "have but very small relics, such as a head of Medusa, and a Xoanon
(divine image) of Orpheus; besides these, certain traces of their special mystic worship
are to be found in archaic representations, which, though not hitherto ascribed to them,
bear their direct influence upon their very face. How far they were either the inventors
of the so-called Cadmean or Phenician writing-characters, from which all European
characters are derived, or merely their "improvers," is not to be decided by the contra-
dictory evidence to be found on the subject: but this, at all events, is certain, that they
were acquainted with the art of writing, and had thus a vast element of culture in their
possession before the dawn of history. Respecting their religion and worship, there is
this only to be held with certainty, that it, originally consisted in a mystic service of
those natural powers, whose influence is chiefly visible in the growth of the fruits of the
earth. From Egypt they obtained names for their till then nameless gods, generally
called by them theTheoi; and they proceeded — by permission of the Dodonic oracle,
which, together with the Pythian, they first founded — to bestow them upon them indi-
vidually. Their deities were, besides the Phenician Kabiri, Demeter, Persephcne Kora,
Dionysos, Hermes, Zeus of Dodona, Apollo, Hephaestus, Themis, Pan, etc. Whether
those Pelasgians who inhabited Lemnos and Imbros, and who were conquered by Darius,
offered up human sacrifices or not, is doubtful. An ambiguous term of Herodotus
respecting the language of those small Pelasgian remnants who had survived to his day,
has given rise to endless and most unsatisfactory discussions. He speaks (i. 57) of their
" barbarous language;" and the question is, whether he meant that it completely differed
from Greek, ov that there was only so vast a divergence of dialect, that it had become
unintelligible to his contemporaries. Grote inclines to the former opinion; Niebuhr,
Tiiirlwall, T. O. Miiller, followed by G. Rawlinson and others, hold, witk more apparent
show of reason, that the term "barbarous language" merely indicates a corruption or
alteration of idiom, such as a long lapse of time would infallibly produce, and that it
bore the same relation to the Greek of the day as the Gothic does to the German, or the
Latin to any of the Romance languages, not to instance the forlorn patois of out-of-the-
way places in Switzerland and elsewhere, supposed to be inhabited by unmixed descend-
ants from Roman legions. That other phenomenon of the vast number of roots com-
Pelayo.
Pelissier.
nion both to Greek and Latin — the latter, it must be remembered, having been proved
to be derived, not from tlie former, but from the Oscan— would tbus easily be explained
by the assumption of u common Pelasgiau linguistic (as well as ethnical) stock in both
nationalities.
Their political circumstances arc as unknown to us as the whole process of transition
between them and the real Greek period. From a few scattered allusions, we may con-
clude that they were not uniformly governed; that some of their multifarious tribes were
ruled by priests, while others stood under the patriarchal rule of the head of the clan or
family.
How they gradually disappeared from the rank of nations, by -being either " absorbed"
by superior races (Hellenes, Italic!, Carians. Lydians, Phrygians), or being reduced to
nameless serf-populations, does not seem so difficult to understand as some writers would
have it. Hundreds of nations have di>appeared in the same manner, and we may even
watch the process with our own eyes. Interesting as it might be to dwell more minutely
on some of the widely divergent theories and speculations upon the Peiasgians on the
part of historians, philologists, ethnologists, antiquaries, and investigators generally, to
whom, at all times, this people proved exceedingly attractive, we cannot enter any
farther upon them here, but we shall conclude with G rote's dictum: "If any man is
inclined to call the unknown ante-Hellenic period of Greece by the name of Pelasgic, it
is open to him to do so. But this is a name carrying with it no assured prcdica:
way enlarging our insight into real history, nor enabling us to explain what would be
the real historical problem — how, or from whom, the Hellenes acquired that stock of
dispositions, aptitudes, artsj etc., with which they begin their career."
PELA'YO, said by historians to have been the first Christian king in Spain, after the
conquest of that country by the Arabs. Contemporary historians make no mention of
him, but this may be accounted for on the ground of the insignificant size of his king-
dom, which comprised only the mountainous district of Asturias. lie is .-aid to have
been a scion of the royal "Visigothic line, and to have retired before the conquering Arabs
to the mountains of Asturias, where he maintained himself against the armies which
were sent to attack him, defeating them in various pitched battles, and in numlx rless
minor engagements. One of his most famous exploits was the destruction ol' a large
army sent against him by Tarik, near Cangas -de-Onis. His men were justed on the
heights bounding the valley through which the Arabs were to pass, and. Availing till the
enemy had become involved in the defile, at a given signal, overwhelmed Hum with
enormous masses of rock. This great success caused Pelayo to be recognized as >o\er-
eign by Ihe surrounding districts, and the Christians flocked to him from all parts of
Spain. He was much engaged in contests with the Arabs, but nevertheless found time
to reanimate agriculture, superintend the reconstruction of churches, and the establish-
ment of a civil administration. He died in 737. Such is the account given us by later
historians, who trace from him the genealogy of the royal family of Spain.
PELECAN ID.iE, a family of palmiped birds, the toUpalmati of Cuvier; characterized
by a long, straight, compressed bill, broad at the base, often with a pouch beneath the
lower nrndible; long wings, of which the first quill is the longest; short strong legs, and
all the toes — including 1he~hind toe— united by a membrane. They are ger-rally e\t cl-
ient swimmers, expert divers, and birds of powerful flight. Some of them often perch
on trees, which few other web-footed birds do. To this family belong pelicans, cor-
morants, frigate-birds, tropic-birds, and darters.
PELEE ISLAND, the largest of all the islands of lake Erie, is within the Canadian
line, about 6m. northward of the Put-in-bay group; and 10 m. s.w. of Point au Pek'e on
the n. shore main-land. It contains about"l3.000 acres; is 9 m. long from n. to s., and
4m. wide at its widest part. More than half the surface is marsh; the remainder is
sparsely timbered, and of late years has been considerably occupied for vineyards. Its
beaches furnish sand for building purposes, which is sold in Toledo. Cleveland, and
Detroit. The island is mostly owned by a family nr.med McCormick, whose title < ame
direct from an original Indian owner. They settled on it in 1834. There are three
limestone quarries, and four docks. The communication from one part to another is
by beach, or boat, along the shore. Deer were brought to the island from the main land,
protected, and have become numerous; also foxes, wild turkeys, grouse, and quail.
At the s. end of the island a summer resort has been commenced. On the n. end are
most of the vineyards and a large wine house. The vineyards were begun during the
rebellion by a party of Kentuckmns, who still retain them.
PELEW ISLANDS, a group of islands in the North Pacific ocean, belonging to Spain,
450 m. e. of the Philippines, in lat, 7° to 8° 39' n., long. 134° to 136° e., at the western
extremity of the Caroline archipelago. The group includes al>out20 islands, which form
a Chain running about 120 m. from s.s.w. to n.n.e. The principal island is Babelthouap,
28 m. by 14, containing a mountain from whose summit a view of the whole group is
obtained. As seen from the sea, the islands appear mountainous and rugged; but the
soil is rich and fertile, and water is abundant. Bread-fruit, cocoa-nuts, banana.-, sugar-
cane, lemons, oranges, and other tropical trees and fruits arc grown. Cattle, fowls. ;.nd
goats thrive, and fish abound on the coasts. The inhabitants, who are estimated at
about 10,000 in number, are of the Malay race. They show considerable ingenuity in
AAO Pelayo.
Pelissier.
building their cannes, are active agriculturists, and entertain exceedingly primitive
notions regarding dress, as the men go entirely naked, and the women nearly so. In
1783 the Antelope was -wrecked upon the Pelew islands, and the cre.v were treated by
the natives with the greatest kindness. Further acquaintance with white men, however,
seeins to have altered their disposition, and several vessels, while visiting these islands,
within comparatively recent years, have narrowly escaped being cut off. The islands
are said to have been discovered by the Spaniards in 1545.
PELICAN, Pdicanus, a genus of birds of the family pelecanidcc (q.v.), having a very
long, large, flattened bill, the upper mandible' terminated by a strong hook, which curves
over the lip of the lower one; beneath the lower mandible, which is composed of two
flexible bony branches meeting at the tip, a great pouch of naked skin is appended ; the
tongue is very short, and almost rudimentary; the face and throat are naked; the wings
of moderate length, the tail rounded. The species are widely distributed, frequenting
the shores of the sea, lakes, and rivers, and feeding chiefly on fish. Although birds of
powerful wing, they are seldom seen at a great distance from land. All of them are
birds of large size. They take their prey by hovering over the water, anel plunging upon
it when it appears. The'y often fly in large flocks, and the sudden swoop of a flock of
pelicans at a shoal of fish is a striking and beautiful sight. They store up their prey in.
their pouch, from which they bring it out at leisure, either for their own eating, or to
feed their young. The pouch is capable of being wrinkled up into small size, and of
being greatly distended. The COMMON PELICAN (P. onocrotal-ux) is as large as a
swan, white, slightly tinged with flesh color, and in old birds, the breast golden yellow.
The quill-feathers are black, but are scarcely seen except when the wings are expanded.
It is a native of the eastern parts of Europe, and of many parts of Asia and Africa, and
frequents both the sea-coast and also rivers and lakes. It makes a nest of grass on the
ground in some retired spot near the water, often on an island, and lays two or three
white eggs. The parents are said to carry water to their young, as well as food, in their
pouch. During the night, the pelican siis With its bill resting ou its breast. The nail
or hook which terminates the bill is red, and Mr. Broderip supposes that the ancient
fable of the pelican feeding its young with blood from its own breast has originated
from its habit of pressing the bill upon the breast, in order the more easily to empty the
pouch, when the red tip might be mistaken for blood.— -The RUFOUS-NECKED PELICAN
(P. fitaciix) abounds in the West Indies and in many parts of America. Other species
are found in other parts of the world, and in some places the number of pelicans
is prodigious, particularly in some of the most southern parts of the world.
In heraldry, the pelican is drawn with her wings indorsed, and wounding her breast
with her beak. When represented in her nest feeding her young with her blood, she is
called a pelican in her piety.
PE'LION, the ancient name of a wooded mountain range in Thessaly, extending along
the e. coast. Its eastern side descends in steep and/ugged precipices to the sea. Further
to the n., near the mouth of the Peneus, is the steep conical peak of Ossa (q.v.), which
according to the classic myth, the Titans placed upon the summit of Peliou, in order to
scale Olympus, the abode of the gods. The modern name is Zagora, and, as of old, its
sides and summit are clothed with venerable-forests of oak, chestnut, beech, elm, and pine.
PELISSIER, AMIABLE JEAN JACQUES, Marshal of France, Due de Malakoff, b. in
1794 at Maromme, near Rouen. His father was a small farmer, little above the degree
of a peasant. Pclissier was first sent to the lyceum at Brussels. At twenty he gained
admission to the celebrated French artillery college of La Fleche, and was soon trans-
ferred to the special school of St. Cyr. He entered the artillery of the royal guard as
sub-lieut. in 1814, and being transferred to the 57th regiment of the line, which was not
called upon to do duty after the return of Napoleon from Elba, he escaped the dilemma
of declaring either for or against the emperor. He served on the staff in Spain in 1823;
made the campaign of theMorea in 1828; joined the first expeditioa to Algiers in 1830
as maj. of cavalry; and in 1839 returned to Algeria with the rank of lieut-col. He
commanded the left wing of the French army at the battle of Isly. In 1845 he acquired
an unenviable notoriety by suffocating more than 500 Arabs w'ho took refuge in the
caves of Ouled-Riah in the Dahra. Marsha] Soult, then minister of war, did not venture
to approve this atrocity, but marshal Bugeaud, commander-in-chief in Algeria, declared
that Pelissier only carried out his positive orders. By 1850 he had attained the rank of
gen of division. When the news of the coup d'etat reached Algiers, he espoused the
cause of the emperor, and placed the province of Algiers under martial law until order
was restored. In the war with Russia, he obtained "in 1855 the command of the first
corps of the Crimean army, and soon succeeded marshal Canrobert in the chief com-
mand, when a change came over the fortunes of the campaign. The Russians were
defeated on the Tchernaya, and on Sept. 8 the Malakoff, the key of Sepastopol,
was carried. After the fall of Sebastopol, Pelissier received a marshal's baton, and on
his return to France, was created due de Malakoff and a senator, and received a dota-
tion of 100,000 francs. He also received the order of G.C.B. from queen Victoria. In
1 S.13 he came to London as the French ambassador, but resigned his post, for which he
had little relish, in the following year. He w;i- then named gov.gen. of Algiers, where
he died (May, 1864} of congestion' of the lungs.
Pella.
Pelops.
PEL'LA, the ancient capital of Macedonia, and the birthplace of Alexander the great,
was situated on a liiil, and surrounded by marches, il wa< a wca'nhy and p 'W,-riul
city, but declined under tlie Romans until it became a place of no consequence, ;md
in the middle ages there remained only a strong caMlc called Jimli i«i. Its Mte has heen
identified with that of the village of Aeokhori or Yenikiuy, near which is a spring called
Pelle.
PEL'LAGRA, at one time, the name of a loathsome skin disease, supposed to be
endemic to the rice-producing part of the north of Italy, is inns- employed to designate a
group of phenomena, of which the most prominent and significant are mental. Allied
affections have recently been described in various continental countries; but as pic
in its most intense form in Lombardy, pellagra consists in the skin being covered with
tubercles and rough scales, in debility, vertigo, inability to preserve the equilibrium,
epilepsy, and great depression of spirits. The melancholia which constituted the latter
stage often led to suicide, and so frequently to destruction by drowning that it was dis-
tinguished as a special form of the tendency by the appellation of hydroinania. The
extent of the ravages of this affection may be estimated from the facts that of 500
patients in the Milan lunatic asylum in 1827, one-third were pcl!a:_rin>; tint when
Blrambio wrote (1784), one of every twenty, and when Holland (IblT), one of every rive
or six of the population presented symptoms of the disease. The belief, .so long current,
that this malady was the result of the use of rice or mai/e as' the chief article of diet,
must now be greatly modified, as it has been observed in districts and under circumstance*
where the food is of a different description; but where poverty, insufficient nourishment,
filth, toil, and the ordinary agents in human degeneration are at work.
PELLESTEI'NA, a t. of u. Italy, in Venetia, near the center of an island of the same
name, 1:3 in. s. of Venice. The island is about 7^ in. in length, and 1 m. in breadth. It
is one of the low narrow islands which separate the lagoon of Venice from the Adriatic.
The island is in great part occupied by a row of small towns, of which Pcllestrina is the
largest. Pop. 7,195.
PELLET, or OGIIESS, in English heraldry, a roundle (q.v.) sable.
PE'LLICO, SILVIO, an Italian poet, celebrated for his long and cruel imprisonment by
the Austrians, more, perhaps, than for his verses, was b. in 1788 at Saluxzo, in Piedmont,
and was ,educated in Pignerol, where his father, Onorato Pellico, also favorably known
/is a lyric poet, had a silk-factory. In his 16th year he accompanied his sister Rosiim (on
her marriage) to Lyons, where he remained until Foscolo's Carme de' Sr/i"'''''' awakened
in him a strong patriotic feeling and an irresistible desire to return to Italy. Coming,
about 1810. to Milan, where his family were now settled, he was warmly" received by
Ugo Foscolo and Vincenzo Monti, and was employed as tutor in the family of count
Porro, in whose house all the most distinguished men in Milan were accustomed to
Ilis tragedies of Laodamia and Francesco, da Rimini gained him an honorable name
amongst Italian poets. He also translated .the Manfred of Byron, with whom he had
become acquainted. He lived in great intimacy with the most eminent patriots and
authors of liberal views, and took an active part in a periodical called II t'ini/'i'intore,
which, after a time, was suppressed, on account of its liberal tone. Having become con-
nected with the secret society of the Carbonari, then the dread of the Italian government,
Pellico was apprehended in 1820, and sent to the prison of Sta. Margherita, where his
friend, the poet Maroncelli, was also confined. In the beginning of the following year
he was carried to Venice, and in Jan., 1822, to the prison on the isle of San Mi' 'hcle,
near Venice; and Maroncelli and he were at last condemned to death; but th' emperor
commuted the sentence to 20 years' imprisonment for Maroncelli. and 15 years for Pellico.
In Mar, 1822, they were both conveyed to the subterranean dungeons of the Spielberg.
In Aug., 1830, however, they were set at liberty. Pellico published an account of his
sufferings during his ten years' imprisonment, under the title Le mie Pn'f/ioni (Paris.
which has been translated into other languages, and lias made his name familiar where
it would not have been known on account of his poetry. Pellieo's health, never robust,
was permanently injured. The marchioness of Bavolo received him into her house
at Turin as her secretary. Pellico subsequently p'.:blished numerous tragedies and
other poems, and a little catechism on the duties of man. His death took place Jan. 31,
1854.
PELLITOEY, or PELLITORY OP TIIE WALL, Parietarfa, a genus of plants of the
natural order itrticece, having both unisexual and hermaphrodite flowers on the same
plant, the perianth of both kinds 4-fid. The COMMON PELLITORY (P. offirmnJi^. which
grows on old walls and heaps of rubbish in Britain and jnany parts of Europe and Asia.
is a herbaceous perennial, with prostrate branched stems, more rarely with erect stems.
ovale leaves, and inconspicuous flowers. It sometimes attracts attention from the manner
in which the pollen is copioushy discharged in hot summer days by an elastic movement of
the filaments. It was formerly much esteemed as a diuretic, refrigerant, and Jithontriptic.
Its proper'.'.es depend on niter, which it contains.
PELLrrORY OF SPAIN, An<icyclns pyrethrum, a plant of the natural order ww;>«.v//Vr.
of a genus nearly allied to chamomile (q.v.), a native of the Levant and of Barbary, and
cultivated to some extent in Germany and other countries. It has procumbent, branched,
Pella.
Pelops.
downy stems; each branch onc-flowerctl ; the root-leaves pinnate, with pinnatifid segments
and linear-subulate lobes. The flowers (heads of flowers) have a \\hite ray. purplish
beneath, and a yellow disk. The root is spindle-shaped and fleshy, and when dried is
about the thickness of the little finger, inodorous, breaking with a resinous fracture. It
has a very peculiar taste, slight at first, but becoming acidulous, saline, and acrid, with
a burning and tingling sensation in the mouth and thror.t, which continues for seme time.
It is valued in medicine, and is chewed or administered in the form of a tincture to relieve
tooiiiachc, also in cases of paralysis of the tongue, as a sialogogue in certain kinds of
headache, and of rheumatic and neuralgic affections of the face, and is used as a gargle
in relaxation of the uvula. The powder of it enters into the composition of certain
cephalic snuffs, and is rubbed on the skin in some eastern countries to promote per.-pira-
tion. It is the radix pyrethri of the pharmacopoeias. It is a powerful local irritant.
The plant cultivated in Germany has more slender roots than that of the Levant, and has
sometimes been described as a distinct species (A. officinarum), but is probably a n.ere
variety.
PELLS, CLERK OF THE (Lat. pdlis, a skin), a clerk belonging to the court of exchequer
in England and Ireland, whose office was to enter every teller's bill into a parchment or
skin, callad p<-Uis receptorum, and also to make another roll of payments, which Avas
called pdl.is c.ntmim, and which showed the warrant under which the money was paid.
The office was abolished, in 1834, by the statute 4 and 5 Will. IV. c. 15, which
transferred the duties to the comptroller-geneir.i. who thereupon assumed the custody of
the records; and the treasury thereafter 'established new forms of books, accounts, and
warrants.
PELOP'IDAS, a celebrated T.heban general, of noble descent, noted among his fellow-
citi/ens for his disinterested patriotism. The inviolable friendship between himself — one
of the richest men in Thebes — and Epaminondas — one of the poorest — is among the ir.ost
beautiful things recorded in Greek history. In 382 B.C. he was driven from Thebes by
the oligarchic party, who were supported by the Spartans, and forced to seek refuge at
Athens, whence he returned secretly with a few associates, 379 B.C., and recovered pos-
ses^ion of the Kadmeia, or citadel, slaying the Spartan leader, Leontiades, with his own
hand. Plutarch gives us a vivid picture of the adventurous exiles gliding quietly, in
disguise, into the city, on a winter afternoon, amid bitter wind and sleet. Having been
elected Boeotarch, in conjunction with Melon and Charon, he set about, training and dis-
ciplining his troops, so that they f oon became as formidable as the Lacedaemonians, and
were successful in several small encounters' with the latter. His "sacred band" of The-
)»an youth largely contributed to the victory of Epaminondas at Leuctra (371 B.C.), but
failed in a subsequent attack on Sparta itself. In the expedition of the TheLaus against
the cruel tyrant Alexander of Pherse (868 B.C.), he was, after several important si;c<
treacherously taken prisoner, when in the character of an ambassador; but was rescued
by Epaminondas in the expedition of the following year. He \vas then sent to Susa. as
ambassador from Thebes, to counteract the Spartan and Athenian intrigues going on at
the court of Persia, and behaved himself very nobly while there. His diplomacy was
successful. In 364 B.C. a third expedition was planned against Alexander of Phone,
who, as usual, was threatening the Thessalian towns. The command was given to Pelo-
pidas and in the summer he inarched into Thessaly, where he won the battle of Kynos
Kcpbaln, but was himself killed while too eagerly pursuing the foe. He was' buried by
the Thcssalians with great pomp.
PELO PIUM was the name given, sbout the beginning of the present century (1802),
by Rose to a new metal, which he thought he had discovered in the mineral columbiJe.
It" was subsequently ascertained that it, was identical with niobium.
PELOPONNE SIAN WAR. See GREECE.
PELOPONNESUS (i.e., the isle of Pelops). now called the Morea (q.v.), a peninsula,
which formed the southern part of ancient Greece, Hellas proper being situated to the
northward of the isthmus, on which stood the city of Corinth. See GKEEGE. The
whole area is less than 9.000 sq. miles. In the most flourishing periods of Grecian
history, the Peloponnesus had a population of more than two millions, although at pres-
ent it lias little over half a million. Among its most important cities were Sparta in
Laconia, and Argos the capital of Argolis. Sparta acquired, after the Messcnian war, a
decided supremacy over the other states, and disputed the supremacy with Athens in a
war of almost thirty years' duration (431-404 B.C.) — the famous " Pelopcnnesian war,"
of which the history has been written by Thucydides. After the Roman conquest, the
Peloponnesus formed part of the province of Acha.ia, and subsequently belonged to the
Byzantine empire. For its later history, see MOKEA.
PE'LOPS, in Greek mythology, the grandson of Zeus, and the son of Tantalus, was
slain by his father, and served up at an entertainment which he gave to the gods, in
order to test their omniscience. They were not deceived, and would not touch the
horrible food; but Ceres, being absorbed with grief for the loss of her daughter, alo
part of a shoulder without observing. The gods then commanded the members to be
thrown into a caldron, out of which Clotho brought* the boy again alive, and the want
of the shoulder was supplied by an ivory one. According to the legend most general in
PeloHzc.
I'elvis.
later times. Pelops was a Phrygian, who, being driven by Ilos from Sipj'los, rame with
great treasures to the peninsula, which derived from Mm the name of Pelopoui
married llippodamia, obtained her father's kingdom by conquering liim in a chariot •race.
and became the father of Atreus, Thyestes. and oilier sun-. Hut, in what appear to be
the oldest Uaditions, !ie is repre-c;iHM! as a (.Jivek. and not as a foreigner. II;: was said
to have revived the Olympic games, and was particularly honored at Olympia.
PELOUZE, THEOPHILE JULES, 1807-67; b. France; completed his chemical studies
under Guy Lussac, ii;-e-ime professor of chemistry in 1830, and in is.,! associate lecturer
with Lussac on chemistry in Paris at the polytechnic school, and in 1S!:> ;is-,:\vr ;:t the
mint. In 1836 he joined Liebig in Germany, and was associated witii him in the dis-
covery of avianthic ether. On ins reluru to Paris he was professor at the polytechnic
school; in 1851 was called to fill a chair at the college of France, lie in credited with
the discovery of a new class of salts, the nitro .-ulphaies; a new and improved mo<.< of
forming copper-plate; the discovery of green cyanuret of iron; new means for simplify-
ing the manufacture of glass; the. discovery of the law of pyrogenous acids; a proves-*
for the fabrication of tannin; exhaustive analyses of the composition of b-ci sugar; the
mode of producing fat from glycerine and an acid; the discovery of the preparation of
gun cotton; and numerous other useful discoveries.
PELTRY, a general term applied to the trade in skins of wild animals, and to the
skins themselves. It is understood to mean only skins undressed, except by drying, and
chiefly those which, when dressed, are called furs, and it is especially applied to the
produce of the north-western territory (Hudson's Bay territory) of British North
America, although all others are included. The following table will show the kind of
skins meant, and the vast destruction of animal life which is necessitated by this valu-
able branch of commerce. .
The number and kinds of skins sold at the Hudson Bay company's sales in 1872 were
as follows:
Beaver , 903,371
Otter , 13, 781
Sea Otter 5?)
Fur Seal 1' '
" " salted 1,029
Hair Seal.. 3,118
Musquash 124,563
Fox, Silver 540
" Cross 2.027
" Red 7, (599
" White 2,804
" Blue 30
" Kitt • 3,792
Fisher 7.059
Marten 59, 107
Mink 89.228
Ermine 2,958
Skunk 2,621
Wolverine 1 .056
Lynx 7.926
Wolf ' 2, 790
Raccoon 3,878
Badger 1.S62
Bear 8,415
American Rabbit 3,070
Musk Ox
American Deer 9,032
American Goat 188
Squirrel 643
WTeeuusk 130
Hare 126
Panther 5
Swan
Loon 12
Besides these there were imported in the same year the following, chiefly for the pur
pose of being tanned or otherwise dressed as leather, or already prepared.
Various skins, the animals' names not given 8,643.860
Goat and kid, dressed and undressed. .7 5, 737.320
Sheep and lamb, dressed and undressed I1.04:>.os(i
The total value of these was £3,629,848. The value of skins and furs imported in 1877
was £3,359,330.
The pelts of many animals in their original state do not appear well fitted for decora-
tive or even ordinary apparel, but the art of the furrier changes them greatly. The
recent discovery, that the long hairs which project over the fine under-fur of many
447
Pelonze.
Pelvis.
specie?, are also deeper rooted in the skin, has given rise to an ersv and admirable method
of removing them very completely. The pelts are stretched and passed through a paring-
machiiie, which pares the flesh-side with such nicety that it takes oil' a thin layer, and
cuts only through the roots of the coarse, deep-seated hairs, which are consequently easily
shaken or brushed out. In this way, and by dyeing the fur. beautiful imitations of the
costly seal-skins, etc., are prepared from musquash, hare, and other common pelts. See
FUR AND FURRIERY.
•
PELTJ'SITJM, the Greek name of an ancient Egyptian city, situated at the north-eastern
angle of the Delta, and important as the key of Egypt on the Asiatic side. The eastern
mouth of the Xile derived from it the epithet pelusian (ostiurn -pelusiacum). Pelusium is
called sin in the Old Testament; and both words, as well as the native Coptic or Egyp-
tian name peremoun, or peromi, signify the mud-city. The outturn pdusiacutn was choked
up with sand as long ago as the 1st c. B.C., and its distance from the sea has ever since
been increasing. Pelusium appears to have originally borne the name of Anaris, or
Abaris. It is so called by Manetho, who attributes its foundation to the llyksos about
2,000 B.C.; but it first figures in semi-authentic history as the scene of Sennacherib's
defeat, when (according to the Egyptian tradition, as reported, by Herodotus), the camp
of the Assyrians was invaded at night by a host of field-mice, who gnawed their bow-
strings and shield-straps, so that in the morning, when the Egyptians fell upon them,
they were defenseless. For the Hebrew account of Sennacherib's defeat see 2 Kings,
chaps. 18 and 19. In 525 B.C., Cambyses overthrew, near Pelusium, the forces of Plia-
raoh-Psammetichus. The city was also taken by the Persians in 309 B.C.; and in 173
B.C. it was the scene of the defeat of Ptolemy Philometor by Antiochus Epiphaucs.
Mark Antony captured it, 55 B.C., and it opened its gates to Octavian after his victory at
Actium, 31 B.C. Its later history is xinimportant, and its ruins — at Tineh, near Damietta
— possess little interest.
PELVIS, THE (from the Latin pehis, a basin), is a bony ring interposed between the
spinal column and the lower extremities, so as to transmit the weight of the former to
the latter. Before considering the pelvis as a whole, it will be expedient to consider the
individual bones of which it is composed. These, in the adult, are four m number, viz.,
the two ossa innominata which constitute its
sides and front, and the sacrum and coccyx,
which complete it behind. The os innomina-
tum receives its name from its bearing no
resemblance to any known body, and is a large
irregular-shaped hone. In the youag subject,
it consists of three separate bones, which meet
and form the deep, cup-shaped cavity (the ace-
talnilnm), situated a little below the middle of
the outside of the bone, and in which the head
of the thigh-bone rests. Hence it is usual to
describe this bone as consisting of the ilium,
the ischium. and the pubes. The ilium is the
superior, broad, and expanded portion which
forms the prominence of the hip, and articu-
lates with the sacrum. This bone may be
described as divisible into an external and an
internal surface, a crest, and an anterior and
posterior border. The external surface (see
Fig. I.) is convex in front, and concave behind;
it is bounded above by the crest, below by the
upper border of the acetabulurn (see Fig. II.),
and in front and behind by the anterior and
posterior borders. It presents various curved
lines and rough surfaces for the attachment ot
the glutcei and other powerful muscles connect-
ing the pelvis and the lower extremities. The
internal surface, which is smooth and concave,
lias the same boundaries as the external, except
iuferiorly, where it terminates in a prominent
line, termed the linca ilio-peetinea. The sur-
face of the crest is convex, roughened, and
sufficiently broad to admit of the attachment
of three planes of muscles. The borders will
be sufficiently understood by a reference to
fig. I. The iscltium is the inferior and strong
est portion of the bone. It consists of a thick and solid portion, the body (whose inferior
border is termed the tnberosity), and a thin ascending portion, the ram us. In the ordi-
nary sitting position, the whole weight of the body rests on the ischium; and by sitting
on the hands, we can usually feel the part (the luberosity, see Fig. I. 15) through which the
weight is transmitted. The pubes is that portion which runs horizontally inward from
FIG. I.
The os innominatum of the right side.
1, the ilium, its external surface: 2. the ischi-
um; 3, the os pubis; 4, the crest of the ilium:
5, 6, upper and lower curved lines for attach-
ment of muscles; 7, the surface for attach-
ment of the §luta?us maximus: 3. 9, the
anterior superior and inferior spinous pro-
cesses; 10, 11, the posterior spinous processes;
13. the spine of the ischinm ; 13, 14, the greater
and lesser saero-ischiatic notches: 15, the
tuberosity of the ischium ; 1'i, its ranius: 1",
the body of the os pubis; 18, its ramus; 19,
the acetabnlum; 20, the thyroid or obtura-
tor foramen.— (From Wilson.)
Poinba.
I'eiubcrton.
448
the inner side of the acetabulum for about 2 in., and then descends obliquely outward
for about the same length, thus making an acute angle with its original direction. The
former part is called the <W//, and the latter the rumua, of the pn! es. The rainus is con-
tinuous with the ramus of the ischium. Between ihe ischium and the pubcs is u large
aperture, knounas the tlu/, old or oMnriitorforuinrn, which in the living body is dosed
by a membrane termed the <'bfnr<it<ir ligaim /if.. The object of this large foramen is prob-
ably to give lightness to the parts, without materially diminishing tl'e:r -tren: tii.
The develop, neiii of the os iniiominatum affords an excellent example o: i!u- general
principles 1-iiu down in tiie article OSSIFICATION. There are no less than clijlit centers
of osMlicaiion for this bone: three primary — one for the ilium, one for ihe ischium. and
one for the pubes — and live secondary ones for various processes, etc. The first center
appears in the lower part of the ilium, at about the same period that Ihe dcvc'opmer! of
the vertebrae commences, vi/.., at about the close of the second month of fu'tal life; the
second in the body of the ischium, just below the acetabulum, at about the third month;
and the third in the body of the pubcs, near the acetabulum. during the fourth or fifth
month. At birth the crest of the ilium, the bottom of the acetabulum. and the rami of
the ischium and pubes. arc still cartilaginous. At about the sixth or sevenrh year, these
rami become completely ossified; next, the ilium is united to the ischium; and Lsily.
the pubes is joined to the other two in the acetabulum. The complete ossification of
the bone, from the secondary centers in the crest of the ilium, the tuberosity of the
ischium etc.. is not completed till about the 25th year.
Each os iimomitmtum articulates with its fellow of the opposite side (through the
intervention of the mterosseoits fibro cartilage, which unites the two surfaces of 'he pubic
bones, see Fig. II. /). with the s: erum, and
with the femur (at the acetabulum). V
than 85 muscles are attached to this bone.
some 'proceeding to the region of the hack.
others forming the walls of the abdomen,
others forming the floor of the pelvis, oilier. s
passing downward to the lower extremities,
etc. As the other bones entering into the
formation of the pelvis, the sacrum, and the
coccyx, belong essentially to the vertebral
column, and will be described in the article
on that subject, it is sufficient here to remark
that, collectively, they form a triangular bony
mass (with the base upward, and Aviih a con-
cave anterior surface), which - - 1 In-
posterior part of the pelvic ring. See Fig. II.
4, 5.
The pelvis, considered ns a whole, is
Pelvis (with fifth lumbar vertebra) of Euro- divisible into a false and true pelvis. The
pean female adult. Transverse diameter, 5.7: false pelvis is all that expanded portion Which
aistero-posterior diameter, 4.5 inches.
1, the last lumbar vertebra; 2, the inter-verte-
bral substance connecting it with the sacrum ;
3, the promontory of the sacrum ; 4, its an-
terior surface; 5, the coccyx: 6, 6, the iliac
fossae: 9, the acetabulum; c, the tuberosity,
and b the body of the ischium ; e, the os pubis;
/, the symphysis pubis: g. the arch, t, the
spine, and k the pec-tineal line of the pubis;
k. 1. k. I, the ileo-pectineal lines. — (From
Humphry.)
is bounded laterally by the iliac bon-
lies above the prominent line ternn d the linm
"Ainm (see Fig. II. /r, I): while the frtte
is all that part of the general pelvic
ty which is situated below that line. The
broad, shallow cavily of the false peivis
serves to support the'weight of the intc-tim s;
while the rectum, bladder, and part of the
generative organs, lie in the cavity of the true
pelvis. TUB upper aperture of the true pelvis is tinned the inl<-t. It is somewhat heart-
shaped in form, and has three principal diameters— an anteiv-posterior (or sacro-pubic),
which extends from the angle formed by the sacrum with the last lumbar vert. 'bra to
the symphysis pubis, or po'int of union of the two pubic bones; the tran*r< rse, at t
angles to the former, and extending across the greatest width of the pelvis; and the
oblique, extending from the sacro-iliac symphysis (or union), on one side, to the margin
of the brim corresponding with the acetabulum on the other. The diameters of the out-
let are two— an nritero-posterior, extending from the tip of the coccyx to the lower part
gis-e the average numbers representing the dimensions of a well formed adult female
pelvis. Diamelcrs of inlet or brim— antero-posterior, 4.4 in. ; transverse, 5.4 in. ; obhqite,
4 8 inches. Diameters of outlet— antero-posterior, 5 in.; transverse. 4.3 inches. Depth
oft/ie Iruc pelvin— posteriorly. 4.5 in.; in the middle, 3.5 in.; anteriorly, 1.5 inches.
'ihe pelvis is placed obliquely with regard to the trunk of the body; the plane of the
inlet to the true pelvis forming an ancle of from 60° to 65° with the horizon. According
to XrtPeelc (Ucber dns weibliclie Becken), the extiemity of the coccyx is in the female.
when standing upright, about 7 lines higher than the lower edge of the symphysis pubis;
the upper edge of the symphysis being at the same level as the lower edge of the second
AAQ Pemba.
1'euiberton.
segment of the coccyx. By attention to these data, a detached pelvis may readily be
placed at the angle at which it normally lies in the skeleton. The shape of the human
pelvis is much affected by the curving forward of the lower part of the sacrum. This
bend of the sacrum forward serves to support the viscera, when the body is in an erect
postur^ ; but it is of much more importance in its relation to the act of parturition. If
all the antero-posterior diameters of the true pelvis from the brim to the outlet were
bisected, the points of bisection would form a curved line, similar to the curve of the
sacrum, and termed the axis of the pelvis. As the head of the child has to follow this
curve, the difficulties of parturition are much greater than if the axis of the pelvis had
been straight, as in the other vertcbrata. Without entering into unnecessary details, we
may remark generally, that the fcotal head is of oval shape, with its greatest diameter
from before backward, and that in its passage through the pelvis it, is so placed that its
longest diameter at each stage of labor coincides with the longest diameter of the pelvis.
The head enters the pelvis with the occiput (or back of the skull) being directed toward
one ilium, and the face toward the other, while, at its final emergence, the face is
turned toward the sacrum and coccyx. There can be no doubt that the screw-like or
rotatory motion which is thus given to the fetal head, renders its passage through the
the pelvis more easy than it would otherwise have been.
There are well-marked differences, chiefly having reference to the act of parturition,
between the male and female pelvis. In the female, the bones are lighter and more deli-
cate than in the male, and the muscular impressions and eminences are less distinctly
marked. The iliac fossae are large and expanded, and hence the great prominence of
the hips. The several diameters (particularly the transverse diameter of the brim, which
measures only 5.1 in. in the male) are somewhat greater; and the pubic arch js wider by
about 10 degrees ; the sacrum also is wider and less curved.
It is worthy of notice that the pelvis of the negro is smaller in all its dimensions than
that of the European, and presents a partial approximation to that of the monkey, espe-
cially in the deficiency of its width. This difference is very much more obvious in the
male than in the female negro; and parturition in the black races is facilitated both by
the sacrum being less curved, and by the foetal head being of smaller dimensions. In
the apes and monkeys, which approach most nearly to man, the pelvis is longer and
narrower, and much less curved than in the human subject. In other mammals, the
differences are for the most part the same in kind, but greater in degree. In many of
the cheiroptera (bats) and insectivora (as the mole), the pubic bones are only loosely con-
nected by a small ligament, or there is a complete opening between the bones (as occurs
normally in birds), an arrangement by which the act of parturition in these animals is
much facilitated. The pelvic bones are very simple in the cetacea, in some cns?s being
represented by two simpie elongated bones lying near the anus, and converging from,
opposite sides (a transverse connecting piece being sometimes but not always present);
in others, by a small V-shaped bone, while sometimes (as in manatus) they seem to be
entirely wanting. The additional pelvic bones in the non-placental mammals have been
already noticed in the articles on the MARSUPIATA and MOXOTREMATA. In the echidna
(belonging to the latter order), the acetabulum is perforated, as occurs normally in birds.
In birds, in addition to the peculiarity just noticed, we find the pelvis open in front (or,
more correctly, inferiorly), there being no union of the pubic bones in any bird except
the ostrich. This normal incompleteness of the pelvic ring is obviously for the purpose
of facilitating the passage of the eggs. It is unnecessary to trace the further degrada-
tion of the pelvic bones in the reptiles and fishes.
V
PEMBA, called the Green isle by the Arabs, an island off the e. coast of Africa, in
the dominions of the sultan of Zanzibar, the nearest point being about 20 m. from the
coast, and the southmost point 40 m. u. of the island of Zanzibar. It lies across the 5th
degree of s. lat., and in long. 39° 53' east. Length about 38 m. from n. to. south. Next
to Zanzibar, Pemba is the most remarkable island in the dominions of the sultan. It is
an irregular coralline island, cut up in every direction by creeks, which are much fre-
quented by country craft engaged in the slave-trade; while, owing to the numerous
reefs and shoals, and to the imperfect survey of the island, they are quite imprac-
ticable for vessels of war. The vegetation is most luxuriant. Although the main island
is less cultivated than Zanzibar, it appears, if possible, more productive, and its fruits,
especially the mango, are more highly esteemed. Pemba is more unhealthy than Zanzi-
bar, and the mortality from fever is so great, that it is a question whether it could be
kept under cultivation were the supply of slave-labor cut off. Cliak-Chak, the chief
fort, port, and town, is situated in a deep inlet on the western side, and the narrowest
part of the island. Its approach is winding and difficult. The Portuguese long made
Pemba one of their principal slave depots. A few merchants reside on the island.
PEMBERTON, JOHN C., b. Penn., 1814; educated at West Point, and received the
commission of lieut. in the artillery, 1837; served in the Seminole and Mexican wars, and
for his gallantry at Monterey and Molino del Rey was brevetted capt. and major. In 1861
ho resigned and joined the confederate army as a cavalry col. attached to gen. Joseph
Johnston's staff. In 1863, as lieut.gen., he had command of the department of the
Mississippi, and had charge of the defense of Vicksburg, which he surrendered on July
4, 1863. Since the war he has been engaged in farming in Virginia.
U. K. XI.— 29
Pembina
Pea.
PEM'BINA, a co. in n.e. Dakota, adjoining Minnesota, bounded on the e. by the
Heel River of the North; drained by the Pembina river; 2,000 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 4,862 — 2,989
of American birth. The surface is rolling, and the soil fertile. The principal produc-
tions are wheat, corn, barley, and cattle. Co. seat, Pembimi.
PEM'BINA, a co. in n.w. Minnesota, bounded on the n. by British America, «n the
n.e. by the lake of the Woods, on the w. by the Red River of the North, watered by :»tllu-
ents of the Red and Rainy Lake rivers; about 7,000 sq.m. ; pop. '75, 202. The valley of
the Red river is fertile.
PEMBROKE, a sea-port of south Wales, a market t., and municipal and parlia
mentary borough, in the county of the same name, occupies a rocky ridge on a navigable
creek of Milford Haven, 7 m. s.e. of Milford. On the extremity of the ridge on which
the town is built, are the remains of its once extensive castle, said to have been the birth-
place of Henry VII. Beneath the ruins is a remarkable natural cavern, which had com'
munications both with the castle and the harbor. In 1648 the castle was beleaguered by
Cromwell, and taken after a siege of six weeks. The keep, the principal building in the
inner court, is 75 ft. high, and 163 ft. in circumference, and is surmounted by "a cone-
shaped roof of masonry, still perfect. Pater, otherwise called Pembroke dock, whi:-h is
rather a ship-building than a commercial center, is 2 in. from the town, and has sev-
eral building-slips and a dry-dock. The naval establishment of the government embrace*
an area of 80 acres, and is surrounded by a high wall, flanked by fortifications. \Yithin
Pembroke are 3 ancient churches, and numerous ecclesiastical and educational institu-
tions. Pop. '71, of parliamentary borough, 15,450; of municipal borough, 13,704.
Pembroke unites with Tenby, Mil lord, and Wiston, in sending a member to parliament.
PEMBROKE, EARL OF. See HERBERT, ante.
PEMBROKE COLLEGE, Oxford. BROADGATES HALT,, a place of education, originally
belonging in part to St. Frydeswyde's priory, and in part to the monastery of Abingdon,
was, on the dissolution of the religious houses, given to Christ church by Henry VIII.
In 1629 it was made a college by James I., and took its name from the earl of Pembroke,
then chancellor of the university. By the ordinances of the commissioners under 17 and
18 Viet. c. 81, the constitution of the college is now as follows: There are to hr not less
than 10 fellowships, open to all, not to exceed £200 a year in value, so long as the numhci1
of the fellowships is less than 16. There are not to be less than 12 incorporated scholar-
ships. There are at present 24 which are tenable for 5 years — except the Townshend
scholarships, tenable for 8 years — the holders, however, sharing in the emolument!
during only 4 years. This college presents to 8 benefices, of which 6 have been pur-
chased since 1812.
PEMBROKE COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, was founded in 1347 by Mary de St. Paul, thu
widow of Aymcr de Valence, earl of Pembroke. She was maid, wife, and widow, all
in one day, her husband being slain at a tilting-match held in honor of her nuptials. On
this sad event, she sequestered herself from all worldly delights, and bequeathed her estate
to pious uses. Henry VI. was so -liberal a benefactor to this college as to obtain the
name of a second founder. There are 13 fellowships and 23 scholarships of different
values.
PEMBROKESHIRE, a maritime co. of south Wales, and the westernmost co. of the
principality, is bounded s. by the Bristol channel, and w. and n. by St. George's chan-
nel. Area, according to the census of '71, 393,682 statute acres. Pop. '71, 91,936. The
river Teivy separates the county on the n.e. from that of Cardigan. On the H. arc New-
port and Fishguard bays, the latter 3 m. in width, from 30 to 70 ft. in depth, and with
good ancboring-ground. St. Bride's bay, the widest inlet on the western coast, is 10 m.
in width, and has an inland sweep of 7 miles. Milford Haven (q.v.) is the most impor-
tant estuary. The shores on the s. are wild and inhospitable, and fronted by high pre-
cipitous cliffs. The surface is undulating; green hills alternate with fertile valleys.
The principal elevations occur in the Precelly hills, which traverse the n. of the county
from e. to w., and rise in their highest summit to the height of 1754 feet. The rivers of
Ihe greatest importance are the Eastern and Western Cleddau, which unite and form a
navigable portion of Milford Haven. None of the rivers, of which the Western Cleddau
is the principal, are important. The climate is mild, but damp in the s. of the county;
while in the n., the temperature is considerably lower. There are excellent and produc-
tive soils in the s., and along the n.w. coast the barley districts are famous; but the land
on the Precelly mountains and in the coal districts is inferior. Coal, slate, lead, and iron,
are the only minerals wrorked. Oats, barley, and potatoes are the principal crops.
Pembrokeshire is chiefly remarkable from the fact that, although the most distant of
Welsh counties from England, more than ha-lf its surface is inhabited by an English-
speaking population. This arose from the settlement of a colony of Flemings here, and
their adoption of the English tongue. The district has hence been called Little England
beyond Wales. Pembrokeshire returns one member to parliament. The chief towns
are Haverfordwest, St. Davids, Pembroke, and Tenby.
PEM'ISCOT, a co. in s.e. Missouri, adjoining Arkansas, bounded on the e. by the
Mississippi river; 450 sq.m.; pop. '70, 2,059. The surface is even, with many swamps
and forests. The principal productions are corn and pork. Co. seat, Gayoso.
451
Pembim
Pen.
PEMMICAN. This was originally a North American Indian preparation only, but it
was iniroduced into the British navy victualing-yards, in order to supply the arctic
expeditions with an easily preserved food, containing the largest amount of nutriment in
the smallest space. As made by the Indians, it consists of the lean portions of venison
dried by the sun or wind, and then pounded into a paste, and tightly pressed into cakes;
sometimes a few fruits of amelaiichicr orata are added, to improve the flavor. It will
keep for a very long time uninjured. That made for the arctic vo3'agers was chiefly of
beef. In making pemmican, it is necessary to remove the fat completely.
PEMPHIGUS, or POM'PHOLYX, belongs to that order of skin-diseases which is charac-
terized by an eruption of large vesicles, rilled with serous fluid, and known as bull®. The
disease occurs both in the acute and in the chronic form. In a mild case of acute
pemphigus, l.ulla1, or blisters, from the size of a pea to that of a chestnut appear in suc-
cession (chiefly on the extremities), and having continued three or four days, break, form
a lliin scab, and soon heal, unaccompanied with febrile or inflammatory symptoms. In
severe cases, there is considerable constitutional disturbance; tlie bulke are larger, and
the scabs herl with difficulty. The chronic form differs mainly frcm the acute by ils
prolonged continuance. The acute variety chiefly affects children, and has been ascribed
to dentition, errors of diet, etc. ; W'hile the chronic form chiefly attacks aged persons,
and is probably due to debility and impaired nutrition. The acute form usually requires
nothing but cooling medicines and diet, and mild local dressings, such as simple cerate,
to protect the raw surfaces from exposure to the air. In the chronic form, a nutritious
diet, with the judicious use of tonics (iron, bark, etc.), is most commonly successful. In
obstinate cases, arsenic is sometimes of use.
PEN, an instrument for writing with a fluid. In ancient times, a kind of reed (Lat.
calamus) was chiefly used, though sometimes the letters were painted with a fine hair-
pencil, as among the Chinese at the present day. Quill pens (see QUILLS) probably came
into use after the introduction of modern paper. The English name pen is from Lat.
penna, a feather; but the old form of penna was pesnn or petna ( = Gr. peteron), from
the root pet, to fly; and just as Lat. ped is identical with Eng. foot (see letter F), so petnn
or peteron corresponds to feather (Ger. feder). During last century, many efforts were
made to improve the quill pen, the great defect of which was its speedy injury from use,
and the consequent trouble of frequent mending; moreover, even the most skillful maker
could not insure uniformity of quality, and any variation affected the writer's work.
These efforts were chiefly directed to titling small metal or even ruby points to the nib
of the quill-pen ; but the delicacy of fitting was so great that but very little success
attended the experiments. At the beginning of this century pens began to be made
wholly o£ metal; they consisted of a barrel of very thin steel, and were cut and slit so as
to resemble the quill pen as closely as possible. They were, however, very indifferent,
and being dear (the retail price at first was half-a-crown, and subsequently sixpence),
they made but little way; their chief fault was hardness, which produced a disagreeable
scratching of the paper. In 1820, Mr. Joseph Gillott, who dealt in the metal pens then
made, hit upon an improvement, which, by removing this great defect, gave a stimulus
to the manufacture, which has caused it to be developed to an extent truly marvelous. »
This consisted in making three slits instead of the single one formerly used, and b}' this
means much greater softness and flexibility were acquired- Mr. Gillott also introduced
machinery for the purpose of carrying out his improvements, and thereby so reduced the
cost of production that he was enabled to sell his improved
pens in 1821 at £7, 4s. per gross, which was then considered
a remarkable success. Better pens are now sold at twopence
per gross by the same manufacturer; or, in other words, 864
pens for the same price as one pen in 1821. Nor is this to be
wondered at, when we are acquainted with the wonderful
ingenuity of the machinery by which it is effected. The low-'
est- priced pens are made almost entirely by machinery, but
the better ones require much hand labor for their completion;
nevertheless, in the works of Mr. Gillott alone, who is only
one of several large manufacturers in Birmingham, the an-
nual production is now nearly 150,000,000 pens, requiring a
supply of five tons per week of the fine sheet-steel made for
the purpose in Sheffield, a portion of which is returned as
scrap or w;aste for re-manufacture. From Sheffield the steel
is sent in sheets about 8 ft. long by 3 ft, broad; it is prepared
from the best iron, generally Swedish bloom. The manufac-
turer then prepares it by dipping for a short time in dilute
sulphuric acid, which removes the scale or black surface; the
acid itself is also carefully removjji by immersion in clean
water; the sheets are then passed backwards and forwards
through a rolling-mill with smooth rollers, which reduces
the steel to the exact thickness required, and gives it greater
compactness, it is next slit into strips of various widths ac-
cording to the kind of pen to be made; for the ordinary FIG I.
k'.nd i;s width is seen in fig. 1. This is then passed through a cutting-machine, which
Pen.
Penance.
452
rapidly punches out pieces of the shape shown in fig. 2, and in the order shown in fig. 1,
which" is a portion of the strip with the pieces or blanks, as they are called, cut out; that
whirh is represented is the wasle or scrap previously referred to. The blanks are now
passed through a succession of operations, each conducted by a separate person: women
or girls are chiefly employed. The first process is called xlittiiiu ; they are passed one by
one into a cutting-machine worked by a small hand-lever, which makes the two Mde-Mits,
as seen in fig. 3. The second process, called jriercing, is performed by a similar machine
or hand-press, in which, however, only one punch acts, and that cuts out the small hole
seen in fig. 4. The repeated rolling and stamping of the metal 1ms by this time made it
hard and brittle, and it is necessary to anneal it. for which purpose some thousands of
the x'.it and j>i<iYt>l blanks are put into an iron box, and placed in the fire for a time, which
softens them considerably; this is the third process. "When cold, another operator
receives them, and with another hand-press and a punch stamp ;or marks, ;. ; it is called,
the name of the maker, fig. 5, which constitutes the fourth process. The fifth is .some-
what similar, and is sometimes omitted ; it consists in placing it under another press,
FIG. 6,
which has a punch and die for embossing any ornamental mark. The sixth process,
called Mixing, consists in passing it into another press, which has a sinker and grooved
die, as in fig. 6. The flat blank a, is pushed under the sinker c, is pressed by the action
of the lever into the grooved, and comes out with its edges curved up, as in b. The
seventh process consists in hardening, which is done by placing the pens in an iron
box or muffle, and when they are at a red heat, throwing them into oil; this renders them
exceedingly brittle and hard, too much so, indeed, for they have now to pass through
the eighth or tempering process, which brings them to the required temper or hardness
and elasticity. The ninth operation is scouring; this consists in putting a large number
into a tin cylinder, which is kept revolving by machinery; sand, and coarse emery- pow-
*der are mixed with them; and the friction of these materials and of the pens ihen;
cleanses them from all impurities, and brings out the natural color of the metal. The
tenth and eleventh processes consist in grinding the outside of the nib, first lengthwise,
and then crosswise, which are done by different persons at separate grinding-v.
Next follows the most important operation, constituting the twelfth pro< •. --
that is, making the central slit, upon the nicety of which the whole value of the pen
depends. This is done in a hand-press similar to the others, but the cutting part con-
sists of two chisels, one fixed on the table, the other coming down upon the depn--Mon
of the lever, and so accurately adjusted as to just' clear each other. The operator then
•kill fully "holds the pen lengthwise on the fixed chisel, and brings down the moveablo
one, so as to effect the beautifully clean cut which constitutes so important a feature in
the manufacture. Two other processes, the thirteenth and fourteenth, finish the .--cries:
the first is coloring, by heating them in a revolving cylinder over a charcoal stove, which
gives them a blue or yellowish color, according to the time employed; and the last is
varnishing them with a varnish composed of lac and naphtha. In the works of 31
Gillott, from inspection of which we have gathered these facts, there are 400 women and
100 men employed, and the daily produce is enormous: a clever girl will cut out 14.000
pens per day, and a good slitter will slit 28,000. Besides the kind specially described
above, many other forms are made, especially the larje and small. barrel pens; but tiie
processes are all the same, or are modifications of those described. Gold pens are exten-
sively made in Birmingham, and as they resist the corrosive action of the ink, they are
very durable: their durability is also greatly increased b}' the ingenious but difficult pro-
cess of soldering on to the points of the* nib minute particles of iridium, which, from
their extreme hardness, resist wear for many year?. The manufacture of iridium-
pointed pens is extensively carried on in the city of New York, where the process i
to have been first brought to perfection.
PEN (ante). The number of manufactories of steel pens in the United States in 1870
was three, to which others have been added. The American manufacture has greatly
Pen.
Penance.
improved of late years, and is gradually filling the position of the Birmingham pens. In
gold pens the American manufacture is altogether the best. Hawkins, an American
residing in England, first made the iridium-poitited pens, and solved the gold pen prob-
lem; though there were not many made on this plan until 1835-40, when Mr. Levi Brown
engaged in the business, at first in Detroit, Mich., and afterwards in New York. With
him was associated Mr. John Rendeil, who became the inventor of a number of machines
and processes by which the manufacture was simplified and improved. Bagley, Spen-
cer, Fairchild, and Morton, became celebrated for their make of gold pens. In 1870
there were in the United States 21 gold-pen and pencil manufactories, employing 243
hands, producing the value of , half a million dollars annually. This product has beea
more than quadrupled in the ten years following the taking of the 9th census. Fountain-
pens have been in the market for a number of years, but have only recently become pop-
ular, on account of improvements in the manufacture. Among those in use are the
"Protean," invented by the rev. Mr. Prince, "McKinnon's," " Stylographic," " Calli-
graphic,"etc. The stylus form is employed in some of these instruments; in others, a proper
pen ; and they supply ink sufficient to last for steady writing at least six or seven hours.
PENAL SERVITUDE is a sentence for criminal offenses which has been introduced in
lieu of the sentence of transportation beyond the seas. See CONVICT; TRANSPORTATION.
PENALTY is a sum of money declared by some statute or contract to be payable by
one who commits an offense or breach of contract. It is considered as a kind of punish-
ment, and constituting indirectly a motive to the party to avoid the commission of the
ui:t which induces such a consequence. Many contracts executed between parties con-
tain a clause that one or other of them who fails to perform his part of the contract
will incur a penalty, i.e., will be liable to pay a fixed sum of money to the other party.
In such cases, a distinction is drawn between a liquidated and unliquidated penalty; and
whether it is of the one kind or the other, depends on the language used in the contract.
If it is a liquidated penalty, then, when the breach of contract is committed, the party in
default must pay that precise sum, neither more nor less; but if it is unliquidated, then
he is not to pay the whole sum, but merely such part of it as corresponds to the amount
of injury or damage done, and of which proportion a jury is the sole judge in an action
of damages. In statutes, when penalties are declared to follow on certain illegal acts,
the sum is sometimes fixed, but in many cases only a maximum sum is stated, it being
ieft to the court or the justices who enforce the penalty what is a sufficient punishment
for the offense. Sometimes penalties can only be sued for by the parties immediately
injured; but, as a general rule, and unless it is otherwise restricted, anybody may. sue for
the penalty, for in an offense against public law, where there is no public prosecutor, any
person who chooses may set the law in motion. Accordingly, not only may anybody in
general sue for the penalty, but an inducement is offered bv declaring the party who
does so to be entitled to the whole or a half of the penalty. Without such inducement,
many offenses would be unpunished. The party who so sues is generally called the
informer. Thus, in offenses against the game laws, anybody may sue for the penalty, and
he is entitled to half of it. Sometimes the penalty can only be sued for in the superior
courts of law; but in the great majority of instances the enforcing of penalties is part of
the administration of justice before jus'tices of the peace. It is for the justices to fix the
amount if they have (as they generally have) a discretion to do so. If it is not paid, the
justices may issue a distress-wTarrant, authorizing a constable to seize and sell the goods
of the party to pay the fine; and if there are no goods, then the justices may commit the
party to prison as a substitutionary punishment. Sometimes justices have a discretion
either to impose a penalty or commit the party to prison as an alternative punishment.
All these matters depend on the construction of particular statutes.
PENANCE (Lat. p&nitentt'ti), in Roman Catholic theology, means the voluntary or
accepted self-inflicted punishment by which a repentant sinner manifests his sorrow for
sin, and 'seeks to atone for the sin, and to avert the punishment which, even after the
guilt has been remitted, may still remain due to the offense. Penance is believed in the
Roman Catholic church to be one of the sacraments of the new law. It will be nec-
essary to explain it briefly both under its relations as a sacrament, and as a private per-
sonal exercise.
Penance must be carefully distinguished from repentance, which is simply sorrow
for evil-doing, accompanied with a purpose of amendment. Penance is the fruit or the
manifestation of this sorrow, and it is commonly accompanied or expressed by some of
those external acts which are the natural manifestations of any deep sorrow, either nega-
tive, as the neglect of ordinary attention to dress, to the care of the person, to the use of
food; or positive, as the direct acts of personal mortification and self -inflicted pain, such
as fasting, wearing hair-cloth, strewing the head with ashes, watching of nights, sleeping
hard, etc. Such manifestations of sorrow, whether from motives -of religion or from
merely natural causes, are common among the eastern races, and are frequently alluded
to in the Scripture. In the personal practice of the early Christians, penance" found a
prominent place, and the chief and acknowledged object of the stated fasts (q.v.), and
other works of mortification which prevailed, was that of penitential correction, or of
the manifestation of sorrow for sin.
A still more striking use of penance, however, in the early church, was the disciplin-
Penaiig.
Pencils.
ary one; and this, in the Roman Catholic view, is connected with the sacramental char-
acter of penance. Any discussion of this purely theological question would be out of
place here, and it will he enough to state bi icily that Koman Catholics number penance
among the seven sacraments (q.v.), and believe it to be of direct divine institution (Matt.
xvi. 19, xviii. 18; John xx. 21). The matter of this sacrament consists, in their view, of
the three acts of the penitent — contrition, or heartfelt sorrow for sin, as being an offense
against God; confession, or detailed accusation of one's self to a priest approved for the
purpose; and satisfaction, or the acceptance aud'accomplishment of certain penitential
works, in atonement of the sin confessed; and the form of the sacrament is the sentence
of absolution from sin pronounced by the priest who has received the confession, and
has been satisfied of the penitential disposition of the self-accusing sinner. In all these
points, of course, they are at issue with Protestants. Even in the apostolic times, the
practice prevailed of excluding persons of scandalous life from the spiritual fellowship
of the Christian community (see EXCOMMUNICATION); and without attempting to li\ the
date, it may he stated as certain, from the authority of Tertullian and othi r writers, that
from a very early time the persons so excluded were subjected to certain penitential ivjjfir
lalions. The class of offenders so treated were those who had been notoriously guilty of
the grievous crimes of idolatry or apostasy, murder, adultery, and other scandalous
ulVensc's. The period of penitential probation differed in different times and places, Lut
in general was graduated according tolhe enormity of the sin, some going so far in their
rigor (see NOVATIAN) as, contrary to the clearly-expressed sense of the cJMtrch, to carry
it even beyond the grave. In the earlier ages, much depended upon the spirit of each
particular church or country; but about the 4th c. the public penitential discipline
assumed a settled form, which, especially as established in the Greek church, is so curi-
ous unit it deserves to be briefly described. Sinners of the classes already referred to had
their names enrolled, and were (in some churches, alter having made a preliminary cou-
ftssiouton priest appointed for the purpose) admitted, with a blessing and other cere-
monial, by the bishop to the rank of penitents. This enrollment appears to have coin
monly taken place on the first day of Lent. The penitents so enrolled were arranged in
four grades, called — 1. (Gr. prosklaionles, Lat. flentes) "Weepers;" 2. (Gr. nkn>i.:
Lat. audunleis) "Hearers;" 3. (Gr. hypopiptontes, Lat. prostcr neuter) "Prostratora;" 4.
(Gr. zyattintes, Lat. conxlstcntes) "Slanders." Of these classes, the first were obliged to
remain outside of the church at the time of public worship, and to ask the prayers of the
faithful as they entered. The second were permitted to enter and to remain in the place
and during the time appointed for the catechumens (q.v.); but, like them, were required
to depart before the commencement of the solemn part of the liturgy (q.v.). The third
•were permitted to pray with the rest, but kneeling or prostrate, and for them were pre-
scribed many other acts of mortification. The fourth were permitted to pray with the
rest in a standing posture, although apparently in a distinct part of the church: but they
were excluded from making offerings with the rest, and still more from receiving the
communion. The time to be spent in each of these grades at first differed very much
according to times and circumstances, but was afterwards regulated by elaborate laws,
called penitential canons. Still it was in the power of the bishop to abridge or to pro-
long it, a power, the exercise of which is connected with the historical origin of the
practice of indulgence (q.v.). Of these four grades, the first two hardly appear in the
western church. It is a subject of controversy whether, and how far, this discipline was
extended to other than public sinners; but it seems certain that individuals, not publicly
known as sinners, voluntarily enrolled themselves among the penitents. All four grades
wore a distinguishing penitential dress, in which they appeared on all occasions of pub-
lic worship, and were obliged to observe certain rules of life, to renounce certain indul-
gences and luxuries, and to practice certain austerities. In some churches they wen-
employed in the care of the sick, the burial of the dead, and other of the more laborious
works of charity. The penitent, in ordinary cases, could only be restored to communion
by the bishop who had excluded him, and this only at the expiration of the appointed
time, unless the bishop himself had shortened it; but, in case of dangerous illnes>, he
might be restored, with the condition, however, that, if he recovered from the illness
the whole course of penance should be completed. The reconciliation of penitents took
place commonly in Holy Week, and was publicly performed by the bishop in the church,
with prayer and imposition of hands. It was followed by the administration of commun-
ion. If any of the clergy were guilty of a crime to which public penance was annexed,
they were first deposed from the rank of the clergy, and then subjected to the ordeal,
like the laity themselves. This public discipline continued in force with greater or less
exactness in the 5th, 6th, and 7th centuries, gradually, however, being replaced by semi-
public, and ultimately by private penance. In the llth and 12th centuries the public
pc-nance had entirely disappeared. The nature and origin ol private penance is a subject
of controversy between Catholics and Protestants; the former contending that it had
existed from the first, and that it held the same place even in the ages of public penance
for secret sins which the public penance did for public offenses. At all events, from the
date of the cessation of the public discipline, it has existed universally in the Roman
church. The priest, in absolving the penitent, imposes upon him the obligation of recit-
ing; certain prayers, undergoing certain works of mortification, or performing certain
devotional exercises. These acts of the penitent are held to form an integral part of the
jacrament of penance.
Penang.
Pencils.
According to Protestants, penance has no countenance whatever from Scripture, and
\s contrary to some of the most essential principles of the Christian religion; particularly
to the doctrine of justification by faith in Jesus Christ alone, on the ground of his com-
plete or "finished " work; penance being, in fact, founded on a doctrine of — at least--
supplementary atonement by the works or sufferings of man — the sinner — himself. The
outward expressions of humiliation, sorrow, and repentance common under the Jewish
dispensation, are regarded as very consistent with the character of that dispensation, in
which so many symbols were employed. It is also held that the self-inflicted austeri-
ties, as fasting, sackcloth and ashes, etc., of Jewish and earliest Christian times, had for
their sole purpose the mortification of unholy lusts and sinful passions in the people of
God; or the expression of sorrow for sin, so that others beholding might be warned of
its evil and restrained from it; all which is perfectly consistent with the principles of
Christianity, if kept within the bounds of moderation and discretion. But penance in
any other view, as a persoiuil exercise, is utterly rejected. Arguments founded on the
meaning of the two Greek words metanoed and metameleoinai, both translated in our
English version repent, are much urged by many Roman Catholic controversialists — the
former being represented as equivalent to the English do penance; but this is condemned
by Protestants as inconsistent with the very use of the words in the New Testament
itself. That penance began, as a practice, very early in the Christian church, is not only
admitted by Protestants, but alleged in proof of the very early growth of those corrup-
tions which finally developed themselves in the doctrines and practices of the Roman
Catholic church, and of which Protestants also hold that there are plain intimations in
the New Testament, not only prophetical, but showing the development of their germs
to have already began during the age of the apostles.
In the discipline of the Protestant churches, penance is now unknown. The nearest
approach to the Roman Catholic polity on the subject was that in use among the English
Puritans of the 17 c., and more particularly in the church of Scotland during that and
the succeeding century, when it was common "to make satisfaction publicly on the stool
of repentance" (q.v.). It does not seem to have occurred to the Reformers, or their more
immediate successors in the Protestant churches, that their sytem of discipline, with its
public rebukes and enforced humiliations of various kinds — as the wearing of a sackcloth
robe, and sitting on a particular seat in church — was liable to be interpreted in a sense
very different from that of a mere expression of sorrow for sin; but the belief is now
very general among the most zealous adherents of their doctrinal opinions, that in all
this they adopted practices incongruous with their creed, and in harmony rather with
that of the church of Rome. Nor do they seem to have perceived that church discipline
(q.v.), in its proper sense, as relating to ecclesiastical rights and privileges, is wholly dis-
tinct from the imposition of penalties by churches or church courts. Penitential humili-
ations, imposed by ecclesiastical authority, are now no more in favor where church dis-
cipline is most strict than where the utmost laxity prevails. The commutation of pen-
alties deemed shameful, for a fine to the poor of the parish, was an abuse once prevalent
in Scotland, but never sanctioned by the higher ecclesiastical authorities.
PENANG. SEE PKINCE OF WALES ISLAND.
PENANG LAWYERS, the commercial name for the stems of a species of palm imported
from Penang for walking-sticks. Thoy are small and hard, and have a portion of t'ue
root-stock attached, which is left to form the handle.
PENATES. See LARES, MAXES, and PENATES.
PENCILS are instruments for writing, drawing, and painting, and they differ as much
in their construction as in the uses to which they are applied. Probably the pencil wns
the first instrument used by artists, and consisted then of lumps of colored earth or chalk
simply cut into a form convenient for holding in the hand. With such pencils were exe-
cuted the line-drawings of Aridices the Corinthian, and Telephanes the Sicyonian, and
also the early one-colored pictures, or monochromata, of the Greeks and Egyptians; but
as wet colors began to be used, small fine-pointed brushes would be required, and we
find it recorded that as early as the 4th c. B.C., several Greek artists had rendered the art
of painting with hair- pencils so famous, that some- of their pictures sold for vast sums cf
money. There are now in use the following kinds of pencils: hair-pencils, black-lead
pencils, chalk-pencils, and slate-pencils. The first are used for painting or writing with
fluid colors, either oil or water, and in China and Japan are employed almost entirely
instead of pens for writing; the color used being the black or brown pigment obtained
from various species of sepia or cuttle-fish. The manufacture of hair-pencils is of great
importance, and requires much care and skill. The hairs employed are chiefly those of
the camel, badger, sable, mink, kolinski, fitch, goat, and the bristles of hogs; and the art
of pencil-making requires that these hairs shall be tied up in cylindrical bundles, so nicely
arranged that all their naturally fine points shall be in one direction, and that the central
one shall project the furthest, and the others in succession shall recede, so that, collect,
ively, the whole shall forma beautifully smooth cone, the apex of which Is a sharp point.
Black-lead pencils are made of graphite or plumbago, which contains no lead whatever in
its composition, but is in reality almost pure carbon. See BLACK-LEAD. The misnomer
is probably owing to the fact that, previous to the employment of graphite for making
pencils, common lead was used, and this was the case even within the present century.
Pendant. A~ l\
Pendulum.
Consequently, as the plumbago, with its black streak, offered a contrast to the pale one
of the lead, it was called in contradistinction Mack-Lad
The beat graphite for drawing-pencils is found in the Cumberland mines, which have
long been celebrated. Within the last twenty years, however, vast deposits of this
mineral, of a very tine quality, have been discovered iu Siberia and other parts of the
Kussian empire. Inferior qualities are found in Austria and Prussia, in Ceylon, and
various parts of North America; but they are rarely used in pencil-making, except for
very inferior kinds. Black-lead is rarely sufficiently i'ree from .-.ami and other foreign
ingredients to be used without preparation; it is therefore generally ground tine, and
levigated or washed until it is pure, and again formed into solid blocks by means of
enormous pressure, generally in hydraulic presses; these blocks are then sawn into thiu
plates about the sixteenth of an inch in thickness, which are ugaiii cut acros.-, so a- u>
form them into small square sticks.
It may appear a very simple process to press the powdered graphite into blocks, but
it was found so difficult in practice as almost to prevent the employment of this method,
which has led to immense improvement iu pencil-making. It was found at first that the
difficulty of pressing out the contained air was so great that the presses were biokcu
under the weight required; pressure in a vacuum was then tried, but the difficulty of
applying it was found almost insurmountable, and it was certainly unprofitable. '.Mr.
Brokedon of London, who has long been famous for his pencils, at "last surmounted tlic
difficulty by an ingenious and very simple process. This consists in compressing th«
black-lead into blocks 2 or 3 in. square, with only moderate pressure; the.M.: arc then
coated over with paper, well glued, so that when dry the covering is air-tight. A small
hole is now made through this coating on one side, and several of these cubes of black-
lead are put under the receiver of an air-pump, and the air being exhausted completely
from them the orifice in each is closed by an adhesive wafer, which prevents the return
of the air when they are taken out of the receiver. They are next placed under the
hydraulic press, and a well-sustained and regular pressure is brought to bear upon them
for 24 hours, after which they are found t ) be so completely consolidated, that in cutting
them the substance is equal in density to the best specimens of unprepared giaphite.
There is so large a variation in the color of various qualities of black lead that by a
judicious mixture of them, when in the powdered state, almost any shade of darkness
can be procured; but instead of thus carefully combining different qualities of graphite
it is a common practice to add sulphur or sulphuret of antimony, and by heating to pro-
cure the desired degree of blackness. For very inferior pencils the worst quality of black
lead is mixed with black chalk and size, or gum-water, and formed iuto a paste, of which
the pencil is made.
It is usual to inclose the material constituting the essential part of the pencil in a case
of wood, for its protection from breakage, and to prevent its soiling the hands. The
wood (generally cedar) is first sawn into thin boards, about half the thickness of the
intended pencils; these are then cut into small pieces about 10 in. long by 6 in width,
which are placed in the cutting and grooving machine. This machine consists princi-
pally of twro circular saws — one very thin and so set that it will cut through the board;
the other revolving within the eighth of an in. of it, so set as only to cut a fine square
groove in the wood. By means of this machine the little boards we cut into straight
square sticks, each having a groove on one surface. Into these grooves the little pre-
pared sticks of black-lead are laid and covered with a similar piece of wood, but not
grooved. A workman, who is called the "fastener-up," having glued the inner faces of
the two pieces of wood, presses them together and sets them to dry; after which they arc
passed through the roundlng-machine, dressed with a semicircular smoothing-plane, cut
at the ends, and then polished by rubbing them with a piece of shark-skin. The last
process is stamping them with the maker's name and the letter which designates their
peculiar quality. These letters arc H, HH, HHH, B. BB, BBB, HB, FS. H signiti. <
hard; repeated twice and thrice, it means harder and very hard. B means bl«ch\ 1II>
hard and black, and so on. FS signifies fine stroke.
Chalk-pencils are made in a similar manner, only that finely-powdered colored chalks.
*uch as arc used for crayons are substituted for the black-lead. Previous to pressing
and cutting the chalk, it is mixed with a little hot melted wax, which gives it softness
and nduesiveness.
Slate pencils for writing on slate are made either by cutting slate into thin sticks and
rounding them, or by cutting it into fine square slips, and encasing them in wood, as in
the case of black-lead, etc.
PENDANT, or PENNANT, is a narrow flag of great length, tapering to a point, and
carried at the head of the principal mast in a royal ship, to show that she is in commis-
sion. In the British navy the pendants are borne of three colors — red, white, or blue —
according to the color to which the admiral commanding the fleet pertains. See 1'i.v;
OFFICER. A brood-pennant \s a blue pennant, shorter and broader than the above, carried
at the mast-head of a commodore's ship, to denote that her captain is the commodore on
the station. A first-class commodore hoists his broad-pennant at the fore; if of the
second-class his flag flies at the n.izzen.
The rudder-pendant* are strong ropes spliced in the rings of the rudder-chain, to pre-
vent the loss of the rudder should it by any accident become unshipped.
Pendant.
Pendulum.
PENDANT, a hanging ornament, used in ceilings, vaults, staircases, timber-roofs, etc.
It is sometimes a simple ball, and sometimes elaborately ornamented, and is cliielly used
in the ialer Gothic and Elizabethan styles.
PENDEN TIVE, the portion of a vault resting on one pier, and extending from the
springing to the apex. — The word pendentive is also applied to the portions of vaults
introduced in the angles of rectangular compartments, in oi«der to reduce them to a cir-
cular or other suitable form to receive a dome.
PENDLETON, a co. in n. Kentucky, bounded on the n.e. by the Ohio river, drained
also by the Licking river and many creeks; traversed by the Kentucky Central railroad;
800 sq.m. ; pop '«0, 16,70:2 — 15,876 of American birth, 779 colored. The surface is roll-
ing and the soil yields in large quantities corn, wheat, and tobacco. Lumber, cattle, and
pork also are staples. Blue limestone is found. Co. seat, Falmouth.
PENDLETON, a co. in e. West Virginia, bordering on Virginia on the e. and s.w. ;
drained by the s. branch of the Potomac and its tributaries; between the Alleghany and
Shenaudoah ranges and crossed by several ridges of mountains; 700 sq.m.V pop. '80,
8,022 — 8,002 of American birth, 98 colored. The surface is heavily wooded with oak,
sugar maple, hickory, etc. Corn, wheat, liny, and pork are the staples. Cattle raising
is extensively curried on. Co. seat, Franklin.
PENDLETON, a township of Lancashire, with a station on the Lancashire and York-
shire railway, is a suburb of Manchester, and is 2^ m. w.n.w. of the town of that name.
In 1861 it contained 20,900 inhabitants; and in 1871 the population had increased to
25,489. Pendleton is part of the parliamentary borough of Salford, ami since 1852 it has
been incorporated with the municipality of the same borough. The rapid increase of its
population is due to the immense industry of the locality. The inhabitants are employed
in the numerous cotton and flax mills, print and dye-works, iron foundries, soap, and
chemical works, in operation here. Hundreds of the population are al:o employed in
the well-known Pendleton collieries, which are conducted with much enterprise by the
lessees. Pendleton is also the residence of a portion of the mercantile community from
Manchester, whose large mansions, with their parks and gardens are dotted at intervals
along the two roads leading from the township westward to Eccles.
PENDLETON, EmrcM), 1721-1803, b. Richmond, Va.; his education was self-
acquired, and in 1742 he was admitted to the state bar. He was elected to the "house
of burgesses" in 1752; was a member for many years and speaker when the contest
between the king and colonies began. He was a 'delegate to the colonial congress 1774,
1775, and presiding officer of the Virginia conventions of 1775 and 1776. The resolution
instructing the state delegates to introduce in congress resolutions of independence was
written by Pcudleton. In the early part of the war he was president of the state com-
mit lee of safety. In 1778 he was appointed chief judge of the chancery court and in
1779 of the court of appeals, which position he held for many years. In 1788 he presided
over the convention which adopted the U. S. constitution, and was praised by Jefferson
as the ablest man whom he had ever met in debate. Peudlcton was generally regarded
as the rival of Patrick Henry.
bar
was elected representative in congress, and served successively in the 85th, 36th, and
37th conirresses. being a member of the house committee on military affairs during each
term. In the 88th congress, to which he was also elected, he se-vedon the committee of
ways and means. He identified himself with the anti-war democrats, and attracted
mifch public criticism on account of the boldness of his antagoni,«r> to the course of the
jadministration. In 1864 lie was nominated for the vice-presidency on the ticket with
'gen. McClellan. and was defeated. In 1868 he was the western candidate for the nom-
ination for the presidency, but was defeated by Horatio Seymour, who" failed of a
majority in all the western states except Kentucky and Oregon. Mr. Pendleton lias
been one of the most prominent leaders of the "greenback" party, strongly opposing
the payment of the government bonds in gold, and condemning the contraction of the
currency which took place 1865-74.
PENDULUM, in its widest scientific sense, denotes a body of any form or material
which, under the action of some force, vibrates about a position of stable equilibrium.
In its more usual application, however, this term is restricted, in conformity with its
etymology (Lat. pendfo, to hang), to bodies suspended from a point, or oscillating about
an axis, under the action of gravity, so that, although the laws of their motion are the
same, rocking-stones (q.v.), magnetic needles, turning-forks, balance wheel of a watch,
etc., are not included in the definition.
The simple pendulum consists (in theory) of a heavy point or particle, suspended by
a flexible string without weight, and therefore constrained to move as if it were always
on the inner surface of a smooth spherical bowl. If such a pendulum be drawn aside
into a sliirhtly inclined position, and allowed to fall back, it evidently will oscillate from
side to side of its position of equilibrium, the motion being confined to a vertical piano.
If, instead of being allowed to fall back, it be projected horizontally in a direction per-
pendicular to that In which gravity tends to move it, the bob will revolve about its low-
Pendulum.
458
FlQ. 1.
est position; and there is a particular velocity with which, if it be projected, it describes
a circle about that point, and is then called a wnical pendulum. As the theory of the
simple pendulum can be very easily explained by ref-
erence to that of the conical pendulum, we commence
with the latter, which is extremely simple. To liml
the requisite velocity, we have only to notice that tlie
(so-called) centrifugal force (q.v.) must balance the
tendency towards the vertical. This tendency is not
directly due to gravity, but to the tension of the sus-
pending cord. In the fig. let O be the point of sus-
pension, OA the pendulum in its lowest position, P
the bob in any position in the (dotted) circle which it
describes when revolving as a ccnicul pendulum; PB,
a radius of the dotted circle, is evidently perpendicu-
lar to OA. Now, the centrifugal force is directly as
the radius PB of the circle, and inversely as the square
of the time of revolution. Also the radius PB is PO
sin. BOP, the length of the string multiplied by the
sine of the angle it makes with the vertical; and the
force towards the vertical is proportional to the earth's
attraction, and to the tangent of the above angle — as
may be at once seen from the consideration that the
three forces acting on the bob at P are parallel, and
therefore proportional, to the sides of the triangle OBP. Hence the square of the time
of revolution is directly as the length of the string and the sine of the angle BOP, and
inversely as the earth's attraction and the tangent of the same angle; or (what is easily
seen to be equivalent) to the length of the string and the cosine of its inclination to the
vertical directly, and to the earth's attraction inversely. Hence, in any given locality,
all conical pendulums revolve in equal times, whatever be the lengths of their strings.
so long as their heights are equal; the height being the product of the length of the string
by the cosine of its inclination to the vertical. Also the squares of the times of revolu-
tion of conical pendulums are as their heights directly, and as the earth's attraction
inversely.
Now, so long as a conical pendulum is deflected only through a very small angle from
the vertical, the motion of its bob may be considered as compounded of two equal simple
pendulum oscillations in directions perpendicular to each other, such as it appears to
make to an eye on a level with it, and viewing it at some distance, first from one point,
say on the n., and then from another 90° round, say on the east. And these motions
take place, by Newton's second law (see MOTION, LAWS OF), independently. Also the
time of a (double) oscillation in either of these directions is evidently the same as that
of the rotation of the conical pendulum. Hence, for small arcs of vibration, the square
of the time of oscillation of a simple pendulum is directly as its length, and inversely as
the earth's attraction. Thus, the length of the second's pendulum at London being
39.1393 in., that of the half -second's pendulum is 9.7848 in., or one-fourth, that of the
two-seconds' pendulum 156.5572 in., or four times that length. It follows from the
principal now demonstrated, that so long as the arcs of vibration of a pendulum are
all small relatively to the length of the string, they may differ considerably in length
among themselves without differing appreciably in time. It is to this property of pen-
dulum oscillations, known as isochronism (q.v.), that they owe their value in measuring
time. See^HouoLOGY.
feThat the times of vibration of different pendulums are as the square roots of their
lengths, may be demonstrated to the eye by a very simple experiment. Suspend three
musket balls on double threads as in the figure, so that the heights in ,
the dotted line may be as 1, 4, and 9. When they are made to
vibrate simultaneously, while the lowest ball makes one oscillation
the highest will be found to make three, and the middle ball one and
a half.
A pendulum of given length is a most delicate instrument for the
measurement of the relative amounts of the earth's attraction at dif-
ferent places. Practically, it gives the kinetic measurement of grav-
ity,' which is not only by far the most convenient, but also the true
measure. By this application of the pendulum, the oblateness of
the, earth has been determined, in terms of the law of decrease of
gravity from the poles to the equator. The instrument has also been
employed to determine the mean density of the earth (from which its
mass is directly derivable), by the observation of its times of vi-
bration at the mouth and at the bottom of a coal-pit. It was
shown by Newton that the force of attraction at the bottom of a pit
depends only upon the internal nucleus which remains when a shell,
everywhere of thickness equal to the depth of the pit, has been sup-
posed to be removed from the whole surface of the earth. The latest
observations by this method were made by Airy, the present astronomer-royal, in the
H:irton coal-pit, and gave for the mean destiny of the eartli a result nearly equivalent
Pendulum.
to that deduced by Cavendish and Maskelyne from experiments of a totally different
nature. See EARTH.
If the bob of the simple pendulum be slightly displaced in any manner, it describes
an ellipse about its lowest position as center. This ellipse may, of course, become a
straight line or a circle, as iu the cases already considered. The bob does not accurately
describe the same curve in successive revolutions: in fact, tjie elliptic orbit just men-
tioned rotates in its own plane about its center, in the snme direction as the bob moves,
with an angular velocity nearly proportional to the area of the ellipse. . This is an inter-
esting case of progression of the apse (Apsides, q.v.), which can be watched by any one
who will attach a small bullet to a fine thread; or, still better, attach to the lower end of
a long string fixed to the ceiling a funnel full of tine sand or ink which is allowed to
escape from a small orifice. By this process, a more or less permanent trace of the
motion of the pendulum is recorded, by which the elliptic form of the path and the phen-
omena of progression are well shown.
According to what is stated above, there ought to be no progression if the pendulum
could be made to vibrate simply in a straight line, as then th# area of its elliptic orbit
vanishes. It is, however, found to be almost impossible in practice to render the path
absolutely straight: so that there always is from this cause a slight rate of change in the
position of the line of oscillation. But as the direction of this change depends on the
direction of rotation in the ellipse, it is as likely to effect the motion in oneway as in the
opposite, and is thus easily separable from the very curious result obtained by Foucault,
that on account of the earth's rotation, the' plane of vibration of the pendulum appears
to turn in the same direction as the sun, that is, in the opposite direction to the earth's
rotation about its axis. To illustrate this now well-known case, consider for a moment
a simple pendulum vibrating at the pole of the earth. Here, if the pendulum vibrates in
a straight line, the direction of that line remains absolutely fixed in space, while the
earth turns round below it once in 24 hours. To a spectator on the earth, it appears, of
course, as if the plane of motion of the pendulum were turning once round in 24 hours,
but in the opposite direction. To find the amount of the corresponding phenomenon in
any other latitude, all that is required is to know the rate of the earth's rotation about
the vertical in that latitude. This is easy, for velocities of rotation are resolved and
compounded by the same process as forces, hence the rate at which tiie earth rotates
about the vertical in latitude A. is less than that of rotation about the polar axis in the
ratio of sin. A to 1. Hence the time of the apparent relation of the plane of the pendu-
lum's motion is — p— , At the pole, this is simply 24 hours; at the equator, it is infin-
sm. A
itelv great, or there is no effect of this kind: in the latitude of Edinburgh (56° 57' 23.2"),
it is 28.63 h., or 28 h. 37 m. 48 seconds.
We have not yet alluded to the obvious fact, that a simple pendulum, such as we
have described above, exists in theory only, since we cannot procure either a single
heavy particle, or a perfectly light and flexible string. But it is easily shown, although
the process cannot be given here, that a rigid body of any form whatever vibrates about
an axis under the action of gravity, according to the same law as the hypothetical simple
pendulum. The length of the equivalent simple pendulum depends upon what is called
the radius of gyration (q.v.) of the pendulous body. Its property is simply this, that if
the whole mass of the body were collected at a point whose distance from the axis is the
radius of gyration, the moment (q.v.) of inertia of this heavy point (about the axis) would
be the same as that of the complex body. The square of the radius of gyiation of a body
about any axis, is greater than the square of the radius of gyration about a parallel axis
through the center of gravity, by the square of the distance between those lines. Now,
the length of the simple pendulum equivalent to a body oscillating about any axis is
directly as the square of the radiuj of gyration, and inversely as the distance of the cen-
ter of gravity from the axis. Hence, if k be the radius of gyration of a body about an
axis through the center of gravity, VA;2-4-/i3 is that about a parallel axis whose distance
ft* I 7i3
from the first is h ; and the length; I, of the equivalent simple pendulum is I = — •?-—
/if
This expression becomes infinitely great if h be very large, and also if h be very small
(that is, a body vibrates very slowly about an axis either far from, or near to, its center of
gravity). It must therefore have a minimum value. By solving the equation above as a
quadratic in h, we find that I cannot be less than 2k, which is, therefore, the length of
the simple pendulum corresponding to the quickest vibrations which the body can exe-
cute about any axis parallel to the given one. In this case the value of h is equal to k.
Hence, if a circular cylinder be described in a body, its axis passing through the center
of gravity, and its radius being the radius of gyration about the axis, the times of oscil-
lation about all generating lines of this cylinder are equal, and less than the times of
oscillation about any other axis parallel to the given one. Also, since the formula for
1. above given, may be thus written* h(l — h)=k?, it is obvious that it is satisfied if I— h
be put for h. Hence, if any value I (of course not less than 2k) be assigned as the length
of the equivalent simple pendulum, there ar£ two values of 7t which will satisfy the con-
ditions; that is, there are two concentric cylinders, about a generating line of either of
which the time of oscillation is that of the assigned simple pendulum. When l=2k,
these cylinders coincide, and form that above described. And, since the sum of the
Pemls.
Pen-holders.
radii of these cylinders is I, it is obvious that if we can find experimentally two parallel
axis about which a body oscillates in equal times, and if the (enter of gravity of the
body lie between these axis, and in their plane, tit* distance betirem these aj-ix in t/ie hinjth
of the equicalent simple pendulum. This result is of very great importance, because it
enabled Kater (who was the first to employ it) to use the complex pendulum for the
determination of the length of the simple second's pendulum in any locality. The sim-
ple pendulum is perfect in t'heory, but cannot be constructed; and thus the method which
cuaulcs us to obtain its results by the help of such a pendulum as we can con.--truct, is
especially valuable.
Compensation Pendulum. — As the length of a rod or bar of any material depends on its
temperature (see HEAT), aclock with an ordinary pendulum goo taster in cold, and slower
in hot, weather. Various contrivances have been devised for the purpose of diminishing,
if not destroying, these effects. The most perfect in theory, though perhaps not the
most available in practice, is that of sir D. Brewster (q.v.), founded upon the experimen-
tal discovery of Mitscherlich, that some crystals expand by heat in one direction, while
contracting in the perpendicular one; and therefore that a rod may be cut out of the
crystal in such a direction as not to alter in length by any change of teni] erature. In
the method of correction usually employed, and called <•>//„!. ii/.-atiox, advantage is taken
of the fact that different substances have different coefficients of linear dilatation; so
that if the bob of the pendulum be so suspended as to be raised by the cxpan>ion of
one substance, and depressed by the expansion of another, the lengths of the effective
portions of these substances may be so adjusted that the raising and deprc.-sion, taking
B place simultaneously, ma}' leave the position of the bob unaffcctid. There
are two common methods of effecting this, differing a little in construction,
but ultimately depending on the same principle. Of these, the ?//< rtcurial pen-
dulum is the more easily described. The rod AC, and the framework C'B,
are of steel. Inside the framework is placed a cylindrical glass jar, nearly
full of mercury, which can be raised or depressed by tinning a nut at B. By
increase of temperature, the steel portion AB is lengthened by an amount
proportioned to its length, its coefficient of linear dilatation, and the ci:ai ue
of temperature, conjointly— and thus the jar of mercury is removed from the
axis of suspension. But neglecting the expansion of the ulass, which is very
small, the mercury rises in the jar by an amount proportional to its bulk, its
coefficient of cublical dilatation, and the change of temperature conjointly.
Now, by increasing or diminishing the quantity of mercury, it is obvious
(7.5l
-.-I of the equivalent
simple pendulum shall be unaltered by the change of temperature, whatever be its
amount, so long as it is not great enough to sensibly change the coefficients of dilatation
of the two metals. The screw at B has nothing to do with the compensation, its use is to
Adjust the length of the pendulum so that it shall vibrate in one second.
The construction of the gridiron pendulum will be easily understood from the cut.
The black bars are steel, the shaded ones are brass, copper, or some suhstarce whose
co-efficient of linear dilatation is more than double that of steel. It is obvious from the
figure that the horizontal bars are merely connectors, and that their expansion has nothing
to" do with the vibration of the pendulum, so they may be made of any substance. It is
easily seen that an increase of temperature lowers the bob by expanding the sled rods,
whose effective length consists of the sum of the lengths of Afl, BC, and the steel bar to
which the bob is attached ; while it raises the bob by expanding the brass bars, v»hose
effective length is that of one of them only; the other, as well as the steel rod be, being
added to the instrument for the sake of symmetry, strength, and stiffness only. If the
effective lengths of steel and brass be inversely as their respective dilatation -^
co-efficients, the position of the bob is unaltered by temperature; and there-
fore the pendulum will vibrate in the same period as before heating. This
is on the supposition that the weight of the frame-work may be neglected in B — a
comparison with that of the bob; if this weight must be taken into account,
the requisite adjustments, though possible, are greatly more complex, andean
only be alluded to here. Practically, it is found that a strip of dry fir-wood,
carefully varnished to prevent the absorption of moisture, and consequent
hygromctric alterations of its length, is very little affected by change of tem-
perature; and, in many excellent clocks, this is used as a very effective
substitute for the more elaborate forms just described. To give an id( a of
the nicety which modern astronomy requires in the construction of an ob.-crv-
ing-clock, we may mention that the Russian astronomers find the gridiron
superior to the mercurial pendulum; because "differences of temperature at
different parts of the clock case (though almost imperceptible in a prop< rly
protected instrument), may heat the steel or the meiyury unduly in the latter:
while, in the former, the steel and brass "bars run side by side through the greater part of
the length of the pendulum, and are thus simultaneously affected by any such alterations
of temperature.
It would lead us into details of a character far too abstruse for the present work to
treat of the effects of the hydrostatic pressure and viscosity of the air upon the motion of
a pendulum.
FIG.
4
Fia. 4.
Pends.
Ven-lioldors.
PEXDS D'OREILLES. See KALISPELS.
PENEDO, a flourishing t. of Brazil, in the province of Alagoas, 50 m. s.w. of Macayo,
on the San Francisco, near its mouth. In the district cotton, rice, and other crops are
grown. Pop. of town, 9,000; of district, 17,574, mostly Indians.
PEXEL'OPE, bird. See GUAN, ante.
PENEL OPE, in Homeric legend, the wife of Ulysses (Odysseus), and mother of Tele-
machus, who was still an infant when Ulysses went to the Trojan war. .During his long
wanderings after the fall of Troy he was generally regarded as dead, and Penelope was
vexed by the urgent suits of many lovers, whom she put off on the pretext that she must
first weave a shroud for Laertes, her aged father-in-law. To protract the time she undid
by night the portion of the web which she had woven by day. When the suitors had
discovered this device her position became more difficult than before; but fortunately
Ulysses returned in time to rescue his chaste spouse from their distasteful importunities.
Later tradition represents Penelope in a very different light, asserting that by Hermes
(Mercury), or by all her suitors together, she became the mother of Pan (q.v.), and that
Ulysses, on his return, divorced her in consequence. But the older Homeric legend is
the simpler and more genuine version of the story.
PENGUIN, Aptenodytes, a genus of birds of the family nlcida (see AUK), or constitut-
ing the family aptenodidce, regarded by many as a sub-family of Alcida, and divided into
several genera or sub-genera. They have short wings, quite unfit for flight, but covered
with short rigid scale-like feathers, admirably adapted for swimming, and much like the
flippers of turtles. The legs are very short, and are placed very far back, so that on land
penguins rest on the tarsus, which is widened like the sole of the foot of a quadruped, and
maintain a perfectly erect posture. Their bones, unlike those of birds in general, are
hard, compact, and heavy, and have no air-cavities; those of the extremities contain an
oily marrow. The body "is of an elliptical form; the neck of moderate length; the head
small; the bill moderately long, straight, more or less compressed; the tail very short.
Some of them have a long, slender, and pointed bill, the upper mandible a little curved
at the tip, and feathered for about a third of its length; some, sometimes calk-d gorfews
or gorf ous (ch rysocoma), have a stout and pointed bill, a little curved at the tip: some,
sphenisques or spheniscaus (fpJteniseu9\ have a straight and compressed bill, irregularly
furrowed at the base. The penguins are all among the most aquatic birds, although they
are seldom seen very far out at sea; but it is only in the breeding season that they spend
much time on shore. They are found only in the southern hemisphere, and chiefly in
high southern latitudes, although some of the species extend into warm regions, osspnen-
ixi-ux Humboldtii \.o the coast of Peru. Of this species, which is called Paxara nirio, of
child bird, by the Peruvians, Tschudi states that it is easily tamed, becomes very sociable,
and follows its master like a dog, waddling along in a very amusing manner with its
plump body and short legs, keeping its balance by motions of its little wings. It dis-
plays considerable intelligence, and learns to answer to its name. In some 01 the furthest
antarctic regions peguins are prodigiously numerous, appearing on the shore like regi-
ments of soldiers, or, according to another similitude which has been used by a voyager,
like bands of little children in white aprons. They often occupy for their breeding
ground a space of several acres, which is laid out and leveled and divided into squares,
as nicely as if it had been done by a surveyor; whilst between the compartments they
march as accurately as soldiers on parade. The KING PENGUIN (A. Patachoniai) a large
species, of the size of the great auk, dark grayish-blue above, white beneath, with a
black head and a yellow curved band on the "throat, is found in such numbers on some
of the sandy antarctic coasts that Mr. Bennett describes one breeding-ground on Mac-
quarie island as covering thirty or forty acres, and. to give some notion of the multitudes,
speaks of 30,000 or 40,000 birds as continually landing and as many putting to sea. On
many of the antarctic shores the penguins do not, flee from nor seem to dread the presence
of man, remaining as if stupidly indifferent, even when their companions are knocked on
the head; their very indifference, it is said, suggesting the idea of loneliness and desola-
tion more powerfully than if there were a total absence of life. When attacked, however,
they often show courage in self-defense, and are ready to run with open bill at an
invader. The young are reckoned good eating; the old are said to be black and tough.
The name penguin is said to be derived from the Latin pinguis, fat. — Penguins make no
nest, but lay a single egg in a chosen place on the shore; and t'.ie egg is carefully tended
both by male and female. The female penguin keeps charge of her young for nearly
twelve months. — Many of the penguins are birds of bright plumage. — Cuttlefish, and
other cephalopoda, form a great part of their food. Their voice is loud and harsh,
between a quack and a bray, but there are many diversities in the different species.
PENH ALLOW, SAMUEL. 1665-1726; came to Massachusetts with Charles Morton,
his teacher, in 1686. Removing to Portsmouth, N. H., he was made treasurer of the
province, judge of the superior court, and in 1717 chief justice. He wrote a History of
the IndianWars of New England from 1703 to 1726.
PEN-HOLDERS are small turned sticks, usually of cedar, and generally with a steel
cylinder to fix Uie pen. They are used only for metal pens, and are now made by
machinery, which is so ingenious that it turns the cedar, previously cut into square sticks,
Peiiioillarla.
Fenn.
roun»l, often is a spiral or otherwise ornamental style, cuts them to the required length,
and polishes and varnishes them.
PENICILLA BIA. See GUINEA CORN and MILLET.
PENIKESE ISLAND. See ELIZABETH ISLANDS.
PENITENTIAL PSALMS, seven of the psalms of David, so called as being specially
expressive of sorrow for sin, and accepted by Christian devotion as forms of prayer
suitable for the repentant sinner. They are psalms vi., xxxii., xxxviii., li., cii., cxxx.,
and cxliii., according to the authorized version, which correspond with vi., xx\i.. xxxvii.,
1., ci., cxxix., and cxlii. of the vulgate. These j)sahns liave been set apart from a very
early period, and are referred to as such by Grig-en (Horn, ii., in Levitieum). Pope
Innocent III. ordered that they should be recited in Lent. They have a special pi
the Roman breviary, and more than one of the popes attached an indulgence to the
recital of them. The most deeply penitential, and the most frequent in use, both public
and private, is the 51st Psalm, or the Mixerere (50th in the Vulgate).
PENITENTIARIES, strictly so called, are institutions for the reception of penitent
women, in which confinement is purely voluntary. The name lias also been applied lo
prisons under the separate system, having been adopted by the Quakers of Pennsyl-
vania in 1786, when they caused the legislature of that state to abolish the puni>hmeiit.s
of death, mutilation, ana the whip, and to substitute solitary confinement as a reforma-
tory process. (See CONVICT, PRISON DISCIPLINE.) The penitentiaries of the fir>t men-
tioned kind arc often known as Magdalen asylums or female refuges. Most of tho
institutions of this kind in the United Kingdom are associated under the au.-pires of the
reformatory and refuge union, an association which embraces also reformatories,
industrial schools, and other like institutes. In 1877 the union had on its list 05 peni-
tentiaries or homes for fallen women in England (15 in London), and 12 in Ireland and
Scotland. In the Magdalen asylums, the inmates remain in the strictest seclusion for
periods varying from a few months to two years, the average time being about a year;
they then return to their friends, or to situations provided for them. It is an invariable
rule not to dismiss any save the entirely incorrigible, without seeing that they are pro-
vided with the means of honest subsistence. During their seclusion, they are employed
in needlework, washing, and housework. Most of the provincial and metropolitan
establishments have been created in the last 20 years. The oldest institution is the
London Magdalen hospital (with room with 140 penitents), opened in 1758: the next
that of Dublin (for 20 persons), in 1766; the Edinburgh Magdalen asylum (with room
for 70 persons), in 1797. All the rest (including a large one at Glasgow, with accommo-
dation for 146 penitents) have been founded in the present century. The results of these
penitentiaries, as far as they can be ascertained, are excellent. During the last 100
years, the London Magdalen committee state that they have found from their extensive
experience that 70 per cent are permanently reformed. All the institutions can show a
very large percentage restored to their friends and to society.
PENITENTIARY (Lat. and Ital. pcnitenliarw), the name given to one of the offices
of the Roman court, and also to the dignitary (a cardinal, called penitentiaritut) who pre-
sides over it. The cardinal penitentiary must be a priest and a doctor of theology or
canon law. He is named by the pope himself, and should the penitentiary die while
the Roman see is vacant, the cardinals must be specially assembled to elect by -
scrutiny a pro-penitentiary to act for the time. The officials of the penitentiary, under
the cardinal penitentiary, are a regent, three secretaries, three clerks, a corrector, a eon-
suiter in theology, and another in canon law, and one or two minor officers. The sub-
jects which come under the notice of the penitentiary are all matters relating lo the
confessional, especially the absolution from sins and from canonical censures, reserved
to the pope, and in certain cases dispensations from the impediments of marriage.
PENN, JOHN, 1728-95, b. England, grandson of William and son of Richard. He
was governor of Pennsylvania, 1763-71, and 1773-75; and inherited one-third of the
province in 1771. He was not unfavorable to the colonial side in the revolution, but
was suspected and imprisoned by congress, which finally ordered his release on parol.
PENN, JOHN, 1741^-88; b. Va; read law with Edmund Pendleton and was called
to the bar. He settled in North Carolina in 1774, and was one of its representatives in
congress 1775-6, and 1778-80. He was a signer of the declaration of independence, and
afterwards during the invasion of North Carolina by Cornwallis was at the head of the
affairs of that state, of which he was receiver of taxes in 1784.
PENN, JOHN, LL.D., 1759-1834; b. England; grandson of William Penn. He was
educated at Cambridge, and succeeded his father Thomas as hereditary governor of
Pennsylvania in 1775. He published among other works The Battle ofEdington, a tragedy,
1792; Critical, Poetical, and Dramatic Works, 1778, and Poems, 1801.
PENN, RICHARD, 1734-1811; b. England; brother of John. He was proprietary
governor of Pennsylvania, 1771-73, and won the confidence of the colonists by his liberal
course. In 1775 he carried a petition of congress to the king, and was examined by the
house of lords on American affairs.
PENN, THOMAS, 1702-75; b. Pcnn; son of William Penn. When about 45 years
old he went to England, where he married a daughter of the earl of Poinfret. In 1746
Penicillarla.
Pen a.
be inherited two-thirds of the proprietary interest in the province. He was noted as Ihe
founder of the Philadelphia college and as a patron, of many benevolent and literary
societies.
PENN, Sir WILLIAM, 1621-70; b. Bristol, Eng. ; entered the British navy, was made
cap. in 1642 and admiral in 1653, the latter promotion being given him as a reward
for his services in the naval contests with the Dutch. In 1655 he was prominent in the
capture of Jamaica from the Spaniards. From 1655 to 1664 he remained in England,
and was returned to parliament from Weymouth, but was sent to the tower on the
charge of having left his command without permission. By Charles II. he was made a
knight, commissioner of the navy, governor of Kinsale, and vice-admiral of the navy.
In 1664 he again went to sea and was the duke of York's commander-in-chief at the great
naval victory of 1665 over the Dutch. In 1669 he retired from actual service. Sir Will-
iam was the father of the founder of Pennsylvania.
PENN, WILLIAM, a celebrated English Quaker and philanthropist, the founder of the
colony of Pennsylvania, was the son of sir William Penn, an eminent English admiral,
and was born at London, Oct. 14, 1644. His early years were spent partly in Essex and
partly in Ireland, where his father had several estates. Penn studied at Christ church.
Oxford, and while here was converted to Quakerism by the preaching of a disciple of
George Fox, named Thomas Loe. His enthusiasm for his new faith assumed a pugna-
cious form. Not only did he object personally to attend the services of the church of
England, and to wear the surplice of a student — both of which he considered eminently
papistical — but, along with some companions who had also become Quakers, he attacked
several of his fellow-students, and tore the obnoxious robes from their backs. For this
unseemly procedure Pc-nu was expelled from the university. His father was so exces-
sively annoyed at his conduct, that he gave Penn a beating, and turned him out of doors;
but he soon afterwards mollified, and sent his son to travel on the continent, in the hope
that change of scene and the gayety of French life would change the bent of his mind.
They failed, however, to effect this, but the youth certainly acquired a grace and suavity
of address that he did not before possess. In 1666 the admiral sent him to Ireland to
look after his estates in the county of Cork, which Penn did to his father's complete
satisfaction; for in matters of business he was ;>s practical an Englishman as in religion
he was an out-and-out mystic. In the city of Cork, however, he again fell in with
Thomas Loe, and for attending a Quaker meeting was, along with some others,
imprisoned bv. the mayor, but was immediately afterwards released on appealing to the
lord president of the council of Munster, who was personally acquainted with him. On
his return to England, Perm and his father again quarreled, because the "conscience"
of the former would not allow' him to take off his hat to anybody — not even to the king,
the duke of York, or the admiral himself. Penn was again turned out of doors by his
perhaps testy, but assuredly provoked parent. The mother, however, stepped in, and
smoothed matters so far that Penn was allowed to return home, and the admiral even
exerted his influence with the government to wink at his son's attendance at the illegal
conventicles of the Quakers, which nothing would induce him to give up. In 1668, how-
ever, he was thrown into the tower, on account of a publication entitled The Sandy
i'unnda.fion Shaken, in which he attacked the ordinary doctrines of the Trinity, God's
"satisfaction" in the death of Christ, and justification by the imputation of Christ's
righteousness. While in prison he wrote the most famous and popular of his books, No
Grots, no Crown, and Innocency with Jier Open Face, a vindication of himself, which con-
tributed to his liberation, which wns obtained through the interference of the duke of
York. In Sept., 1670, admiral Penn died, leaving his son an estate of £1500 a year,
together with claims upon government for £16,000. In 1671 the upright but incorrigi-
ble sectary was again committed to the tower for preaching, and as he would not take
an oath at his trial, he was sent to Newgate for six months. Here he wrote four trea-
tises; one of them, entitled The Great "Cause of Liberty of Conscience, is an admirable
defense of the doctrine of toleration. After regaining his liberty he visited Holland and
Germany, along with Fox and Barclay, for the advancement of Quakerism. The coun-
ters palatine Elizabeth, the granddaughter of James I., showed him particular favor. On
his return, he married, in the beginning of 1672, Gulielma Maria Springett, daughter of sir
William Springett, and for some years thereafter continued to propagate, by preaching and
writing, the doctrines of his sect. Circumstances having turned his attention to the new
world, he, in 1681, obtained from the crown, in lieu of his monetary claim upon it, a
frant of the territory now forming the state of Pennsylvania. Penn wanted to call it
ylvania, on account of its forests; but the king (Charles II.) good-humoredly insisted
on the prefix Penn. His great desire was to establish a home for his co-religionists in
the distant west, where they might preach and practice their convictions in unmolested
peace. Penn, with several friends, sailed for the Delaware in Aug. 1682, was well
received by the settlers, and on Nov. 30 held his famous interview with the Indian
tribes, under a large elm tree at Shackamaxon, now Kensington. He next planned and
named the city of Philadelphia, and for two years governed the colony in the wisest,
most benevolent, and liberal manner. Not only Quakers, but persecuted members of
other religious sects, sought refuge in his new colony, where, from the first, the princi-
ple of toleration was established by law. Having called the colonists together, he gave
the infant state a constitution in twenty -four articles. Towards the end of the reign of
Pennalism.
Pennsylvania.
Charles II., Penn returned to England to exert himself in favor of his persecuted breth-
ren at home. His influence with .lames II. — an old friend of hi* father's — was so great,
that many ].eople then, and some even yet. do not feel quite satisfied about the nature of
Ihcir relations; hut the suspicion that he allowed himself to be used a- a tool by t lie court
is really not justitied by any known facts. It is possible, for his position was equivocal,
but it is not proven, and lord Macaulay — who has urged the view of his complicity in
some of the disgraceful incidents that followed Monniouth's rebellion, with an ungracious
animosity — has been convicted of haste and inaccuracy in several important particulars.
At any rate, his exertions in favor of the Quakers were so far succe>.-ful. that in 1686 a
proclamation was issued to release all persons imprisoned on account of their religious
opinions, and more than 1:200 Quakers were set free. In the April following, James
issued an edict for the repeal of all religious tests and penalties, but the mass of non-con-
formists mistrusted his sincerity, and refused to avail themselves of it. After the acces-
sion of the prince of Orange as William III., Penn was twice accused of treason, and of
corresponding with the exiled monarch, but was acquitted. In 1690 he was arrested on
a charge of conspiracy, but was again acquitted. Nevertheless, in the following year,
the charge was renewed. Nothing appears to have been done for some time, but Penn
a! last, through the kindly offices of his friends, Locke, Tillotson, and others, had the
matter thoroughly investigated, and he was finally and honorably acquitted,
169-}. Shortly after, his wife died, but in less than two years he married a.-ain. Hi.-;
second wife, Hannah Callowhill, was a Bristol lady. In 1699 he paid a second visit to
the new world, and found Pennsylvania in a prosperous condition. His stay, which
lasted two years, w;w marked by many useful measures, and by efforts to ameliorate the
condition both of the Indians and negroes. Penn departed for England towards the end
of 1701, leaving the management of his affairs to a Quaker agent named Ford, whose
villainy virtually ruined Penn. When the rogue died, he left to his widow and son false
claims against his master, and these wTere so ruthlessly pressed, that Pciin allowed him-
self to be thrown into the Fleet in 1703, to avoid extortion. His friends afterwards pro-
cured his release, but not till his constitution was fatally impaired. Peun died at Kus-
combe, in Berkshire, July 30, 1718. He left issue by both marriages. I'pon the Penn
controversy it is unnecessary further to enter. We refer our readers to Macau lay's His-
tory of England (1849-55); Hepworth Dixon's Life of Penn (new edit. 1856 1; J. Paget'a
Inquiry into the Evidence of the Charges brought by Lord Macaulay ayai/iat WiUiiuu l'< >m
(Edin/1858). s
PEN NALISM, the name given to a practice once prevalent in the Protestant univer-
sities of Germany, which seems to have been essentially the same as the fagging (q.v.)
of the English public schools. The freshmen or students of the first year (called /
— i.e., pen-cases; fags) were considered by the elder students (" schorists") as virtually
their servants. Whatever property the pennals he'd they must give up to the schorists,
who now employed them in the meanest offices, made laughing-stocks of them, and beat
and ill-used them— all which had to be endured without complaint. After a year of this
discipline followed the ceremony of "deposition" — a practice older than' pennalism
itself, and borrowed probably from knightly consecration — in which the pennal under-
went a number of symbolical trials, indicative generally of purgation from impurity and
consecration to an intellectual life. Pennalism is said to have been introduced in the
beginning of the 17th c., and to have been mostly confined to the Protestant universities
of Germany. But although the full development of the system may have been thus
restricted, germs and modifications of it were much earlier and more general, as is mani-
fest from the prevalence of names of contempt for first year's students (see BE.TAN),
and from statutes passed by French universities as early as the middle of the 14th c.,
against levying payments for first footing from them. See also FAGGING. The servi-
tude imposed on the pennals was probably an aping of the usage of chivalry, by which
a candidate for knighthood had to serve for a time as page to one already a knight. All
attempts to check the evils of pennalism were long unavailing, as the pennals took part
with the schorists in resisting all regulations of the authorities, which would have
deprived them of the hope of exercising in their turn a like tyranny upon others. Edicts
against the practice were issued in Jena and other universities about the beginning of
the 17th c., but it was not till the last half of the century that the universities, \)y uniting
in severe measures, were able to check the evil; and traces of it survived for a long time
afterwards. In imitation of the students, a kind of pennalism was adopted by other
bodies, more particularly by the printers, who retained the ceremony of "deposition"
after it had disappeared from the universities. — Scbottgen, Historte des' PennaUretttns
(Dresd. 1747).
June 14. 1726,
Oxford. His first
contained in all 132
plates on imperial paper, engraved by Ma/el, and established his reputation. While the
Avork was in course of publication. Pennant made a trip to the continent, and saw some
of the scientific and literary celebrities of the time, as Buffon, who has favorably men-
tioned him in his great work on Natural Ifintory, Voltaire. Haller, the two Gesnefs, and
Pallas. In 1769 he made the first of his famous tours in Scotland, penetrating to the
Pennallstn.
Pennsylvania.
remotest part of the country, which, ho says, was then " almost as little known as Kami-
ehutka." He returned with a very good opinion of it, and published his report in 1771,
in consequence of which (according to him) Scotland has " ever since been inormee, -with
southern visitants." The year before, he added 103 plates to his British Z<->oloyy, \\iih
descriptive notices; and in 1771 printed at Chester his Synopsis of Quadrupeds, subse-
quently enlarged and improved under the title of History of Quadruped*. Of this work
Cuvier says: '' It is stili indispensable to those who wisli to study the history of quadru-
peds." Iu the same year the university of Oxford conferred on him the degree of J.J,.L\
-Next }rear lie undertook his second and most important tour in Scotland, which included
a voyage to the Hebrides (an account of which appeared in 3 vols. 1775). Pennant was
warmly welcomed by the inhabitants. Almost every corporated town paid him some
fo.'mal compliment, and lie returned " rich in civic honor." In 1778 he published his
tri-it/'ra of Birds, and made an antiquarian tour through the north of England. His sub-
sequent tours through "Wales do uot require special notice. In 1777 appeared a fourth
volume of his Britisti Zoology, containing the vermes, the crustaceous, and the testaceous
aninTals of the country. Among a great variety of later miscellaneous publications, we
may mention in particular an amusing life of himself (T/ie Literary Life oftlie late Thomas
Pennant, AV/., by himxtif, 1793). He died Dec. 16, 1798.
PENNAT TJLA, a genus of zoophytes (anthozoa), allied to gorgonia (q.v.) and alcyonium
(q.v.). and having very similar polyps; but the polyp mass is not fixed by its base, has
a fleshy stem strengthened by a bone, and a skin containing calcareous spiculae, the
upper part of the stem winged on two sides, with numerous pinnae, along the upper
margins of which the polyp-cells are ranged. The whole form somewhat resembles a
quill, so that the popular name SEA PEN is very often given to these zoophytes. One spe-
Hes pennatuhi phosphorea, is common on the northern parts of the British coast. It is
from two to four"rnches in length, of a purplish-red color, and like man}- — perhaps all —
of the other species, is sometimes brilliantly phosphorescent, emitting flashes of light
when disturbed, but ceasing to be luminous on relapsing into quiescence. The stalk
is hollow in the center, and the bone which it contains — and which is composed of phos-
phate and carbonate of lime, like the bones of the vertebrate animals — is a very remarka-
ble part of its structure, not extending the whole length of the stalk, slender, straight,
and perfectly simple, but tent backwards at each end into a hook. Other species are
found in the Mediterranean and other seas, some of them more pen-like than even the
British one. It has been alleged that they swim by contractions and dilatations of their
common fleshy substance, or by movements of the pinnaj; but there Is no good evidence
of their po.«<e><ing any such power of locomotion, which is very contrary to the analogy
of all similar zo.'iphnix, and more probably the opinion prevalent among the fishermen
of the Scottish coasts is the correct one, that their natural place is at the bottom- of the
sea, with the somewhat flexible lower end of the stalk immersed in mud. Nearly allied
to the pennatuke is another genus of extremely beautiful zoophytes, nnjiilaria, ranked
with them in the family pennatulidcf, and sometimes receiving the popular name SKA
HUSH. One species, V. mimlrilix, is found on the British coasts. It resembles a slender
rod. bearing throughout the greater part of its length two rows of lobes, along the mar-
gin of which tlie polyps arc arranged. The whole length is from six to ten inches.
PENXIXGTON, WILLIAM S., 1757-1826; b. N. J.; served as a maj. of artillery
.in the revolution. In 1802 he was admitted to the bar; in 1804 became an associate
jud'_re of the supreme court, N. J. ; and, 1813-15, was governor of the state; 1815-26,
U. S. district judge. He was the author of Supreme Court Reports, 1803-26, 8vo, 1825.
PENNON, a small, pointed, or swallow-tailed flag, carried by the mediaeval knight on
his lance, bearing his personal device or badge, and sometimes richly fringed with gold.
The device was so placed as to appear in its proper position when the weapon was laid
for the charge.
PEN NONCELLE, a long streamer-like flag, the diminutive of the pennon (q.v.).
PENNSYLVANIA, one of the thirteen original United States of America, now the
second in population, and called from its position and importance " the Keystone State,"
is in lat, 39° 43' to 42° 15' n., long. 74° 75' to 80° 37' west, It is bounded n. by lake Erie
and New York; e. by New York and New Jersey, from which it is separated by the
Delaware river; s. by Maryland and Virginia; and'w. by Virginia and Ohio. The small
state of Delaware borders for a few miles on its south-eastern angle. The form if. very
regular, the boundaries of three sides being lines of latitude and longitude. It is 310 ni.
long, 160 wide, containing an area of 43,000 sq.m., or 27,520,000 acres, divided into 66
counties. The state is divided near the middle by the Alleghanies into an eastern region,
whose waters fall into the Delaware and Chesapeake bays, and a western, in which the
principal rivers are the Allcghany, the Monongahela, and other important affluents of the
Ohio. These, with the Delaware and Susqu'ehanna, Lehigli, Schuylkill, and Juniata,
are the principal rivers. The chief towns are Philadelphia, on its south-eastern border;
Pittsburg, at the head of the Ohio; and Harrisburg, the capital, on the Susquehanna.
The Blue Ridge, which enters the south-eastern portion of the state, rises to the height
of 1500 ft.; the passes of the Alleghanies are 2,000 ft. high, and single peaks 3,000 feet.
Lake Erie is 565 ft, above the ocean. The geological formations range from the Pot»-
U. K. XI.— 30
Pennsylvania.
dam sandstone to the coal-measures. There is middle secondary red sandstone and drift
in the u.e. ; gneiss ;in<l red sand-torn- in the s.o. ; the center of the state is a rich and fer-
tile limestone valley. Near Philadelphia are line quarries of white marble. The great
uulhrucile and semi-anthracite deposits of cwd are east of the Alleghanics; west an t!ie
great beds of bituminous coal, \vhieh largely supply the Mississippi valley. Salt is
found beneath the coal, and in the bituminous districts great deposits of petroleum.
Adjacent to the coal-measures are rich beds of iron ore, also lead, copper, nickel, and
zinc ores. The climate is mild, and the soil fertile, producing abundance of wheat,
Indian corn, oats, rye, buckwheat, potatoes, flax, hemp, tobacco, hay and pa.-turage.
with apples, pears, peaches, grapes, etc. While one of the best agricultural states, Penn-
sy.vania has also a large industry engaged in mines and manufactures, coal, iron, woolen.
and cotton. The state has (1874) 5,^54 in. of railways, 781 of canals; 34 colleges, Kl
theological seminaries 5 schools of medicine, 5 normal schools, 16.641 public schools,
having 19,827 teachers and 850,774 pupils; nearly (i.ouo churches 1400 public libraries.
numerous periodicals. 2 state penitentiaries at Philadelphia and Allegheny (one oji the
solitary system), 6 asylums for the insane, 2 institutions for d<-af mu!cs, x! i'or !h" blind,
orphans' schools, etc. In 1627 a colony of Swedes and Finns settled on the river Dela
ware. lu 1681 the territory was granted by Charles II. to William Penn, who. by the
industry of his co-religionists, the society of Friends, by cultivating peace with the
Indians and encouraging emigration, founded a rich ana flourish! I' wa^tht;
scene of Braddock's defeat in the French war; and in the revolution of Ii7'!. Pi:iladel-
phia was the chief city and capital of the federation, near which were the a< lions of
Germantown, Brandywiue, etc. The population, largely Scottish and German in iis
origin, was ill 1800, 602,361; in 1820 it was 1,049,458;" and in 1870 it had rl-en to
3,321,951.
PENNSYLVANIA (ante), one of the thirteen original states of the union, lies bet wet n
39" 43' and 42° n., and 74° 40' and 80° 26' w. ; that part which borders on lake Erie extends
to 42° 15' north. It has lake Erie and New York ( n the n., New York and New ,lei>e\ .
by the Delaware river, on the e., Delaware, Maryland, and West Virginia on the s., and
West Virgura and Ohio on the Avest. From its place arm ng the thirteen original states,
it was called the Keystone state. Its extreme dimensions are 315 m. e. sn.d w.. and Kin
in. n. and s., about 43,000 sq.m. Itisdividtd into66counlics. The p< pularou 1 -\ i,
census was, in 1790, 434,373; 1800, 602.365; 1810. 810,091; 18'J). 1,047,507;
1.348,233; 1840, 1,724,033; 1850, 2,311,786; 1860, 2.CC6.215; 1870, 3.521,951:
4,282,738.
The state is hilly and mountainous in the center, rolling in the w.. level in the B.e.
A number of parallel ridges, with a maximum height of 2,500 ft., cross it from n.e. to
s.w. ; they are all members of the Appalachian system and cover about one-fourth of
the entire area of the state. Next w. of the South mountain, on the Dclav.
Easton, is the Kittatinny or Blue mountains; then the Broad mountains. .-- ot '
branch of the Susquehanna; the Tuscarora w. of that river; the Sidling hills s. of the
.Tuniata; the Alleghany mountains; the chestnut and Laurel Hill ridges. The breadth
of the entire mountain system of the state exceeds £00 m.; it forms numerous beautiful
and fertile valleys, and incloses the richest coal fields and iron deposits in flic union ; the
valleys mostly conform to the general trend of the morntains; the rivers follow similar
lines" but often traverse the valleys obliquely. The Delaware enters the state about lai.
42°, and continues from that point throughout its course to Marcus Hook, as the
boundary between Pennsylvania and New Jersey. The river was named after Lord de
la Warr, who visited the bay in 1610: the Indians called it l'< <ton,
Maberiskitton, etc. Its length is 300 miles. At the Water Gap ;t breaks th:-
row gorge, whose sides rise perpendicularly to near 1200 ft., and present.- a truly
grand spectacle. At Easton it receives the Lehigh, 90 m. long, a beautiful, rapid and'
romantic stream, rising in the coal region; the Lchigii Water Gap. below Maueh Chun!;.
is a very, picturesque spot. Mar.ch Chunk, Allentown, and Bethlehem are on the hohigh.
Sixty m. s. of Easton the Delaware, with a fall of about 160 ft., reaches tide-water at
Trenton: 35 m. further s.w. passes Philadelphia, below which city it re>
bay, see MAKYLAND and NEW JERSEY). The Susquehanna. though its n.e. branch r
New York, is emphatically the river of Pennsylvania; besides the n.e. branch it ci
of thew. branch and the. Tuniata, and drains about 22. 000 sq.m. The n.e. brarch, after
flowing 250 m. from its rise in Otsego lake, and receiving the Chcmung or Tioga and
the Lackawanna, through the beautiful Wyoming valley, unites below Northumberland
with the great w. branch (175 m. long from its rise in Cambria co.). pur-u> s its e
s., until it receives the Juniata (150 in. long from its rise in the caste: ' <h«
Alleghany mountains), and then turning s.e. empties, after an entire course of 500 in.,
into the Chesapeake bay. This river and its tributaries, justly fnmrd for urcnt beauty,
pass through the richest and most fertile regions of th'- stale. The two great rivers w. of
•"•
tin
ongahela; the former rising
the Alleghany mountains, whose junction forms the Ohio, are the Alleghany and Mon-
r rising in Potter co., flows 50 in. n.w. into New York, and turning
Pennsylvania.
s.w. re-enters Pennsylvania, in Warren co., receives the Clarion river. Red Bank creek,
the Kiskimiiietas or Conemaugh oil the left, and French and Conewango creeks on the
right, all very important streams; the Alleghany, from the point at which it re-enters the
state, to that of its junction with the Monongahela at Pittsburg. is 180 ni. long. The
Indians called both the Ohio and the Alleghany by the latter name, the former desig-
nating in the language of the Delawares " Fair Water," just as the latter had the same
meaning in that of the Senecas. — The Monongahela is formed by two branches, the
Monongahela proper and the Cheat river, both of which rise and flow n. in Virginia for a
distance of 100 in.; these branches unite in Fayette co., Perm., and the river then
Hows u. 80m.; at McKeesport it receives the Youghiogheny from the s.e., about 100
in. long, and in a n.w. course of 18 in.; forms by the confluence with the Alleghany,
which meets it from the n., the Ohio river at Pittsburg. The Ohio flows 23 m. n.w.
to the mouth of the Big Beaver (the recipient of several tributaries, which together drain
an area of about 6,000 sq.m.), and then turning s.w. leaves the state in Beaver county.
Almost all the rivers break through the mountain chains, and give natural access to its
mineral and agricultural wealth. The Delaware is navigable for vessels of largest si/e
to Philadelphia; for steamboats to Trenton ; for smaller craft to Easton. The Susque-
haimu is not navigable in the state for steamboats, but both the Alleghauyand Mouonga-
licla are navigable for 60 in. from their confluence, while the Ohio is one of the great
wa-.cr ways to the Mississippi. There are no great lakes in Pennsylvania, but it borders
lake Erie for 45 m., and has an excellent harbor at Erie.
G-eid'W/ — The state is occupied by azoic, mezozoic and paleozoic formations. The
lirst prevails mostly in the south-eastern portions, crossed by the second in a belt of about
'2~) in. in a line from New Jersey to Maryland; while the paleozoic marks the rest of the
stale. The latter may be found classified in the geological report of H. D. Rogers,
Special localities indicate the presence cf drift in the shape of gravel in the n. and n.w.
tier of counties. Gneiss abounds in the s.e. portions of the stale, and occupies a tract
from Trenton to Philadelphia and up the Schuylkill; it runs through portions of Dela-
ware a::d Chester counties, traverses Northampton, Berks, Lebanon, parts of Lancaster,
Daup'iin. and reappears in Adams co. .where it meets a similar formation along the border
of til-.' state, within this tract are found marble quarries (Philadelphia), lead and copper
< Pii iMiixvillc), nickel (Lancaster co.), magnetic Iron ore (Warwick, Cornwall, and other
n.im TOUS points in Berks, Lebanon, and Lancaster counties); chrome iron ore is mined
in th" serpentine barrens near Octoraro creek, in Lancaster county. The lower Silurian
in Lane-aster, Berks, and Lehigh counties, and many central sectionsof the state contains
va4 deposits of hematite iron. New red sandstone is found in a belt of country whose
irirthern limits* stretch in a linj from Durham near the Delaware across the Schuylkill
bHo.v Reading, and the Susquehanna below Harrisburg to near Wayn"sburg; while its
southern limits run on a line from Trenton, Norristown, through Lancaster co. into
Ad.vns county. Sandstone, red shale, trap-rock, abound throughout the district; the
sandstone is excellent for building purposes, and utilized for that purpose. The lower
m -mb'-is of the paleozoic series above d-scribad dip n.w. under the auroral n-iagnesian
1 mvr Silurian lim .-stones, flanked by the Kittatinny and Blue mountains on the one
hand, and the South mountain on the other. The entire region is very fertile, and
e.ulmiees some of the richest agricultural districts of the state in the counties of North-
ampton. L'ihigh, Berks, Lebanon, Dauphin, Cumberland, and Franklin. A similar belt
of limestone country runs through Lancaster co., and in part through York; a narrow-
band of the same formation traverses likewise Montgomery and Chester counties.
Roofing slate is found, and extensively quarried in Northampton and Lehigh counties.
lone areas, scattered in Moutour, Clinton, Snyder, and Mifflin counties, and the
Juniatii valley, continuous in Centre co., extend also is a s.w. line, through Blair and
Bedford counties to the Maryland border. The upper Silurian and Devonian run n and
n.w. to the Alleghany mountain. The ridges in well-marked parallels, traversed by
rivers, and diversih'ed by fruitful valleys, present a scenery of romantic beauty and a
sub:ilpine character: ami shows the different members of the gigantic paleozoic forma
tion. The general features of that hill-region are much the same to the Alleghany
mountain. \v. of which they are entirely changed; round knolls, short and broken rid-rcs,
distinguish the bituminous coal region. . The coal measures e. of the Alleghany stretch
in three parallel beds; the northern, from Carbondale through Scranton and Wilkes-
barre to the w. of Newport; almost due s. of it, is found the Lehigh coal field: still
further s.w. from Mahanoy City, through Ashland and Shamokin, to within a short dis-
tance of the Susquehanna. lie's the second or middle anthracite coal fields, while the
southern, with Pottsville in the center, extends continuously from Mauch Chunk, on the
Lehigh, to Wiconisco, and by southern branch to within a short distance from the
Susquehanna. The semi-bituminous coal field is in the region of the Broadtop moun-
tain in Huntingdon and Bedford counties. — Tie Alleghany mountain is the eastern limit
of the vast bituminous coal fields, which overs; >n>'.d the greater part of the western sec
tion of the state. Sandstone, iron ore, limestone, and fire-clay interstratify with the
coal. Limestone occurs to a limited extent in the Alleghany valley, but is found more
copiously in the upper portions of the Monongahela. At Johnstown, Brady's Bend, and
in Westmoreland and Fayette counties ironstone is mined: and the charcoal furnaces of
Armstrong. Butler, and Clarion counties-absorb large quantities of limonite. See IKON.
Pennsylvania.
Petroleum is found la prodigious quantities in Warren, Forest, nnd Vennngo counties, alsa
in Mercer and Crawford counties, at a depth of 1000ft. below the lowest coal formation
of the district. It is likewise found at the continence of the Monongahela and Cheat
rivers. See PETROI.KUM. Salt wells are worked in the valley of the Kiskiminetas or
Conemaugh river on an extensive scale; although that industry is capable of vast devel-
opment, as salt spring's are not only very abundant in w. Pennsylvania, but exist
in Susquehanua. Lycoming. deal-field, and Urdl'ord counties. — The mineral springs near
Bedford, much frequented and justly celebrated for their curative power, issue in the
same valley, at short distances from each other, are at least live in number; they are
respectively, sweet, sulphureous, calcareous, chalybeate, and mixed. The last, Ander-
son's, is the most important and highly valued.
The rolling country of the western and central sections contain vast tracts of produc-
tive soil; Washington, Alleghany, Beaver, Fayelte, and Indiana counties are peculiarly
rich for cereals; Mercer, Crawford, and Erie are better adapted for grass. The pres-
ence in uncleared regions of an abundance of white oak. hickory chestnut, walnut, and
ash is an index to cereal fertility; beech, maple, and black ash indicate good grassland;
while the prevalence of pine marks indifferent soil. The Alleghanies produce almost
cH'iy species of timber except white oak. White pine, poplar, beech, sugar-maple,
chestnut, and birch are most abundant. The first predominates chiefly on the eastern
slopes of the mountains, wild cherry, walnut, hickory, and o;ik arc frequent; chestnut
predominates on the Chestnut ridge, and Laurel hill region, which yields also red and
rock oak. In the valleys and along the water-courses, hickory, ash, suirar-maple, cherry,
eim. and sycamore of majestic growth flourish. Sugar-maple and beech fill the forest in
the vicinity of lake Erie, hemlock in Clearfleld, Cambria, etc., beech in the Lehigh
region. Fruit-trees of almost every species abound, and the grape is extensively culti-
vated. The culture of tobacco in Lancaster co. has of late years become extensive
and profitable.
The climate of the state is different in its three natural divisions of eastern, western,
and northern. The eastern section is marked by irregular alternations of the seasons^
the mean extremities of notation for a great number of years being 5° below zero, and
100" Fahr. ; there are seldom more than 30 days of above 80° heat in summer, and below
80a in winter. Sudden changes are of frequent occurrence — intensely hot or cold weather
seldom tests more than 3 days continuously. The period from the middle of January to
that of February is generally the coldest, and from the beginning of July to middle of
August the hotted. In the western section the fluctuations are more abrupt, a-.nl heat
and cold more excessive. In the northern section and the mountainous regions of the
entire Mate the winters are very -severe, with an extreme temperature' as low as 20°
below zero; the summers delightfully cool. Thejclimate is decidedly healthful, although
malaria lingers in the river valleys, along canals, 'and in swampy regions.
According to the census of 1870, \\\c manufacturing interests of this state place it first
as to the capital invested, and the number of establishments, second only as to the value
of products. Besides the leading industries of coal, iron, and petroleum (figures beiow),
the minor ones in which the state ranked first in the United States included paper-bags,
blacking, carriage trimmings, charcoal and coke, chromos, lithographs, dye-woods, stuffs
and extracts, explosives and fire-works, glues, perfumery, cosmetics, fancy soaps. Likewise;
in building and roofing materials produced, and in lumber. The lumber shipments from
the two chief emporia at Wiliiamsport and Lock Haven are enormous. The agriculture
of the state is very extensive. In 1870 the total number of farms, of an average si/.e of
103 acres, was 174,041 ; it had 11,515,965 acres of improved laud in farms, 5,740.864 acres
of woodland, and 737,371 acres of unimproved land. The total value of the farms was
$1,043.481,582; of implements, etc., $35,658,196. The total value of all farm productions
WHS $183.946,027; of orchard products, $4,208,094; of market gardens, $1,810,010: of
forests, $2,670,370: of home manufactures, $1,503.754; and of animals slaughtered or
sold for slaughter, $28,412,903. The productions in 1873 were: of Indian corn, 36.929,-
000; wheat. 15.548.000; rye. 3 283,000; oats. 31.229,000: barley, 3,981,000: buckwheat,
2.022,000; potatoes, 10,602.000 bush.; 15.000,000 Ibs. of tobacco, and 2,446,400 tons of
hay, covering 5,780,917 acres, and valued at $115,965,700. In live stock the state num-
bered: of horses, 557,000; mules. 24,900; oxen and other cattle, 722,600; milch cows,
812,600; sheep. 1.674,000; and hogs, 1,034,000, with an aggregate value of $116,911,954.
The mineral products in 1874 were: coal, anthracite, 21,631,118; bituminous, 7.712,461;
semi bituminous, 2.303,461: and block, 500,000 tons. Petroleum (1870), 171,807,822
galls. Iron (1873), 913,085 tons in anthracite, 430,634 tons in bituminous arm coke, and
45,854 tons in charcoal, furnaces. The other minerals produced were: copper, marble,
n'u-kel, slate, stone, and zinc.
The public debt, Dec. 1, 1874, was $24,568.635, of which $24,371,884 were funded, nnd
$196.751 unfunded. The total receipts during the year were: $5,871,968; expenditures.
$6,642,567; balance, $1,054,551. The sources of revenue in 1874 were: from taxation of
corporations, $3,811.669 (including direct taxes. $2,936,509; and interest on bonds, etc.,
$875,100); from taxes on the people. $2,060,299 (including licenses, $871,803). In tht
same year the true value of real and personal estate was estimated at $3,425,325,415, and
the taxable property it $4,300,619,558. The U. S. internal revenue from Pennsylvania
for the fiscal year ending June 30; 1880, amounted to $6,863.928.82; derived: from spir-
Pennsylvania,
its, $1,804,803.54; from tobacco, $3,322,644.39; from fermented liquors, $1,299.968.25:
from batiks and bunkers, $366,468.40; and from collections not otherwise provided for,
$4,979.23. Nov. i, 1874, there were reported a total of 205 national banks, with a paid-
in capital of $58,910,240, an outstanding circulation of $42,092,711; and 115 state and
savings banks, with resources amounting to $35,782,021; paid-in capital stock, $8,370.-
169; deposits, $20,961,262; and liabilities of $35.782,021. The total amount paid in 1873 for
tire and marine insurance was $15,601,717, and for life insurance, $8,016.236. — (For latest
statistics see appendix.)
The present public school system dates from the year 1834, and under the new con-
stitution is supervised by the superintendent of public instruction, who appoints two
deputies, 66 county, and 26 city superintendents (exclusive of Philadelphia) elected by
the school directors, of which there are 6 for each district, elected by the people, with
power to levy and collect taxes, build and furnish school-houses, employ and pay teach
ers, etc. The annual state appropriation is constitutionally not less than $1,000,000.
The school age is from 6 to 21. The following are the official statistics for the year end-
ing June 1, 18.80: Number of districts, 2,192; number of schools, 16,585; number of
pupils attending, 770,349; average attendance, 509,246, percentage, .80; average length
of school term, in months, 6.25; average cost of tuition, per month, for each pupil, 74'
cents; number of teachers, male, 9,655, female, 9,650; average salaries, male, |31 36,
female, $25.14, per month; cost of tuition, $3,506,011.82; fuel, etc., §1,584,365.92; pur-
chases, rents, repairs, etc., $809,496.51. Total expenditure for the tuition, fuel, and
houses, $5,899,874.25; average number of mills on the dollar: school tax, 5 04; building
tax, 2.99; amount of tax levied, $4,818,594.36, total of tax and slate appropriation,
$6.576,308.19. (See PHILADELPHIA.) Valuation of school property, $25.467,097. Of
the 12 normal school districts created by law, 10 are supplied with normal schools, of
which the following are the summarized official particulars (1880): Number of teachers.
123; of students, 2,900; of graduates, 263. Income (with state appropriation of $100,-
(100), $328.557.52; expenditure, $324,800.05. Valuation of property, $1, £66,395. 77.
Teachers' institutes were held in 69 districts, continued 347 days, attended by 12 . 5?3
teachers, 2,158 directors, by an average number of 18,145 spectators, and 450 lecturers
and instructors.
The railroads, canals, and telegraphs operated in the state are under the supervision of
the secretary of internal affairs, whose report for the year 1879 furnishes the following
particulars. The two largest railroad corporations are the Philadelphia and Reading,
and the Pennsylvania railroad, the former of which had 1379.8 in. aggregate length of
main line, branches, leased roads, siding, and other track, making, with 310m. additional
track, a total of 1689.8 m. , while the latter had a total length of main line, branches,
leased roads, sidings, and other track, of 1675.89 m., of which 1953.78 were in Peunsyl-
.vauia. There were in -the state 152 railroads, 38 passenger railroads, 8 canals, and 7
telegraph companies. The 152 railroads had authorized capital stock amounting to
s5:-.i!>,537.13<-<:, of which $503,631,034 were paid in, a funded and floating debt of $556,-
962,834.89; their cost and equipment amounted to $565,029,919.35, "representing an
average of $3,292,141.23 of construction, and of $466,474.55 of equipment per mile: their
real estate, exclusive of railway, was valued at $33,100,480.02. The total length of the
main lines, branches, and leased roads was 14,313.11 m.; the total number of miles
operated, 15,011.89. Passenger trains ran a total of 24,017,213; freight trains, 58,662,-
775, and coal trains, 14,484,625 miles. The rolling stock embraced 3,864 engines, 1698
first class, and 520 second class passenger cars, 773, baggage, mail, and express cars, and
157,759 freight cars. They carried 41,583,552 passengers, 31,440,789 tons through freight,
and a gross amount of 111,729,809 tons. The amount of freight embraced : of anthracite
coal, 33,815,096; of bituminous coal, 23,427,682; of petroleum, etc., 4,567,155; of pig-iron,
2,690,739; of railroad iron, 955,219; of other iron, 1,840,741; of iron and other ores,
4,939,433; of stone and lime, 2,269,583; of agricultural products, 10,246,567: of merchan-
dise and manufactures, 6,227,619; of live stock, 1,122,976; of lumber, 3, '130,570, and of
other articles, 9,625,668 tons. The receipts were: passengers, $22.466,638.41; freight,
£91,276,627.08; mail and express, $4,760,408.99; miscellaneous, $11,081,164.41; total,
$128,984,838.82. The expenses were: on account of roads and equipment, $3,099,853.74;
maintenance of way and buildings, $22,183,259.09; motive power and cars. $14,088,
342.74; miscellaneous, $39,419,605.07; total, $75,731,288.67. The total number of per-
sons killed was 553, injured, 158. The 38 passenger railroads had authorized capital stock
of $18,225.200, of which $7,773,476.05 were paid in, a floating and funded debt of
$3,508,692.93. Their cost and equipment amounted to $10,307,320.77; their total length
was 344.91 m. ; their rolling stock consisted of 1185 first class, 187 second class passenger,
and 127 other cars; their horses, 8,206; and their real estate, exclusive of roadway, Was
valued at $2,958.877.64;' they carried 102,332.745 passengers, the cost of maintenance
amounted to $243,945.22, and of operating the roads to $3,037,605.86; total, $3,281,551.08.
The number of accidents was 5 killed, 24 injured.
The annals are the Delaware and Hudson, 108 in. : Delaware division, 60 m. ; Lehigh,
48 m. ; Monongahela, 83-85 m. ; Muncy, f ; Pennsylvania, 333; Schuylkill, 108.23; Susque-
hanna, 54; and Union, 78. The canal reports show that the companies had an authorized
capital stock of $10,307,850, paid In, $47,309,872; a funded debt of $53.679,837, and a
floating debt of $410,767.28; the cost of canals and fixtures was $38,355,446.24; and their
470
Pennsylvania.
real estate, exclusive of canals, was. valued at $343,095. The gross amount of tonnage
Yi':is 4.493,-!. :•'). The expense of niaiuU'iiance was $560,551.69, and of operating, $402,-
561.81; total, $903. 123.50; the total receipts were SV.:'>7s..Y:;!.48. The freight moved
embraced: of lumber, 298,503; of coal, aiuhraeite, 3,565,029; bitumiiunis, 2, :>.">('». 5S1 ; and
of iron, pig, 54,602; railroad, 28.257; oilier iron or eastings, 102,525 tons. The 7 tele-
graph lines, with an authorized capital stock of $44,201,410. paid in, $44,543,710, and u
total of floating and funded debt of $6,477,777.40, had a total expenditure in the state of
$307.882.58, and total receipts in the stale of $383,010.96.
T Ite public cfisin'tttx tire administered by a board of 7 members appointed by the gov-
ernor, and a general agent and secretary, from whose report for 1880 is drawn the fol-
lowing summary of particulars. The state institutions are the eastern, western, and
middle penitentiaries, 5 insane ho-piials, a reform .school, and the anthracite hospital.
Institutions not under state control, for the support and care of the defective and delin-
quent classes, in which state aid is extended to the indigent class, number 56. Similar
institutions, supported by endowments and private charity, receiving oeeasional state
aid, 58. Besides the penitentiaries, the state contains 67 county jails, a work house, and
a house of correction for the confinement of prisoners. It numbers also 00 alinshouses,
of which 33 are county and 27 district institutions. There were expended in INSO for
penitentiaries $536,056.31; for the insane, etc., $853.429.10; for th" d.-af and dumb,
$171,782.74; for tne blind, $106,583.74; house of refuge, $176,098,75; reform school.
$278,949.87; township poor, $205,082.31; county prisons, etc., $63G.4:i7.iii): almshoiiM-.-.
$1, 272,03d. 42; out door relief, $243,907.32; two hospital commissions, sr,:;7,2K!)3. The
criminal population throughout the state was on Sept. 30, 1880, 4,623; 3 persons had
been executed; the number of convicts in penitentiaries, 1728; in county prisons an 1
work-houses, 974 convicts, 31 held for payment oi fines, 1250 on summary conviction, and
630 for trial. The total number of 'inmates in the reformatories was 826. The unfortu-
nate classes embraced of insane, etc., 5,835, deaf and dumb, 504; blind, 444. The paupers
and indigent classes numbered 8,741. The vagrants relieved numbered 25,325, showing
u decrease of 71.54 per cent on the previous year; vagrants lodged, 30,772, a decre
63.37 per cent on 1879; number of meals furnished, vagrants, 6i,941, a decrease of 69.35
oiil879; they were given to 25,325 vagrants. The totaJ of the defective, classes, after
certain corrections, embraces 5,495 insane and idiotic, 492 deaf and dumb, 442 blind, aud
8,741 paupers and indigent.
The state maintains the agricultural college in Centre co., endowed with $500,000,
and a farm of 400 acres, with a staff of 10 instructors, and 150 pupils. In 1870 the col-
leges in the state (exclusive of Philadelphia) were 21, with 252 professors, 1763 student-,
and a total of 3,204 pupils in all departments. There were also, in 1874, 13 theological
schools, with 67 professors, and 416 students. The libraries are 14,849, with 6,377,8!"
nines. The newspapers and periodicals published in the state numbered 540, reprcx
a circulation of 3,419,765, and an annual issue of 241,170,540 copies. The total number
of religious organizations, in 1870, was 5,934, owning 5,663 cdiiic.es, with 2,232,288 sit-
tings, valued at $52,758,384.
History. — The first visitor of Delaware bay was capt. Henry Hudson in 1009; lord
de la Warr, however, in honor of whom the bay and river are named, accidentally dis-
covered its mouth in 1610. The Dutch, in 1623, took possession of the whole territorv
hetween the South river (Delaware) and the North river (Hudson), and held it until llifU,
when ITew Netherlands was conquered by the English; recovered by the Dutch in Ki72.
it reverted to British rule in 1674. The first European settlement wa.> fort Xa-sau, near
Gloucester, in New Jersey. Fort Oplaudt was built near Lewistown, Delaware. The
first Dutch settlers were murdered by the Indians. The Swedes, who followed in 1638,
and settled on the w. bank of the Delaware, were more successful, but their success
involved them in troubb with the Dutch, to whom they finally succumbed. In 1681 a
charter for the territory 12 m. n. of New Castle to 43° n.e., bounded e. by the Delaware
river, and to extend w. 55 in long, to the same degree of lat., was granted to William
Penu, who landed at Now Castle Oct. 27, 1082, and founded Philadelphia. His advent
was very auspicious; his humane treatment of the Indians and the colonists caused the
new colony to flourish. In 1684 there were already upwards of 300 houses in Philadel-
phia, with a population of 2,500, and of 7,000 in th*e province and territory Penn was
temporarily deprived of his possessions under William and Marv, and did not revisit the
province until 1699. He returned to England in 1701, and died there in 1718. His
widow administered the government for a while, but it passed to his children and their
descendants, and the proprietory government continued until the revolution in 1776; the
affairs of Delaware (called the lower counties) after 1699 were administered by a s< -p-
arate legislature under the governors of Pennsylvania. In 1755-56 the province was
desolated by Indian massacres; similar outrages occurred in 1763, notoriously the massacre
of settlers in the Wyoming valley by Indians, and that of the Conestoga In lians in Lan
cister co. by the Paxton boys. The boundary difficulties between Pennsylvania and
Maryland were settled by the survey of Mason and Dixon, begun in the same year and
ended in 1767. The development of Pennsylvania during the first century of 'its exist-
ence may be seen by the settlement of more than 12 counties, and the founding of Phil-
:'d"lphia in 1682; Lancaster. 1729; York, 1741; Reading, 1747; and Carlisle in 1750. A
r.cwspaper, the American Weekly Mercury, was pub<ished in Philadelphia in 1719; iu
** Pennsylvania.
1756 stn<re coaches were established from Philadelphia, to Now York and Baltimore, and
iu 1757 the postal service was extended to Carlisle. The first continental congress met
iu Philadelphia Sept. 5,1774. Pennsylvania was foremost in resisting British encroach-
ments, and led iii all the momentous events of the revolution: independence was pro-
cianned on her soil, 1776. The battle of Gennantown took place Oct. 4, 1777. 'Wash-
ington went to Valley Forge in December of that year. March 1, 1780, slavery was
abolished. The state government was organized in 1776. The convention, of which
Benjamin Franklin was president, signed the state constitution Sept. 28,1776. In 1790 a
new constitution, of a more democratic i-ast was adopted, which has since undergone
repeated alterations. The constitution, as amended in 1888, vests the legislative power
in a general assembly, consisting of a senate and house of. representatives; the latter,
apportioned to the number of taxables, are elected annually, and limited to 100; the
former are elected for three years, one-third annually; their number must not be less
than one-fourth or more than one third of the number of representatives. The legis-
lature meets annually on the first Tuesday in January. The governor, elected on the
second Tuesday of October for three years from the third Tuesday of January following,
is ineligible for the same office more than twice in 9 years. The right of voting is
restricted to free-born whites 21 years of ;:ge. The county officers are elected by the
people. An amendment of the constitution, adopted in 1850, makes the judiciary elect-
ive, and limits the term of office to 10 and 15 years. Under the provision for amend-
ments to the constitution, in 1864, the right of suffrage was granted to citizens absent in
the military service of the state. An amended constitution was adopted in
1S73. by a popular vote of 253,74-4 against 108,594, and went into force Jan. 1, 1874.
It limits the senate to 50 members chosen for 4 years, and the house to 200 member*
chosen for 2 years. The sessions are held biennially; annual adjoined sessions are not
allowed. The governor is empowered to convene extra sessions for urgent business, and
required to do so in case of a vacancy in the office of a U. S. senator occurring during
the recess. The executive department consists of a governor, a lieut.governor, who is
likewise president of the senate, and a secretary of internal affairs — all elected for 4
years — an auditor-general, elected for 3 years, and a treasurer, elected for 2 years; an
attorney -general, a secretary of the commonwealth, and a superintendent of public
instruction, appointed by the governor, with thi consent of two thirds of the senators.
for 4 years. The governor is ineligible for two successive terms; he is empowered to
commute sentences and grant pardons iu their clearly defined limits, and vested, besides
the ordinary veto powers, with the prerogative of a partial veto on appropriation bills.
The official acts of the governor are recorded by the secretary of the common wealth. The
department of the secretary of internal affairs embraces a bureau of industrial statistics,
and maintains the supervision of corporations, charitable institutions, the agricultural,
mining, mineral, timber, and other interests of the state. He must report annually to
the general assembly. The judiciary embraces a supreme court, consisting of 7 judges,
eh'C'ed by the people for 21 years, ineligible for re-election, with the judge having the
shortest 'term of office as chief-justice; the court holds annual sessions at Philadelphia,
iFarrisburg, Sunbury, and Pittsburg; courts of common pleas, of ojrer and lerminer and
general jail delivery, of quarter sessions of the peace, magistrates' and orphans' courts.
Judges' of the supreme court, and those of the common pleas, are justices of over and
Jermiaer and general jail delivery in the respective counties; the latter discharge, also
the functions of judge of quarter sessions of the peace and of orphans' courts in districts
where special provision for them has not been made. Criminal matters of the respective
districts belong likewise to their cognizance. There are 43 judicial districts in the state,
in each of which the people elect one or more common pleas' judges for 10 years. See
PHILADELPHIA. The state contains likewise two districts for holding U. S. courts; for
the eastern district they are held in Philadelphia; for the western at Pittsburg, Williams-
port, and Erie. The right of suffrage is enjoj'ed by male citizens not under 21 years of
age. who must have been citizens of the United States at least one month, residents of
the state one year, and of the election district two months before the election; citizens
more than 22 years old must have paid within two years a state or county tax. assessed
at least twro months and paid at least one month b.'ff>re the election. Naturalized citizens
must have been naturalized at least one month before the election. The general election
is held annually on the Tuesday next following the first Monday in November. Penn-
sylvania sends to congress 2 senators, and 27 representatives, and has 29 votes in th«
electoral college. .The total vote of the state for president was in 1860, 476,436; in
1864, 572.707; in 1868, 655.662; in 1872, 561,650; in 1876, 750,352; in 1880. 874,783.
The office of governor or supreme executive was held from 1638 to 1681 by 13 indi-
viduals; from the accession of William Pcnn, 1681. to Sept., 1776, 26 administrations
mark the proprietary government; during the revolution" 0 persons held the office of
president of the supreme executive council from 1776 to 1791; and the following have
been governors under the constitution of the state: 1791, Thomas Mifflin; 1799. Thomas
McKean; 1808, Simon Snj^der; 1817, Wm. Finlcy; 1820, Joseph Hiester; 1823, John
A. Shulze; 1829, George Wolf: 1835, Joseph Ritner; 1839. David R. Porter; 1845;
Francis R. Shunk; 1848. William F. Johnson; 1852. William Bigler; 1855. James
Pollock; 1858, Wm. F. Packer; 1861, Andrew G Curtin; 1867. John" W. Geary; 1873.
John F. Hartranft; 1879, Henry M. lloyt. Philadelphia was the seat of government
Pennsylvania. IT*'
IV n n Vim.
throughout the proprietary period (with the exception of a short interval). The capital
was removed to Lancaster iu 1700, and remained there until 1S1:?, when llarrislmrg was
selected as the permanent capital. The corner-stone of thecapito] was laid .May <jl, 181&.
The land of 'the province, although granted by royal charter, was bought by Penn, tho
proprietary government, and the state, of the Indians in six successive pun-liases: " the
walking purchase" on the Delaware in 1682; the s.e. section of the provin.-e. in 17i'6; a
section running from Pike to Dauphin co. in 1749; a tract extending from Northumber-
land to the southern boundary in 1758; an enormous tract from the n.e. to the xw.
extremities of the province in 1768; and the whole n.w. section by state commissioners
in 1785. Lands obtained by the Indian treaty of 17GS were offered at t5 p< r 100 acres,
and one penny per acre per annum quit-rent; some of the richest coal laud was. offered
at that price.' The settlement of the western country began about 1781, in which year
there were at Pittsburg four lawyers and two doctors, but no mini.-tcr of n ligion. 'Ten
years later the population was still below 500. The triangular tract of land bounded n.w. by-
lake Krie was purchased in 1788 from the United States, and the se(tl<-in."iil of that part
of the state was subsequent to that year. The whisky rebellion, 17JJO-94, was called by
a law of congress, passed in 1790, imposing excise duties on spirits distilled in the United
States. The tumultuous opposition to it was especially violent in westi-rn Pennsylvania.
and attended by great disorders, which led president Washington to invi :iiitary
aid of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Maryland and Virginia for their suppression. The
appearance of a body of 12,000 troops, led by governor Lee. wa.s sufficient, without
bloodshed, to quell the difficulty. In the war of 1812-14, commodore Oliver II. Perry,
by great energy, succeeded in forming a squadron of nine vessels, numbering 54 guns
and 490 men; and with that force gave battle to the British fleet of 6 vessels, carrying 63
guns, and numbering 502 combatants, commanded by capt. Barclay, gaining a complete
victory for the American arms. The entire British fleet surrendered, and lYrry
announced the result in the famous dispatch: "We have met the enemy and they are
ours." During the rebellion the confederates made three invasions into Pci:ns\ ivania:
the first was a raid, under the rebel general Stuart, who burned the railroad depot at
Chambersburg, Oct. 10, 1862; the second, under general Lee, brought the whole rebel
force in Virginia into the state, and culminated in the battle of Gettysburg, July 1-3,
1863 (see GETTYSBURG); the third, executed by a small force of Early s division, burnt
the town of Chambersburg, July 30, 1864. During that war, Pennsylvania fnrni.-hcd
t ie national army with 270 regiments, and a total of 362,284 men, besides £5,000 militia
for temporary se'rvice. The establishment of " soldiers' orphan schools," for the main-
tenance, clothing, and education, at the public charge, of the children of soldiers who fell
in defense of their country, redounds to the credit of the commonwealth; the number of
children thus provided exceeded 7,000; the amount spent for that purpose in 1*74 was
£450,879. The national guard of Pennsylvania, commanded by a m;. j.-rn., numbers
ten divisions, which aggregated in 1874, *19 regiments, 169 companies, 738 officers, and
H.261 enlisted men.
PENNSYLVANIA DUTCH, the language of settlers of a considerable part of Penn-
sylvania, which is formed, not as might be supposed, by a blending of tongues of people
of various nationalities meeting there, but which is the dialect of a people of south Ger-
many,, found near each other in that region, mainly Rhenish, Bavarians, Swiss. Alsa-
tians, and Germans, to which is added a modicum of English words, taken often without
alteration of form. The late H. Harbaugh, D.D., has written a volume of fine ]
published 1870. which exhibit the peculiarities of this dialect, as does also llaldemann's
Pennsylvania Dutch, 1872, both of which works are issued by the Reformed Church pub-
lication board
PENNSYLVANIA, UNIVERSITY OF, in Philadelphia, was chartered in 1755 find is
the sixth in the order of succession of American colleges. It is the outgrowth and successor
of the college of Philadelphia, which was founded chiefly through the iniluence of Dr.
Benjamin Franklin' and Dr. William Smith. The latter was the first provost, and is con-
spicuous in history as having established in 1757 the curriculum of study which was
adopted substantially by the colleges of later foundation. The medical department was
established in 1765; that of law i'n 1789; tho auxiliary faculty of medicine in 1865; tin;
Towne scientific school in 1872; the dental school in 1S78. The university embrac
departments: 1. The department of arts; 2. The Towne scientific school; 3. The depart -
ment of medicine; 4. The department of law; 5. 'i Le department of music; 6. Thed-
ment of dentistry. The university is located on thG western side of the Sehuylkill nvcr.
on two squares of about sixteen acres, at the junction of 36th et., Darby ;
.street. It has separate and commodious build'ings for the medical hall, the un;
pital, and for the departments of arts, science and law. The building for the departments
of aits and for the Towne scientific school fe one of the largest and most conveniently
arranged college buildings in the country. The trustees have lately introduced into ihe
official curriculum of medical study the methods which have long been used in European
schools, and which, in all other departments of science, have given vitality and practical
utility to the older didactic systems. The department of law has also been lately reor-
ganized, with a view to more thorough and systematic instruction. The department of
dentistry combines thorough practical instruction in mechanical and operative dentistry,
A 'TO Pennsylvania.
* • «f Feu 11 Yan.
with such medical studies as are considered essential to the well educated dentist. Great
additions have been recently made to the libraries of the university. Besides the old
library of the university, and those libraries which are designed for the use of students
in chemistry and engineering,' there is the Colwell library, composed of a very complete
collection of books relating to social and political science, which has been augmented by
the bequest of the statistical and economical library of the late Henry C. Carey. The
extensive and valuable classical library of the late professor Allen has been presented to
the university. A very choice collection of books, intended to illustrate the instruction
in history and English literature, has also been added; and, lastly, a library selected with
great care, and designed to aid in the study of the English language, and of the early
English literature, has been procured. The libraries of the literary and the Franklin scien-
tific societies of the university are also open to their members. The design of the scientific
school is to give a thorough technical and professional training to those who propose to
engage in the following, among other pursuits, viz: in chemistry, with its manifold
applications to the industrial arts; in metallurgy and assaying; in mineralogy, geology
and mining; in civil, dynamical or mechanical, and mining engineering; in mechanical
drawing and architecture; and in studies preparatory to medical study. The cabinets
and apparatus are of the first order. The chemical department contains over 10,000
specimens of minerals, representing the most important forms and varieties of nearly
every established -species. The metallurgical and assay laboratories are furnished with
the requisite furnaces, also with diagrams and models, representing many of the most
important forms of furnaces and machinery, and a spectroscope, especially constructed
for observations in the production of Bessemer steel. The geological department has a
collection of American fossils (exclusive of the vertebrates), arranged chronologically,
in two suites, the first lithological, the second paleontological, for the purpose of showing
not only the characteristic genera and species, but their changes in relation to the sedi-
ments containing them. There are also suites of European fossils and collections of
American coals and iron ores. In the department of physical engineering, the cabinet
contains a very full collection of models, charts, and apparatus for fully illustrating tlu;
subject. The provisions for medical and surgical instruction and demonstration are very
complete. The law department is thoroughly organized and effective. Number of pro-
fessors (1879-80). 57; demonstrators and instructors, 67. Students — department of arts,
139; scientific, 133; music, 14; medicine, 528; law, 141; dentistry, 75; whole number,
1,030. Provost, Charles J.- Stille, LL.D.
PENNY, a British coin and money of account. After the Sceattae (q.v.)it is the most
ancient of the English coins, and was the only one generally current among the Anglo-
Saxons. The name is evidently the same as the German pfennig, and both words seem
to be intimately connected with the old German pfant, a pledge, and the Latin pendo, to
weigh or to pay. Both in Britain and on the continent the word was anciently used for
money in general, hence we have such phrases as " he has got his penny-worth" i.e., he
has got value for his money, etc. The penny is first mentioned in the laws of Ina, king
of the West Saxons, about the close of the 7th c. It was at this time a silver coin, and
weighed about 22| troy grains, being thus about FJ-^th of the Saxon pound weight. This
relation to the pound weight is evidently derived from the usage of the early Franks,
who retained the Roman division of the libra into 20 solidi, and the solidus into 13 denarii
(i he denarius being thus the 240th part of the libra or pound. See MARK. Half-pence
and farthings were not coined in England till the time of Edward L, but the practice
previously prevailed of so deeply indenting the penny with a cross mark that the coin
could be easily broken into two or four parts as required. Silver farthings ceased to be
coined under Ed ward VI., and silver half-pennies under the commonwealth. Bv this
time the penny had steadily decreased in weight; it was 18 grains under Edward III.. 15
and 12 under Edward IV., 8 under Edward VI., and under Elizabeth it was finally fixed
at 7|f grains, or ^ of an ounce of silver, a value to which the subsequent copper pen-
nies, which till 160 were the circulating medium, closely approximated. In 1672 an
authorized copper coinage was established, and half-pence and farthings were struck in
<• ippcr. The penny was not introduced till 1797, and at the same period the coinage of
twopenny pieces was begun; but these latter, being found unsuitable, were withdrawn.
The penny of the present bronze coinage is of only about half the value of the old copper
1» 'imy. The German pfennig was also originally a silver coin, bearing the same relation
to the German pound of silver as the English penny to its pound. And in the 12th c.
it was made so broad, in imitation of the Byzantine coins, that it would no longer bear to
be struck with a die on each side as before, but was struck on one side only. In the
beginning of the 14th c. the mark of silver was anew divided into 60 parts or coins,
which, to distinguish them from the old coins, were called grossi denarii, whence the
groschen. In the modern money system of Prussia, the pfennig is a copper coin,
Lie twelfth part of a groschen.
PEXN YAN, seat of justice of Yates co., N. Y., at the outlet of Keuka lake, on the
northern Central railroad; 170 m. w. of Albany, 53 m. s. e. of Rochester, 6 m. w. of
t; :,icca lake; pop. '75, 3,500. It was incorporated in 1833, and takes its name from the
r-ttlers who were Pc>?iHsylvanians and Yankees. Owing to its situation at the out-
.1 o; the lake, it has ample water power. There are daily lines of steamers running to
Pennypacker. 4-74-
reiisioiis.
llammondsport; Hie Keuka canal follows the course of the lake. It has a barrel factory,
Hour and planing mills, a large inalt-liousc, a large public hall, and tlic principal depot
' and warehouses of the Northern Central railroad. The county buildings are on a public
square in the center of the village.
PENNYPACKEli, GALUSHA, b. Penn. ; on the breaking out of the civil war he en-
listed as a private and rapidly rose in rank, becoming colonel in 18<>4, before which he
had been engaged in Florida, and at Charleston harbor and Dairy's Bluffs, where lie was
three times wounded. He commanded a regiment at James "river and the siege of
Petersburg, and a brigade at Port Harrison and fort Fi>lnT, when; he was again severely
wounded and for his conduct was brevetted brig.~2n. lu 1860 he was made a col. in
tiie regular army and a ma j. gen. by brevet.
PENNYROYAL, a species of mint (q.v.). The name pennyroyal is given in North
America to a small pla-ut, Hedeosma- putegioides, allied to the mints, and having, like
them, a pleasant aromatic smell, and a warm pungent taste; which is much i:i use in
domestic medicine, in the form of a warm infusion, to promote perspiration and as a: i
emmenagogue.
PENNY WEDDINGS, or PENNY BRIDALS, was the name given to festive marrhg"
ceremonials in Scotland, at which the invited guests made contributions in money (sel-
dom more than Is. each), to pay the general expenses, and leave over a small Mini, which
would assist the newly married pair in furnishing their dwelling. This pracl ice, now
disused, was prevalent in the 17th c. ; and, as leading to "profane min-ir 'l>Mg an 1
promiscuous dancing," was denounced by an act of the general assembly of the Kirk,
1645, as well as by numerous acts of presbyteries and kirk, sessions about the same period.
PENOB'SCOT, a river of Maine, rises near the center of the state by two branches, from
.1 chain of lakes extending north-westerly; and after a s. by w. course of Io5 m. from
the junction, or 275 in all. empties into Penobsco' bay, a broad and sheltered opening
into the Atlantic ocean, 20 m. wide, with several large islands. Its chief towns an;
Belfast, at its mouth; Bangor, 50 m. above, where falls supply power to saw-mills and
factories; Castine, and Bucksport. It is navigable to Bangor, where there is a tide of 20
ft. The chief trade is pine timber.
PENOBSCOT, a county in central Maine; drained by the Penobscot, Mattawanik
Eenduskcag, Piscataqui.s, and Leboois rivers; intersected by the Bamror and Piscaiaquis.
the Maine Central and Grand Trunk railroads; 3,250 sq. m. ; pop., '80, 70, 478- -<i 1,471 of
American birth. The surface is rugged and uneven, but fertile in the southern part.
Lumber is the chief article of export, and between $4,000,000 and $5,000,000 worth an?
annually handled. Wool, potatoes, oats, hay. and dairy products are the staples. There
arc nearly 1000 manufactories, planing and saw mills, etc. Co. seat, Bangor.
PEXOBSCOTS AND PASSAMAQUODDIES, Indians in Maine belonging to the
Abenaqui branch of the Algonquins. In reward for their adherence to the colonial side
in the revolution, Massachusetts ceded them a reservation on both banks of the Penol1
pcot. The Passamaquoddics live along the Schoodic lakes and the w. shore of Passnma-
quoddy bay, and number about 500. The Penobscots, whose number is about the same.
are mostly found on Indian island, opposite Oldtown. They elect a governor and
lieutenant-governor. Both tribes belong to the Roman Catholic church.
PENSITH, a market t. of Cumberland, in a picturesque and fertile valley, with
rich and striking scenery in the vicinity, stands on the Carlisle and Lancaster railway, 17
m. s.s.c. of Carlisle. In the parish churchyard is a monument of great antiquity,
formed of two pyramidal stones about 12 ft. high, and known as the "Giant's
Grave." The town contains an ancient free grammar-school', and other educational insti-
tutions. A new and beautiful church, built in the style of the 13th c., was consecrated
here in 1850^ There are iron-foundries, saw-mills, and breweries. Pop. '71, 8,317.
PENBYN, a municipal and parliamentary borough and market t. of England, in
the county of Cornwall, in a warm, sheltered, and richly productive valley, on the Ply-
mouth and Falmouth railway, 2 m. w.n.w. of Falmouth. It stands on a low hill
projecting eastward into Falmouth harbor. Trade is carried on to some extent with
the mining district of Redruth, and there are several quarries in the vicinity, from
which the famous Pcnryn granite — the material of which Waterloo Bridge, the Chatham
docks, and a great number of other important public works are constructed — is obtained:
20,000 tons of granite have been exported in the year, but the quantity varies much.
Pop. '71, of municipal borough, 3,679. Together with Falmouth, it forms a parlh-
nvntary borough, which returns two members to parliament, and the population of
which, "in '71, was 16,819.
PENSACO LA, a cityand port of entry, on a deep bay opening into the. gulf of Mexico,
nt the south-western extremity of w. Florida, lat. 30° 24*' n., long. 87° 10' we^t. The town
is on the n. shore of the bay, and is connected by railway with Montgomery, Ala. Pop.
'70, 3,847. Near the entrance are the navy-yard, hospital, and fort Barrancas. The
4.7 ^ Penny-packer.
l-tiibioiiji.
entrance is further defended by fort Pickens, at the w. end of Santa Rosa island, and fort
McRae on tlie opposite point. The bay branches into two divisions, receiving the E.scani-
biaaud Yellow rivers. As one of the best harbors oa the gulf, Peusacola was settled by
the Spaniards, occupied by the British in 1814, and acquired by the United States iu
1821.
PENSION (Lat. pensio, from pendo, to weigh out, to pay), an allowance paid annually
by government to an individual in consideration of past services, civil or military. See
CIVIL LIST.
PENSIONARY, GRAND, OF HOLLAND. See GRAND PENSIONARY.
PENSIONS AND PENSIONERS, MILITARY AND NAVAL. There are pensions for good
service, for mere faithful ordinary service, for wounds, and to representatives of deceased
officers.
Good-service Pensions are rewards to selected officers in the British navy for dis-
tinguished service. In 1873 they were as follows: 12 admirals had £300 each, 25 cap-
tains £150, 1 general of marines £300, 5 do. £200, 2 colonels £150, and 5 medical officers
£100; total £9,150. In 1875-76 the total was £7,500. The corresponding pension in
the anny is called a reward for distinguished service (q.v.).
The Pensions for Lohff Service are awarded in the army to non-commissioned officers
and soldiers who have served 21 years in the infantry, or 24 years in the cavalry, or earlier
if disabled from further service, according to the wounds, loss of health, and conduct of
the pensioner. The amount is fixed by the commissioners of Chelsea hospital, and varies
from IJd. to 3s. 6d. a day, the lower rates being mainly confined to negro pensioners
from the West India regiments. Pensioners are either iu-pensioners of Chelsea (q.v.) or
Kilmainham hospitals, in which case they forego their proper pension, and receive boaid,
lodging, and a small sum for tobacco-money,' or out-pensioners residing where they please,
and drawing their pensions from the staff -officers of pensioners, of whom there is one in
every considerable town. These men can follow other pursuits, ofttn do so with veiy
great success, as their military habits of regularity stand them in good stead in civil life.
In particular, railways give employment to great numbers of pensioners, as signalmen,
guards, etc. Pensioners who are in good health, and are willing for such service, are
enrolled in a force called the "Enrolled Pensioners," which forms a defensive corps of
veterans, and belongs to the army of reserve. This gives the men, as an adjunct to the
pension, an annual retaining fee of £1 each, besides pay during the yearly training of 8
days, at the rate of 2s. a day for privates, 2s. 6d. for corporals, and 3s. for sergeants.
Tlie veterans are officered by their respective staff officers, and, in case of emergency,
Avotild be emb died for service. As garrison troops, these old soldiers would doubtless
prove most valuable. A pension is forfeited if the holder be convicted of felony. The
number of pensioners for 1875-76 was 63,234, and their pensions amounted to£l,i93,-
600, besides £7,500 to Malta fencible artillery, etc. These were exclusive of 538in-pen-
sioners at Chelsea, and about 180 of Iviimainham; the cost of these establishments
together being £34,334.
The Naval Pensions for Long Service arc given to petty officers, seamen, and marines
di r principles essentially similar to these for the army, except that there are now no
in-pi-nsionors. The commissioners of the admiralty award the allowances, and the pen-
sioners draw their pensions through the staff officers of military pensioners. Under the
old arrangement there werein-pensioners, whose home was Greenwich hospital. In 1875
-76, £0,234 engineers, warrant-officers, seamen, marines, etc., received pensions, pro-
ducing a total of £471,758.
Under this section should be mentioned pensions for especial bravery in action,
granted with the Victoria cross (q.v.).
Pensions for wounds are common to both services, and are limited to officers. They
are awarded respectively by the secretary of war and lords of the admiralty, for serious
bodily injury, as the loss of a limb or eye, and vary according to the rank of the recipi-
ent aiid other circumstances. In rases of less serious injury, temporary pensions are
sometimes granted, or gratuities. The charge for pensions for wounds for 1875-76 was
—army, 172 recipients, £16,453; navy, 85 recipient, £9,036; total, £25,479. In the case
of common soldiers and sailors, wounds may serve to hasten or augment the pension for
service (see above); but they have no distinctive pension for wounds.
"Widows of commissioned and warrant officers in the army and navy receive pensions
so long as they remain unmarried, provided they have been married severally twelve
months when their husbands die, and that the latter were under 60 years of age (50 for
•warrant officers) when they married the claimants. Such pension is not granted if the
widow be left in wealthy circumstances, -and lies dormant during a second marriage,
though it may be revived should she again become a widow. The amount of pension
varies according to rank, an^ there are three distinct classes for each rank: 1st, When
the husband was killed in battle, or died within si:, months of wounds received therein;
2d, "When he died from some cause distinctly falling within the sphere of his duty,
but not from wounds in action; 3d, When he died in the course of nature. The follow-
ing taMe shows the amount of pension to widows of combatant ranks, civil ranks
.receiving similar rates according to relative standing. See RELATIVE RANK.
Pensions.
Pentateuch.
476
WIDOW OF
PER ANNUM.
1st Class.
2d Class.
;Jd Class.
According to <
£200
200
120
80
60
60
50
85
«
:ireumstances.
tlOSCptns. I
} 150 ColS. f
no-
100
(M
60
50
40
30
£120
60 and 90
80
70
50
'*>'
M
26
Commanders in Navy ; Majors in Army
Lieutenants, Navy ; Captains, Army
Sub-Lieutenants, Navy
Lieutenants, Army
Sub-Lieutenants Army. . .
Gunners, Boatswains, Carpenters, Navy
Compassionate allowances are small additional pensions granted to the children of
ceased officers, left in indiifereu.1 or bad circumstances. They vary from £5 to t'40
each, and can be held by boys till 18 (unless earlier provided for), and by girls until
21. or an earlier marriage, li an officer fall in action, without leaving a widow or
orphans, but leaving a parent who had been more or less dependent on him, such parent
may be granted the pension or a portion of it, and is sometimes allowed to commute the
pension into a single payment. In very special cases, the sisters of an officer, who had
been more or less dependent on him, are granted compassionate allowances. The pen-
sions to soldiers' wives and allowances to their orphans, etc., amounted in 1873-76 to a
total of £146,933. The corresponding figure for widows and orphans of sailors was
£173,086.
The following are the principal relevant items from the estimates for 1877-78:
Army. — For distinguished services, £33,530; to widows and orphans, £123,401; lor
wounds, £16,715; hospitals, £35,012; out-pensions, £1,005.200. Nary. — For meritori-
ous services, £7.400; for wounds, £8,265; pensions to engineers, warrant-officers, etc.,
£71, 072; to widows and relatives of officers, £172,745; to seamen and marines for
wounds etc., £477,285. •
PENSIONS AND PENSIONERS (ante). In the United States pensions are granted
by act of congress iu the case of persons who have seen active service in the army or
navy, and who have been honorably discharged. They are also awarded to widows,
orphans, or other persons dependent on those instanced above. The existing pension-
list of the United States includes those which have been granted for account of services
rendered in the war of 1812; the Mexican war. and the war of the rebellion. For the
laws governing the distribution of pensions, and their amounts, etc., see revised statutes
of the United States.
PENTA CEINUS, a genus of echinodermata, of the order or family crinoidece (q. \.\
remarkable as containing the only permanently stalked crinoidese, or criuoidese believed
to be permanently- stalked, known now to exist, and thus the only true living represen-
tative of the foss:l encrinites (q. v.). The genus pentacrinus has a long pentangular col-
umn of numerous joints, from which there arise at intervals many whorls of unbranched
arms, and which bears at its summit a disk at first divided into five radiating me;:
and afterward branching into ten arms, each further subdivided. The whole of this
skeleton is calcareous, but it is united by cartilages, and covered with a fleshy intcira-
ment. P. caput medma, the MEDUSA'S HEAD, is found in the West Indian seas, and is
very rare in collections, being only dredged up from waters of considerable depth; from
which cause also the nature of the base of the column is not certainly known. The
stem is more than a foot long. — The fossil species of pentacrinus are numerous in the
lias and oolite formations. They gradually become fewer in the newer rocks. — The
stalked young of comatul rosacea was at one time regarded as a pentacrinus, and
described under the name of P. Europeans. See CRiNorDE^B.
PENTADES'MA, a genus of trees of the natural order guttifercR, to which belongs the
BUTTEK-AND-TALLOW TREE of Sierra Leone, P. butyracea. It is a tree 60 ft. hi^li. and
produces a conical fruit of the size of a very large pear, the pulp of which abounds in a
yellow oily substance, with a strong flavor, somewhat resembling that of turpentine, yet
much used by the natives as an article of food.
PENTAGON is a plane geometrical figure of five sides. When the sides are equal,
ths figure is culled a regular pentagon.
PENTASTYLE, n building with a portico of five columns.
PENTATEUCH (Gr. fivefold book), a name given by Greek translators to the five
books ascribed to Moses, which are in Hebrew called collectively Torah (law), by way
of eminence, or Chaminha Chuimhe Torah (five-fifths of the Torah). Law is also the
£c?n<«ral name by which the work or portions of it are referred to and quoted (the words
"of Moses" or "of the Lord" being added occasionally) both in the Old and New
Testament.
The division into five portions (further divided into 50, 40, 27, 36, 34 chapters, or 12,
11, 10, 10, 11 Parshioth or Sidras respectively, by the Masoretes) is, if not original, at
J.77 Pensions.
Pentateuch.
all events of a very remote dale, and certainly anterior to the Septuagint. G'
Leviticus, and Deuteronomy, the first, third, and fifth books, form clearly defined and
internally complete parts of the work as a whole, and thus, also, fix the limits of the
intermediate second (Exodus) and the commencement of the concluding fifth (Deuter-
onomy). The chief aim of the Pentateuch being to give a description of the origin and
history of the Hebrew people up to the conquest of Canaan, together with the theocracy
founded among them, the center is formed by the person of Moses himself, the regen-
erator and lawgiver of the nation. Genesis, beginning wiih the history of the creation
and antediluvian genealogy from Adam to Noah, in rapid outlines, sketches the propaga-
tion of the various tribes that descended from the one man who was saved in the deluge,
but dwells with special emphasis upon Shem, from whom sprang, in the tenth genera-
tion, Abraham, the progenitor of the " people of the covenant." The salient events in
the lives of his descendants, the patriarchs, are minutely described; and a fitting clo-e i<
found in the benediction of Jacob, who, as it were, reinauguratcs and confirms all his
twelve sons in the covenant made between Abraham and God. Exodus, treating of the
liberation of the people from Egypt; their wanderings in the desert; the promulgation
of the law, by which they became emphatically the " holy nation " and the " people of
the Lord;" and the erection of a visible sanctuary — may be regarded as the nucleus of
the work; while Leviticus, the following book, fittingly enters into the details of the legis-
lation and the mode of worship; especially the prescriptions concerning sacrifices, festi-
vals, ceremonial purity, and the duties of the priests, with but little of history. The
historical thread is taken up again in Numbers, the fourth book, which, also, side by
side with the relation of the events between the Sinaitic period and the beginning of life
1'orrieth year after the Exodus, contains many laws explanatory of, or complementary
to, those of the former books, together with such as new circumstances had called into
exigence. A brief recapitulation of the preceding portions ; Moses's most impressive
and reiterated exhortations to keep that law, which was now completed and solemnly
transmitted to the Levites; and the death of the legislator himself — form the chief con-
tents of the fifth book, or Deuteronomy. Thus, the theocratic plan of the work is car-
ried through from beginning to end, coming out more prominently in the three inter-
mediate books, but never lost sight of entirely. Nothing is dwelt or even touched upon
save that which in some way illustrates either the relation of God to the people, or of
the people to God; the political, civil, and domestic laws themselves, being enumerated
only as bearing upon the main aim and object of the work.
The special books being treated separately under their respective heads, we have here
only to consider some questions relating to the work as a whole, and principally that of
its authorship and history, as far as these points have not been touched upon already
under GENESIS. Tradition, as embodied in the earliest historical records, mentions
Moses as the writer of the complete Pentateuch, such as it is before us: with the excep-
tion' of a few verses, describing the last moments of the law-giver, etc., which werr
ascribed to Joshua. This tradition has for many a long century been almost universally
adhered to.. Not that there have not at different periods suspicions been raised respect-
ing this "authenticity." The pseudo-Clementines, for instance, assumed that the law,
oralljr delivered by Moses to the elders, had, before and after its being committed to
writing, undergone innumerable changes, nay, corruptions; among these the too per-
sonal and human conceptions of God, and the unworthy traits recorded of the patriarchs.
Jerome expresses himself in a somewhat doubtful manner on the relation of Ezra as the
" redactor," or rather " restorer, " of the Pentateuch. Aben Ezra boldly calls several
passages later interpolations, and speaks of others still more poignantly as a »sod, or a
" mystery," i.e., as containing difficulties not to be cleared away in consonance with the
common belief, which he, however, was too pious wantonly to disturb. Other voices,
vaguely lifted up by more or less competent scholars, remained unheard. It was not until
long after the reformation, at the dawn of the exegetical and critical modern age, that
the question whether this codex was the work of one man, or even of one age, and what
share, if any, Moses had in its composition, began to be discussed seriously and on scien-
tific grounds. Hobbes held that the Pentateuch was rather a work on, than by Moses.
Spinoza came to the conclusion that it was to Ezra that we were indebted for the book
in its present shape and that it embodies certain genuine portions, collected at a late
period, together with a vast amount of later material, added at various periods subse-
quent to the time of the supposed author. Vitringa, Le Clerc (Clericus), Rich. Simon,
and others, followed, resuming and enlarging the discussion chiefly respecting the diffi-
culties which presented themselves in the accounts of the creation, and the like, con-
tained in Genesis. The next, and indeed the most important sfep — because the one
which at once removed the question from the field of hazy and timid speculations to
that scientific basis upon which it still rests, was taken by Astruc, who, from the marked
difference of the divine names used in Genesis and the beginning of Exodus — noticed in
the TALMUD and the FATHERS OF THE CHURCH — came to the conclusion that these books
had been worked up from different original documents, which he called Jehovistic and
Elohistic respectively. See article GENESIS, where the development of this speculation
is described. At the present stage of the investigation, the view very generally adopted*
is the "complementary theory," which assumes, with certainty, two or more authors —
Jehovists and Elohists — for the whole of the first four books, at least; the fifth being by
Pentateuch.
478
some (Delitzsch, Schulz, Kur/, etc.) still ascribed chiefly to Moses's own hand. Only a
Stnall apologetic school, of which Ilen'j'stcnbcrg long was spoke- man, still upholds ibe
outire integrity and authenticity of the work, pronouncing Moses its sole author. The con-
temporary discussions on these points, which, up to within a very recent period, were
chiefly confined to Germany, have now -also found their way inio England. The
impulse to the controversy in this country was principally given by Dr. Davidson, ihe
" essayists and reviewers," and bishop Colenso, all of whom, on the basis of these Ger-
man investigations, raised some new points. Innumerable replies, by more or less com-
petent champions, have been issued: but as yet, so far from cither of the combatants
having declared themselves convinced by the arguments from the other side, the contro-
versy elicits new publications uninterruptedly.
While endeavoring to trace, in the briefest of outlines, some of the chief objections
raised against the Mosaic authorship, and the replies given thereunto, we must remind
the reader that ours is only the task of epitomi/crs, as it were, and that the very nature
of our task precludes us from giving any opinion whatsoever about the superior force of
the arguments on either side.
A 'work, alleged to be the production of one man, it is urged, first of all ought to
contain neither unnecessary repetitions of considerable length, nor contradiction
anachronisms. There ought to be a plan and a unity. Yet, there can be no doubt, they
say, about the fragmentary character of the Pentateuch. Many portions, evidently com-
plete in themselves, are strung together without the slightest logical sequence, nay. in an
unchronological order. As to repetitions and contradictions, there is, to begin with, the
very history of the creation, which occurs twice in the first chapters of Genesis, is each
time given differently, and in each account the divine name is consistently mentioned in
a different way. The same is to be said with regard to the account of the deluge, and
several incidents in the lives of the patriarchs; the important conversation between God
and Moses respecting Aaron (Exod.- iv. 10-16, and vi. 9); the descriptions of the taber-
nacle; the priestly vestments; the story of the manna as given in Exodus and Numbers;
the account of the appointment of the council of the 70 elders in the same book: etc.
.Again, the work itself sometimes seems to indicate an author who is not the legislator
himself, such as the phrase of Moses being the humblest of men; the account of his < v. ;i
death; the passage in Genesis "before there reigned any king over the children of Israel"
(xxxvi. 31); the occurrence of the name of the city of Dan (Gen. xiv. 14, Deut. xxxiv.D,
so called only after the conquest by that tribe. In Numb, xxxii. 34, again, we have an
enumeration* of a certain number of towns and villages built by the tribes of Gad and
Reuben— an event which could not have happened during Moses's lifetime; further, the
frequent occurrence of the formula "unto this day" (e.g., Deut. x. 8, where the author
speaks of the institution of the Levites as being still in force " up to this day"), etc. It.
is contended, also, that the language of the Pentateuch varies very little from that of the
last prophets, and that it can hardly be assumed that 1000 years should have made no
perceptible difference in the idiom; more particularly has Deuteronomy beer, supposed
to bear a striking resemblance, in style and language, to Jeremiah. The Pentateuch is
further said to contain many facts palpably contradictory to natuial laws, as they are
established in the experience of the whole historical human race, and systematized by
science.'
Of the many ways to eret rid of these and similar — old and new — exceptions, the most
generally adopted i* that which w^e mentioned as the method of "interpolation," by
which the apologetic, school strikes out some 50 or more passages, as not belonging to
the original work, but having crept in. by way of commentaiy, Tiote, or explanation, in
post-Mosaic times — the body'of the work being thus saved, so to say, by a most extensive
amputation.. As to the argument from the language, it is said that the Pentateuch, being
the divine book, by way of eminence, and embodying the very phrases (to the letter) made
use of by the Almighty, must needs have served as a model for the next 1000 years,
and prie'sls and Levites, tha teachers of the people, were enjoined constantly to study
and read it: hencn the small difference in the later writers. Arabic and Syria* . it is
argued, did likewise not change essentially for many centuries— an "assertion, however,
which only holds good if "many" is taken in a very vague sense indeed. That Deuter-
onomy differs in style and manner, is verbose, etc., is explained by Moses's advanced
age. On the -~ther hand, events which ore not in harmony with the "natural
are accepted by the orthodox simply and literally as " miracles." while "conservative"
rationalists of the school of Eiehhorn* Rosenmuller, and others, who stand by the auilx n-
ticity of the Pentateuch, have been at great pains to find some kind of poetical interpre-
tation for them.
Some of the recent attacks on the authenticity are chiefly founded upon arithmetical
grounds. The numbers of the people, their cattle, and the like, at various periods, do
not seem to conform to the laws of natural increase, or even to the geometrical limits
within which they were at times stated to have been confined. Among the direct proofs,
however, proffered by the defenders of the authenticity, the following chiefly deserve
attention. Deuteronomy, it is averred, can only be the work of Moses. He speaks in it
•to the men whom he has led for many years, as one who has lived through all the events
himself. There is no possibility of any one imitating the local coloring in such a man-
ner. If, then, Deuteronomy must be allowed to be the work of Moses, the three preced-
Pentateuch.
ing books, to the contents of which frequent allusion is made, must equally be supposed
to be finally redacted, if not written, by the same hand; and it further follows naturally,
that the introduction to these books, which is Genesis, must have emanated from it.
Again, any cue writing after Moses, could not possibly have possessed the extraordina-
rily correct knowledge of contemporary Egypt and Arabia, which appears throughout
the Pentateuch. A writer who might be supposed to have acquired it by dint of study
of antiquities, must, it is said, have betrayed himself on every page by inaccuracies ami
anachronisms. Nineveh is in Genesis a city of as yet little importance; while Resell, of
which no truce is to be found in any other part of the Bible, is the great metropolis of
Assyria of the time. Tyre, great in the days of David, and mentioned already in
Joshua, is not to be met with in the Pentateuch, where a later writer would certainly
.have spoken of it in connection with Sidon. The Canaanite gods and altars are of leu
spoken of; never their temples, oi which yet we read in Joshua. Why, then, should that
very ancient author, to whom must needs be traced the Pentateuch, not be Moses him-
self, rather than some contemporary of his ? The fragmentary, abrupt, and, as it were,
confused character of the work, the apologists further urge, so far from testifying against
Moses, confirm the tradition of his authorship. Would not a later historian have worked
the mixed mass of historical, geographical, legal, and personal material into a methodi-
cal and systematic whole ? Who else could have imparted to the book tiie impress of a
diary, so to say, but the man who was in the midst of the events, jotting down all the
items important either in his own individual or the national career? And who but one
standing in its very center could depict with such glowing colors the life that moved
around him? — But a further direct argument for the authenticity is found by them in the
very item of ths language of the Pentateuch. True, they say, it resembles as much as
can be that of Lie later books, 'because, as we said before, it remained the classical lan-
guage for all later generations; but, on the other hand, it offers certain peculiarities —
such as the use of a common pronoun of the third person singular for both the masculine
and feminine genders; the same term for boy and girl; and the like archaisms — all of
which distinctly prove it to be a work of a very much older date. Tho existence of an
ancient Mosaic code of laws would further appear proved beyond any doubt by the con-
stant recurrence of quotations from "the law of Jehovah" or "the 1-rv of Moses"
throughout the other books of the Old Testament from Joshua to Hosea. Had there in
reality been no such code in existence, the authors of the different biblical works could
not possibly have so unanimously spoken of it without betraying a conscious forgery
somewhere. That Ezra should have been the author, or, at all events, the refouuder of
the Pentateuch, is equally improbable, on account of the spirit, tone, language, and all
th;/se smaller peculiarities of which mention has been made; and he would, on the other
hand, never have been able so skillfully to avoid his own individual manner and styl'1,
as it appears in his own book. The Samaritan Pentateuch, it is further said, which,
with a very few characteristic alterations, is an accurate transcript of our Pentateuch,
would have been an utter impossibility, considering the hostile relations between the
Samaritans and the Jews, if it had not been well known as a genuine document before
the division of the empire. That Hilkiah, who is said to have found the Book of the
Law in the temple in the days of Josiah (2 Kings xxii. ; 2 Chron. xxxiv.) should have
been its real author — an opinion first advanced by De Wette — would imply a complicity
in the forgery not only on the part of Jeremiah, Huldah, and the elders, but almost
of the whole people, among whom, on the contrary, there certainly seems to have bei-n
living a very vivid tradition of the former existence* of the book or some of its portions
at least. Moreover, had it been first written in those days, there surely would have been
introduced some kind of prophetical allusion to the royal house of David, or, at all events
a pedigree and origin differing from the incestuous one given in Gen. xxxviii. Dcnter-
thc many fates that befall ancient documents, are allowed to have crept in, in son.e
places; although this argument is given up by those who hold that a special providence
watched over the divine work. In all other respects, they hold these books are exactly
as they were written by Moses under direct "inspiration." — Thus far, in swiftest out-
lines, the pros and contras most commonly adduced, and worthy of some consideration.
A few rationalistic critics, however, have gone so far as to deny the very possibility
of Moses having given the lav,- 3 contained in the Pentateuch, chiefly founding their
objections upon the ground that he was not likely to have been verged in the "art of
writing to an extent which the composition of these laws would presuppose. Egyptian
characters, with which he might have been familiar, could not have been used for "Hebrew
composition; and the Hebrews themselves, uncultivated as they were, did not possess
any characters of their own. There has only, in reply to these objections, that fact 1o be
stated, that a soberer criticism of more recent date has found itself obliged, in deference
to certain puleographical and other scientific truths, to {rve up most of these points, or,
at all events, to found no such sweeping condemnation upon those which s'J'l remain.
On the contrary, whichever of the hypotheses enumerated at the beginning is as-,
snmcd, the groundwork of the legislation is triced back, by almost unanimous cou-
Pentecost.
IViiuoibra.
sent, to the historical person of Moses, who is no longer the mythical demigod of bar-
barous hordes, but a man. The1 final redaction oi' these l.nvs — of which many of lulei
date are found to be wholly inconsistent with the earlier corresponding laws — as of the
whole of the Pentateuch, is almost ;\s unanimously placed in ages long after him.
In the contemporary " moderate" school in England, so far as \ve have been able to
pi can from their writings, the following seems to be the prevalent opinion on the point
of the Mosaic authorship: It is allowed that Moses did not write the whole of the Penta-
teuch, but portions of Kxodus, Leviticus, and Numbers, and the whole of Deuteronomy,
with the exception of the account of his death, and such portions as palpably show an
author who points to the imminent dissolution of the empire. That even ii.e fundamen-
tal law (Decalogue) should be found in two varying versions, they hold, strengthens
rather the assumption of their genuine Mosaic authorship in some original shape. The
later editor, finding two different recensions made by contemporaries, or in subsequent
ages, embodied them both, on account of their paramount importance, literally. Gen-
esis was worked up from ancient documents, composed by various wriietx living at
various "prehistoric" periods, cither by Moses himself, or under his supervision, by
some of the elders. The first redaction of the rive books as a whole took place after the
conquest of Canaan, through Joshua and the elders; the second and final redaction, how-
ever, in which it received its present shape, is to be dated from the time of Ezra, after
the return from e»ile.
The majority of continental modern critics of the more moderate stamp — who repu-
diate the notion of their belonging to the advanced rationalistic party — hold opinions of
a very different kind; and since they have found professed partisans in England, the
foremost of whom is Dr. Davidson, we will make use of his own words (Introduction {»
the Old Testament): "There is little external evidence for the Mosaic authorship; and what
little there is, does not stand the test of criticism. The 'succeeding writers of the ol,l
Testament do not confirm it. The venerable authority of Christ himself has no proper
• bearing on the question. The objections derived from internal structure are conclusive
against the Mosaic authorship. Various contradictions are irreconcilable. The traces
of a later date are convincing. The narratives of the Pentateuch are usually trustworthy,
though partly mythical and legendary. The miracles recorded were the exaggerations
ofalaternge. The voice of God cannot, without profanity, be said to have externally
• uttered all the precepts attributed to him. Moses's hand laid the foundation of the edi-
fice of God's word, which has grown into the proportions in which we nov,
but he was not the first writer who penned parts of the national legends and history.
He was emphatically a lawgiver, not a historian, a grand spiritual actor in the life-drama
of the Israelites, who founded their theocratic constitution under the direct guidance of
the Supreme."
A few words must be added respecting the use of the Pentateuch. According to
Dent. xxxi. 24 seqq.. it was preserved in the ai'k of the covenant. Every seventh
it had to be read to the people in public; and probably the schools of prophet, in-tiiute(l
at the time of Samuel, propagated its use by copies. Moreover, certain priestly, sani-
tary, and other laws required constant reference to it, so that certain portions of i;
to have been widely in use at an early period. Every synagogue is, according to the
tradititional law, to possess a roll of the tor&h, written on parchment, and under certain
strictly-insisted-upon regulations, out of which roll certain portions arc read on Sabbath
and feast-days; and, according to the ancient custom in Palestine, when Monday and
Thursday were the marketTdays — when the country-people came to town and the judges
Rat — also on those days. A smaller portion (parasha) is read on these and on the after-
noon service of the Sabbath than on the Sabbath morning service, when a whole sidra
is read, or rather chanted, accorded to the Nerfinah, which is note and accent at tin
time. The Samaritans have, of all biblical books, only adopted the Pentateuch, with
slight variations (see SAMARITANS), their book of Joshua being a very different work
from ours; and certain very recent accounts of their possessing also other adaptations of
our biblical books, require confirmation. For the different translations of the Penta-
teuch, ancient and modern, see BIBLE. The first printed edition of the Pentateuch dales
Bologna, 1483, fol. The name of commentators and writers on the whole of the Penta-
teuch, both in nnd out of the church, is legion. We mention among the foremost, besides
the church fathers (Augustine, Jerome, Ephraim, Syrus, etc.) and the mediaeval Jewish
commentators (Raspi, I). Kimchi, Aben Ezra), Calvin. Luther, Grotius. Pcre Simon, Le
Clcrc, Michaelis, Eichhorn, Jahn, De Wette, Keil, Havernick, Bleek, Hencstenbcrg,
lianke, Kurtz, Stahelin, Ewald, Bertheau, Colenso, Graves, Stuart, Bush, etc.
PENTECOST (Gr. pcntecvsfe, fiftieth) was the name given to the feaat among the Jews.
held on the fiftieth day after the passover, in celebration of the "ingathering," and in
thanksgiving for the harvest. See FESTIVALS. From the Jewish use it was introduced
into the Christian, and with special solemnity, as being the day of the descent of the
Holy Ghost on the apostles, and of the first solemn preaching of the Christian religion.
From early times, pentecost has been regarded as one of the great festivals of the Chris-
tian year, and it was chosen as one of the times for the solemn administration of bap-
tism; inul the English name of the festival, WJiit-Sunday, is derived from the uhite robes
in which the newly -baptized were clad. It is regarded as specially sacred to the third
481
Pentecost.
Feuumbia.
person of the blessed Trinity, to whose honor the services of the day are directly-
addressed. Many curious usages were anciently connected with the celebration. The
dove, being held as an emblem of the Holy Ghost in some churches, a figure of a dove,
suspended by a cord from the ceiling, was lowered so as to alight on the high altar during
the service. In others, figures of cloven tongues, or red rose-leaves were similarly intro-
duced. The hitter practice is said to be still retained at Messina, but in general these
scenical representations have been discontinued. In some places, however, in the east
as well as in the west, the practice prevails of decorating the churches witli evergreens
and flowers, as is done in England at Christmas. The whole time intervening between
easier and pentecost is celebrated in the Roman Catholic church with special solemnity,
and with some peculiar usages, and of this something is retained in the church of
England.
PENTHOUSE, a projection formitu
window, etc.
an open roof or shed, protecting a doorway, gate,
PENTHIEVRE, PIEKRE PHILIPPE JEAN MAKIE D'ORLEANS, Due de, b. France, 1845,
SOB of the prince de Joinville. He studied at Edinburgh, and in 1861 entered the U . S. naval
academy. He was commissioned a midshipman in 1863, and a lieut. in 1864.' Leaving
the U. b. service for political causes, he entered that of Portugal, in which he remained
2 years. He is now (1881) an officer in the French navy.
PENTLAND FIRTH, a channel or strait between the Atlantic and German oceans
separating the mainland of Scotland from the Orkney islands. It is 17 m. long, and
from 6 to 8 m. wide. About a mile w. of Duncansby head is a ferry station, whence boats
cross to Burwick, in the island of south Ronaldshay, a distance of 7 miles. The Pent-
land skerries, 5 m. n.e. of Duncansby head, consist of two islets, and of several contig-
uous rocks. On the larger of the islets is a light-house with two lights, one of which Is
170, and the ether 140 ft. above sea-level. The lat. of the light-house is 58° 41 n., long.
2° 55' west. Off the coast of Caithness, and separated from it by a channel called the
inner sound (about 2 m. in width), is the island of Stroma; and 3 m. n.n.e. of Stroma is
the islet of Swona. one of the Orkneys. On the n. side of Stroma is the small vortex or
whirlpool of Swalchie. and w. of it are the breakers called the "men of Mey," which
are supposed to be produced by a current setting strongly on a concealed reef. The
navigation of the Pentland filth is more dangerous than that of any other portion of the
Scottish seas. A current setting from w. to e. flows through the lirth with a velocity of
from 3 to 9 m. an hour, and causes numerous eddies and whirlpools. It is estimated
that about 4,000 vessels with cargoes pass through the firth annually.
PENTLAND HILLS, in the lowlands of Scotland, extend n.e. from the border of Lan-
arkshire to the center of the county of Edinburgh, and to within 4 m. of the city of that
name. The mean height is upwards of 1000 ft.; the highest summit Caruethy cairn, in.
Edinburghsliire, has an elevation of 1884 feet.
PENTJM BRA. When the shadow of an opaque object is thrown upon a surface at
some little distance by a light of considerable apparent size, it is observed that the shadow-
is divided into two portions, a dark portion in the center, and a iigher portion surrounding
it. The former is known as the umbra, or complete shadow; the latter as the penumbra,
or partial shadow. A reference to the figure will at once make plain their origin and
relation ; for if S be the illuminating
body, E the object whose shadow is
cast on the surface, ABCD, it is seen
that the small portion, uu, receives
(omitting all consideration of refrac-
tion, dispersion, etc.. of light) no light
from S. while the whole surface out-
side of PPPP' is completely illumin-
ated. The point P' receives light
from the whole of S; the point F is
only half illumined, and that by the
lower part of S, the illumination of
the points becoming less and less as
they approach •«', which is unillu-
mined. The portion within uu' is
the umbra, and that between the boundaries PPPP' and uu' is the penumbra, which, as
we have seen, gradually shades from perfect light at the outer boundary to perfect dark-
ness at the inner, so that it is almost impossible exactly to note its limits on either side.
This phenomenon, it is evident, can only occur when the illuminating body is of such n
size, real or apparent, as to make the angle, P KM', of sensible magnitude; and it is
equally evident that the nearer the body E approaches the plane on which its shadowr is
cast, the larger is th(> umbra and the smaller the penumbra; while by increasing the dis-
tance between E and the plane, so that the point L shall fall between them, the umbra
is made to vanish, and the penumbra is increased. This is well illustrated by natural
phenomena; the shadow of a man cast by the sun on the ground presents almost no
penumbra; the shadow of the earth thrown by the sun upou^pace at the distance of the
U. K. XI.— 81
Penz:i. . 400
1'epe.
moon gives a penumbra many times as large as the umbra; and sometimes, "when the
moon is new at her apogee, for instance, her shadow cast upon the earth exhibits no
umbra. Spectators on the earth who see ;i partial eclipse of the sun, are situated within
the penumbra, but within tiie umbra when they observe a total eclipse; while if the
eclipse be annular, the umbra does not exist in the shadow cast by the moon on the
earth's surface. Bee ECLIPSES.
PENZA, a central government of European IIu- ia, between the government of Xijni-
Novgorod on the u., and that of Tambov on the west. Area, 15. (MX) sq.m.; pop. '70,
1,173.186. The surface is in extensive and elevated plains, marked occasionally with
ridges of low hills. The rivers are tributaries of the Don ami Volga, and three of them,
the Khoper, the Soura, and the Moksiia. are navigable. The climate, thoutrh rather cold
in winter, is temperate, agreeable, and healthy. The soil, consisting, for the most part,
of black earth, is extremely 'fertile, and agriculture is the principal employment of the
inhabitants. Grain of different kinds, leguminous plants, beet- root, tiux, hemp, tobacco,
and hops are the principal products. Much of the grain is used in the numerous dis-
tilleries, and considerable quantities of it are exported to the neighboring governments.
About one-third of the entire area is covered with forests, some of which consist entirely
of oak-trees. The manufactories are centred chiefly in the towns; cloth and leather are
the principal articles made. The commercial improvement of the government is hindered
by the want of direct means of communication with the consuming districts. The
principal towns are Penza, Mokshansk, and Saransk.
PENZA, a t. of European Russia, capital of the government of the same name, on the
Soura, 220 in. s.s.e. of Nijui-Novgorod. It was founded in the middle of the 17rh c., as
a defense against Tartar invasion, i-s a handsome town, occupying an elevation, and con-
taining 19 churches, 2 convents, many gardens, a large park, with a beautiful fruit-garden
and a horticultural school. It possesses cloth-factories, iron-works, tanneries, soap boil-
ing and candle-making establishments. The principal articles of commerce arc corn and
timber, which is floated down the Souia Juring spring, Pop. about 27,000.
PENZANCE, a market and sea-port (., and a muncipal borough of England, in the co.
of Cornwall, stands on the n.w. shore of Mount's b .y, 22 in. AV.S.W. of Falmoulh. It H
the most westerly town in England — the light-house on its pier being in l.-.i. 50 7 n., and
in long. 5° 28' west. The town standing on a finely-curved shore, surrounded by rocky
eminences, and in a fertile district, is exceedingly picturesque in situation, and is famous
for its mild, though somewhat moist climate. Its esplanade, one of the finest in the w.
of England, commands charming land and sea views. The chief buildings, moM of
which are constructed of granite, are the town hall and corn-market, surmounted by a
dome, and the chapels of St. Paul and St. Mary. There are numerous boarding hi
for the.accomodatiou of the visitors, attracted hither by the temperate and equable
climate, by the beauty of the neighboring scenery, and the curiosities of the district of
Land's End. Woolen yarns and cloths are manufactured; the fishery employs upwards
of 2,000 persons; agricultural produce, pilchards, and tin and copper ores produced from
the mines of the vicinity arc exported; and timber, iron, hemp, and hides are the chief
imports. The harbor is accessible for vessels of considerable burden, and is furnished
•with a pier 800 ft. in length. In 1876 845 vessels of 65,867 tons, entered the port, and
413, of 31,859 tons, cleared it. Pop. '71, 10,414. Penzance was laid in ashes by a party
of marauding Spaniards in 1595, and was sacked by Fairfax in 1646. A statue to sir
Humphry Davy was erected in 1872.
PE ON. See CALOPHYLLUM.
PEONY, Pffonia, a genus of plants of the natural order ranunculttccrt>; having large
flowers, with five persistent, unequal, leafy, and somewhat leathery sepals, 5 to 10 pedals,
many stamens, and 2 to 5 germens, which are crowned with a fleshy recurved stigma.
The leaves are compound, the leaflets often variously and irregularly divided. The
fibers of the root are often thickened into tubers. The species are large herbaceous
perennials, or rarely half-shrubby; natives of Europe, Asia, nnd the n.w~ of America.
None of them are truly indigenous in Britain, although one (P. cni-nlHna) has found
admittance into the English flora. On account of the beauty of their flower.-, some of
them are much cultivated in gardens, particularly the COMMON P,.o\y (/'.
a native of the mountain-woods of the s. of Europe, with carmine or blood-red fl.
A variety with double flowers is common. — The WHITE PEONY (7*. fi//ii_i'i>rn) i- another
favorite species. It is a native of the central part of Asia. Its flowers are fivgrant.
—The TREE PEONY, CHINESE PEONY, or MOUTAN (7*. mont<t/i\ is a half-shrubby plant.
a native of China and Japan. In favorable circumstances, it aitnins a very large six.e.
rnd a height, of 12 fl. or more. It has been long cultivated in China and Japan ; and is
row also a favorite ornamental plan in the s. of Europe, and in the s. of England and
Ireland; but the late spring-frosts of most parts of Britain arc injurious to it; although
it can bear severe frost in winter, when vegetation is at a stand. It flowers in spring.
The varieties in cultivation are numerous. It is propagated by cuttings, and al
grafting. Its germens arc surrounded by a cup-shaped laciniat-.'d membrane.— The.
roots of most of the peonies have a nauseous smell when fresh, and those of the
common, peony were in high repute among the ancients as an antispasinodic — hence
Penza.
Pepe.
the name peony, from pawn, a Greek name of Apollo, the god of medicine — but their
medicinal properties are now utterly disregarded. The globose, shining black seeds of
peonies were formerly, in some countries, strung into necklaces, and hung round the
necks of children, as anodyne necklaces to facilitate dentition. The Durians and Mon-
golians use the root of P. a{biflora in their soups, and grind the seeds to mix with their tea.
PEORIA, a co. in central Illinois, having Peoria lake and the Illinois river for its e.
boundary; drained by Spoon river and Kickapoo creek; 600 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 55.427 —
44,527 of American birth, 523 colored. It is intersected by the Chicago, Pekiu and
South- western, the Peoria, Pekiu and Jacksonville, the Peoria branch of the Chicago,
Kock Island and Pacific, the Indianapolis Bloomiugton and Western, and several other
railroads, forming junctions at Peoria and Elmwood. Its surface is slightly rolling, a large
proportion covered with oak, maple, ash, and elm trees, with Inrge tracts of open prairie.
It contains extensive deposits of limestone, and bituminous coal. Its soil is very fertile,
producing grain in large quantities, dairy products, and fruit. Large numbers of cattle,
horses, sheep, and swine are raised. Much attention is paid to agriculture, the farming
being done mostly by machinery. Its manufactures are important, and rapidly increas-
ing, leading interests being the manufacture of carriages* and wagons, brick, cooperage,
furniture, iron castings, machinery, malt liquors, etc. Co. seat, Peoria.
PEO'RIA, a city and port of entry in Illinois, on the w. hank of the Illinois river
which is crossed by two bridges of 2,500 ft., at the outlet of Peoria lake, 70 in. n. or
Springfield, and 160 m. S.AV. of Chicago. It is connected by steamboat navigation
with tlio Ohio and Mississippi, by canal with lake Michigan, and is an important station
the great net-work of western railways. Bluffs of bituminous coal, opening upon the
on river banks, supply numerous manufactories. There are 28 churches, and numerous
schools and public institutions. Pop. '70, 22,849.
PEORIA (itnti), the co. seat of Peoria co., 111., on the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy,
the Toledo, Peoria and Warsaw, the Rock Island and Peoria, thePeoria,"Pekin and Jack-
sonville, the Chicago, Pekin and Southwestern, the Illinois Midland, the Indianapolis,
Blooffiington and Western, and the Peoria branch of the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific
railroads; pop. '80, 29,815. Among the public buildings are the city hall, court-house,
mercantile library, and normal school. There are machine shops, manufactories of boilers,
engines, carriages, and furniture, extensive distilleries, breweries, etc. La Salle estab-
lished a trading post at Peoria in 1G80; the first permanent settlement was made in 1819.
PEORIA INDIANS, a tribe formerly living in n. Illinois, transferred to Kansas in
1832, and to the Indian territory in 1867.
PEORIA LAKE, in Illinois, 20 m long, 3 m. at its greatest breadth. It is an expan-
sion of the Illinois river, bounded on the e. by Woodford and Tazewell counties, and
on the w. by Peoria county.
PEPE. Three Neapolitans of this name have played nn important part in history.
The first of these was GABHIELE PEPE, who was b. in 1781 at Bojano, in the present
province of Moli-e, Italy, and was a student of law in 1799, when, on the proclamation
of the Parthenopean republic, he took service in the Franco-Neapolitan army, and was
consequently exiled on the fall of the new government. Subsequently he served in the
Italian legion in the French army under king Joseph in Spain with great distinction,
and with Murat. In 1815 he was raised by the latter to the rank of col., a grade con-
firmed by Ferdinand I., who gave him the command of a province, and afterwards of
the garrison of Syracuse. He espoused with great zc-al the cause of the revolutionary
partyjn 1820, and was deputed to the national parliament. On (lie downfall of the con-
stitutional government he was seized by the Austrians, and imprisoned at Olmuiz. in
Moravia; but was released at the end of two years, and retired to Tuscany; where, feel-
ing hurt at some remarks of M. de Lamartine, then charge-d' affaire* in that country, on
Italian patriotism, he in turn wielded the pen in defense of his countrymen with such
severity that a duel resulted between him and the poet, followed by an apology from the
latter. From this time he took no part in political affairs, but devoted himself to
science and literature, and died at Bajano, Aug., 1849. — His cousin, GUGLIELMO PEPE,
b. 1782 at Squillace. Avas a man of equal note. After serving in the French army of
Catalonia, and attaining to high rank and honor, he returned to Naples to support
Murat; and after the flight of that chief, was one of the leaders of the "Murntist" party,
vet. after the restoration, the Bourbon Ferdinand allowed him to retain his honors.
Pepe rendered valuable services in rooting out (1818) the nests of brigands Avho infested
the provinces of Avellino and Foggia, and after the insurrection of 1820 was for some
months the most influential man in Naples; but, after his defc.it by the Austrians at
Rieti, Mar. 7, 1821, he was forced to flee the country, and took refuge in Spain, whence
he retired to England, where he lived many years, afterwards removing to Paris. In
1848, on the proclamation of an armistice, he returned to Naples, welcomed with enthu-
siasm by the people and the court; and the, king, constrained by the public A'oice, gave
him the command of the Neapolitan contingent which was sent to aid the Lombards
against Austria ; but after the suppression of revolution in Naples (May 15), Pepe was
ordered to return and put down the insurgents of Calabria. Disregarding these orders,
Pepe, with as many of the Neapolitans as would adiiere to him (2000 men), devoted his
Peperino. ADA
Pepoli.
energies to the defense of Venice, of whose army lie had been elected commander-in-
ciiict'. His prudence and courage, joined to an untiring energy, enabled him greatly to
retard the operations of the Aus! rians; but the force under his command was ili-su'ited
for elfecting anything of importance. His most remarkable exploit was the sortie he
effected in person (Oct.. 1849) from the citadel of Marghcra. Af'.er the fall of Venice,
Pepe tied to Corfu on board a French ship, and subsequently returned to Paris. lie
had, however, an antipathy to France, and .-peedily removed to Turin, where he died,
Aug. 9, 1855. He has left several works, the chief of which are: L\'u/i'i/i i/--x I
menis Poliiiqurx it J//<YA///vx <l< Xnjifi'x en 1820 et 1821 (Paris, 1822, in Italian and French),
and LLiistoire </<.< A', solution* et di» (lurrr™ tl'Jlult" en 1847, 1S4*. <t is4S) (Paris. 1850). A
utatue of him has been erected in Turin. — His elder brother, FJXJBESTA.NO PI.TK (b. 1780,
d. 1851), was also a Muratist, but submitted to Ferdinand. He was a mi'd and concil-
iatory, but feeble liberal.
PEPEKI'NO, an Italian terra, applied by some geologists to the brown volcanic tuffs
derived from augitic rocks, to distinguish them from the ordinary tufas, which name
they confine to the lighter-colored pumiceous rocks 11; ut have more trachyte in their
composition. •
PEP IN, a co. in w. Wisconsin, having the ?.II»is>ippi river for its s.w. boundary,
separating it from Minnesota; 250 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 6,226— 4,403 of American birth, 1 col-
oied. It is drained by the Chippewa river, flowing through it centrally, and lake Pepiu,
28 in. long in the ii.w. portion. Its surface is undulating, largely covered with grove* of
pine and sugar-maple, especially by the river banks, and in some sections are forests
wnich supply an active lumber trade. It contains magnesian limestone, which rises into
bluffs on the shores of the lake. Its soil produces every variety of grain ; other products
are honey, tnaple sugar, and the products of the dairy. Its manufactures include fur-
niture, lumber, and wooden-ware. Co. seat, Durand.
PEP IN, LAKE, an expansion of the Mississippi river, forming the boundary of
Pierce and Pepin counties. "Wis.. on the n.e.. and Goodhue ar.d Wabasha counties,
Minn., on the s.w. It is 27 in. long, extending from Ked "\Viug s. to the mouth of the
Chippewa river; its greatest width is 3 miles. The lake is surrounded by bluffs of lime-
stone, rising some 400 ft., weather-beaten into the most fantastic shapes. It has but
little depth, abounds in fish, and is considered the most beautiful and picturesque part
of the Mississippi.
PEPIN, the name of several distinguished members of the Carlovingian family; the
first of whom in order was PKPIN LE VIETIX or PEPIN DE LANDEN, the founder of the
family. He was of a Brabnnt family, and took his designation from Landen (now in
Liege, Belgium). Rebelling with others of the great lords of Austrasia against the rule
of Brunehaut, who was regent for the youthful king, he offered the crown to Clotaire
II., king of Neustria, who, in reward of his services, creaied Pcpin maire d>/ i'/>'
Austrasia, an office which he continued to hold during the two following reigns, and
died in 639. His administration was directed to the preservation of the power and in-
tegrity of the Australian kingdom, and (Lough, by opposing the various schemes of cen-
tralization proposed by the king, he fell under the royal displeasure, his conduct gained
for him favor and influence with the Austrnsian chiefs; his power and wealth were
greatly increased, and a broad and firm path to political supremacy laid for his descend-
ants. His son, Grimoald. who succeeded him as maire dtt palais, incautiously attempted
to gather the fruits of his father's schemes before they were quite ripe, and accordingly
suffered for his folly. Both he and his son Childebeft were strangled in prison (656) by
order of Clovis II. Pepin "the Old" left by his daughter a grandson, PEPIN I,E GKOS
or PEPIN D'HETUPTAL, who was elected by the Austrasian nobility as their chief, to pro-
tect Austrasia against the machinations of" Elroin, the able maire of Neustria, His lirst
step was to rid himself of the Merovingian king, v.'ho nominally ruled over Austrasia;
which was effected by obtaining the condemnation of the unfortunate monarch, Dago-
bert II., by a council of bishops, and l.ien putting him to death. From this time the
Merovingian rule in Austrasia ceased. Pcpin vas now sole ruler, but his ambition did
not stop here; he had resolved on the ruin or the Merovingian monarchs, and according-
ly levied a large army for the invasion of Neustria. Elroin, on his side, was equally re-
solved to humble the territorial aristocracy, and support the throne; and advancing into
Austrasia, his army came in fight of Pepfn's at Loixi. In the battle (680) which ei
Pepin's army was totally defeated, his brother and co-ruler, Martin, was taken prisoner and
put to death, and he himself narrowly escaped. Luckily for him, however, Elroin was
soon afterward assassinated, and his successor, "Warato, signed a treaty of peace. The
incapacity and tyranny of Warato and his successor. Bierthaire, discontented the Neus-
urian nobles, who we* over to Pcpin, and by this accession of power enabled him to re-
Btime the offensive. Neustria was immediately invaded, and a bloody but decisive bat-
tle at Testry (687) freed Pepin of his opponent Berthaire, who was left dead on the field,
tnd placed Neustria at his feet. Ful! of moderation in the midst of triumph, and satis-
fied that he could not place on the throne a more obedient slave than Thierry III., the
then king of Neustria, Pepin caused him to be also proclaimed king of Austrasia, but
reserved for himself the sovereign power, wielding the scepter though declining the
Brown. From this time he ruled the whole of France (Austrasia in his owu right by his
Peperitio.
Pepoli.
election as duke, and ISTeustria as ma ire du palaix) with energy, and undisturbed by any
internal commotion, during the lives of three other "faineant" kings, till his death in
714. He had made several campaigns (689-708) against the Frisians, but that valiant
and independent race was not thoroughly subdued for some time afterward. Pepin had
two legitimate sons who died before him, and an illegitimate son, Charles, subsequently
known as Charles Martel (q.v.), who succeeded to his power. The third who bore this
name was PEPIN L.E BHEF, the younger son of Charles Martel, who, on the death of
his father in 741, received Neustria and Burgundy; Austrasia, Thuringia, and Subia
being the heritage of his elder brother Carloman. Aquitaine was nominally a part of
Pepin's dominions, though, as it was really independent under its own duke, he made
several attempts to subdue it; but the duke was quite able to hold his own against both
Pepin on the one hand and the Arabs (from Spain) on the other. The farce of govern-
ing the country in the name and as the chief minister of the Merovingian sovereign was
still kept up, though Pepiu. was eagerly longing for an opportunity to assume the crown;
but the present time was inopportune, as no sooner was the restraint of Charles Muriel's
iron hand removed by death, than revolts broke out in all quarters among the Franks,
Germans, Bavarians, and Gascons. The country by the united exertions of Pepiu and
Carloman, was restored to tranquillity about 745. Those princes who had excited the in-
surrection were mostly deposed, and otherwise punished, and the duke of Aquitaiue was
compelled to acknowledge at least the nominal sovereignty of Pepin. In 747 Carloman
bade adieu to power, and retired into a convent, leaving his government to his sons, who
were immediately dispossessed by Pepin. After crushing a rebellion of Saxons and
Bavarians, Pepin began to carry out his favorite project of dispossessing the Merovingian
dynasty of even the semblance of authority, and of originating in person a new royal
dynasty. To gain his point he flattered the clergy, then the most influential body in
France; and as they had been despoiled by Charles Martel for the behoof of his warriors,
a moderate degree of kindness and generosity on the part of Pepin contrasted him so
favorably with his father, that the clergy at once became his partisans. So did the
pope, who felt the importance of securing the aid of the powerful Frankish chief against
the Lombards, who were then masters of Italy, and released the Franks from their oath
of fidelity to Childeric, the Merovingian monarch. On learning this Pepiu at once
caused himself to be elected king by the assembly of estates at Soissons, and was conse-
crated by the bishop of Mayence (Mar. 752). Childeric retired to a convent, where he
died in 755. Pepin was the first Frankish monarch whose election received the sanction
of the pope, and who was consecrated to his high dignity; and these solemn ceremonies
put the crown to a great extent at the mercy of the clergy, who from this time took a
political rank in the state. The practice, too, followed by Pepin and his predecessors in
office, of gaining partisans by granting particular fiefs to various chiefs, greatly
strengthened the feudal system, and proportionally weakened the royal power. This
effect,' however, did not show itself till after the subsequent reign of Charlamagne, on
account of the personal genius of these two rulers. Pepin was soon called upon to^iid the
pope against the Lombards, and marching into Italy at the head of a large army, he
compelled Astulf, the Lombard king, to retire from the siege of Rome, and restore
several cities which had previously "belonged to the Greeks; these were now handed
over to the pope. He had hardly returned to France, when he was anew summoned
(755) to Italy, the Lombards having broken their engagements. This time he took Rav-
enna, Emilia, the Pentapolis, and the duchy of Rome from the Lombards, reuniting
them to the Holy See. After the settlement'of affairs in Italy, the turbulent nations on
his eastern frontier demanded his attention. The Saxons and other German tribes were
defeated (757), their country cruelly ravaged, a heavy tribute exacted, and numbers of
captives and hostages taken. Resolved to unite the whole of Gaul under his authority,
he eagerly accepted the invitation of the Visigoths of Septimania to aid them against the
Arabs, who had taken possession of the country; and after a war of many years' dura-
tion, Narbonne, the last of the Arab strongholds, was taken, and the country, freed of
these invaders, at once acknowledged Pepin's authority. The remaining years of his
reign were occupied in reducing the independent monarchy of Aquitaine, which was not
accomplished till, after nine years (760-68) of desolating warfare, Pepin obtained the
assassination of his opponent, duke Waif re, who«e partisans then laid down their arms,
surrendering to the Frankish monarch the vast provinces which stretch from the Loire
to the ocean and the Pyrenees. Shortly after this conquest, Pepin died of dropsy, Sept.
768. He was a most active, enterprising, and in general fortunate prince; he established
the unity of the Gallic nation, and protected it as far as could be done by invading
and ravaging the territories of the neighboring nations, though he also introduced those
elements of weakness into its constitution which reduced the authority of his successors
to such a deplorable state. The others of this name, though important persouages at
the time, make little figure in history.
PE'POLI, CARLO, Count, b. Italy, 1801 ; educated at the university of Bologna.
After the downfall, in 1831, of the revolutionary government of which he was a member,
lie was captured by the Austrians and imprisoned. Soon afterwards he was banished,
and went to Paris, apd later to London, where he gave a course of lectures on Italian
history, and was professor of Italian literature in the university of London. He took
Pepper. A Of*
FequotS.
part in the revolution of 1848, was a deputy, and vice-president of the assembly, and, on
the collapse of the, revolutionary movement in 1849, returned to England, where he
remained till 1859. While in Paris he wrote the libretto of Bellini's opera, / Puritani,
and has written a number of works in prose ami verse.
PEPPER, Piper, a .semis of plants of the natural order Pipcfatcc? (q.v.), which once
included the whole of that order; hut, as now limited, consists of plants with woody
stems, solitary spikes opposite to the leaves, and covered with flowers on all sides, the,
flowers mostly hermaphrodite. The most important species is COMMON PEPPER or
BLACK PEPPER (P. niyrinn). a native of the East Indies, now cultivated also in many
tropical countries, and extensively in some parts of the new world; us fruit being the
most common and largely used of all spices. It is a rambling and climbing .shrub,
with smooth and spongy stems, sometimes 12 ft. in length; and broadly ovate, acumi-
nate, leathery leaves. The fruit is about the size of a pea, of a bright-red color when
ripe, not crowded on the spike. In cultivation, the pepper plant is supported by poles,
or by small trees planted for the purpose, as it loves a certain degree of shade, and dif-
ferent kinds of trees are often planted for this purpose in India. It is propagated by cut-
tings, comes into bearing in three or four years after it is planted, and yields two <-r<>ps
annually for about twelve years. When any of the " berries" of a spike begin to change
from green to red, all are gathered, as when more fully ripe they are less pingent,
besides being apt to drop off. They are spread on mats and separated from the spi!
rubbing with the hands or by threading with the feet, after which they are cleaned by
winnowing. The black pepper of commerce consists of the berries thus dried, and
become wrinkled and black; white pepper is the *ced freed from the skin and fleshy part
of the fruit, to effect which the dried fruit is soaked in water and then rubbed. White
pepper thus prepared is of a whitish-gray color, but not unfrequently under-
bleaching by chlorine, which improves its appearance at the expense of its quality.
Black pepper is much more pungent than white pepper, the essential constituents of the
spice being more abundant in the outer parts of the fruit than in the seed. Pepper
depends for its propetfics chiefly on an nciid resin and an acrid volatile oil; it contains
also a crystalline substance called pipcrin. — The fruit of piper Irimcmn, a species very
similiar to the common pepper, is more pungent ; and it is cultivated in some parts of
India. — The fruit of other species of pipemctM is used as pepper in their native countries;
that of cocobryon capense at the cape of Good Hope; that otpeUobryon l»h<jifi>Umu, of
artanthe crocata, of A. tinchostachya, and of serronia jaboramU in South America. —
Chacica Ttoxbu rghii and C. officinantm yield the LONG PEPPER of druggists. They have
woody climbing stems, solitary spikes opposite to the leaves, diiecii/u- flowers, anil the
fruits so close together on the spikes as in ripening to become a compact ma s. The
spikes are gathered when unripe, and dried in the sun. They are used in pickling and for
culinary purposes, also in medicine for the same purposes as common popper. They ar«
generally reputed to be more pungent than common pepper. C. Rarbii rr/h ii is cultivated
in Bengal and the Circars, where it is called pippnl; C. nfflcfixinnn. in the Dutch East
Indian colonies. The root and thickest part of the stem of C. Rozburr/hii are exten-
sively used in India as a stimulant medicine; and are cut into small pieces, dried, and
brought to the market under the name of pippnla moola.
Pepper acts on the skin as a rubefacient and vesicant, and is often used for this pur-
pose m a powdered state, moistened with some kind of .alcoholic spirit. It is aln>
employed as a local stimulant in relaxation of the uvula, and is applied in the form of an
ointment to ringworm. Taken into the stomach in small quantities it is a pleasant stimu-
lant, but in large doses it produces great pain and irritation. The quantity used, how-
ever, by the natives of hot climates much exceeds anything known among Europeans.
and the effects are evidently beneficial rather than injurous. The chief use of pepper id
as a spice and condiment.
Pepper was known to the ancients; Hippocrates used it as a medicine; and Pliny
expresses his surprise that it should have come into general use, considering its want of
flavor. In the middle ages pepper was one of the most costly spices, and in the ir>th c.
a few pounds of it were reckoned a princely present. The quantity nowr imported into
Europe is immense; but there are no means of exactly ascertaining how much of the
pepper of commerce is the produce of piper nigrum. or indeed of the piperaaea, and how-
much — although certainly it is not a large proportion of the whole — is the produce of
species of capsicum.
The name pepper is popularly given to substances possessing a pungency resemblim*
that of pepper, although produqed by very different plants. Thus, CAYENNE PKPPKH
is the produce of species of capxicum, of the natural order .-W/nwmp; JAMAICA PEPPKU (or
PIMENTO) of species of Eugenia-, of the natural order myrlticcce-; and GUINEA PKPPI.K. or
MELEGUETTA PEPPER, of species of the natural orders seitaminece and ti>«»'<n: .-. S'O
CAPSICUM, PIMENTO, GRAINS OF PARADISE, and GUINEA PEPPER.
PEPPERELL, Sir WILLIAM. 1696-1 ?r,9 : b. Maine; son of a Welsh emigrant. ITe
was for many years a successful merchant; from 1727 until his death he was a member
of the king's council for Massachusetts, and in 173 ') was made ohief -justice of the common
pleas court. His title was bestowed upon him for his success as commander of the
expedition which captured Louisburg in 1745. In 1748 he visited England and received.
487 Pepper.
Peqaofab
the grades of col., maj.gen., rmd licut.gcn., in the British army. He was president of the
Massachusetts council m 1755, and acted as governor of the province for three years. POT
many years he was a commissioner to treat with the Indians of New England, and in 1753
published Conference mth the Penobscot Tribe. His life was written by Usher Parsons.
Wm. P. Sparhawk, his grandson, took sir William's name, succeeded to his great estates,
and was made baronet in 1774 The properly was confiscated in 1778 on account of the
owner's attachment to the British cause.
PEPPER GRASS, Depidium Sativum. See CKESS, ante.
PEPPERIDGE. See BLACK GUM, ante.
PEP PERMINT. See MINT.
PEPPEE-POT, a celebrated West Indian dish, of which casareep (q.v.) is a principal
ingredient; and along with it flesh or dried fish, vegetables, chiefly the unripe pods of the
ochro (see Himscub), and chillies (see CAPSICUM).
PEPPEE ROOT, Dehtaria diphylla, a perennial herbaceous plant, of the natural order
erucifera, a native of North America, with pairs of terua'e leaves, and racemes of white
flowers; the root of which has a pungent mustard-like taste, and is used as a condiment.
PEPPER TREE. See SCHINUS, aide.
PEPSIN lias been already described (in the article DIGESTION) as one of the essential con-
stituents of the gastric juice. Various modes of extracting it from the walls of the
stomach of the calf, sheep, and pig have been proposed by different chemists (Wasmann,
Frerichs, Schmidt, Boudault, and others), into which it is unnecessary to enter. Accord-
ing to Schmidt's analysis, it contains 53.0 per cent of carboi1, 67 of hydrogen, 17.8 of
nitrogen, and 22.5 of oxygen, and hence in its ultimate composition it is closely allied
to albumen. This substance, either as a powder or in solution, has been employed of
late years to a considerable extent in medical practice, in cases of disordered digestion from
deficient or imperfect secretion of gastric juice, and of convalescence from typhoid and
other debilitating fevers. Pepsin wine is perhaps the best form in which to prescribe
this substance; a teaspoonful being the ordinary dose.
PEPTONES. See PROTEIDS, also DIGESTION, ante.
PEPYS, SAMCEL, a distinguished officer of the admiralty during the reigns of Charles
II. and James II., was b. Feb. 23, ]682-33. He was the son of a London citizen, a tailor,
but was well educated, first at b't. Paul's school, and afterwards at Magdalen college,
Cambridge. His cousin, sir Edward Montague (the first earl of Sandwich), introduced
him to public employment. In 1660 he was appointed clerk of the acts of the navy, and
in 167o secretary for the affairs of the navy. He was an excellent public servant, acute,
diligent, and laborious; but during the fanatical excitement of the Popish plot he was
committed to the tower, on an unfounded and absurd charge of aiding in the design to
dethrone the king and extirpate the Protestant religion. Having been discharged with-
out a trial, Pepys was replaced at his post in the admiralty, which he retained till the
abdication of James II. For two years he held the honorable station of president of the
royal society, lie died May 26, 1703. Pepys wrote Memoirs of the Royal Nary, 1690.
He left to Magdalen college his large col lection of books, MSS., and prints, including about
2,000 ancient English ballads, forming five folio volumes. This curious collection was
begun, he says, by Selden, and continued down to the year 1700, when the form peculiar
to the old ballads, namely, the black letter with pictures, wTas laid aside for the simpler
modern fashion. Pepys is now best remembered for his diary, deciphered by the rev. J.
Smith from the original short-hand MS. in the Pepysian library, Cambridge, and first
published, under the editorial care of lord Braybrooke, in 1825. It commences on Jan.
1, 1659-60, and is continued for above nine years, when the diarist was obliged from
defective eyesight to abandon his daily task. As a picture of the court and times of
Charles II. this diary is invaluable; the events, characters, follies, vices, and peculiarities
of the age are presented in true and lively colors, and the work altogether is one of the
most racy, unique, and amusing books hi the language. The fullest edition is that by
the rev. Mynors Bright, which began to appear in 1875.
PE QUOTS, or PEQUODS, an Algonquin tribe of Indians, who were, probably, origi-
nally a part of the Hudson river Mohegans, but on the arrival of the English occupied it.
small tract of land in Rhode Island near the Niantic river. They were a very warlike
race and constantly battling with the Narragansetts and other tribes. At first they were
friendly to the whites, but soon became dissatisfied and hostile. Endicott and Gardiner
led expeditions against them, and they -retaliated by a massacre at Wethersfield. In 1673
capt. John Mason led an expedition from Hartford against the Pequots, who were
encamped at two forts near the site of Mystic. His force of 90 white men was joined
lnr several hundred Mohegans under Uncas. The surprise was complete, the wigwams
were fired, over 600 of the Pequots were killed, and as a tribe they ceased to exist. *A
small number carried on the fight from the swamps, but were before long slain or taken
prisoners. Many were sold as slaves to the West Indies, others were scattered among
different tribes, while Sassacus, the chief, was slain by the Mohawks to whom lie had
fled for refuge. Laws were made in 1655 for two bands of Pequots which had gathered
at Ledyard and North Stoniugton. They were faithful allies in Philip's war and the
Pora. A O Q
Perception.
trouflles with the French, but decreased rapidly in numbers. A few are still to be found
in Wisconsin. An account of the Pequot war was written by Mason and published in
lncreu.se Mather's Illation of Trouble* by the Indians, 1667.
PE RA, a suburb of CONSTANTINOPLE (q.v.).
PER/E'A, (from it F pay, beyond), a name given to a part of Palestine, e. of the river
Jordan, anciently belong-in;;' to the tribes of Reuben and Gad. Joseph u.s bounds it on
the D. by Pella, e. by Philadelphia, s. by the castle of Macha rus, and w.. by the Jordan.
It is naturally a fertile region, well watered by mountain torrents and springs. See
GILEAD and BASHAN. It was the scene of a part of the ministries of John the Baptist
and of Christ.
PEKAK, one of the largest Malay states in the peninsula of Malacca, extends about
90 in. along the strait of Malacca, and some 45 in. inland. The soil is fertile, and for the
most part covered with luxuriant vegetation. The mineral wealth is very great, and
comprises abundance of tin, some gold and plumbago, and poor coal. Elephants, tigers,
leopards, bears, and boars, and occasionally a rhinoceros, are found. Perak is thinly
inhabited by various races, of whom the Malays are the most numerous. Some of the
others are of the same stock as the inhabitants of Sumatra; there are wild hill-tribes in the
interior. Cannibalism is still practiced by some of these races. Perak is governed by a
sultan and petty chiefs, who have of late come under British influence, represented by a
resident and his assistants. The munbr of the British resident in 1875 has made the
name of Perak more familiar to Englishmen. See maj. M'Nair's Perak and the Malays
(1877).
PERAMBULATION OF PARISHES. The ancient custom in England of perambulat-
ing parishes in rogation week had a twofold object. It was designed to supplicate the
divine blessing on the fruits of the earth; and to preserve in till classes of the commun-
ity a correct knowledge of, and due respect for, the bounds of parochial and individual
property. It appears to have been derived from a. still older custom among the ancient
Romans, called Termiimlia, and Ambarvalia, which were festivals in honor of the uod
Terminus and the goddess Ceres. On its becoming a Christian custom the heathen rites
and ceremonies were of course discarded, and those of Christianity substituted. It was
appointed to be observed on one of the rogation (q.v.) days, which were the three days
next before ascension day. Before the reformation parochial perambulations were con-
ducted with great ceremony. The lord of the manor, with a large banner, priests in
surplices and with crosses, and other persons with hand-bells, banners and staves, fol-
lowed by most of the parishioners, walked in procession round the parish, stopping at
crosses, forming crosses on the ground, "saying or singing gospels to the corn," and
allowing "drinkings and good cheer" (GrindaTs Remain*, pp. 141, 241, and Not,'; Whit-
gift's works, iii. 266-267; Tindal's works, iii. 62, 234, Parker society's edition), which
was remarkable, as the rogation days were appointed fasts. From the different practice-*
observed on the occasion the custom received the various names of prwt'x*i'>/iii>f/, ror/a-
tioning, perambulating and ganging the boundaries; and the week in which it was observed
was called rogation week; cros* week, because crosses were borne in the processions; and
grass week, because the rogation clays being fasts, vegetables formed the chief portion
of diet.
At the reformation, the ceremonies and practices deemed objectionable were abol-
ished, and only "the useful and harmless part of the custom retained." Yet its observ-
ance was considered so desirable, that a homily was prepared for the occasion ; and
injunctions were issued requiring that for "the perambulation of the circuits of par-
ishes, the people shoxild once in the year, at the time accustomed, with the rector, vicar,
or curate, and the substantial men of the parish, walk about the parishes, as they were
accustomed, and at their return to the church make their common prayer. And the
curate, in their said common perambulations, was at certain convenient places to admon-
ish the people to give thanks to God (while beholding of his benefits), and for the in<
and abundance of his fruits upon the face of the earth, with the saying of the 103d
Psalm. At which time also the said minister was required to inculcate these, or such
like sentences. Cursed be he which translateth the bounds and doles of his neighbor; or
sucli other order of prayers as should be lawfully appointed." (Burn's Ecelesiastical Law,
vol. iii. 61).
To this day, questions of disputed boundary between parishes are invariably settled
by the evidence afforded by these perambulations; for in such questions, immemorial
custom is conclusive. And so far are they recognized in law, that the parishioners on
Mich occasions, are entitled to trespass on lands, and even to enter private houses if these
Htarid on the boundary line. In Scotland, where the parochial principle has never been
developed as in England, there 8eem to be few traces of a similar practice. But, as
between neighboring landowners, a brieve of perambulation is the technical remedy for
setting right a dispute as to boundaries or marches; and perambulating or "riding" the
bounds or boroughs is a common practice.
The necessity or determination to perambulate along the old track often occasioned
curious incidents. If a canal had been cut through the boundary of a parish, i
deemed necessary that some of the parishioners should pass through the water. Where
a river formed part of the boundary line, the procession cither passed along it in bouts.
AQQ Pera.
Perception.
or some of the party stripped ar,d swam along it, or boys were thrown into it at custom-
ary places. It' a house had been erected on the boundary line, the procession claimed
the right to pass through it. A house in Buckinghamshire, still existing, lias an oven
passing over the boundary line. It was customary i« the perambulations to pat a boy
iuto this recess to preserve the integrity of the boundary line.
At various parts of the parish boundaries, two or three of the village boys were
" bumped " — that is, a certain part of the person was swung against a stone wall, a tree,
a post, or any other hard object which happened to be near the parish boundary. -This,
it will scarcely be doubted, was an effectual method of recording the boundaries in the
memory of these battering-rains, and of those who witnessed this curious mode of regis-
tration.
The custom of perambulating parishes continued in some parts of the kingdom to a
late period, but the religious portion of it was generally, if not universally, omitted,
The custom has, however, of late years been revived in its integrity in many parishes.
PERAMELES. See BANDICOOT, ante.
PER CAPITA, in law used technically to denote that kind of succession to the real
or personal property of an intestate which is opposed to the succession by representation,
or, as it is called, per stirpes (q.v.). Thus if AB leave three sons and three grandsons
living at the time of his death and his property be divided into six equal parts, the next
of kin are said to inherit per capita, i.e., by the head or poll. The statutes of each state
determine whether, if the deceased were intestate, the succession shall be per capita or
per atirpes. The latter method is the more common.
PEECEPTION. This word refers to our reception of knowledge through the senses,
an operation that to the common understanding seems simple enough, but, viewed phil-
osophically, is attended with much difficulty. Perception, considered as a source of
knowledge, refers exclusively to the outer, or the object world — the world of extended
matter and its properties. The names for the act of knowing one's own mind — the feel-
ings and thoughts of the individual — are self-consciousness and self introspection. The
word " consciousness," is sometimes improperly limited to this signification. Locke
used the term " reflection" for the same meaning, but this is ambiguous and is now disused.
All our knowledge is thus said (by those that deny innate ideas) to spring from two
sources — perception and self-consciousness.
Two great disputes connect themselves with perception, both raised into their full
prominence in the philosophical world by bishop Berkeley. The first is the origin of our
judgments of the distances and real magnitudes of visible bodies. In opposition to the
common opinion on this subject, Berkeley maintained that these were learned by expe-
rience, and not known by the mere act of vision: See VISION.
The second question relates to the grounds we have for asserting the existence of an
external and material world, which, in the view of Berkeley, was bound up with the
other. Inasmuch as perception is a mental act, and knowledge is something contained
in a mind, what reason have we for believing in the existence of objects apart from our
minds? or what is the mode of existence of the so-called external world. ,
The following sentences show in what manner Berkeley opened up the question:
"That neither our thoughts, nor passions, nor ideas, formed by the imagination, exist
without the mind, is what everybody will allow; and it seems no less evident that the
various sensations or ideas imprinted on the sense, however blended or combined together
(i.e., whatever objects they compose), cannot exist otherwise than in a mind perceiving
them. I think an intuitive knowledge may be obtained of this by any one that shall
attend to what is meant by the term exist when applied to sensible things. The table I
write on, I say, exists — i.e., I see and feel it; and if I were out of my study, I should
say it existed, meaning thereby that if I was in my study I might perceive it, or that
some other spirit actually does perceive it. There was an odor — i.e.. it was smelled;
there was a sound — that is to say, it was heard; a color or figure, and it was perceived
by sight or touch. This is all I can understand by these and the like expressions. For as
to what is said of the absolute existence of unthinking things, without any relation to
their being perceived, that seems perfectly unintelligible. Their ease is percipi, nor is it
possible they should have any existence out of the minds or thinking things which per-
ceive them."
This doctrine of Berkeley, amounting, it was said, to a denial of the existence of a
material world (which is far from a correct view of it), was followed up by Hume, who,,
on similar reasoning, denied the existence of mind, and resolved the universe into a mere
flow of ideas and impressions without any subject to be impressed, acknowledging never-
theless*, that he felt himself unable, practically, to acquiesce in his own unanswerable'
arguments. There was obviously some great mistake in a mode of reasoning that
brought about a dead-lock of this description; and hence it has been the work of meta-
phyxicftl philosophy since that time to endeavor to put the perception of the world on an
admissible footing.
Dr. Reid reclaimed against Berkeley and Hume by appealing to common sense, or
unreasoning instinct, as a sufficient foundation for our belief in the existence of a world
apart from our own minds. Sir W. Hamilton has expounded the same view with greater
clearness and precision. He considers that our consciousness tells us at once that in the
Perceval. A QA
Perch.
act of perceiving there is both a perceiving subject — self, or the mind — and an trternaJ
reality, in relation with sense, as the object perwired. "Of the existence of both these
things," he sass, "Iain convinced; because I am conscious of knowing eaeli of 'hem,
uot mediately in something else, tt.« r< i>ru« nttil, but immediately in itself. «* t-.i-ixtinr/. Of
their mutual dependence lam DO lees convinced; because each is apprehended equally and
at once, in the same indivisible energy, the one not preceding or determining, the other
not following or determined; and because each is apprehended out of, aud in direct con-
trast to the oilier." — It, id, p. 7-17.
Much as Hamilton lias labored to elucidate this doctrine in all ils bearings, it has not
been universally accepted as satisfactory. Many believe that he bus regarded as an ulti-
mate fact of our constitution what admits of being still further n solved, and lias mis-
taken an acquisition of the mature mind for a primitive or instinctive revelation.
Professor Ferrier, in his Juxliiiiltx <>f J/< /<'/<////*/>•, has g,,ne through the question with
extraordinary minuteness and elaboration. His main position is ihe inseparability of the
subject and the object in percept ion ui position also maintained by Hamilton in the above
extract) which is not reconcilable with the common assumption as to the independent
existence of matter. Indeed, IK: reduces the received dogma of the existence of matter
per se to a self-contradiction, and builds up a sy.-tem in sliict conformity with the cm re-
lation, or necessary connection, of the mind perceiving with the object perceived. He
thus approaches nearer to Berkeley than to Hamilton or to Reid.
Those who would endeavor to show that our notion of the outer world is a complex
fact, and an acquisition,- and not a simple apprehension of the uneducated mind, explain
themselves to the following effect. It is in the exercise ot\/'//r, that we have to look for
the peculiar feeling of the externality of sensible things, or the distinction that we make
between what impresses from without, and impressions not. recogni/ed as outward. Any
impression that rouses a stroke of energy within us. and that \aries exactly and con-
stantly as that energy varies, we call an outward impression. Dr. Johnson refuted
.Berkeley, as he thought, by kicking a stone. But in fact it was his own ;.ction with ils
consequences, and not the optical impression of a stone in the eye. that satisfied him as
to the existence of something outward. The sum total of all the occasions lor putting
forth active energy, or for conceiving this as possible to be put forth, is our external
world.
We experience certain uniformly recurring sensations, and certain uniform changes
in these, when we exert particular energies. Thus the visible picture of our dwelling
is a permanent and habitual experience, and the variations of appeal1;. nee that it is sub-
ject to correspond principal!}' to our own conscious movements. As we move from one
end of a room to another, we experience a change of the visible aspect at every step, and
this regularly happens as often as we repeat the movement. But at times the appearance
exists in another shape, to which we give the name of memory or iiltn. "We draw a
marked distinction between these two modes of presentation, the actual and the ideal,
and we assign a superiority to the one over the other. The superiority we find connects
itself with the relation to our own movements; a mere idea or mental picture remains
the sair^ whatever be our bodily position or bodily exertions; the sensation that we call
the actual is entirely at the mercy of our movements, shifting in every possible way (but
uniformly), according to the varieties of action that we go through. "Wiili a f< rward
movement the visible impression enlarges, with a buckwaul movement it diminisho. A
certain movement of the eye shuts it out, another restores it. The raising of the bead
and the bending of the body are followed by an altered spectacle. AN e (vimd but, draw
a broad distinction between the mental scenery that is thus shifted by all our move-
ments, and the ideas and dreams that vary of themselves v\hile we are still. To express
the one fact, we use the terms externality, the material world, independent existence;
to express the other we employ the opposite language, internality, the world of mind,
etc. Even if sensation were only in ourselves, we should still have todistingui h between
present sensation and remembered or revived sensation, the reference of the one to our
voluntary movements, and of the other to no such modifying causes, would oblige us to
note a vi'tal difference in the two classes of facts. Such is the uniformity of connection
between certain appearances and certain movements, that we come to anticipate the one
through the other. We know that in some one position, as when lying in bed, certain
movements of the limbs and back will bring us to the sensation of a solid contact in the
feet; that another series of movements will bring on a particular view to the sight; that
a third movement will give the sound of a bell in the ear, and so forth, "\\ecannot
avoid regarding those various sensible effects, brought uniformly into play by a regular
series of waking voluntary actions, as totally different from our ideas, recollections, and
dreams.
As our belief in the externality of the causes of our sensations means that certain
actions of ours will bring the sensations into play, or modify them in a kmmu manner.
this belief is readily furnished by experience, and is no more than our experience entilli H
us to entertain. When we have been repeatedly conscious that a tree becomes large*
and larger to the eye in connection with a definite locomotion on our part, called tl e
forward advance; that this movement brings on at lasi a sensation of touch; that this
sensation of touch varies with definite movements of the arms, and so on; the icpetition
ox all this train of experience fixes it on the mind, so that from one thing alone, as from
A Q 1 Perceval.
Perch.
the distant vision of the tree, we can anticipate, or as it is otherwise called, perceive all
the other consequences. We then know, without going through tlie steps, that the
specified movements will bring about all the sensations above described, and we know
nothing else; -this knowledge, however, is to us the recognition of external existence,
the actual fact that is meant when a material world is spoken of. Belief in external
reality is the sure anticipation of certain sensations on the performance of certain move-
ments; everything else said to be implied in it is but a convenient hypothesis for aiding
tin? mind in holding together those multifarious connections that our experience has
established in the mind. In order to account for the fact that the conscious movement j
of elevating the upper eyelid is followed with the sensation of light, to us and to other
minds, we suppose a luminous agency always existing even when not affecting us or
any other person: we cannot know or verify this supposition — it is a generalization
founded upon particular experiences, and serving to sum up those experiences in a con-
venient form, but no such perennial independent substance can be absolutely proved.
PEECEVAL, SPENCER, Right Hon., English minister, was the second son of John,
earl of Egmont: born Nov. i, 1762; educated at Harrow, and at Trinity college, Cam-
bridge. He was called to the bar, and soon obtained a reputation as a diligent lawyer.
A clever pamphlet on the abatement of the impeachment of Warren Hastings made him
known to Pitt. Obtaining a seat in parliament for Northampton, he was soon con-
spicuous for his extreme horror of popery and his violent advocacy of what was called
by his party the " Protestant interest. " In the Addington administration he was made
solicitor-general in 1801, and attorney- general in 1802. He was afterwards induced to
abandon his profession and adopt a political career. In the Portland administration of
1807 he was made chancellor of the exchequer, and was even then the real head of the
government, his influence with George III. being obtained by the depth of his bigotry
and his pertinacious opposition to the Catholic claims. On the death of the duke of
Portland, in 1809, Perceval became premier, uniting to his office of chancellor of the
exchequer that of first lord of the treasury. He was retained in power by the prince
of Wales on his accession to the regency. On May 11, 1812, about 5 P.M., as Perceval
was entering the lobby of the house of commons, a man named Bellingham fired a pistol
at him. the ball pierced his heart, and he instantlv expired. The assassin made no
attempt to escape. He was a Liverpool broker trading with Russia, who, having sus-
tained some losses and injuries which he had vainly applied to the government to redress,
determined to avenge himself by taking the life of the prime minister. Perceval's
assassination shocked the public mind, and parliament hastened to make an ample provi-
sion for his widow and numerous family. His death was, however, rather a private
than a public calamity. "With all my respect for the virtues and excellences of the
late minister," said the marquis of Wellesley, who had held the office of foreign secre-
tary in his administration, '• I stiil feel it my duty to say that I did not consider him a
fit man to lead the councils of this great empire." He was ready in debate, a placid
and not ungraceful speaker, and led the house of commons with much tact; but he was
superficial and intolerant. Sydney Smith, in his Letters of Peter Piy mlty, has conferred
a species of immortality upon him by his wit and sarcasm. It was the fashion, when
Perceval's public policy was attacked, to laud his domestic virtues. "Peter" said, if
he had. to choose between public and private virtues, he should prefer that Mr. Perceval
"owed for the veal of the preceding year, whipped his boys, and saved his country."
PERCH, Perca, a genus of acanthopterous fishes, of the family pcrcidw, to which it
gives its name, and which includes many genera and a very great number of species both
of marine and fresh-water fishes. The pe-rcirlm, or perch family, have the bod}1 somewhat
oblong and more or less compressed; the scales rather large; the bones of the gill-covers
toothed or otherwise armed; the mouth without barbels; the corner toothed, and gener-
ally also the palate; there are sometimes two dorsals, sometimes only one. To this
family belong not only the true perches, all of which are fresh-water fishes, but the lates
(q. v.) of the Nile, the bass (q.v.) or sea perch, and their congeners the pike perches (q.v.),
the Mi-rani, and many other fishes. The true perches (percu) have two dorsal fins, dis-
tinct and separate, the rays of the first spinous and those of the second flexible ; the
tongue is smooth ; and the gill-covers are bony, notched, and sharply serrated. The
COMMON PEKCH (P. JiuriutUix) is an inhabitant, of the lakes, ponds, and still rivers of
almo4 all parts of Europe. It is very common in England and Ireland, and is found in
many of the waters of the s. of Scotland, although in the n. it is rare, and is said to
exist only where it has been introduced. But it is found in Scandinavia, and even in
Lapland. It is of a greenish-brown color, passing into golden yellow on the under parts,
and marked on the back with six or seven indistinct blackish cross-bands. Its height is
about one-third of its length. It often attains a length of 16 or 18 in., and a weight of 3
or 3 Ibs., but perches have been taken of 8 Ibs. weight or more. The perch loves still
wat'-rs, and is easily reared in ponds, but it is. not. a desirable inmate of ponds intended
for other fish, because it is very voracious, and devours their fry. It is readily caught
by almost any kind of bait, and sometimes takes a small artificial fly. It is much
esteemed for the table. It live? a long time out of the water if kept moist, and in some
countries is thus brought to market, and carried back to the pond if not sold. The
perch deposits her eggs in long strings, united by a viscid matter. — A species of
Perch.
Percussion.
492
perch (P. Italica), found in the s. of Europe, differs from the common perch in its
shorter and deeper form, a ml want of black bands. Several species are natives of the
rivers and lakes of North America- aiid are among the most esteemed of its fresh-water
fishes.
PERCH. See ROD.
PEKC1IE, LE, in the modern departments of Orne, Enre-et-Loir, and Eure, was
anciently a French county s. of Normandy, in the province of .Maine. It was united to
I the French kingdom in the 16th century. Its capital was Moi-tagiic.
PERCHLORIC ACID, an energetic acid, and, when brought into contact with
organic substances, exploding with great violence. It is, therefore, a dangerous sub-
stance to handle. It may be obtained by distilling pcrchlorate of potassium with sul-
phuric acid. It is a colorless liquid, having a specific gravity of 1.782 at 00 Fahr., and
does not freeze at — 31° Fahr. Formula, H,C1O4. It soon becomes .colored, even when
kept in the dark, and after standing a few weeks decomposes with an explosion. Its
vapor is transparent and colorless, and when brought in contact with moi:>l air it forms
dense white fumes. When the acid is cautiously mixed with a small quantity of water,
a crystalline mass is formed, which is a monohydrate, 1I,C1O4 -f- H2O.
PER'CIVAL, JAMES GATES, 1795-1856; b. Conn.; graduated at Yale college, 1815,
and in 1820 took a degree in medicine. He was appointed to the professorship «i < In m
istry at West Point in 1824; in 1827 assisted Noah Webster in revising his dictionary; in
1835 was appointed assistant to prof. Shepard in making a geoFogical survey of Ci.n-
nccticut, a report of which he published in 1842; and in J8o4 was made the stale
geologist of Wisconsin, which position he held at the time of his death. Though, as
will be seen from this sketch, his scientific acquirements were considerable, his chi< f
claim to remembrance is as a poet and literary man. His first book contained /'
tJieus and several lyric pieces (1821). Clio was a collection of prose and verss pui>
in 1822 in 3 parts. Other of his poems were The Mind; Dream of a I)<n/ « ml <
Poems (1843); and many translations and minor works. A complete collection of his
works was first published in Boston in 1859, with a biographical sketch by L. W. Fitch.
He was very eccentric, yet a man of varied and extensive knowledge, acquainted with
10 languages, and familiar with both ancient and modern literature. His lyric \
were many of them very popular, and his other works, though now little read, are
marked by a love of nature, a great variety of information, and remarkable metric skill.
" One of his favorite plans was to imitate all known meters in all accessible languages,
from the Sanskrit down." Although in straitened circumstances all his life, Percival
collected a remarkable library of about 10,000 vols., which was sold at Boston in 1860.
PERCLOSE , a railing or other iuclosure separating a tomb or chapel from the rest of
a church.
PERCLOSE, or DEMI-GARTER, in heraldry, the lower half of a garter with the buckle.
PERCOLATION, a process much used in pharmacy, and in some other arts, for
extracting certain soluble properties of various bodies by filtering a liquid through them.
In the new British pharmacopoeia 39 tinctures and 9
extracts are ordered to be prepared by percolation. A<
the fluid soaks in and passes through the material
acted upon, it displaces and carries with it the soluble
parts, hence percolation is sometimes called the mt'th<«l
of displacement. The forms of apparatus for percola-
tion are very numerous, but the principle is the same
in all — viz., a vessel with a porous bottom, and in the
form of a truncated cone inverted, receives the mate-
rial first, and over it is poured the water or other fluid
which is to extract its virtues. One made by an emi-
nent French pharmacien, M. Bejot, is very effective and
complete. A is a long funnel-shaped glass, wiih a glass
stop-cock (b) in the bottom, which narrows to an inch
diameter; this fits into the neck of a large globular ves-
sel B, both being adjusted by grinding. C is a syringe
'of brass fixed in the glass B as shown, and made air-
tight by a caoutchouc washer, a1, «2, a3 are three
diaphragms of porous felt, pierced by the tube <l,
which allows air bubbles to escape from the bet torn
without disturbing the fluid. The material to be acted
upon, as wood, bark, roofr, leaves, etc., is first pow-
dered, and is then laid on the top of the uppermost
diaphragm, «', so as to half fill the space between it
and the glass-cover e; water, or any other required
fluid, is then poured in until it is filled, the stop cock
b is opened, and the operator draws the air from th«
Percolator. outer vessel by means of the air-pump C, the fluid is
thus rapidly drawn through the material, and displaces its soluble parts, a2 and a3 arrest
Perch.
Jt'ercuMiion.
the fine solid particles which arc carried through the first diaphragm with the liquid, ard
form sediments which are also acted upou by the liquid which is checked at each
divisioifrfor a time. The fluid, when it reaches the globular glass, however dark colored,
is beautifully bright and clear, and the preparations so made are remarkable for theii
good quality and uniformity of strength. In the year 1864 Dr. Redwood, of the phar-
maceutical institution of Great Britain, invented a new percolator of great efficacy.
It consists of a tinned copper cylinder, with a smaller cylinder of flannel inside,
in which the materials are put. The whole is filled with the fluid menstruum, and
as that which is in more immediate contact with the solid materials becomes charged
with the soluble matter displaced, it gives rise, as its density is increased, to an endos-
motic action through the flannel walls of the inner cylinder until the whole is equalized,
when it is drawn off by the tap, and fresh fluid added until it comes away colorless.
The outer cylinder has a tight cover to prevent loss by evaporation.
PERCOPSID^E, a family of fishes inhabiting the great lakes of North America,
represented by only one genus, p^rcopxis, of which there are several species, P. pellu-
culus being the most important. Their general form is trout-like, and they have
been mistaken for young salmon. Scales comb-like, lateral line well defined and nearly
^straight, mouth small, with lateral cleft; margin of upper jaw formed by intermaxillary
bones alone; no teeth on the palate; branchial openings large; branchiostegal rays six.
. There is one true dorsal fin, with branched rays, and an adipose fin as in salmonidce.
PEKCUS SIGN, in medicine, is the method of eliciting sounds by tapping, or gently
striking the surface of the body; its object being to determine by the nature of the sound
the comparative density of the subjacent parts. This means of diagnosis was first
employed by Avenbrugger in the middle of last century, and it was afterwards adopted
by porvisart in the investigation of heart diseases; but its value was not fully appreciated
till Laennec made the diseases of the chest his peculiar study; and since his time its
application and various uses have been considerably extended' by the labors of Piorry,
Hughes Bennett, and other physicians.
Percussion is chiefly employed in the diagnosis of diseases of the lungs, heart, and
abdominal organs. It may be direct (or, as some writers term it, immediate), or it may
be mediate. In the former case, the part to be examined is struck with the ends of the
three first fingers set close together on the same level, or with a small hammer tipped
with India rubber; while in the litter, which is now almost universally adopted, a flat
body is placed upon the chest, or other part to be examined, and is then struck by the
fingers or hammer. The flat intervening body is termed a pleximeter (f rom the Gr. pkxis,
a blow, and metron, a measure). The instrument usually sold as a pleximeter is a flat
oval piece of ivory, but the left index or middle finger" of the physician, with its flat
surface fitted accurately to tlie part to be examined, acts equally well. The force of the
stroke on the pleximeter — whether the stroke be made with the fingers or the hammer —
must vary according as it is desired to elicit the sound from a superficial or a deep-seated
part. The surface to be percussed should be exposed, or, at most, only covered with
one layer of clothing; and the blow should fall perpendicularly on the pleximeter.
When "percussion is made over a considerable cavity filled with air — as the stomach or
intestines — a hallow, drum-like, or (as it is usually termed by medical writers) a tym-
•pimit'c sound is produced. When any part of the surface of the chest is struck below
which there is a considerable depth of healthy lung-tissue, consisting of small cells filled
with air, a clear sound, less loud and hollow than the tympanitic sound, and termed the
pulmonfiry percussion note, depending partly on the vibrations of air in the lung-cells,
and partly on the vibrations of the walls of the chest, is evolved. When the subjacent
substance is solid (as the heart, liver, or spleen) or fluid (as when there is effusion into a
closed sac), the sound is dull in proportion to the density and want of elasticity of the
part struck. The first thin" that must be acquired, in order to make percussion useful
in the diagnosis of disease, is an accurate knowledge of the sounds, elicited from the
different parts in their nprmal condition. When, for example, the healthy pulmonary per-
cussion note is known, increased resonance of the walls of the chest will indicate a dilata-
tion of the air-cells (or pulmonary emphysema), while various degrees of dullness will
afford evidence of such morbid changes as the effusion of fluid into the pleura (hydro-
thorax), or inflammatory solidification of the lung-tissue (the hepatization of pneumonia),
or tubercular deposition. The use of percussion in relation to diagnosis is further shown
in the articles PERICARDITIS and PLEURISY.
PERCUSSION, CENTER OF. See CENTER OF PERCUSSION.
PERCUSSION-CAPS are small copper cylinders, closed at one end, for conveniently
holding the detonating powder which is exploded by the act of percussion in percussion-
arms. Caps were not used with the earliest percussion-arms, which the rev. Mr. For-
eyth of Belhelvie, Aberdeenshire, patented in 1807; but they became tolerably general
between 1820 and 1830, and were adopted for the army by 1840. ^With the adoption of
breech-loading arms, the use of separate caps has been discontinued. Tha cap now
forms a part of the cartridge, and at one operation is placed with it in the opened breech
of the gun. The manufacture is extremely simple: A sheet of thin copper is stamped
into pieces of appropriate shape, which are bent into the form of caps by stamping-
apparatus closing round a mandril, the whole being done in one machine by two opera-
Percy.
Pc-riera.
tions. The caps are then plac?d in a tray, mouths upward; and the inside of each is
touched with ii strongiy adhesive varnish. Over this is dusted ilie detonating powder,
all the particles which Vail to atih'-rc being blown, dusted, or shaken out. A stamper
once more is forced iuto the cap, to fix aud compress the powder, and the operation is
completed.
For muskets, the rap-; are charged with equal parts of fulminating mercury and
chlorate of potash; for cannon, with a mixture composed of two parts of chlorate of
potash, two parts of native sulphuret of antimony, and one of powueivd glass; the last
ingredient taking no part in the chemical action, and being added merely to iiicreabe the
friction. For the manner in which a cap is used. See LOCK.
FEECY. This is the name of a noble Norman family who accompanied the con-
queror to England, and whose head, William de Percy, obtained from his sovereign
thirty knight's fees in the n. of England. The representation of the house devolved
(temp. Henry I.) on Agnes, daughter of the 3d baron, who married Josceline of Lovaiu,
brother-in law of the king, only on condition that he adopted either th • surname or the
arms of Percy; he chose lo retain his paternal arms and to assume the IVrcy name.
The head of the family at the time was one of the chief barons who extorted Magna
Charta from king John; and the 9th feudal lord (temp. Edward I.) showed a similar
spirit towards the pope, against whose demands he maintained, with others of the greater
barons, the spiritual independence of the English crown. This nobleman's great
son was a distinguished military commander under Edward 111., and, acting as marshal
of England at the coronation of Richard II., was created earl of Northumberland, lie
subsequently, however, took up arms against Richard, and placed the crown on the head
of Henry of Lancaster, who became Henry IV. Again dissatisfied with the government.
he joined in rebellion with his son Hotspur, for the purpose of transferring the crown to
Mortimer, earl of March. The earl, with the other leaders of this rebellion, fell at
Kramhaui Moor (1407-08), and his titles became forfeited. These, however, were revived
in favor of his grandson, 'who became lord high constable of England, and who was
killed at the battle of St. Alb:in's. This earl's son and successor (the third earl) met a
like fate ou Towton field, fighting in the van of the Lancastrian, army. The 4'h carl
(who obtained a reversal of his father's attainder) was murdered by "the popular- in
Northumberland, when ordered by the avarice of Henry VII. to enforce a subsidy. The
executions of the 6th and 7th earls by Edward VI. and Eli /abet h are part of the history
of England. The 8th earl was committed to the tower, on a charge of being con-
in a plot in favor of Mary queen of Scots, and died a violent death in prison. The 10th
earl fought in the civil wars against Charles I., though he took no part with the regi
cides, and eventually joined in the general effort to bring about the restoration. The
llth earl left an only child, who succeeded to the ancient barony of Percy, and marry-
ing Charles, duke of Somerset, became the mother of Algernon, duke of Somerset, who
was created earl of Northumberland, with remainder to his son-in-law, sir Ilii'ih Smith-
eon, of Stanwick, in the county of York, a gentleman of respectable lineage. Sir Hugh,
succeeding to the earldom, obtained in 1766 his advancement to the dukedom of North-
umberland, which title is now held by Algernon -Seorge Percy, born in 1810, who
succeeded to the dukedom in 1867.
PERCY, THOMAS, D.IX, an eminent poetical collector, antiquary, and scholar, was b.
at Bridgenorth, Shropshire, in 1728; was educated at Christchurcli, Oxford; and having
entered the church, rose to be bishop of Dromore, in Ireland, 1782. He died in Irtll.
This amiable and accomplished prelate, the friend of Johnson, Goldsmith, and other
distinguished contemporaries, published translations from the Icelandic, a new v« r-ion
of the Song of Sybmon, the Northumberland HonwJiold Book, a translation of Mallet's
Northern Antiquities, etc. His most popular and valuable contribution to our literature
•was the Reliquex of Ancient English Poetry, consisting of old heroic ballads and songs,
with some modern imitations, in which the editor himself displayed the taste aud feel-
ing of a poet. This work appeared in 1765, and Percy lived to see four editions of it
called fo* by the public, and to receive the warm commendations of all poetical readers
and critics. The Reliqiies were chiefly obtained from an old folio MS. that had fallen
into Percy's hands, with the addition of pieces from the Pepys collection at Cambridge,
the Ashmole library at Oxford, the British museum, and the works of our earlier poets.
Certain liberties were taken with some of the ballads — softening touches, repairs, and
renovations — for which the editor was severely censured by Ritsoii and other antiquaries;
but the collection was of great value to our literature, recalling the public taste to the
rude energy, picturesque ness, and passion of the old chivalrous minstrels and Elizabethan
songsters. It captivated the youthful imagination of Walter Scott, and wa:<- the inspirer
and model of his Mn*treli*y of the Seottixh Border. The memory of Percy las 1 en .-till
further perpetuated by a club book association, called the PEUCY SOCIETY. See CLVU
Boo:;s.
PERDIC'CAS, son of Orontcs; a general of Alexander the great. He commanded a
division of the phalanx at the most important victories of Alexander; at Susa w::s given
a crown of gold and the hand of the Median satrap's daughter, and at the great con-
queror's death-bed received from him his signet-ring, and therefore claimed the protector-
ship of the empire. When Aridaeus, the natural son of Philip, was recognized as king,
4.Q ^ Percy.
Periera,
Perdiccas became the general of the household troops and gained full control of the
government. He joined the party of Roxaua, one of Alexander's wives, and put to death
btatira, the other. A confederation against the power of Perdiccas was entered into by
Antigonus, Antipater, and Ptolemy, and in B.C. 321 he was assassinated near Alemphis by
his own soldiers. .
PERDIDO, a bay and river of Alabama, U. S. The bay, 20 m. long by 6 to 10 m.
•wide, opens by a narrow channel into the gulf of Mexico, 18 m. w. of the entrance to
Pcnsacola bay; the river rises in s. w. Alabama, and bay and river form the boundary
between Alabama and Florida.
PERE DUCHESNE. See HEBERT, JACQTTES REXE, ante.
PER'EGBINE FALCON, Fttlco peregrinus, a species of falcon (q.v.) found in almost all
parts of the world. The female is larger than the male, being about 18 in. in length
from the tip of the bill to the tip of the tail, whilst the male is only about 15 inches.
The female is the falcon of falconers, and the male the tercel. The plumage of the two
sexes is very similar. The back, wings, and tail are bluish-slaie or ash-gray, the feath-
ers barred with a darker tint; the crown of the head, back of the neck, and a spot below
the eye, nearly black; the front of the neck, white, with dark longitudinal lines; the
breast, belly, and plumage of the legs, whitish, with dark-brown transverse bars. The
wings are very long, reaching almost to the tip of the tail; and the bird is remarkable
for Us power of flight, being capable of maintaining for a considerable time, a rate of
more than 100 miles an hour, so that it is often seen tar from any of its haunts or breed-
ing-places; whence the name peregrine, from the Latin peregrinnx, a wanderer. Its
swoop, when rushing on its quarry, is wonderful both for rapidity and force. The
peregrine falcon can easily carry through the air a bird or quadruped fully its own
weight. Its ordinary prey consists of grouse, woodcocks, rabbits, etc. The woodcock
in vain seeks to escape from it by threading its way among branches of trees and brush-
wood; the falcon follows, and exhibits at least an equal power of moving with great
rapidity in the thicket without getting entangled or stayed. Sometimes the quarry soars
into the air, and seeks safety by trying to keep above the falcon, till both are lost to
ordinary sight; but the falcon generally gets uppermost, and " strikes" it at last. Owing
to the quantity of game the peregrine falcon will capture — it is said that a single nest
will consume nearly 300 brace of grouse in a season, besides other prey — it is ruthlessly
trapped or otherwise destroyed, so that this beautiful bird is in danger, like others of its
family, of being exterminated. The peregrine falcon is a bird as remarkable for bold-
ness as for power of flight. It has sometimes been seen to pounce on game shot by a
sportsman, before it could fall to the ground; and an instance occurred in Yorkshire of
a peregrine falcon dashing through the glass of an aviary in a town, and carrying off a
bird. It makes its nest on ledges of high rocks, either on the sea coast or in inland
precipices and ravines, and lays from two to four eg<;s. Numerous localities in Britain
have long been noted as breeding-places of the peregrine falcon, and some of them are
regularly visited for I he young birds, which are still trained in certain places for the
sport of falconry. The bird, caught when adult, although more difficult to train, is,
however, believed to possess superior qualities. The peregrine falcon is more docile,
and becomes more gentle than the gyr-falcon. The young female of the peregrine
falcon has been by mistake described by Pennant and others under the name of the lan-
ner (q.v.) a species not found in Britain. .
PERIERA, JONATHAN, the pharmacologist, was b. in the parish of Shorcditch, Lon-
don, May 22, 1804. After a distinguished career at a classical acadenry in Finsbury,
where he remained for four years, he devoted himself to the study of medicine, and in
1823 was appointed resident medical officer of the general dispensary in AWersgate street,
at which institution he became, three years afterward, lecturer on chemistry. His
attention was early attracted to the study in which he has become famous. In 1824, he
published a translation of the London Pharmacopeia; which was followed by A Manual
for the Use 0f Students; A General Table of Atomic Numbers, with an Introduction to the
Atomic Theory; and other text-books for the use of those who were preparing for medical
examinations. He contributed numerous papers to the professional journals on the
properties and adulteration of drugs, and laid the foundation of those researches which
issued in his great work on Mcteria Medico-. In 1832 he resigned the office of lecturer
for that of professor of materia medica in the new medical school in Aldersgate street,
and at the same time he succeeded Dr. Gordon as lecturer on chemistry at the London
hospital. His FXemcnt* of J[aterict Medica (first published in the form of lectures con-
tributed to the Medical Times and Gazette) appeared as a separate work in 1839^0, and
nt onctt established his reputation as a pharmacologist. The treatise is remarkable for
the extent \,. its research, the variety of its information, whether scientific, commercial,
or practical, r-id the scrupulous exactness of its statements. In 1841, he procured the
license to practice in London from the college of physicians; in 1845 he was elected a
fellow of that body; and on the establishment of the London university he was
appointed examiner in materia medica and pharmacy, a post which he filled with
admirable efficiency till his death. Among his other contributions to science, the best
known are bis excellent treatises on Di-el anil on Polarized Light, both of which appeared
in 1843. Ilis death, which took place on Jan. 20, 1853, was the result of a fall down a
PerHre.
Perfectionists.
flight of steps in the college of surgeons, and was deeply felt, not only by bis profes-
sional brethren, but by the numerous scientific bodies, such as the royal, the Liuuaean,
ami the other societk-s of which he was a distinguished fellow.
PEREIRE. EMII.K, and ISSAC, sons of Jacob Rodrique/, an Israelite distinguished
for having instituted deaf and dumb schools in France; b. respectively in 1800 and 1800
in Bordeaux. Emile began life as a co-laborer with Annand Carrel upon the (jlibe and
Rational of Paris, and was an enihu>ia.-.tic St. Sinioniie. In l.v:;2 he projected the first
railroad in France, from Paris to St. Germain, and succeeded in getting the capital to
undertake its construction. The brothers soon obtained the contract for building the
railroad of the north, and inr this, and subsequent railroad work, realized great fortunes.
In 1852, in connection with the Rothschilds, they conceived and established the tiociete
generate du credit mobilier with a nominal capital of CO.000,000 francs. Its operation
became enormous in a short time, stimulated every kind of business, and encouraged
vast speculations. Though not a bank of is.-ue, it so manipulated the rapid exchange of
capital as to give the effect of a vast increase of money in circulation. After becoming
the center of enormous operations, not only in France.' but ;.s a medium of loans through-
out Europe, it collapsed in 1867,^ and absorbed in its uklation a part of the enormous
fortunes made by the brothers Pereire in ftsmanagem nt. Emile was the virtual bead of
the projects of the brothers, and Isaac the executive hand. The latter is author of a
pamphlet entitled Rale de la Baitfjue de France ct Vci-fiunizeation <!" cntiil in 1 rtutft, arid
others, financial and religious. Emile died in Paris in 1875, and Isaac in 1880.
PEREJASSLAVL , an ancient t. of Russia, in the gov. of Poltava, 100 m. s. of Tcher-
uigov, at the confluence of the Trubesh and Alta, near the Dneiper. A battle was fought
here in 1149. Pop. '67, 10.047.
PEREKOP, ISTHMUS OF, in south Russia, gov. of Taurida, 18 m. long, 16 m. broad
at its southern, and 5 m. broad at its northern extremity, connects the peninsula of the
Crimea with the mainland of European Russia. It is an arid waste of mere sand, or sand
combined with clay. There arc, however, numerous salt lakes, and salt is extensively*
made. In the u. of the isthmus, and forming the key to the Crimea, is the small t. of
Perekop. Notwithstanding its advantageous position at the convergence of the numer-
ous roads leading from South Russia into the Crimea, Perekop is of little, commercial
importance. Pop. oft. '67, 4,993.
PERE-LA-CHAISE. See LA- CHAISE.
PEREMPTORY DEFENSES, in Scotch law, mean defenses to an action or suit, which
amount to an entire negative of I lie right of action, as distinguished from a preliminary
or temporary defense.
PEREN NIAL, in botany, a term employed in contradistinction to annual (q.v.) and
biennial (q.v ) to designate* plants which subsist for a number of years. Some plants,
however, which are annual in cold climates, are perennial in warmer regions. The
term perennial is in general applied only to herbaceous plants, and indicates a property
only of their roots, the stems of most of them dying at the'cnd of each summer. Peren-
nial herbaceous plants, like shrubs and trees, are capable of producing flowers and fruit
time after time, in which they differ from annual and biennial plants, which are fruitful
only once. Those plants which are capable of being propagated by cloves, offset bulbs,
or tubers, are all perennial. Thus the potato is a perennial plant, although the crop is
planted in spring and reaped in autumn, like that of corn, whilst all the corn plants are
annuals. — There is a great diversity in the duration of life of perennial plants.
PERESLAV, or PEKEIAPLA'VLE-ZALIE'SKY, a district t. in the middle of great Rr
in the gov. of Vladimir, and 70 m. n.w. of the city of th.it nr.me. It was founded in
1052 by George, prince of Sousdal. It possesses numerous churches and religious insti-
tutions; but is principally noteworthy for the factories, which are its main prop, and of
which the most important are cotton'mills and print-works for cotton goods. The fac-
tories are in an increasingly prosperous condition. The cotton manufactures of Pere-
slav are exported to the fairs of Jsijni-Novgorod and Irbit. and even to China by way of
Siberia. Pop. '67, 7,452, employed in the factories and in the productive fishery of lake
Pleshtcheieff.
PEREZ, ANTONIO, Minister of Philip II. of Spain, was born in Aragon in 1539.
His father was secretary of state under Charles I. and Philip II., and he himself was
appointed to this office when only 25 years of age, and acquired the entire confidence ol
the king. Don Juam <V Austria, having sent his confidant, Juan de Escovedo, to Spain,
to solicit aid against the party of Orange; and Escovedo having rendered himself an
object of hatred both to the king and to Perez, the former resolved to put him out of
the way by murder, and intrusted Perez with the accomplishment of this design, which
Perez, to gratify his own revenge, accomplished accordingly. Mar. 31, 1578. The family
of Escovedo denounced Perez as the murderer, and all his enemies joined against him.
The kin gat first sought to shield him; but in July, 1581, he was arrested, and by torture
forced to confess. He succeeded, however, in making his escape to Aragon, were he
put himself under protection of its laws. After a long and severe inquiry into his con-
duct, he was found guilty of many acts of fraud and corruption, and condemned to
death in Madrid; but \\\G juntida major, or highest court of justice in Saragossa, refused
.
Perfection iats.
to deliver him up. The king applied for aid in May, 1591, to the inquisition, and the
Aragonesc court delivered him up to its agents, but the people rose in tumult, and lib-
erated him. This happened repeatedly; and at last, in Sep., 1591, Philip II. entered
Aragon with an army powerful enough to subdue all opposition, abolished the old con-
stitutional privileges of the country, and caused a number of the principal people to be
executed. Perez, however, made his escape, avoiding the many plots which the king
laid for his assassination. He was condemned in Spain as a heretic, but was treated
with great kindness in Paris and London. lie spent the latter years of his life in Paris,
and died there in 1011 in great poverty. Perez wrote an account of his misfortunes,
which was published at Paris iu 1598, under the title of Kelacionets.
PERFECTIBILITY OF CHRISTIANS, a doctrine held by the Wesleyan Methodists (see
METHODISTS) of a Christian perfection attainable in this life. It is not a perfection of
jii.sfijiaitfoit. but a perfection of sanctificatwnj which John Wesley, in a sermon 0:1 Chris-
tian perfection, from the text Ileb. vi. 1, " Let us go on to perfection," earnestly con-
tends for as attainable in this life by believers, by arguments founded chiefly on the
commandments and promises of Scripture concerning sanctiflcation; guarding his doc-
trine, however, by saying that it is neither an anr/elic nor an Adamic perfection, and
does not exclude ignorance and error of judgment, with consequent wrong affections,
such as " needless fear or ill-grounded hope, unreasonable love, or unreasonable aver-
sion.'' He admits, also, that even in this sense it is a rare attainment, but asserts that
'• several persons have enjoyed this blessing, without interruption, for many years,
several enjoy it at this day, and not a few have enjoyed it unto their death, as they
have declared with their latest breath, calmly witnessing that God had saved them from
all sin, till their spirit returned to God." Concerning all which, the general belief of
Protestant Christians is, that these persons were merely more self-complacent and less
sensible of tlieir own corruptions than is usual, and that the commands and promises
concerning sanctiflcation are all susceptible of an explanation consistent with remaining
.corruption in believers, and a need of further sanctification, or a continued going on
unto perfection whilst tlris life endures.
That perfection is attainable in this life is held by the Franciscans, Jesuits, and
Molinists in the church of Rome, but' denied by the 'Dominicans and Jansenhts. In
advocating the doctrine, its Roman Catholic supporters generally rest much on the
distinction bet'ween mortal and venal sins.
PERFE CTIONISTS, or BIBLE COMMUNISTS, popularly known as FREE-LOVERS, or
preachers of free love, a small American sect who are equally remarkable for the doc-
trines which they hold, and for the unfaltering way in which they carry them out in
practice. The founder of the sect, John Humphrey Noyes, is still alive, and is described
by William Hepworth Dixon, in his work on New America, as "a tall, pale man, with
eaiidy hair and beard, gray dreamy eyes, good mouth, white temples, and a noble fore-
head." In appearance he is a little like Mr. Carlyle, and he is said to be not a little
proud of the resemblance. Noycs was born at the towru of Brattleboiough in Vermont ; he
studied at Dartmouth college, N. H., where he took a degree; and he afterward became
a clerk in a lawyer's ottice at Chesterfield. In 1831 a revival of religion broke out at
Putney, and Noycs was one of those who were aroused to a consciousness of sin and
anxiety about the way of salvation. lie began to puzzle over theological questions; and
he gave up th- law to study theology at Andover, in Massachusetts. There he spent a
year in unremitting study of the Bible; but was exposed to many temptations, owing to
the habits prevailing among his fellow students. From Andover he passed to Yale-
college, New Haven, where he was first a student, afterwards a preacher in connection
with t'he Congregational body, and where he became a great seeker after truth — not as it
stands between God and man only, but as between man and man. Here it was that he
arrived at the«prineipal of the ideas which constitute his social and religious system —
deriving them, after much study and speculation, from the writings of St. Paul. He
came to the conclusion that the opinions of St. Paul had been completely misconceived
by all the Christian churches; that all our ecclesiastical organizations have consequently
been blunders; and that from the apostolic age to his own there had been no visible
church of Christ upon earth. lie conceived that in the age of Paul and Peter there had
been a true Christian church — a communion of saints, in which all were brethren, raid
all equals; but that it passed away at an early date, on our Lord having returned in
the spirit, as he had promised, to dwell among his people forever. This second advent
of Christ he placed in the year 70; and he came to the conclusion that since then the
true church has consisted, not of any of the religious organizations which have succes-
sively sprung up, but of saintly persons scattered here and there, sinless in body and
fioul, confessing Christ as their lord, professing holiness, rejecting law and usage, and
submitting their passions to the divine will. He believed" that Christ, on his second
advent, abolished the old law, and closed the reign of sin which began with Adam; and
that he has thenceforth set. up his kingdom in the hearts of all willing to accept his
reign. For such persons there was no longer any law or rule of duty; neither the
Mosaic code, nor the sermon on the mount, nor the ordinances or institutions of civil
society were binding upon them; they were a law unto themselves; they were free to do
as they pleased, but — with exceptions which, however, could not invalidate an eternal
U. K XL— 32
Performance.
IVrfuiiuM'y.
truth — under the influence of the divine spirit which dwelt in them, they could onlv (In
that Which was right. It was owing to the power of the devil that the. churches hud
gone so far astray; hut lie conceived that the time had conic when, unions the new com.
inanities of America, there should be set up a perfect model of a Chri.-tian church — in
which all should be brethren; in which men and women should be equals; in which
individuals should be untrammeled by any restraints save those imposed by the divine
spirit working within themselves. Noyes took upon himself the task of laying ihu
foundations of the true Christian caurch; but before selling to the work, he is aecu-eii
of having furnished, at once evidence of his belief in his theory, and an illusiration of tliu
dangers intending it in practice. His mind once satisfied that there wa- no law for him,
he gave the rein, it is said, to dissipation, and for some lime abandoned himself to lic.cn
tiousness. This, however, is denied us a malicious calumny.
His early efforts at establishing a church, made at >«'ew Haven, were vry discourag-
ing; he made converts to his views, and they became only too deeply imbued with hi.:
theory. Each being a law unto himself, they had conflicting desires, and this led t.
quarreling, and eventually to schism. Among the men, there were some who coir
wi h Xoyes the leadership of the fraternity; and among the women, on<- or two who,
in spite of iiis theory, expected him to marry them. At the end of four years, he found,
that though he had co-believers, he had no foHowers; and he retired to Putin-} , disap-
pointed, but resolved to make a new experiment. He determined to make trial of the.
principle of association — of association under conditions which he deduced from tli '.
New Testament; to establish a " Bible family" — a society disavowing all law and all
connection with the world, in which all should be brethren, perfectly equal; in which,
therefore, worldly goods should be held in common; in which there should be no appro-
priation of men and women to one another. The connection of the .-exes \\as, upon his
view, as free from law, as completely subject to the dedres of individuals, as every other
human relation; and besides, he seems to have thought a community of women a 1.
sequence from a community of goods. He saw that the members of such a a
must be selected and educate^ for it; and he set up a Bible chij-s, by means of which he
gained a sufficient number of proselytes, and educated them for Bible association.
Before long, there was nothing wanting for a trial of his scheme but money to buy a
house and a piece of land; and this he got by marrying one of his converts, ayoun^
lady named Harriet Holton, to whom it is but fair to say, he candidly explained that
with his principles marriage could be nothing but a form. Then he and hi
formally renounced their allegiance to the United States, and set up house in "celestial
order" at Putney. His wife, mother, sister, and brother were among the memb.-
the new society; the others were all persons of some means and position — preachers,
farmers, doctors, with their wives and children. Their property was thrown into a
common stock; they gave up the use of prayer, all religious service, and the observance
of the Sabbath; those who were married renounced their marriage ties, and a " complex
marriage" was established between all the males and all the females of the " family." To
get rid of the inconveniences which had been found attendant upon the exercise of
Christian liberty, Noyes had set up a new principle, vi/,., sympathy, by which the indi-
vidual will w'ns to.be corrected, which practically imposed upon individuals the duty of
deferring to the feelings and opinions of the brethren. He now taught that the family
was wiser than the individual, who mir/lit stray from the path of grace; that the individ-
ual was erring when he differed from the family; and that the inclinations of individuals
must be submitted to the opinion of the family. Having dispensed with law. he set up
public opinion as a controlling power in its stead; and free criticism of one another by
the members of the society became an important feature of his system. Quarreling,
however, broke out among the members; their differences were brought before the law-
courts; and when the details of the family system became known, the people of Putney
made the place too hot for the Perfectionists. Their establishment was Broken up: but
a portion of the Putney family — about fifty men. as many women, and about the same
number of children — soon established themselves in a new home, in the sequestered dis-
trict of Oneida, in the state of New York. Among the things which first drew attention
to the Putney family was a controversy which Noyes maintained with the leader- if
another society of Perfectionists established at Oberlin. The Perfectionists were divided
upon the question, whether of the two leading features of their system, the prof-
of holiness and the right of Christian liberty, the one or the other was the more impor-
tant— some wrere " liberty-men," others " holiness-men. " Noyes took up the controversy
on behalf of the latter.
At Oneida creek, the new "family" purchased about 600 acres of forest-land, and
proceeded to bring it under cultivation. They have made it one of the most productive
estates in the union; they have also established manufactures of various kinds; and in
the course of 30 years, they have become a prosperous, and even a wealthy community
Their wealth they owe in a great measure to the inventive talent of one of the " family,"
an old Canadian trapper, named Sewell Newhouse, who invented an improved form of
trap — the "Oneida trap" — which is now almost universally used by trappers throughout
America. In other respects, the "family" has been very prosperous: it consisted in the
year 1874 of in all 238 persons, who live together in a state of great harmony and content-
eduess; and being already sufficiently numerous, it has to reject frequent applications
AQQ Performance.
Perfumery.
which are made for admission to membership. A similar society has been established at
Wallingford, which numbered, in 1874, 45 members. Their neighbors have become
accustomed to the Perfectionists and their ways, and let them live in peace; Koyes is
even become popular. On settling at Oueida, guided by his experience, he modified
•many of the details of his arrangements. Between study and labor, the life of the
"family" at Putney had been rather a hard one — he told his followers that in future they
should enjoy life as became men to whom all things were pure and permitted. The
society chose no chiefs, believing that, without chief ship, the management of their
affairs must fall to the fittest persons; and their affairs have been ably managed. The
controlling function of criticism was strengthened by being mad-, nore systematic; and
a regard for the common good, grown strong through habit, has made persons who dis-
avow all laws perfectly submissive to the unwritten laws of public opinion. In the
smallest, as well as in important affairs, the Perfectionist practices submission te the
opinion of his brethren: in small matters, he usually gathers it by consultation with
some of the older members of the body; important ones are submitted to the "family"
at their evening meetings. All are busy; and they work as hard for the general interest
as men do in the hope of enriching themselves. The men wear no particular garb, but
usually dress like the country-people around them; the women have their hair cut short,
and parted down the center; abjure stays and crinoline; wear a tunic, falling to the
knee, and trousers of the same material; a vest, buttoning high toward the throat; and a
straw hat. In this costume, according to Mr. Hepworth Dixon, plain women escape
notice, and pretty girls look winsome; but, as maybe inferred from the treatment of
their hair, it has been no part of the Perfectionist system to make the women look
bewitching. The " family" has breakfast at six o'clock, dinner at twelve, and the even-
ing-meal at six in the afternoon; the more advanced of its members abstain from animal
food; they drink no beer, and only a weak home-made wine; and like most of the newr
American sects, they will have nothing to do with doctors. The women are allowed a
good deal of influence.
"\VhiIe all the males and females of the " family " are united by a " complex marriage,"
their intercourse — which, in theory, is unfettered by any law — is, in practice, subject to
a good deal of regulation. Like everything else, it is subject to the opinion of the
society, and certain principles hare been so steadily applied to it that they have gained
the force of laws. First, there is the principle of the ascending fellowship. There
should be contrast, the Perfectionists say, bctAveen those who become united in loAre.
That there should be difference of temperament and of complexion has, they say, been Avell
ascertained by physiologists. They hold that there should be a difference in age also, so
that the young and passionate may be united to those Avho haAre, by experience, gained
self-control. In virtue of this principle, the younger women fall to the older men. raid
thp younger men to the older women. A second principle is that there should be no
exclusive attachment between individuals; a third, that persons should not be obliged to
receive the attentions of those whom they do not like ; and, lastly.it is held indispensable that
connections should be formed through the agency of a third party — because, without this,
the question of their propriety might be withdrawn from criticism, and also because this
affords a lady an easy opportunity of declining. The human heart, the Perfectionists
say, is capable of loving any number of times, and any number of persons at the same
time, and the more it loves the more it can love. The system of the "complex marriage"
is therefore suitable to, while monogamy imposes a restriction upon, human nature; and
they believe that marriage. Avill be spurned by the churches as soon as they get rid of the
false notion of the essential sinfulness of love. They are confident that, Avhen they have
worked out a few details still incomplete, their system will be perfect, and that it will,
before long, be imitated throughout the length and breadth of America. There are four
tilings, according to Noyes, necessary to the organization of a true family: (1) The recon-
ciliation of its members with God :"(2) their sah-ation from sin; (3) recognition of the
brotherhood and equality of man and woman; (4) community of labor and its fruits; and
communism can only prosper Avhen the previous conditions exist. The Perfectionists
rhold that for reconciliation to' God and salvation from sin nothing is necessary but faith;
let a man believe that he is reconciled to God, and his sins are immediately washed
aAvay.
PERFORMANCE OP CONTRACTS is one of the modes of satisfying the contract, which
may be either by doing some specific thing, or not doing something, or by payment of
money. It is a good answer to any action brought by one party against another for
breach of contract, that what Avas contracted for has been already performed.
PERFU'MSRY— PERFUMES (Fr. perfum, fro^n Lat: /«»?«*, smoke or vapor), delicate
fumes or smells. Perfumes are of three distinct classes when derived from plants, and
there is a fourth class which are of animal origin.
CI-ASS I. — These are the most ancient, and nave been in use from the earliest period of
which there is record. They consist of the various odiferous gum-resins, Avhich exude
naturally from the trees which yield them; and to increase the produce, the plants are
often purposely wounded. The most important are benzoin, olibanum, myrrh, and cam-
phor No less than 5.000 cwt. of these together are annually imported into Britain.
Gum resins form the chief ingredients in " incense" (q.v.), and in pastilles (q.v.).
Perfumery.
CLASS II. arc those perfumes which arc procured by distillation. As soon as
the Gret ks and the Romans learned the use of the still, which was an invention imported
by them from Egypt, they quickly adapted it to the separation of the odorous principle
from the numerous fragTaace-bcsriag plants which are indigenous to Greece and Italy.
An essential oil or otto thus procured from or&nge-fiowen bears in commerce to this day
the name of neroly, supposed to be so named after the emperor Nero. Long before that
time, however, fragrant waters were in use in Arabia. Odor-hearing plants contain the
fragrant principle in minute glands or sacs; these are found sometimes in the rind of the
fruit, as the lemon and orange; in others it is in the leaves, as sage, mint, and thyme;
in wood, as rosewood and sandal. wood; in the bark, as cassia and cinnamon; in seeds,
as caraway find nutmeg. These glands or bags of fragrance maybe plainly seen in a
thin-cut stratum of orange peel: so al;-o in a bay leaf, if it be held up to I lie sunlight, all
the oil cells may be seen like specks, All these fragrant-bearing substances yield by
distillation an essential oil peculiar to each; thus is procured oil of patchouly from the
leaves of the patchouly plant, Pogostemon patchouly, a native of Burmah; oil of caraway,
from the caraway seed; oil of geranium, from the leaves of the geranium runa; oil -of
lemon, from lemon peel; and a hundred of others of more infinite variety.
The old name fqr these pure odiferotis principles was quintessence. Latterly, they
have been termed essential oils; they are now. in modern scientific works, often icnii' d
ottos, from the Turkish word attar, which is applied to the well-known otto or altar of
roses. Sec OIL.
All the various essential oils or ottos are very slightly soluble in water, SD that in tho
process of distillation the water which comes over is always fragrant. Tims, eider water,
ro.se water, orange water, dill water are, as it were, the residue of the di.-tillation
for obtaining the several ottos. The process of distillation (q.v.) is very simple; the
fragrant part of the plant is put into the still and covered with water; and when
the water is made to boil the ottos rise along with the steam, are condensed with it in
the pipe, and remain floating on the water, from which they ;:.o easily separated by
decanting. In this way 100 Ibs. of orange, lemon, or bergamot fruit peel v. i'l yield
about 10 oz. of the fragrant oil; 10!) Ibs. of cedar-wood will give about 15 o/. of oil of
cedar; 100 Ibs. of nutmeg will yield CO to 70 oz. of oil of nutmeg; 100 Ibs. of geranium
leaves will yield 2 oz. of oil.
Every fragrant substance varies in yieul of essential oil. The variety of essential oils
is endless; but there is a certain relationship among odors as among lints. Tho lemon-
like odors are the most numerous, such as verbena, lemon, bcrgamot, orange, citron,
citronella; then the almond-like, odors, such as heliotrope, vanilla, violet; men spice
odors — cloves, cinnamon, cassia. The whole may be classified into 1:3 v.ell-defmed
groups. All these ottos are very soluble in alcohol, in fat, butler, and fixed oils. They
also mix with soap, snuff, starch, sugar, chalk, and other bodies, to which they impart
their fragrance.
The principal consumption of the various fragrant ottos is for scenting roap. Wind-
sor soap, almond soap, rose soap, and n great variety of others, consist of various s-uaps
made of oil and tallovr, perfumed while in a melted state with the several named ottos
or mixtures of them.
Though snuff is by no means so popular an article in the reign of Victoria as it wns
in Anne's time, yet the increased population, and the extended exports to colonies,
cause a production of scented snuff positively greater now than CO years ag;>: and it is
especially in demand in the fur countries of northern Canada. There is "a l:r. con-
sumption of fragrant essential oils in the manufacture of toilet powders; under the vari-
ous names of rose powder, violet powder, etc., a mixture of starch and orris, differently
scented, is in general demand for drying the skin of infants after the bath.
Precipitated chalk and powdered cuttle-fish bone, being perfumed with olio of roses,
powdered myrrh, and camphor, become "dentifrice." The ottos of peppermint, lav-
ender, rose, and others, arc extensively used in scenting sweetmeats and lo/.c:.
More than 200,000 pounds-weight of various ottos have been imported into Britain
in one year, and valued at over £180,000; to this must be added at least one-third as
much again distilled in England. Of the imported articles enumerated, oils of lemon
and bergamot, from the Two Sicilies, reached 128,809 U.S., valued at £'5?.0,"54.
CLASS III. — These arc the perfumes proper, such as are used for perfuming handker-
chiefs, etc. Contrary to the general belief, nearly all the perfumes derived from (lowers
nre not made by distillation, but by the processes of cnfcururje and numeration. Altnough
this mode of obtaining the odors from flowers has certainly been in practice for iwo cen-
turies in the valley of the Var, in the s. of France, it is' only by the publication of a
recent work* that the method h^s been made generally known. The odors of Mowers
do not, as a'gcneral rule, exist in them as a store or in a gland, lint are developed as an
exhalation. While the flower breathes it yields fragrance, but kill the flower, and fra-
grance ceases. It has not been ascertained when the discovery wasmadcof condc nsinsr,
as it were, the breath of the flower during life; what we know now is that if a living
flower be placed near to grease, animal fat, butter, or oil, these bodies absorb the odor
given off by the blossom, and in turn themselves become fragrant. If we spread frcs>h
* Art of Perfumery, by Septimus Piesse, PH.D., 8vo. 50 cuts. Longman.
Perfumery.
ausa'ied bu'ter 'jpon the bottom of two dessert-plates, and then fill one of the plates with
gathered fragrant blossoms of clematis, covering them over with the second greased
plate, we shall find that after 24 hours the grease has become fragrant. The blossoms,
though separated from the parent stem, do not die for some time, but live and exhale
odor, which is absorbed by the fat. To remove the odor from the fat, the fat must be
scraped oft' the plates and put into alcohol; the odor then leaves the grease and enters
into the spirit, which thus becomes " scent," and the grease again becomes odorless.
The flower farmers of the Var follow precisely this method on a very large scale,
with but a little practical variation, with the following flowers: rose, orange, acacia,
violet, jasmine, tuberose, and jonquil. The process is termed enf enrage. In the valley
of the Var there are acres of jasmine, of tuberose, of violets, and the other flowers
named; in due season the air is laden with fragrance, the flower harvest is at hand.
Women and children gather the blossoms, wliich they place in little panniers like fisher-
men's baskets hung over the shoulders. They are then carried to the laboratory of
flowers and weighed. In the laboratory the harvest of flowers has been anticipated.
During the previous winter great quantities of grease, lard, and beef-suet have been col-
lected, melted, washed, and clarified. In each laboratory there are several thousand
chda,m (sashes), or framed glasses, upon which the grease to be scented is spread, and upon
this grease the blossoms are sprinkled or laid. The cMsse en verre is, in fact, a frame
with a glass in it as near as possible like a window-sash, only that the frame is two
inches thicker, so that when one chasse is placed on another, there is a space of four
inches between every two glasses, thus allowing space for blossoms. The flower blos-
soms are changed every day, or every other day, as is convenient in regard to the gen-
eral work of the laboratory or flowering of the plants. The same grease, however,
remains in the chasse so long as the particular plant being used yields blossoms. Each
time the fresh flowers are put on, the grease is "worked" — that is, serrated with a
knife — so as to offer a fresh surface of grease to absorb odor. The grease being enjleuree
in this way for three weeks or more — in fact, so long as the plants produce blossoms — is
at last scraped off the chasse, melted, strained, anil poured into tin canisters, and is now
fit for exportation. Fat or oil is perfumed with these same flowers by the process of
maceration-; that is, infusion of the flowers in oil or melted fat. For this end purified
fat is melted in a bain marie, or warm bath, and the fresh blossoms are infused in it for
several hours. Fresh flowars being procured, the spent blossoms are strained away, and
new flowers added repeatedly, so long as they can be procured. The bain marie is used
in order to prevent the grease becoming too hot from exposure to the naked fire; so long
as the grease is fluid, it is warm enough. Oil does not require to be warmed, but
improved results are obtained when it is slightly heated.
Jasmine and tuberose produce best perfumed grease by eiifleurage, but rose, orange,
and acacia give more satisfactory products by maceration; while violet and jonquil
grease is best obtained by the joint processes — enfleurage followed by maceration. For
enllennige of oil a cltdw, cnfer is used. In the place of ^lass, Ihe space is filled with a
wire net, on which is laid a molleton, or thick cotton fabric — moleskin soaked with oil;
on this the flowers arc laid, just as with solid grease. In due time — that is, after repeated
changing the flowers — the oil becomes fragrant, and it is then pressed out of the mole-
skin cloth. Oil of jasmine, tuberose, etc., are prepared in this way. In order now to
obtain the perfume of these flowers in the form used for scenting handkerchiefs, we
have only to infuse the scented fat or oil, made by any of the above methods, in strong
alcohol. I
In extracting the odor from solid fat it has to be chopped up fine as suet is chopped,
put into the spirit, and left to infuse for about a month. In the case of scented oil it
has to be repeatedly agitated with the spirit. The result is that the spirit extracts all
the odor, becoming itself " perfume," while the grease again becomes odorless; thus is
procured the essence of jasmine, essence of orange flowers, essence of violets, and others
already named, rose, tuberose, acacia, and jonquil.
It is remarkable that these flowers yield perfumes which, either separate or mixed in
various proportions, are the type's of nearly all flower odors f thus, when jasmine and
orange flowers are blended, the scent produced is like sweet-pea; when jasmine and
tuberose are mixed, the perfume is that of the hyacinth. Violet and tuberose resemble
lily of the valley. All the various bouquets and nosegavs, such as " frangipanui,"
" white roses," " sweet daphne," are made upon this principle.
The commercial importance of this branch of perfumes may be indicated by the
quantity of flowers annually grown in the district of the Var. Flower harvest: orange
blossoms, 1,475,000 Ibs. ; roses, 530,000 Ibs. ; jasmine, 100,000 Ibs. ; violets, 75,000 Ibs. ;
acacia, 45,000 Ibs.; geranium, 30.000 Ibs.; tuberose, 24,000 Ibs.; jonquil, 5,000 Ibs.
CLASS IV. — Perfumes of animal origin: The principal are musk (q.v.), ambergris
(q.v.), civet (q.v.), and castor (q.v.). The aroma of musk is the most universally
admired of all perfumes; it freely imparts odor to every body with which it is in contact.
Its power to impart odor is such that polished steel will become fragrant of it if the
metal be shut in a box where there is musk, contact not being necessary.
In perfumery manufacture, musk is mixed with other odorous bodies to give perma-
nence to ascent. The usual statement as to the length of time that musk continues to
give out odor has been called in question. If fine musk be spread hi thin layers upon
rrrsr:umis.
Pericarditis.
any surface, and fully exposed to a changing current of air, all fragrance, it is said, will
be gone in from 0 to 12 months.
Civet is exceed ingly potent as an odor, and when pure, and smelled at in the bulk of
an ounce or so, is utterly insupportable from its nau>eoiisnrss; in this respect it exi
musk. When, however, civet is diluted so as to offer but minute quantities to the olt'ac-
lories, then its perfume is generally admitted; this is so with gas-tar: but the fra-
Srant principle is the same as that breathed by the beautiful narcissus. Castor is in our
ay almost obsolete as a perfume.
The average importation of musk per annum for a period of five years was 9,388 oz.,
value £10,088; export, 1578 ox., value £2,14:5; leaving for home-coimimption every
year 7,810 oz. ; value £8,545. Average importation per annum for a similar period: ottc
of roses, 1117 o/., value, £13,501; vanilla, ;>, 525 Ibs., value. £12,508; ambergris, 225 OZ.,
value, £225; civet, 355 oz., value, £300; orris root, 420 hundredweight.
The works on perfumes are very few; that of Mine. Celnart, in the Libraire Roret,
is most worthy of notice among the French; a translation of it has been made by Mr. ('.
Morfit of Philadelphia. In England, The British P, rft/mtr, by C. Lilly (1822), was the
only work of the kind published in England prior to the Art of Perfumeiy by S. I'ie.-st.
(1855). See also llimmel's Book of Perfumes (1875).
PER GAMUS, or PERGAMVM, anciently a city, of Mysia in Asia Minor, on the navi-
gable river Cul'cus, at the distance of 120 stadia from the sea. According to tradition,
the place was of Greek origin, but its early history is quite insignificant. It Jirst acquired
prominence when Lysimachns, one of Alexander's generals, (hose it as a stronghold in
which to keep his treasures. Under Philetserus it became the capital of a slate. 2W r..c.
His successor, Eumenes I., maintained its independence against the Seleucidte. although
the title of king was first assumed by Attains I., who reigned from 241 to 197 n . c.
He intimately allied himself with the Romans against Philip of Ma'-cdon, and this alli-
ance subsisted throughout succeeding reigns, in which the kingdom increased in extent
and importance, till at last Attains III., surnamed Philometer, who died in 133 u.c. left
it with all his treasures to the Romans, who successfully maintained the right thus
acquired, and under whom the city continued to flourish. It was the focus of all the
great military and commercial routes of Asia Minor, and Pliny describes it at
clarissimum Asia1 Pergamitm. The Attali collected in Perganris a library only ii
to that of Alexandria. It was also the se'at of a famous grammar-school, and it gave its
name to parchment (q.v.). Pergamus sank under the Byzantine emperors, but the place
still exists under the name Bergamah, and is noted for the splendor and magnitici ;
its ruins, which embrace temples, palaces, aqueducts, gymnasia, amphitheaters, and city
walls.
PERGOLESE, GIOVANNI BATTISTA, an eminent musician of the Neapolitan school.
Evidence regarding the date and place of his birth is conflicting; probably the c
account is that of the marchese di Villarosa, his latest biographer, who states that he
was born at Jesi, near Ancona, on the Jan. 3, 1710. In 1717 he was admitted into the
Conservatorio dei Poveri di Gesvt Cristo at Naples, where he studied the violin under
Domenico di Matteis, and musical composition .under Gaetano Greco and Durante.
Under the conviction that melody and taste were sacrificed to learning by most <>f the
masters of his time, he abandoned the style of Scurlatti and Greco for that of Vinci
and Ifasse. His first great work was the oratorio of San GugKelmo d'Aqiiitania, com-
posed in 1731. In that and the following rear appeared his operas of /.</
Padrona; II Priffwnier Svperbo; and Lo Prate Innamorato; in 1734, Adriano in &
in 1735, II Flaminio and L'Olimpiade. In 1734 he received the appointment of •>/.<
di capetta of the church of Loretto. In consequence of delicate health he removed
to Pozznol i, where he composed the cantata of Orfeo, and his pathetic Stabat Mole/-
He died there of consumption in 1736. Besides the above-mentioned works. IVrgolcse
composed a number of pieces for the church, which were better appreciatt d during his
life-time than his secular compositions, also a violin concerto, and thirty trios for violin,
violoncello, and harpsichord. His works are all characterized by sweetness and freedom
of style.
PERI (Fairy), according to the mythical lore of the east, a being begotten by fallen
spirits, which spends its life in all imaginable delights, is immortal, but is forever exclu-
ded from the joys of paradise. It takes an intermediate place between angels and
demons, and is either male or female. So far from there being only female peris, as is
supposed by some, and these the wives of the dev*, the peris live, on the contrary, in
constant warfare with these devs. Otherwise, they are of the most innocuotis character
to mankind, and, exactly as the fairies, with whom our own popular mythology has
made us familiar, are, when females, of surpassing beauty. One of the finest compli-
ments to be paid to a Persian lady is to speak of her as perizadeh (born of a peri ; Greek,
parisatis). They belong to the great family of genii, or gin: a belief in whom is enjoined
in the Koran, and for whose conversion, as well as for that of man, Mohammed was
sent (cf. Koran, chaps. lv., Ixxii., and Ixxiv.).
PERIAGUA, a large canoe composed of the trunks of two trees, hollowed and
united into one fabric; whereas an ordinary canoe is formed of the body of one tree
KAO Pcrjjamus.
Perioaruitls.
only. Pcrir.guas are used in the Pacific, and were formerly employed among the AVest
luciia islands, whence the frequent allusion to them in livbiiisoti Crusoe.
PERIAXDER, Tyrant of Corinth, d. B.C. 585; succeeded his father Cypselus about
625. His first measures, on coming to the throne, were to close all the clubs and com-
mon tables, and keep the upper classes under espionage. He then raised a licet and an
nrmv, and allied himself with other Greek despots, and with barbarian kings. His last
years were unfortunate. His son, Sycophrou, was assassinated by the Corcyraans, and
Pcriauder killed his wife in a fit of jealousy. His weak-minded son Cypsclus was the
sole survivor of his dynasty. He is said to have left a didactic poem in 2,000 verses.
PERIANTH (Gr. pen, around, unthos, a flower), in botany, the floral envelope (see"
FLOWEU) of those plants in which the calyx and corolla are not easily distinguished.
The term is convenient, as it can be applied indifferently to the calyx and corolla; thus,
when there is either a calyx or corolla existing, but not. both, the perianth is said to be
xinrjj<'; when both are present, double. Both are really present in many endogenous
plants, to which the use of the term perianth is confined by some botanists; the single
floral envelope of exogenous plants being regarded as a calyx, and the corolla supposed
to be wanting. Ther perianth is ref/itlar in some plants, irregular in others. It often
displays great beauty, as in tulips, crocuses, lilies, etc.
PERICARDITIS, or inflammation of the pericardium (q.v.), is a disease of frequent
occurrence; the result of a very large number of post-mortem examinations being to
show that about 1 in 23 of all who die at an adult age exhibits traces of recent or old
attacks of this disorder.
For reasons which will be obvious when we come to speak of the physical signs of
this disease, we shall commence with a notice of the anatomical changes which take
place in the inflamed membrane. Very soon after symptoms of pericarditis begin to
show themselves there is an abnormal dryness of the serous membrane, which is speedily
followed by an increased secretion of fluid. The secreted fluid is sometimes almost
entirely fibrinous, in which case it coagulates, and gives rise to adhesions between the
heart and the pericardium; or it may consist almost entirely of serum, which remains
liquid; or it may be, and it most frequently is, a mixture of the two. When there is a
large amount of liquid effusion (as, for instance, a third of a pint or more) which is not
re-absorbed, death, usually takes place in the course of a few days, in consequence of
the interference of the fluid with the heart's actions; but when there is not much liquid
effusion, or when the liquid part is absorbed, the pericardium becomes more or less
adheivnt, and apparent recovery usually takes place.
In the cases that prove fatal when librinous fluid has been effused, but has not coagu-
lated to such an extent as to cause complete adhesion of the heart to the pericardium,
the partially coagulated fibrin (or lymph, as the older authors styled it) is seen to be of
a yellowish-white color, and to occur in a rugged, shaggy, or cellular form. Laennec
compared the surface on which the lymph is deposited to thai which would be produced
by suddenly separating two flat pieces of wood between which a thin layer of butter had
been compressed. Dr. Watson regards the appearance as more like the rough side of
pieces of uncooked tripe than anything else; while others have compared it to Tace-work,
cut sponge, a honey-comb, a congeries of earth-worms, etc. When the patient dies at a
more advanced stage of the disease — viz., soon after the whole of the membrane has
become adherent — incipient blood-vessels, in the form of red points and branching lines,
are seen, indicating that organization is commencing in the deposit, which, if death had
not ensued would have been finally converted into cellular or areolar tissue, and have
occasioned the complete obliteration of the pericardial cavity.
The symptoms of pericarditis are pain in the situation of the heart, increased by a
full inspiration, by pressure upon or between the ribs in the cardiac region, and especially
by pressure upwards against the diaphragm by thrusting the fingers beneath the cartil-
ages of the false ribs; palpitations; a dry cough and hurried respiration; discomfort or
pain on lying on the left side; restlessness; great anxiety of countenance; and sometimes
delirium. The pulse usually beats from 110 to 120 in a minute, and is sometimes inter-
mittent; and febrile symptoms are always present. These symptoms are seldom collec-
tively present in any individual case, and until the time of Louis the diagnosis of this
disease was uncertain and obscure. The physical signs, dependent on the anatomical
changes which have been described, are, however, generally so distinct that by their aid
the disease can be readily detected. They are three in number. 1. In consequence of
irritation propagated to the muscular tissue of the heart at the commencement of the
inflammation of its investing membrane, the ventricles contract with increased force,
rendering the sounds of the heart louder and its impulse stronger than in health, or than
in the more advanced stages of the disease. 2. When much fluid is effused into the peri-
cardium, dullness on percui-sion is always observable to a greater degree thnn in health.
This sign, which is very characteristic, is seldom perceived till the disease has continued
for two or three da}'s. In relation to .this increased dullness, we must premise that in
the healthy condition of the heart and lungs there is an irregular roundish space with a
diameter of somewhat less than 2 in., extending from the sternum (or breast bone)
between the level of the fourth and fifth ribs towards the left nipple, in which a por-
tion of the surface of the heart is not overlapped by the lungs, but lies in contact with
PnHcnrriluia. r.fiJ.
l'«-I-ic!l:S.
the w:'lls of tlio chest. This space should normally be flnll on percussion. In pericar-
ditis the extent of the dullness beyond the normal limit indicates the amount of effusion.
In extreme ca-es the dullness may extend over a space whose diameter is 7 in. or more.
Simultaneous with the increased duilnes>, there is ;i diminution of the heart's sounds in
c;on>cquencc of the intervening fluid, and the impulse is often scarcely perceptible. 3.
The rubbing of the iulhuncd and roughened surfaces upon each other gives rise to a
sound which is commonly called the friction ntund, but which has received various
names. Thus Dr. Watson calls it a to-aiul-fro sound, and observes regarding its varia-
tions that, "like all the other morbid sounds heard within the chest, it is capable of
much variety in tone and degree Sometimes it very ch i>!iies the noise made
by a saw in cutting through a board: SOUK times it is more tike that occasioned by the
action of a file or of a rasp; but its essential character is that of niti-i-nult rnli'iiiiy; it is a-
to-(nt d-fro sound." This bound is heard early in the disease, before the surfaces of the
pericardium are separated by the effusion of lluid; and it is due either to the dryness of
the membrane, or to its roughness from the deposition of lymph. When the contiguous
surfaces are cither separated by fluid, or become adherent, the sound di.-appears; but
when it has been lost from the tirst of these causes, it reappears after the fluid has been
so far absorbed as to permit the surfaces again to come in contact. But here, again,
ild duration is brief, for the surfaces soon become adherent and cease to rub upon each
other.
Pericarditis is a disease which occasionally runs a very rapid course, and terminates
fatally in forty-eight hours or less. In ordinary cases, however, which terminate in
apparent recover)', the disease generally begins to yield in a week, or ten days, and
excepting that adhesion remains, the cure appears to be complete in three week- or
But although these patients ,-ij>; an //'/>/ recover, the pericardial adhesion commonly occa-
sions other structural changes of the heart sooner or later to develop themselves and in
those cases that the physician has the opportunity of subsequently watching, it H
observed that fatal disease of the heart, primarily due to the pericarditis, almost always
supervenes. In slight cases it is probable that a true cure, without adhe.-ion, may tuku
place.
Pericarditis frequently arises from exposure fo col.l when the body is warm and per-
spiring. It is no uncommon result of a contaminated state of the blood, such a*
occurs in the exanthematous diseases, especially scarlatina, and in Bright's disease of
the kidney; but beyond all comparison, it is of most frequent occurrence in a-
tion with acute rheumatism (q.v.), of which it forms by far the most dangerous com-
plication.
At the commencement of the disease, blood should be freely taken (if the patient is
tolerably robust) from the region of the heart either by cupping or repeated leeching;
and at the same time every attempt must be made to get the system under the inlii.
of mercury to the extent of rendering the gums tender and of ::1V<" tin;;- the breath. Not
only should calomel in small doses, and combined with opium with the view of prevent-
ing purging, be frequently given, but mercurial ointment should be rubbed into tho
arm-pits and inner sides of the thighs, and the mouth should be kept slightly .-ore for
sometime. After three or four days, if there should be much lluid effusion, a
blister should be applied over the heart; and if the patient is not already under the influ-
ence of mercury, the raw surface may be dressed with mercurial ointment. Perfect re.-t
both of body aiid mind is of essential importance, and all possible causes of excitement
should be excluded. The diet should be mild and chiefly farinaceous, and little or no
animal food should be allowed till the beginning of convalescence. Cooling drinks aro
agreeable to the patient, and may be taken freely wilh advantage throughout the dis-
ease.
PEEICAE'DIUK, THE, is a conical membranous sac, containing the heart and tho
commencement of the great vessels, to the extent of about two inches from their origin.
It is placed with its apex upwards behind the sternum, and to its left .'.Me. in the inter-
val between the pleurae — the serous sacs in which the lungs are inclosed; while its base
is attached to the diaphragm. It is a fibro-serous membrane, consisting of an external
fibrous and an internal serous layer. The fibrous layer is a strong, dense, fibrous mem-
brane; the serous layer invests the heart, and is then reflected on the inner surface of
the fibrous layer. Like all serous membranes, it is a closed sac; its inner surface i-;
smooth and glistening, and secretes a thin fluid which serves to facilitate the natural
movements of the heart. It is inflammation of this serous sac which constitutes the dis-
ease known as pericarditis.
PEBICARP. Sec Fiurrr.
PEKICLES (Gr. PERTKT,KP), the most accomplished statesman of ancient Greece, was
b. of distinguished parentage in the early part of the 5th c. i?.r. His father was that
Xanthippus who won the victory over the Persians at Mycrde. -17!) n.c.. and his mother,
Agariste. was the niece of the great Athenian reformer Cleisthenes. Pericles received
an elaborate education; but of all his teachers, the one whom he most revercmed. and
from whose instructions he derived most benefit, was the philosopher Anaxagoras (q.v.).
Pericles was conspicuous all through his career for the singular dignity of his manners,
the " Olympian" thunder of his eloquence, his sagacity, probity, and profound Athenian
Pericardium.
Poricto*
patriotism. When he entered on public life, Aristides had only recently died, Themis-
tocles was an exile, and Cimon was fighting the battles of his country abroad. Although
the family to Which he belonged was good, it did not rank among the first in point of
either wealth or influence, yet so transcendent were the abilities of Pericles, that ho rap-
idly rose to the highest power in the state as the leader of the dominant democracy.
The sincerity of his attachment to the "popular" party has been questioned, but with-
out the shadow of evidence. At any rate, the measures which either personally or
through his adherents he brought forward and caused to be passed, were always in
favor of extending the privileges of the poorer class of the citizens. Pericles seems to
have grasped very clearly, and to have held as firmly, the modern "radical " idea, that
as ihe state is supported by the taxation of the body of the citizen*, it must govern -with
a view to general and not to caste interests. In 461 B.C., Pericles, through the agency of
his follower, Ephialtes, struck a great blow at the influence of the oligarchy, by causing
the decree to be passed which deprived the areopagus of its most important political
powers. Shortly after, the democracy obtained another triumph in the ostracism of
Cimon. During the next few years the political course pursued by Pericles is not very
clearly discernible, but in general his attitude was hostile to the desire for foreign con-
quest or territorial aggrandizement, so prevalent among his ambitious fellow-citizens.
In 454 B.C., or shortly after, he magnanimously proposed the measure (which was car-
ried) i'or the recall of Cimou, and about the same time commenced negotiations with the
other Hellenic states with the view of forming a grand Hellenic confederation, the
design of which was to put an end to the mutually destructive wars of kindred peoples
— to mak of Greece one mighty nation, fit to front the outlying world. The idea was
uot less sairacious than noble. .Had it been accomplished, the temi-barbarious Macedo-
nians would have menaced the civilized Greeks in vain, and even Koine at a later period
might perhaps have found the Adriatic, and- not the Euphrates, the limits of her empire.
But the Spartan aristocrats were utterly incapable of morally appreciating such exalted
patriotism, or of understanding the political necessity for it, and by their secret intrigues
brought the well-planned scheme to naught. Athens and Sparta were already, and
indeed had for some time been, in that mood towards each other Avhich rendered tlio
future Peloponnesian war inevitable. They are always found on opposite sides. When
the Spartans, in 448 B.C., restored to the Uelphians the guardianship of the temple and
treasures of Delphi, of which they had been deprived by tiie Phocians, the Athenians
immediately after marched an army thither, and reinstated the latter. Three years later,
an insurrection broke out in the territories tributary to Athens, Megara, Euboca, etc.,
and the Spartans again appeared in the field as the allies of the insurgents. The posi-
tion of Athens was critical. Pericles wisely declined to fight against all his enemies at
once. A bribe of ten talents 'scut the Spartans home, and the insurgents were then rap-
idly and thoroughly crushed.
Cimon was now dead, and was succeeded in the leadership of the aristocratic party
by Thucydides, son of Miksins, who in 444 B.C. made a strong effort to overthrow the
supremacy of Pericles by attacking him in the popular :;s>( mbly for squandering the
public money on buildings, r.nd in festivals and amusements. Thucydides mr.de an
effective speech; but Pericles immediately rose and offered to execi^e the buildings at
his own expense, if the citizens would allow him to put his own name upon than insti ;.d
of theirs. The sarcasm was successful, and Pericles was empowered to do as he please d
in the matter. But Pericles did not mean to be simply sarcastic; he wished to point out
to the Athenians in a dt-licfite way the spirit and aim of his policy, why h w:.s to make
Athens, as a city, worthy of being the head and crown of Hellas. His victory in the
assembly was followed by the ostracism of Thucydides; and during the rest of his car< er
"there was," says the historian Thucydides, "in name a democracy, but. in reality a
government in the hands of the first man." The same author, however, informs us that
he never did anything unworthy of his high position; that lie did not flatter Ike pco-.
pie, or oppress his adversaries; 'and that with all his unlimited command of life public
purse, lie was personally incorruptible. Soon after this the Sinnian war broke out, in
which Pericles acquired high renown as a naval commander. This war originated in a
quarrel between tne Milesians and Samians. in which Athens was led to take a part
with the former. The Samians, after an obstinate struggle, were beaten, ard a peace
was concluded in 440 B.C. The position in which Athens then stood towr.rds many of
the Greek states was peculiar. Since the time of the Persian invasion she had been the
leader of the confederacy formed to resist the attacks of the powerful enemy, and the
guardian of the confederate treasury kept in the isle of Delos. Pericles got the treasury
removed to Athens, and, commuting the contingents of the allies for money — Athens, of
course, herself undertaking to protect the confederacy — enormously increased the con-
tributions to the "patriotic fund." The grand charge against Pericles is, that he
applied the money thus obtained to. other purposes than those for which it was designed;
that, in short, he adorned and enriched Athens with the spoils of the allied states. But
the objection is more plausible than solid, for, in point of feet, Athens kept up in admir-
able discipline a great fleet and a fine army, and Pericles made the Greek name more
respected in his time than it had ever been before. It may be that liis conduct is ep< M 1"
criticism in some respects, but a broad and just view of the motives which impelled him
to act as he did, and a fair consideration of the political exigences of the time will, In
1'erisr.
Period,
the main, justify his procedure. It is unnecessary to give K detailed account of all that
lie did to make his native city the ino-t glorious in the ancient world. Greek archi-
tecture and sculpture, under hi* patronage, reached perfection. To Pericles, Athens
owed the Parthenon, the Propylsea, the Oueum, and numberless other public and sacred
eiii'ices; he also liberally encouraged music and the drama; and. during his rule, indus-
try and commerce were in. so nourishing a couditioii, that prosperity was universal in
Attica.
At length in 431 "B.C., the long-foreseen and inevitable "Peloponuesian war" broke
out between Athens and Sparta. \Vith the circumstances that led to it we have not here
todo, but as it terminated most disastrously for Athens, it is but right to say thai IVri-
cle3 is not to blame for the result. Had the policy which he recommended been pur-
sued, one can hardly doubt that Athens, with her immense resources, would have
the victor, and not the vanquished, in the struggle. Pericles him>eli' died in the autumn
of 429 H.C., after a lingering sickness. His character has been sulliciently delineated in
the outline of his life which we have giveu. His connection, with, the brilliant Aspasia
(q.v.) is noticed elsewhere.
PERIER, CASTMIR, a celebrated French statesman, wash, at Grenoble, in the depart-
ment of Isere, France, Oct. 21, 1777. His father had enriched himself by mercantile
and industrial pursuits, into which he initiated his two elder sons; but Casimir was still
studying at the college of the oratory at Lyon when the revolution broke out. He imme-
diately went to Paris, and there associated himself with his father and elder brother,
Antoine-Scipion, in their endeavors to found a banking company. It is suHicient to
notice here that the banking company was firmiy established, and became the bunk of
France. Casimir was drafted into the army in 1798, and served in an engineering corps
till 1801, when he returned to Paris, and resumed the position of coadjutor to his
brother. The house of Perier prospered greatly under the empire; the peace which fol-
lowed the events of 1815 aid'-d the development of their plans, and gave a wider scope to
their enterprises; and the niblic regarded with special favor men such as these two
brothers, who devoted their abilities and fortunes to foster the growth of public, a
as their own, prosperity. In 1817 Perier published three tracts, in which he condemned
the financial policy of the ministry. These papers made a lively impression on the pub-
lic, and led to- the return of the author to the chamber of deputies by the electors <>f
Paris. Perier, iu his political principles, was essentially a constitutionalist, equally far
removed from absolutism "on the one hand, and extreme democracy on the other. The
elections of 1824, conducted under government influence, resulted in the ousting of the
greater portion of the constitutionalists. Perier, however, and a few others of the chiefs
of the party retained their scats; but their opposition to the. ministerial measures, though
constant and unwearying, was quite ineffective; it, however, raised them greatly in pub-
lic opinion, and secured their re-election, in 1827. In this year Perier had the honor of
being elected as representative by both the departments of the Seine and Aube. lie
defended the loyal and sagacious administration of M. de Martignac, whose representa-
tions to the king, Charles X., seemed to have the effect of reconciling the royal party to
government in conformity with the charter; but the subsequent rule of the prince de
Polignac reduced liis hopeful state of affaire to its former critical condition. The revo-
lution (of July, 1830), which Perier, from his experience of that of 1789, had made even-
endeavor to prevent, now followed, and it only remained for him to render it as blood-
less as possible. In this he was successful, through his great influence with the people
of Paris. On Mig. 3 he was elected president of the chamber of deputies, but resigned
this otfice on the llth of the same month to become a member of the ministry. When
Laffitle became president of the council (Nov. 2), Perier, fearing that the tendencie> of
the ministry were too revolutionary, resigned office, and resumed the presidency of the
chamber of deputies. On Mar. 13, 1831, he succeeded Laffitte as minister, and gave his
whole aHention to the repression of revolution, the maintenance of order at home and of
peace abroad, originating the political system known as \\iejuatemilwu (q.v.). His for-
eign policy was very successful ; he greatly contributed to the maintenance of Belgian
independence, the suppression of the Miguelite insurrection in Portugal, the counterbal-
ancing of Austrian influence in Italy, and, in general, to the spread and progress of con-
stitutional liberty both at home and abroad; but the rapid growth of extreme liberalism
in France, partly owing to previous encouragement unwittingly afforded by himself, was
a source of great annoyance to him. On the outbreak of cholera in Paris. Mar. . 1 *:!:>.
Perier made the most extraordinary exertions for the enforcement of the neee^ary sana-
tory measures; but he was attacked by the disease, and his system being already
exhausted by over exertion, he died May 16, 1832. No public man in France was ever
BO generally and sincerely lamented, and a monument to his memory was erected by pub-
lic subscription in the cemetery of Pere-la-Clmise.
PEEIGEE (Gr. pen, near; ge, earth), that point in 'the moon's orbit which is nearest
to the earth. The opposite point is the Apogee (q.v.). See MOON.
PERIGORD, an old division of s.w. France in Guienne, and now forming part of
Dordogne and Gironde. During the reign of Henry IV.. in the 8th c., it became a county,
and was added to the crown; and at one tune was divided into upper and lower Perj-
gohl. 'Perigtieux and Sarlat were the capitals.
PC A 7 Perier.
Period.
PEEIGTJETJX, a t. of France, capital of the department of Dordogne, and situated on
the right bank of the isle, 68 in. e.n.e. of Bordeaux. It consists of the ancient city of
Perigucux proper — which is gloomy in aspect, and has narrow streets, but large and
solidly-built houses — and the Pay St. Front, which, until the year 1240, was a separate
and a." rival town. In the old town there are many curious remains of Gothic architec-
ture. The old ramparts have been demolished, aud replaced by beautiful aud spacious
boulevards. The cathedral of St. Front is a majestic edifice, restored at the end of the
loth century. Quarries of building-stone are worked in the vicinky, and many hands
are employed in cutting and polishing marble. Paper, woolen cloths, cutlery, and
hosiery are manufactured. The celebrated Paten de Perigueux, made of partridges and
truffles, are largely made and exported. Pop. '76, 23,290.
Perigueux, a town of the highest antiquity, is the Vexunna mentioned by Ctcsar. In
ancient times it was a city of much importance. ' It stood at the junction of five Roman
roads, and contained a number of splendid edifices. Close to the modern town are still
to be seen the remains of a vast amphitheater, oval in form, and larger in its dimensions
than the ancient amphitheater of ISaines. There are also remains of ancient aqueducts,
baths, and temples. The Tour de Vesonne is the most remarkable fragment of Roman
architecture. It is still 67 ft. high, aud appears to have been much higher; is 200 ft. in
circumference, and has walls 6 it. thick, it has neither doors. nor windows. Its pur-
pose is not known.
PERIHE LION (Gr. peri, and helios. the sun), that point in its orbit at which a planet
is nearest the sun. The point of the orbit opposite to it is called the Aphelion (q.v.).
The position of the perihelion, i.e., its longilu.de e. or w. of the equinox, is one of the
seven elements of a planet's orbit.
PEEIM', a sm;!ll island belonging to Great Britain, situated in the strait of Bab-el-
Mrurdeb, at the entrance to the Reel sea; lat. 12s 40' 30" n., long. 43° 22' east. Perim is
level, and is slightly elevated above the sea, and is 3i in. long; is 1| m. from the Arabian,
and 9 m from the African coast. Pop. '71, 211. On both sides of this island the navi-
gation is easy; the little strait, between the island aud Arabia, is the passage most gen-
erally taken by vessels. The island is bare, destitute of fresh water, and ill-furnished
with provisions, which are brought for the most part from Aden. Perim owes its
importance wholly to its commanding position at the entrance of the Red sea. On its
s.w. side is an excellent harbor, capable of accommodating 40 men-of-war, within 100
yards from the shore. There is a walled lighthouse on the island. Fortifications were
erected on the island in 1857, but, with the temporary arsenal, etc., were subsequently
removed again. It was captured by sir David Baird, and then occupied by the English
in 1799, and held by them as a check upon the designs of the French, who were then in
.Egypt. It was abandoned in 1801, but \vas re-occupied by Great Britain in 1857, with
a view to the protection of her Indian possessions, which were thought to be exposed to
some chance of danger from the opening of the Suez canal (q.v.).
PERIMETER (Gr. peri, around, mctron, a measure) and PERIPHERY (Gr. pliero, I
carry) are terms denoting the boundary, or the length of the boundary, of any closed
plane figure; though the term "perimeter" is generally confined to those figures which are
bounded by straight lines.
PERIN.ZEUM. The part of the human body which forms the floor of the true pelvis
is by anatomists divided into two portions. Of these, the anterior one, situated in front
of the anus, is called the true periimum, or urethra! portion of the perinseum; the poster-
ior portion, which contains the anus or termination of the rectum, is called the ischio-
rectal region, or anal portion of the perinsBurn. The anterior portion, or true peringeum,
is triangular in form, the apex being in front; the sides, about 3 in. in length, are formed
by the rami of the pubes and ischium; and the base by an imaginary line joining the
tuberosities of the ischium, and passing about half an inch in front of the anus. Through,
this space the urctha passes through a layer of strong fascia — the deep periuaeal fascia —
to communicate with the bladder, and in this space the opening is made in the operation
of lithotomy.
PE RIOD, a term used in chronology in the same sense as cycle (q.v.), to denote an
interval of time after which the astronomical phenomena to which it refers recur in the
same order. It is also employed to signify a cycle of cycles. Various periods have
Ix-cn invented by astronomers, but we can only notice a few of the most important.
The Chaldeans invented the Chaldiiic Period, or Period of Eclipses, from observing
that, after a certain number of revolutions of the moon round the earth, her eclipses
recurred in the same order and of the same magnitude. This period consists of 223
lunations, or 6,798.28 days, and corresponds almost exactly to a complete revolution of
the moon's node. The Egyptians, made use of the Dog-star, Siriacnl, or Kothric Period,
as it is variously called, to compare their civil year of 365 days with the true or Julian
year of 365£ days. The period consequently consisted of 1460 Julian years, correspond-
ing to 1461 Egyptian years, after the lapse of which the dales in both reckonings
coincided. By comparing the solar and lunar years, Melon, an Athenian, invented (432
B.C.) a lunar period of 6,940 days, called from him the Metonic Cycle (q.v.). also the Lunar
Cycle. About a century afterwards, the cycle of Melon was discovered to be an iusuffi-
Periodical.
508
cient approximation to the truth, as he had made the solar yr-nr too Ion? by about ,\.th
of a day, at the end of 4 Metouic cycles the solar reckoning was in advance of the
lunar by about 1 day 6 hours. To remedy this, a new ju.-iiod, called the C-
Period, was invented by Calippus, and consisted of 4 Melon!,. cvcies le.-s by 1 day, or
37,759 days. But as this period still .save a difference of 0 hoars between theVolar
and lunar reckonings, it was improved by Hippardius, who invented the Ji/\>j"iiT/,,r,
Period of 4 Calippic periods less by 1 day, or 111,035 days, or about :JO-I Julian years.
which is an exceedingly close approximation, being pnly 6i minutes too long, '\vheu
measured by the tropical year; and too short but by an almost inappreciable quantity,
when measured by the Synodic Month (see MONTH). The period <>j tin //« '>'nnd or .N-
Cycle, after which the same day of the month fails upon the same day of the week,
consists of 28 Julian years. If the year had regularly ct-n>iMcd of «>(>5 days, that is,
one day more than an exact number* of weeks, it is evident that, at the end of seven
years, the days of the mouth and week would again correspond; but the introduction of
an intercalary day into every fourth year causes this coincidence to recur at irrcgu-
iar periods of t>, 11, 6, and 5 years successively. However, by ehosing a period
such as will preserve the leap-years in the same relative position to'llie other years, and
at ^he same time consist of an exact number of weeks (both of which objects are cll'eei. d
by using the number 28, which is the least common multiple of 4 and 7), we insure the
regular recurrence of the coincidence between the days of the week and of the month.
The solar cycle is supposed to have been invented about the time of the council of Nico
(825 A.D.), but it is arranged so that the first year of the first cycle corresponds to 9 B.C.
In calculating the position of any year in the solar cycle, care must be taken to allow
for the omission of the intercalary day at the beginning of each century, and its insertion
in the first year of every fourth century. See LKAP- YEAR. The year 1880 is the IHlh of
the solar cycle. The Julian Period is a cycle of cycles, and consists of 7,980 (=28x18X15)
years, after the lapse of which the solar cycle, lunar cycle, and the indict ion (q.v.j
commence together. The period of its commencement has been arranged so that it will
expire at the same time as the other three periods from which it has been derived.
The year 4713 B.C. is taken as the first year of the first period, consequently, 1 A.D. was
tL-i 47141k of it, and the year 1875 was the 6588tk.
PERIODICAL, a publication which appears continuously at regular intervals, and
whose contents may be devoted to criticism, politics, religion, literal un. scieao
amusement, or general and miscellaneous subjects. Those periodicals which con
a coMcction of critical essays are called reviews.
Thy earliest periodical in Great Britain seems to haA-ebecn the ri:'n. ••/>, lilcul Tranr<ir-
tions of the Royal Saciety, which first appeared in 1665, and contained notices ( f books as
well as original papers. Periodicals professing to notice the books that were being pub-
lished appeared soon after from lime to time under the name of All ///-• II "/••/.* <>f th«
Learned; and in 1690 appeared the Gentlemen's Journal, or Monthly J//M-. '"".'<//. properly
speaking, Ike first English magazine. The Gentleman's Magazine was fc muled in 1781
by Cave the printer, a periodical which secured a fortune for its proprietor, and. after
surviving all its- competitors, still exists, though lately somewkat assimilated in form to
the new 'class of magazines. The periodical literature of Scotland was long represented
by the Scots Mafja-ine, founded in 17^9. The first IJnglish periodical that attempted
anything like criticism was the Monthly Tfericw, begun in 1749. It was followed in
1756 by the Critical Review, founded by Smollett; and these two were long the lead-
ing periodicals of their cl.:<5s, though their criticism was but meager and unsatisfac-
tory. 'according to our present notions. Another critical journal, called the Atiti-
Jacobin, was established in 1798. In 1802 a new era in critic -ii-m was inaugurated by
the establishment in Scotland of the Edinburgh Rrr.iiw (q.v ); which was followed
in London by the Quarterly Review, of about equal merit and opposite politics, snn-
ported by sir Walter Scott. Southey, 8. T. Coleridge, Heber, and at a later |
by Hartley Coleridge, lord Mahon, and Gladstone. Another very important peri-
odical. Blackioood's Magazine, sprung up in Edinburgh in 1817, under the r.uspices
of John Wilson and Lockhart, as much above the literary mark of forn.cr magazine*,
as the Kdinlntrgh and Quarterly were above the mark of preceding reviews, strongly
devoted to the interests of conservatism, and, in its early years, somewhat violent in its
politics. The review, in the course of time, became the favorite medium for all par-
ties to disseminate their views on political, literary, or theological subjects. Of
various reviews after the model of ike Edinburgh ard Quarterly, and published, like
them, four times in the year, some, as the North British Review and Rational Betiett,
after having had a flourishing existence for some time, succumbed to the demand for
cheaper periodicals, appearing at more frequent intervals. Among existing reviews
appearing quarterly may be mentioned the Edinburgh and (Jmri-t<'i-<y. which are still
among our foremost periodicals; the Westminster Review, established 1824, characterize^
by freedom in handling philosophical and theological topics, and containing es>ays by
J. S. Mill. Carlyle. Grcite. John Sterling, and lord Houghton; and 'he Duhliii J:
Roman Catholic, founded in 1836. Many of the newer reviews app-ar monthly. Of
these, the Contemporary lieriew and the Nineteenth (jentury arc both very obly conducted;
as is also the Fortnightly Review (at firsfpubhshed twice a month), considered tko orguc
509
Period ic:il.
of the very advanced liberal party. There are also weekly reviews, which unite with
thfi review more or less of the character of a newspaper: of these, the most widely circu-
lated and inilueutial arc the Aihenceum, established in 1828, the tiaiurdity ll<:>;inc, in
1856; and the Academy, in 18G9, at first published monthly. Other more or less recently
established reviews are Nature (1869), a weekly (illustrated) journal devoted to the inter-
ests of natural science; the Popular Science Review (quarterly); and Mind (quarterly),
established in 1870, and devoted to mental science. The articles in the older reviews
are generally anonymous; in the newer, it has become to a large extent the practice for
the authors to adhibit their names.
The greater part of magazines or periodicals of i\ more miscellaneous character appear
monthly, and their system of management is somewhat similar to that of reviews; but
the articles are generally shorter, the subjects more varied, consisting often of tales and
novels, which appear there as serials, continued from number to number. Borne of the
most popular novels of the present day have first been published in magazines. B'ac.k-
nnrxl was the precursor of various monthly magazines of repute, the most important
being Fraxcr's Magazine, established in 1830, which still preserves a high literary charac-
ter. The usual price of these periodicals is 2s. Gd. ; but in 18-39-00, several r.ew maga-
zines, Mnamllf tit's Magazine, the Cornhill, Temple Bar, London Society, and the St.
James's Mnr/<i-.inf>, were started at the cheaper price of a shilling, under favorable auspices,
and the number of these shilling magazines is increasing. In Great Britain, there are
now many we°kly periodicals, chiefly of an instructive and amusing kind, price from a
penny to llirt e;)"ii"e each. This class of publications received an impetus and proper
direction by the issue of Cham'jers's Journal and the Penny Maf/a-.ine of the " Society for
the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge" in 1882. It is customary for the publishers of these
weekly sheets to issue them accumulatively in parts monthly under a cover, wherefore
they largi'ly answer the purpose of monthly magazines. The rate of payment for writ-
ing in the higher class reviews is usually £10, 10s. per sheet of 10 demy 8vo p:iges; in
tiic weekly periodicals, half a guinea to a guinea per column is ordinarily paid, hut in
SOUK; in.-tunces the price paid is very much greater; such particularly is the case as
regards novels.
At present, there are in Britain about 56 quarterly periodicals, of which, however,
hardly more than 8 are, strictly speaking, reviews. Above 400 periodicals arc published
monthly, and, inclusive of newspapers, 1'rom 800 to 400 weekly.
France possessed as far back as 1665 a critical review called.the Journal des Savants,
which, after a lengthened interruption, began again in 1816, and holds a respectable posi-
tion as a . scientific journal. A number of literary and scientific journals i-prijug up in
last century, as the Nouvcau Journal den Savants, Journal Lit tenure, Journal Encyclo-
peflique, etc. Among the best Avas the Nagazin EnajdopeJiqne, begun in 1795. and from
1819 to 1835, combined with the Revue Encydopedique.' One of the most noted critical
journals in Europe is published in Paris, the Revue des Deux Mondcs, which began in
1829, and has, since 1831. appeared fortnightly. In it and the other French periodicals
of the same kind, the review form is not so completely preserved as with us: a propor-
tion of tales, poetry, etc., is admitted, and the names of the contributors are required to
be attached to their articles. The Rente des D::n.r Mondes has had many shortlived imi-
tators, more or less identified with different political parties. The principal French
reviews of more recent date are the Rectie Contemporaine, Athenmum Francaisc, Revue
d1 Europe.
In Germany, reviews have taken even a deeper root than in England. The Go/finger
Gc.lehrte Anzeigen, which is the oldest publication of the kind, still preserves a high char-
acter. German criticism can, however, hardly be said to have begun before the time of
Lessing, who, in conjun lion with Nicolai of Berlin, established in 1757, the HiMiothek
der schi'men Wissznschaften, and afterwards various other journals, characterized by an
independence of thought unknown before. The Allrjcmeinc Literaturzcitunc/, founded at
Jeim in 17S~>, was a periodical of a still higher character, having for contributors the most
eminent literary men of the period. When transferred from Jena to Halle, another
journal, called the Jeimisehe Allgemeino Liter 'atiireeitung, sprang up at the former place,
under the auspices of the celebrated literary circle at Weimar, of whom Goethe was the
center. These two periodicals existed till 1848. Of modern German reviews, the
Deutsche Rundtchau and the LiteraruchcK Centralblatt are specimens of two different
types. The Deutxckes Museum, the Gartenlanbs (the mo^t widely read of German peri-
odicals, with a circulation of nearly 400,000), and Im Neuen Reich, are rather magazines
than reviews.
Italy possessed a critical journal, Giornale dci^ittcrati, as far back as 1710, conducted
by Apostolo Zeno, which continued for 23 years. A new journal of the wune name,
founded at Pisa in 1771, attained considerable repute. From 1826 to 1830, the Ittblioteca
Italia nn, and Antologia di Firenze, Avere revieAvs of considerable ability. The scientific
periodicals of Italy are generally creditable. More than 80 periodicals are now published
in Rome alone, the number having rapidly increased since the events of 1870.
The (Jnitcd States of America possess a large variety of periodicals, quarterly and
monthly, and in ah -s degree weekly, i-suing chiefly from the presses of Boston, New
York, and Philadelphia. The most .noted critical journal is the North American Review,
established i:i 1815, and the best known magazines are Scribner's Monthly, The Atlantic
Periodical. '"i 1 0
PeripiMMimonia.
Monthly, and Harper's Nf>r Monthly. It is to bo mentioned \vith regret that, owing to
1 lie want of an international law of copyright with the I'liiU'il Kingdom, many o*' the,
less reputable of the American periodical* systematically incorporate, articles, without
permission or payment, from the periodicals of Great Britain.
Latterly, as is well known, many of the periodicals, both of Europe and America,
have acquired an interest by the introduction of wood -en Cravings, oil the preparation of
•which large sums are expended. See WOOD-KNOHAVING.
PERIODICAL (itn(e). The first attempt to establish a periodical in the United S'ates
was made in 1741, when Franklin issued his d'< nfi-ni M,njit:tne and ]llst.»-i'-<il l'/ir<»,ir!<i
at Philadelphia. This periodical lasted but half a year, and \keAmirh-an .M<i<j,tzin>',
•which was started soon afterward, suspended after the second number. Oilier periodicals
published before the revolution were: the Aimri'-nn J/r<//<oW <m<l 7//.x/«/-<Vw/ ('!•
(1743-46); the Boston Weekly Museum (\1 43, 4 numbers); tin- Independent Rejiector (IK
the AV/r Bhigland Magazine (1158); the Amtrini/t $<j<jazine (1757-58); the ,\»rt/i A/m riran
Magazine (1758-66); the American Maga»ne(l7$&); w& Royal American M« ,v<o'//< 1 17M-7-">);
and t^e Pennsylvania Magazine (1775); the A'/. ••.founded by C. F. Hoffman at
New York in 1832, and continued till 1862, and .ZJ///// <'///'* M»nth!y, issued in tii
city from 1853 to 1857 and from 1867 to 1869, were popular American magazines. The
best known magazines published in the United States at the present time are the
Atlantic Monthly, founded in Boston in 1857, and edited successively by .1. R. Lowell, ,1.
T. Fields, W. D. Howells, and T. B. Aldiich; I/tir/ui-'x AV/r Monthly .}f<i;></ :>'/,<, founded
in New York in 1850, and edited at present by Henry M. Alden; Sc/-'->/n /•'» Monthly,
founded in New York in 1870, and edited by J. G. Holland; and J.ii>niin'<>tCi< Mni/nzim',
published at Philadelphia. The Eclectic Magazine, J..itt<H'$ Living Ay, and the Library
Mayaziiw, are principally devoted to reprints from foreign periodicals. The North Ann ri-
can Review, founded in Boston in 1815, and the International Recitir, begun at New York
in 1874, are of a graver character. St. Nicholas and ll'AA , 1 /r,//,r, are popular maga/.ines for
children. "W. F. Poole will soon (1881) publish a new edition of his ///<//.<• /</ I', ri<»l<'<;il
Literature, which will contain the titles of articles that have appeared in English and
American periodicals to the present time.
PERIODICITY (in physiology and pathology). The tendency manifested by various
phenomena occurring in living animals to reour, after equal, or nearly equal intervals of
time, is so marked, that Bichat, the great French anatomist and physiologist, described
it under the title of the Loi cT Intermittent. The alternation of sleep and waking, the
phenomena of menstruation, and the punctual return of hunger, arc some of the most
obvious instances of periodicity that can be suggested as occurring in the healthy sub-
ject; while less obvious examples are afforded by the apparently regular variations that
have been observed in the excretion of carbonic acid from the lungs, and in the number
of the pulsations of the heart at different periods of the 24 hours. As is well known by
experience, periodicity may be usefully cultivated and fixed in daily habits. This is well
exemplified in the case of sleep, but in a more special degree by the daily relieving of
the bowels at a particular hour, a habit in which it is important'that all young persons
should be carefully instructed with a view to health and convenience.
In certain forms of disease, the law of periodicity or intermission is very distinctly
seen. The regular periodic recurrence of the paroxysms of intermittent fever (or ;
is universally known, although the cause of the periodicity has hitherto 1 allied all
inquiry. Among those who have tried to solve this question'may be mentioned Willis,
Rei!, Bailly, Roche, Cullen (who ascribes periodicity to "a diurnal revolution affecting
the animal economy"), and more recently, Laycock, who refers it to the diurnal atmos-
pheric changes in relation to pressure, electricity, etc.
Ague often gives rise to periodic diseases which present no close analogy to that d:s-
ease. Thus it — or, at all events, malaria — is a frequent cause of tic douloureux, recur-
ring at regular intervals; cases are recorded in which periodical vomiting, occurring
weekly, or, in one case, at an interval of ten days, seemed to be due to it; and Mr.
Moore, surgeon to the Middlesex hospital, not long ago published the case of a woman
who experienced a periodical inflammatory swelling of the right knee, as a sequence of
that disorder. Epilepsy is a disease in which the intervals (especially in women) tend to
a regular period. Sir Henry Holland (Medical Notes ami Reflections, 2d ed., pain- ::!h
records a case in which "six attacks occurred, with intervals of 16 or IS minutes
between; so exactly recurring, as noted by the watch, that it was impossible to suppose
it a mere casual ity;" and another, "jvliere a spasmodic seizure, more of tetanic than
epileptic character, occurred twice a day for many weeks successively, and almost exactly
at the same hours each day." For many other examples of periodic or intermittent mor-
bid action, the reader is referred to a memoir by Henle, " On the Course and Periodicity
of Disease," in his Pathologisehe Untersuchungen ; and to sir Henry Holland's essay (to
which we have already referred) in his Medical Notes and Reflections. The most impor-
tant practical fact in relation to this class of diseases is, that they almost invariably yield
to the action of certain medicines, especially bark and arsenic.
Exercising a beneficial or mischievous influence, as the case may be, the habit of peri-
odicity is to be seduously shunned in every instance likely to prove morally or physically
prejudicial. No more marked example of the injudicious cultivation of periodicity could
Periodical. •
J*erilMieumo:ii:u
be given than in the evil practice of periodical blood-letting, which once prevailed a1.!
over Europe, and was only abandoned in recent times as not only useless, but in all
respects injurious.
PERIffi CI (Gr. Perioikoi, literally, "dwellers round about," i.e. , round about some
particular locality or city) was the name given, in ancient Greece, to the original Achaian
inhabitants of Laconia by their Dorian conquerors. The Perioeci were not slaves, like
the Helots (q.v.); they were merely a vassal population, personally free, cultivating their
own ground, and carrying on most of the home and foreign trade of Laconia, but pos-
sessing no political rights, incapable of intermarrying with the Dorians of Sparta, or of
holding important state-offices, and subjected to a land-tax in token of their dependent
condition. They have been — as regards their political position — compared to the Saxons
of England after the Norman conquest, and seldom has a historical parallel been so
sound. The Perioeci must have been very numerous, for they occupied at one time
upwards of 100 cities, several of which were on the coast, whence the whole seaboard of
Lacouia bore the name of the Perioikrris, and they produced capital sailors, which doubt-
less accounts for the anomalous fact of Periceci being occasionally invested with the
command of the Spartan fleet. They also formed a part of the Spartan army. At the
battle of Plattea (479 B.C.), there were 10,000 Periceci present. These dependent Achai-
ans were not, however, all on a dead level of vassalage; they lived in regularly organized
communities, where the social distinctions of rank, refinement, and wealth, were as
marked as elocwhere. Xenophon speaks of "accomplished and well-born gentlemen"
(kdlui k'lrgntlioi} among the Perioeci serving as volunteers in the Spartan army; and such
artists and men of culture as Lacedtemon produced in all probability belonged to this
class. Periojci also existed in the other Dorian communities of the Peloponnesus.
PERIOS TETJM (Gr. peri, around, and ostcon, bone), a .tough fibrous membrane which
surrounds the various bones. It is highly vascular, and is the means by which the outer
layers of the shafts and the greater part of the spongy portions of the bones are supplied
with blood. "From the internal surface of the periosteum also is produced a layer of
soft blastema (or plastic fluid in which cells are developed), by mean of which additions
are made to the exterior of the growing bones. The process of ossification going on in
the inner part of this blastema contributes to the thickness of the bone, while a fresh
supply is continually being added to the exterior of the blastema, through the medium
of the vessels of thp periosteum." — Humphry, On the Human Skeleton, page 19. In
young bones this membrane is thick, find in consequence of the intervening blastema is
very easily detached from the bone; but in the bones of the adult it is less thick and
vascular, while its connection with the bone becomes closer, in consequence of the blas-
tema being less; while in aged persons it is very thin, its vessels are scanty, and there JH
no blastema. Numerous experiments show that the formation of bone is essentially due
to the action of this membrane; and that, by transplanting detached portions of perios-
teum into muscular or other tissues, bony tissue is generated in those parts. Inmost
cases in which this membrane has become detached in consequence of a wound or of
disease, the exposed bone (except in the instance of the skull, which derives most of its
nutrient, matter from the dura mater) perishes; but this is not invariably the case.
Amongst its other offices, it serves, by isolating the bone from the surrounding tissues, to
prevent the spread of disease from them to it. The shin-bone, or tibia, is thus indebted
to the periosteum for its ordinary immunity, in cases of ulcer in that region. In those
parts in which the bone is not so completely isolated from the surrounding tissues, as at
the ends of the bones of the fingers and toes, inflammation of the soft parts not unfre-
quently extends to the bony structure.
PERIOSTITIS, or INFLAMMATION OF THE PERIOSTEUM, generally occurs on the surface
of thinly -covered bones, such as the tibia, clavicles, and cranial bones. Its chief causes
are (1) a syphilitic taint, in which oval swellings, called nodes (q.v.), are produced; (2)
i-hi'i'inttfixin; and (3) scrofula. In the two latter cases there is a periosteal swelling
around the whole circumference or surface of the bone. The affection, especially when
due. to the first or second of the above causes, is usually accompanied with considerable
nocturnal pain. If the disease occurs in an acute form, it must be treated with leeches,
fomentations, and the other ordinary antiphlogistic (or lowering) remedies. When it
becomes chronic, the treatment' must be mainly directed to the cause which has
originated it. In almost all cases, the nocturnal pains are best relieved by somewhat
large doses (five to ten grains) of iodide of potassium, taken three times a day on an
empty stomach.
PERIPATETIC PHILOSOPHY, a designation of the philosophy of Aristotle (q.v.) and
of his followers. It is of doubtful origin, being supposed to have been derived either
from his custom of occasionally walking about (peripatein) during the delivery of his lec-
tures, or from the place in which they were delivered having been a shaded walk of the
lyccum.
PERIPNEUMO'NIA, an inflammation of the membrane which invests the lungs, accom-
panied with general disturbance of the whole system ; remarkably prevalent among horse s
in south Africa, in a zone from 20° to 27° s. lat. It is very fatal; and to its prevalence
and virulence Dr. Livingstone is disposed to ascribe the fact that horses, although M>
Peripteral. ,X1 0
IVritouitU. ***
Abundant in the more northern parts of Africa, vcrc unknown in the south till intro-
duced by Europeans: this invisible barrier being more insurmountable than mountain
ranges, deserts, or rivers The season during which peripneumonia prevails is from
December to April. Zebras, antelopes, and oxen are liable to its attacks, but no kind
<>!' quadruped suil'ers so much from it as the horse. The lloh of animals which die
of peripneumouia is unwholesome, and produces a malignant carbuncle iii persons who
eat it,
PERIP'TEEAL (Gr. peri; and ptcron, a wing), a term applied to temples or like build-
ings having columns all round the cella.
PERISSODAC'TYLA, a section of the order unfjulata (q.v.), including the horse
(tf.v.), rhinoceros (q.v.). and tapir (q.v.).
PEKISTAL'TIC MOTION. The terms peristaltic (Gr. elu •i-rsxinrj) and ver-
micular (or worm-like) are applied -to the peculiar motion or action of the mu-cular coat
of the intestines, by which the substances contained within it are regularly moved
onward.
This action of the intestines is readily seen on opening an animal (a dog. cat, or rabbit,
for example) immediately after it has been killed ; and in these circumstances it is perhaps
exaggerated, from the stimulating action of the cold air; and it may In- shown in an
abnormally active state, although not altered in character, by subjecting the exposed
intestines to the influence of the electro-magnetic machine.
It appears, from the observations made by Brinton, Todd, and Bowman, and others,
on recently killed animals, that the peristaltic motion commences at the pyloric third of
the stomach (see DIGESTION, OUGAXSOF,), whence successive waves of contraction and
relaxation are propagated downwards throughout the whole length of the intestinal
canal. "In examining a portion of intestine at the moment of it* contraction, we per-
ceive a dilatation above it as well as below it; the latter being produced by the protrusion
into it of the contents of the now contracted portion of intestine; the former by the relax-
ation of a previously contracted portion. The rapid succession of these contractions
and relaxations gives to the movements of the intestines the appearance of the writliings
of a worm, whence they are distinguished by the appellation rcrnm-nlnr.'" — Todd and
Bowman's Phyxiral Anatomy of Man, vol. ii. p. 236. These movements can occasionally
be observed during life in the human subject, indirectly, in cases of extreme attenuation
of the abdominal walls, and directly in wounds of the abdomen, and during certain sur-
gical operations. There are differences of opinion as to the cause of the peristaltic
action; thus Todd and Bowman assert that " the intestinal movements are par:ly due to
the influence of the stimulus of distention upon the muscular tissue, and partly to the
reflex action of the ganglia of the intestinal portion of the sympathetic, stimulated by
the contact of the intestinal contents with the mucous membrane;" while Carpenter
maintains that "the intestinal tub? from the stomach to the rectum is not dependent
upon the nervous centers cither for its contractility or for its power of exercising it, but
ia enabled to propel its contents by its own inherent powers.
Numerous observations tend to show that this motion has a nearly definite vdr.cityin
each individual. Most commonly the act of defecation takes place with perfect regu-
larity every 24 or (more rarely) every 12 hours, the quantity discharged bein"- almost
constant if the mode of living does not vary. Heberden (Commentarii, p 14* mentions
a person who regularly had a motion once a month, and (by way of contrail) another
who had twelve motions every day during thirty years, and* then seven every day for
seven years, and rather grew fat than otherwise. Ponlcau ((Euvre* P'txtJtumeii, tonic i.
p. 27) records the case of a young lady who had no stool for upwards of eight years.
although during the last year she ate abundantly of fruit, and drank coffee, milk, and
tea, and broth with yelk of eggs; but she had copious greasy sweats. Such a case as this
is possible, but far from probable.
That the influence of expectant attention on the muscular movements of the intestine
(and especially of its lower portion) is very great is shown in various ways. It is. tor
the most part, thus that liahit operates in producing a readiness for defecation at one
special hour in the day, and that bread-pills and other equally inert substances :;ct on the
bowels, if the patient believes them to be purgatives. Dr. Carpenter, in his remarks on
"the influence of expectant attention on muscular .movements." in the chapter of his
Human Pkyxiology treating "of muscular movements,'' mentions two very striking case*
of the kind which have fallen within his own knowledge,
PERISTETJA. Sec Iloi/r SPIRIT PLANT.
PEEISTYLE, a colonnade around the interior of a court-yard or other building.
PEBITONE'UM (Gr. pcnidnein, to extend around), a serous membrane, and, like all
membranes of this class, a shut sac, which, however, in the female, is not completely
closed, as the Fallopian tubes communicate with it bv their free extremities. The peri-
toneum more or less completely invests all the viscera lying in the abdominal and pelvic
cavities, and is then reflected upon the walls of the* abdomen, so that there is a visceral
nnd a parietal layer. Numerous folds are formed by the visceral layer as it pa- -' s from
,one organ to another. They serve toliold the parts in position, and at the same time
«;uclo.-e vessels and nerves. Some of these folds are termed ligaments, from their serving
Kl q PerJptcri.i.
Peritonitis.
to support the organs. Thus we nave ligaments of the liver, spleen, bladder, and uterus
formed by peritoneal folds. Others are termed mesenteries (from the Gr. meson, the
middle, and enteroii, the intestine), and connect the intestines with the vertebral column
They are the mesentery proper (q.v.), which has been already described, the ascending
transverse, and descending meSo-colon, and the meso-rectum. Lastly, there are folds
called amenta,, which proceed from one viscus to another They are three in number —
viz.. the lesser or gastru-liepatic amentum, which extends from the under-surface of the
liver to the lesser curvature of the stomach; the gastro-splenic omentum ; and the great
(or gastro-colic) omentum, which consists of four layers of peritoneum, the two which
descend from the stomach, and the same two returning upon themselves, and ascending
as high as the transverse colon, where they separate, and iriclose that organ.' These
separate layers may be easily seen in the young subject, but in the adult they are more
or less blended. The great omentum always contains some adipose tissue, which, in
persons inclined to corpulency, often accumulates to an enormous extent. Its use
appears to be (1) to protect the intestines from cold by covering them anteriorly as with an
apron, and (2) to facilitate their movement upon each other during their vermicular
action.
Like all the serous membranes, the peritoneum readily takes on inflammation from
various exciting causes. 'This inflammation is termed peritonitis (q v.).
PERITONT TIS, or INFLAMMATION OF THE PERITONEUM, may be either an acute or
a chronic disease.
Acute peritonitis generally presents well-marked symptoms. It sometimes commences
with a chill, but severe pain in the abdomen is usually the first symptom. The pain ia
at first sometimes confined to particular spots (usually in the lower part of the abdomen),
but it soon extends over the whole abdominal region. It is increased, on pressure, to
such an extent that the patient cannot even bear the weight of the bedclothes; and to
tivoid, as far as possible, internal pressure upon the peritoneum, he lies perfectly still, on
Us back, with the legs drawn up, and breathes by means of the ribs, in consequence of
the pain occasioned by the descent of the diaphragm in inspiration. The breathing is
naturally shallow in these cases, and, less air being admitted at each movement of respi-
ration, the number of those movements is increased. There are perhaps 40 or even 60
respirations executed in a minute, instead of 18 or 20. The pulse is usually very fre-
quent, often 120 or more in the minute, and small and tense, though occasionally strong
and full at the commencement of the attack. After the disease has continued for a cer-
tain time, the belly becomes tense and swollen, the enlargement being caused at first
by flatus, and afterward also by the effusion cf fluid, as may be ascertained by percus-
sion and auscultation.
The progress of the disease is in general rapid. In fatal cases, death usually takes
place within a week, and often sooner. The symptoms indicating that the disease
i^ advancing towards a fatal termination are great distortion of the abdomen, a very
frequent and feeble pulse, a pinched and extremely anxious appearance of the face, and
cold sweats
Peritonitis may arise from any of the ordinary causes of inflammation, such as sud-
den change of temperature (especially the combined effects of cold and wet on the sur-
face of the body), excessive use of stimulating fluids, the suppression of long-standing
discharges, translation of gout and rheumatism, etc. It is frequently the result of local
violence, and of wounds penetrating the peritoneal sac, including various surgical oper-
ations. Besides the above causes, there arc two whieh give rise to special varieties of
peritonitis, viz., contagion or infection, which often prevails epidemically, and produces
great mortality amongst women after childbirth, giving rise to puerperal peritonitis, one
of the most perilous accompaniments of the awful disorder known as puerperal fever
(q.v.); and perforation of the stomach, bowels, gall bladder, urinary bladder, etc., by
which their contents are allowed to escape into the peritoneal cavity, where they excite
the most violent inflammation Peritonitis from perforation is characterized by the sud-
denness of the attack, intense pain, incapable of mitigation by medicine, all at once
arising in some part of the abdomen, the whole of which soon becomes tender in every
part. This form of the disease is generally fatal, death usually ensuing within two
tlays, and sometimes within a few hours. Perforation of the small intestine, in conse-
quence of ulceration of the glands, is of not uncommon occurrence in continued
Oyphoid) fever, and sometimes occurs in phthisis. That apparently useless structure,
the vermiform appendage of the caecum, is a comparatively frequent seat of perforation.
Sometimes it is the stomach which is perforated, and in these cases the patients are usu-
slly unmarried women (especially domestic servants), who had previously appeared in
good health, or at most had complained of slight dyspepsia.
The only disease with which peritonitis is" likely to be confounded by the well-edu-
cated practitioner is a peculiar form of hysteria; but the age and sex of the patient, the
presence of hysteria in other forms, and the general history of the patient and of her
symptoms, will almost always lead to a correct diagnosis of the disease.
The treatment, in an ordinary case of peritonitis (not arising from mechanical injury,
or perforation from disease, or occurring in connection with puerperal fever), consists,
if tLs patient is moderately robust, in bleeding from the arm, till a decided impression
U. X. XI.— 33
Periwinkle si *
Pel kin».
has been made on the circulation; after which the abdomen should IK- covered with 20
or 30 leeches, and the bleeding from their bites should he encouraged by fomenting the
bdly wilh flannels wrung out of hot water, or, if the patient can hear its weight, l>\ the
application of a light poultice. The system must, at the same time, he got as spu-dih
as possible under the influence of mercury, by the means described in the treatment of
pericarditis (q.v.). Opium may be given freely, not merely te guard ag.jnst the purga-
tive action of the calomel, but with the view of securing sleep to the patient, and quiet
in the inflamed membrane. The patient must be kept on low diet, unless Indications of
Inking appear. In peritonitis from perforation the only remedy is opium, which must
be given in large and repeated doses, so as to keep the bowels perfectly at rest, in order
to promote the formation of adhesion, by which alone the patient can fie possibly saved.
For the same reason, per{'<-ct rest must also be insisted on, and even drinks forbidden.
thirst being allayed by the application of ice to the tongue.
Chronic /ii'i'ttoH Mi* occurs in two forms, which differ in their origin and degree of
fatality, but are very similar in their symptoms. In the first the inflammation is of the
ordinary character, and, although the disease sometimes originates spontaneously, it
is more frequently the sequel of an imperfectly cured acute attack, in the second, it
depends upon granules (supposed by Louis and most writers to be tubercles) lying iu
countless numbers in the serous membrane, and serving as a constant source of irrita-
tion. The second form is confined almost, if not entirely, to persons of a scrofulous
constitution.
The symptoms of chronic peritonitis are more obscure than those of the acute form.
There is abdominal pain, often slight, and not always constant, 'which is increased by
pressure, or sometimes is felt only when pressure is made. The patient complains of a
sensation of fullness and tension of the belly although its size is not visibly increased,
of a loss of appetite: and of nausea and vomiting; and the bowels are usually more or
less out of order After a time, the abdomen enlarges, and becomes tympanitic, or more
or less filled with fluid; and death gradually ensues from debility and emaciation, unless
the fatal issue is accelerated by an acute inflammatory attack,
It is not always easy to determine, during life, whither the disease belongs to the
<;'-4 or second form. When its origin cannot be traced to a preceding acute attack, tc
local abdominal injury, or to chronic affections of the abdominal viscera, there is strong
reason to believe it to be of the granular, or, as it is commonly called, the tubercular
form, especially if the general constitution and the hereditary tendencies of the patient
point in the same direction.
Little can be done in the way of treatment, especially in the tubercular form, fur
ther than mitigating the most distressing symptoms, and possibly retarding the I'mal
i.ssuc. The frequent application of a few leeches to the abdomen, followed by warm
poultices, occasional blisters, attention to the bow-els, which, if costive, should be acted
upon by gentle laxatives, and a mild, nourishing, but unstiuiulatiug diet, are more likely
to be of service than remedies of a more energetic nature.
PERIWINKLE, Litfon'na, a genus of gasteropodous mollusks of the order
Iranchiata and family littorinidce, having a proboscis-shaped head, a foot of moderate
size, a single gill, and a rudimentary siphonal canal; the shell turbinate, thick, with lew
whorls, and no nacreous lining, the operculum of few whorls. A very well known
species is the COMMON PERIWINKLE (L, littorea), a snail-like mollusk most abundant on
rocky parts of the British coasts, living in the lowest zone of sea-weeds bet wren tide-
marks. and feeding on fuci. etc. It is oviparous. No mollusk is more generally col-
lected and used for food. Childrenijre generally employed in collecting it It is boiled
in the shell, and so sold, often on the streets, and chiefly to the poorer classes, although
few mollusks are more pleasant. It is calculated that 1900 tons, value £15.000, are
annually consumed in London alone. It is called irilk, iculle, or whvlk in Scotland, but
is quite different from the ichelk (q.v.) of the English, notwithstanding tlu- sjimen*
name. Other species, L. neritoiden and L rvdi*, are common on all rocky parts of the
British coasts, but are less esteemed; L. rudis is viviparous, and the shellsof the young
within the mantle of the parent often make it gritty and unpleasant to cat,
PESIWINKLE, Vinca, a genus of plants of the natural order apocynaatt, having a
S-elcft calyx, and a salver-shaped' corolla, bearded at the throat, with five obliquely trim
cated segments. The leaves are opposite and evergreen ; the flower?, grow singly or in
pairs from the axils of the leaves. The LESSER PERIWINKLE (V. minor), a native of
many parts of Europe, and of the southern parts of Britain, growing in woods and
thickets, is a half-shrubby plant witli trailing stems, rooting at their extremities, ovato-
lanceolatc leaves, and pale-blue — sometimes white or reddish purple— salver shaped
flowers. The GREATER PERIWINKLE ( V. major), which has much larger flowers and
ovato-eordatc. ciliated leaves, is a native of the south of Europe, and is found in a few
places in the south of England. Both of these species arc very commonly planted in
.shrubberies and gardens, rapidly cover unsightly objects with pleasing green foliage,
and produce their beautiful flovers M almost all seasons of the year, even in winter wher.
the weather is mild. The HERBACEOUS PERIWINKLE ( V Jtei-bamt), a Hungarian spe-
cies, is remarkable for the abundance of its flowers. The YELLOW PERIW INKI.K (V.
lutia) is a native of the southern parts of North America. The ROSE-COLOREL> PERI-
K -I ^ Periwinkle.
Perkins.
WINKLE (F. rosea), a native of Madagascar, is a favorite greenhouse plant. — The name
periwinkle was formerly pencinke. Chaucer speaks of the " fresh perwinke rich of
hue.'' It is probably from the French pcrccnche, and that from the Latin tinea.
PEKJUEY is the crime committed hy one who, when giving evidence' on oath as a
witness in a court of justice, or before some constituted authority of the same kind,
gives evidence which he knows to be false. But in order to make the giving of the
false evidence liable to criminal punishment, it must have been not only false to the
knowledge of the witness, but the matter must have been material to the issue raised.
If the falsehood occurred as to some trifling or immaterial fact, no crime is committed.
Moreover, it is necessary, in proving the crime, that at least two persons should be able
to testify to the falsehood of the matter, so that there might be a majority of oaths on
the matter — there being then two oaths to one. But this rule is satisfied though both
witnesses do not testify to one point. The perjury must also have taken place before
some court or tribunal which had power to administer the oath. See OATH. Though
in some courts affirmations are allowed instead of oaths, yet the punishment for false
affirmation is made precisely the same as for false swearing. The punishment for per-
persuadiug or procuring a person to give false evidence, is also punishable as a dis-
tinct offense.
PERKIXS. ELISHA, 1741-99: b. Conn. He was the inventor of what were called
Perkins's tractors, which at the commencement of this century Were used by him, and by
itinerant practitioners of medicine, as well as by some of the regular medical profession,
for the treatment of rheumatism, neuralgia, and local inflammations. The instrument,
or instruments — for they consisted of two bars of metal or pins, or whatever the appara-
tus may be called — was made of brass and iron, containing, as the inventor pretended,
peculiar combinations of metals. Their use consisted in drawing them in a certain man-
ner over the aifected parts. Th-3 practice was called " Perkinsism," and obtained for a
time a remarkable number of proselytes in this country, but especially in Europe. In
London the practice was introduced by Perkins's son. and a Perkinsian institution, with
lo:d Rivers as president, was established for the benefit of the poor. Five thousand
(••nvs were published, with the certificates of eight medical professors, forty physicians
and surgeons, and thirty clergymen. In Copenhagen twelve physicians and surgeons,
nuKt oft hem instructors in the royal Frederick's hospital, made a " series" of experi-
ments, which were published in an imposing octavo volume with a report in favor of the
"system." In a few years, however, the tractors, as was inevitable, fell into disrepute,
as their use did not justify their reputation. Perkins afterwards invented a fever medi-
ciiK- whose efficacy he undertook to demonstrate during the prevalence of yellow fever
i > Xew York in 1790, but after four weeks of toil he himself contracted the disease and
diod It is not improbable that in some cases, where the tractors were used with some
<k'u;ree of pressure, they may have afforded some relief by the mechanical stimulus
they supplied, similar to that afforded by manual rubbing and kneading, but, of course,
h: a much less degree. The benefits of exercise and motion in the treatment of diseases
were not at that time appreciated as they are now; and as some improvement may have
tic -.-si'jiiully fallowed the use of the tractors, the therapeutics of whicn was not under-
MOJ.1, it was concluded that they must possess certain inherent curative properties.
PERKIXS. GKORGR ROBERTS, LL.IX, 1812-76; b. N. Y. ; taught mathematics at
Clinton 1831-38, when he became principal of the Utica academy. He was professor of
r.mthc-matics at the stare normal school 1844-48; then was appointed its principal. In
l'-'52 he took charge of the erection of the Dudley observatory, and in 1858 was made
surveyor of the state. Among his publications are a series of arithmetics: Treatise on
Algebra, 18-11; Element* of Geometry, 1847 ; Trigonometry and Surveying, 1851; and
Plane and Solid Geometry, 1857.
PERKIXS, JACOB. 1766-1849; b. Mass. ; during his apprenticeship with a goldsmith
he invented a new method of plating shoe-buckles. In 1787 he made dies for the Massa-
chusetts mint; also, he invented steel plates for bank-notes, and a machine for cutting and
lu-ading nails. In 1818 he went to England, and for a number of years afterwards was
engaged in furnishing the bank of Ireland with plates. Among his inventions were the
s'.camgun, and the bathometer, for measuring the depth of water. He was the first to
prove the compressibility of water.
PERKIXS, JUSTIN, D.r , 1805-69; b. Mass.; graduated at Amherst college in 1829:
studied theology at Andover; was tutor at Amherst 1832-33; embarked at Boston, Sept.
21, 1833, as a missionary of the American board; reached Tabriz in 1884; and established
the Xestorian mission at OroomLh, Persia. He immediately engaged Mar Yohanua as
I:'-Syriac teacher. He was joined by Dr. Grant in 1835. Schools for boys and gir's
w ;•(• established which have become flourishing seminaries. Besides these higher schools
there are 70 primary schools, in which 8,000 Scripture readers have been educated, and
::i;i:iy trained to preach the gospel. Dr. Perkins translated ihe Bible and several relig-
ious books into Syriac. In 1842 he returned to the United States, accompanied by Mar
Perk inn. -"\ 1 A
Permian.
Yohauna, the Nestoriau bishop, whose pre-scnce and addre.s-vs awakened a deep interest
in the mission. Dr. Perkins returned to Persia with Sloddard and other mis>ionari-s.
laboring successfully until 1869, when with impaired health he returned to his native
country, where he died. He published Ny/vWc Connm-nlm-iix <>n (riia*!* mid J>
Might Years in'Penda; Missionary Life in, Persia, lie contributed also to the Bibliotheca
Kacra, and to the Journal of the American Oriental Society.
PERKINS, THOMAS HANDASYD, 1764-1854; b. Boston; entered into partnership
with his brother James in St. Domingo, but was compelled to leave by the insurrection
of the blacks. In 1789 he went to Batavia and Canton, and familiaii/.ed himself with
the Chinese and East Indian trade. He was in partnership with his brother James till
182:2, and acquired a large fortune. He was for many years a member of the Massachusetts
legislature, in either the senate or house. He was one of the originators of the Quiucy
railroad, one of the first in the United States; founded the Perkins asylum for the
blind, contributed liberally to the Bunker Hill monument, and was one of the chief
benefactors of the Boston athenaeum and the Massachusetts hospital.
PEBKIN WABBECK. See HENRY VII.
PEB LEBERGF, a t. of Prussia, province of Brandenburg, on the Stepnitz, with woolen
and machine manufactures, tanneries, etc. Pop. '75, 7,605.
PEBM, the most eastern government of European Russia, is bounded on the e. by
Siberia, and on the n., w., and s. by the governments of Vologda, Viatka, and Orenburg
respectively. Area, 128,210 sq.m. — more than twice the area of England and Wales.
Pop. '70. 2,198,666. It is divided by the Ural mountains into two unequal parts. ()f
which the smaller portion is on the eastern or Siberinn side of the mountains, although,
for administrative purposes, it is reckoned as a part of European Russia. About three-
fourths of the government are occupied by the Ural range, which in some places reaches
the height of 4,000 ft.; but which slope so gradually toward the plain, that the traveler
reaches their summit before he is aware that he has made any unusual ascent. About
two-thirds of the entire surface, comprising all the northern districts, are covered with
forests, one-tenth of the area is in meadows, and about the same extent is under cultiva-
tion. The more important rivers belong to the systems of the Volga and the Obi. The
Kama, together with the Tshousovaia and other affluents from the Ural mountains, flow
K.W., join the Volga, and thus form an important means of communication between the
mining districts of Perm and Europe. The Tura, the Sosva, and the Losva communi-
cate with the Obi; and access is opened up to the White sea and the Arctic ocean by the
rivers Dwina and Petchora. The climate is healthy, though somewhat rigorous. At
the end of July, the nights are cold; iu the middle of September, falls the first snow.
In November, when the whole face of nature is covered with svv, the transport of
goods by sledges is busily carried on everywhere. In January the •• ->!cl is so great that
quicksilver sometimes freezes. At the end of March the snow begins to melt, and before
the middle of May, although the cold is still great, the country is clothed in the green of
early spring. The chief products are gold, copper, magnetic iron ore. rock crystal, jas
per, agate, topaz, porphyry, malachite, porcelain clay, salt (obtained from salt springs).
coal, alabaster, marble, etc., and diamonds in small quantities. The inhabitants are.
chiefly Russians, but there are also numbers of Tartars, Bashkirs, and Finns. The agri-
cultural produce^cf the govermient, consisting chiefly of corn, vegetables, flax, and
hemp, is more than sufficient for local consumption, and is exported to some extent to
the neighboring governments. The immense forests of the country yield wood for fuel,
and timber for the construction of the barges which, during summer, are floated down
the rivers, freighted with the products of the mines. Three-fourths of the government
are covered by forest; hardly above a twelfth is yet under the plow. The numerous
works and factories employ over 100,000 hands, and recently their annual produce was
estimated at £6,000,000, of which a third was the value of iron. Here, also, is a platina
mine, said, on good authority, to be the richest in the world. The iron of Perm is
famous all over Europe. The commerce of the government is very considerable. The
fair of Irbit (q.v.) is, after that of Nijni- Novgorod, the most important in the Russian
empire. The transit trade, however, is much more considerable than the local trade.
The great highway from Siberia to European Russia passes through Perm, and the
government communicates by means of the Volga, Petchora, and the Obi, with the Bal-
tic, White, and Caspian seas. The central administration of mines has its seat in
Ekaterinburg. •
The government of Perm once formed a port ion of the ancient Biarmia, inhabited in the
earliest historical times by Finnish tribes, and even then famous for the commerce which
it carried on, especially with Asia. In the llth c., it became connected commercially
with the principality of Novgorod, which, little by little, conquered and took posr<
of the country. At the close of the 15th c., both it and Novgorod were annexed to th-
territories of the prince of Moscow, and about the same time the Christian religion was
introduced.
PEBM, a t. of European Russia, capital of the government of the same name, on the
Kama, 1357 m. e.s.e. of St. Petersburg. It was founded in 1729, under the name of
the Egotinsky copper-work, and was the first colony in the government from which it
K 1 *7 Perkins.
Permian.
derives its name. It is not in itself important for its commerce, but it is the seat of a
most extensive transit trade. Ilere goods floated down the Tshousovaia from the Ural
. mountains, are transferred to larger vessels, and forwarded by the Kama and Volga past
Nijui-Novgorod and Rybinsk, and thence to St. Petersburg. Goods from the sources of
the Kama, metals, corn, tallow, and leathers, as well as Siberian and Chinese articles,
are also sent from Perm to UK> Russian interior, and to Europe generally. Near Ihe
town is a large cannon-foundry, posseting one of the largest steam-hammers in the
world. Pop. '67, 22,712.
PERMANGANATES, compounds of permanganic acid with bases. If to perman-
ganates of potash, free from excess of alkali, a large quantity of water is added, it is
decomposed into hydrated dioxide of manganese and permanganate of potash, which
latter remains in solution while the dioxide is precipitated. The following equation rep-
resents the reaction:
3K2Mu04 + 2H2O = MuO2 -f K2Mn2O8 + 4KHO.
Remarkable changes of color accompany the decomposition, on which account this per-
manganate has been called mineral chameleon. Excess of alkali in the manganate confers
more stability upon it, retarding the decomposition. On a large scale permanganate of
potash is made by mixing equal parts of finely powdered dioxide of manganese and
chlorate of potasli with rather more than one part of caustic potash dissolved in a little
water, evaporating to dryness, and then heating to a point just below ignition. This
mass is then treated with hot water, the insoluble oxide separated by decantation, and the
purple liquid concentrated by evaporation until crystals form upon the surface. It is
then left to cool and complete the process of crystallization. The crystals have a dark
purple color and are not very soluble in water. The manganates and permanganates are
decomposed when brought into contact with organic matter. The manganates are iso-
niorphous with the sulphates, whilst the permanganates are isomorphous with the per-
chlorates. Condy's disinfecting fluids, sold in the drug shops, are alkaline mangnnates
and permanganates. Permanganate of hydrogen or permanganic acid, HjMnaOg, is
obtained by dissolving permanganate of potash in sulphuric acid, H2SO4, with one mole-
cule of water added, and distilling the solution between 140° and 158° F. The acid
passes over in violet vapors, and condenses in a greenish-black liquid having a metallic
luster, a strong attraction for moisture and for oxygen, setting fire to paper, etc. and to
alcohol. Water is colored with a small amount of the permanganates, and such solutions
are very delicate tests for deoxidizing matters, because these latter destroy the color by
reducing the permanganate. A weak solution of a permanganate is used in the labora-
tory for determining the amount of oxidizable substances. The contaminations of drink-
ing waters produced by septic fermentation are easily detected by using permanganates
as reagents, and it is in consequence of their great oxidizing power that the permanga-
nates are good disinfectants.
PERMIAN. MAGNESIAN LIMESTONE, or BIAS croup, is the lower division of the
new red sandstone rocks, which were separated, chiefly on paleontological grounds,
from the upper portion, and being, in 1841, without a collective name, were called
Permian by Murchison, because he found them largely developed in that portion of
Russia which composed the ancient kingdom of "Permia, or Biarmia. The name magne-
'sian limestone is given to them because of the predominant deposit; and dias has been
proposed by some German geologists, to correspond with trias, the name universally
accepted for the upper section of the new red sandstone series.
The Permian strata occupy in Russia an area twice the size of France, and contain
an abundant and varied suite of fossils. They are also largely developed in Germany,
and as they have been there carefully studied and described by numerous geologists, the
rocks of that country may be considered as the types of the group. They have been thus
grouped : 1. Buuterschiei'er. 2. Zechstein. 3. Kupferschiefer or Mergel. 4. Rothe-todt-
liegende.
The bunterschiefer consists of red and mottled marl and sandstone, which have been
separated from the triassic bunter sandstein, because of the occurrence in them of fossils
which have a paleozoic facies. The zechstein is chiefly a compact limestone with beds
of colored clays, and cellular magnesian limestone. The well-known stinkstein belongs
to this series; it is a dark-colored and highly bituminous limestone, which gives out an
offensive odor when struck or rubbed. The name zechstein (literally, minestone) was
given to these beds, because they must be mined or cut through to reach the kupfer-
schiefer below. This latter is a marl slate, richly impregnated with copper pyrites, for
which it wr.s extensively wrought. It contains numerous beautifully preserved fossil
fi<h belonging to the genera pnlreniscus. cselacanthus, platysorus, etc. The strange name
of rothe-todtiiegende (red dead-layers) was given to a large deposit of red sandstone and
conglomerate, by the miners, because the copper obtained from the beds above died out
when they reached these red rocks.
The succession of rocks given by Murchison as occurring in Permia arc easily
co-related with those of Germany. They are (1). conglomerates and sandstones, contain-
ing the remains of plants; (2), red sandstones and shales, with copper ore and verreij'Ho
remains; and (3), sandstones, grits, and fossiliferous limestones, with intcrstratified bet's
Permutations. K 1 C
Perpendicular.
of marl and gypsum, the marls occasionally containing plants and also seams of impure
coal.
In England the Permian rocks arc somewhat extensively developed in Durham, where
they have been described by Sedgwick and King. From this county they continue in a
narrow strip bordering the carboniferous beds down the center of Knizland until they are
lost near Nottingham. In Cheshire, Shropshire, Stall'ord, and Warwick, they underlie
the salt-bearing tria»sie rocks. The Durham strata art: grouped as follows:
1. Concretionary and amorphous limestone I _ T>.inf ....(,f.i.:pfpr
2. Brecciated ami psetido-brecciated limestone \ ~
3. Fossiliferous limestone I =2ecustcin
4. Compact limestone f
5. Marl slate = Kupferschiefer.
6. Inferior various-colored sandstone. ^Rothe-todtliegende.
The fractured bones and teeth of saurians found in the basement bed of the sixth
group were considered the earliest evidence of the existence of reptiles until the discov-
ery of the archegosaurus in the carboniferous rocks.
The known organic remains of this period are neither remarkable nor abundant.
Many paleozoic forms became extinct within this period; among them are the remark-
able sigillaria aud the neuropteris of the coal-beds, the well-known brachiopod, producta,
and several genera of heteroeercal-tailed fish. Some new forms appear, the most impor-
tant of which are the. labyrinthodout reptiles, which, though beginning in the upper
carboniferous beds, increase in number in the Permian, and reach their maximum devel-
opment in the succeeding triassic group.
PERMUTA'TIONS AND COMBINA TIONS. A combination, in mathematics, is a selec-
tion of a number of objects from a given set of objects, without any regard to the order
in whicli they are placed The objects are called elements, and the combinations are
divided into classes, according to the number of elements in each. Let the given ele-
ments be the four letters a, b, c, d; the binary combinations or selections of two are ab,
ac. ad, be, bd, cd — six in all; the combinations of three are abc, abd, acd, bed — four in all;
while there is only one combination of four, namely, abed.
Permutation, again, has reference to the order of arrangement; thus, the two ele-
ments a and b may stand ab or ba, so that every combination of two gives two permuta-
tions; the three elements a, b, and c may stand abc, acb, bac, bca. cab, cba, one combina-
tion of three thus affording six permutations. The combinations of any order with all
their permutations are called the variations. Formulas are given in works of algchr.-i
for calculating the number of permutations or combinations in any given case. Suppose
•even lottery-tickets marked 1, 2, 3, to 7, and that two are to be drawn ; if it is asked
how many possible pairs of numbers there are this is a question of the number of com-
binations of seven elements, two together, which is found to be 21. If we want to know
how many times the same seven persons could sit down to table together with a different
arrangement each time, this is to ask how many permutations seven objects admit of.
and the formula gives 7X6X5x4X3x2 = 5,040. The theory of probabilities ia
founded on the laws of combination. Thus, in the case of drawing two tickets out of
seven, since there are 21 possible pairs, the chance or probability of drawing any par-
ticular pair is 1 in 21, or ^. In working out questions in " combinations," advantage is
often taken of the fact that whatever number of elements be taken from a group to form
a combination, the number left gives the same number of combinations; thus the number
of combinations of 10 elements three together, is the same as that of 10 elements seteii,
together, etc.
PERN. See HONEY BUZZARD.
PERNAMBU'CO, a maritime province of Brazil, is bounded on the s.e. by Bahia and
Alagoas, and on the u.w. by Piauhi, Ceara, and Parahiba, It contains 50,000 sq.m.. and
has a population of 850,000. The coast is flat, and fringed with coral reefs, whicli ren-
der navigation dangerous. The chief river is the San Francisco, which forms the south-
ern boundary, and includes the greater portion of the area of the province in its basin.
The banks of this river comprise many rich, expansive meadows, and here the cattle are
reared which, in the form of beef and hides, form an important article of export at the
sea-port of Pernambuco. Much of tl:c cotton and sugar brought to the market of the
capital is harvested about 300 m. inland, in regions fertilized by streams that rise at the
base of the Santa Barbaretta hills, the first hill-range in this district that arrests the trade-
wind from the Atlantic, laden with rain. The San Francisco railway, 77^ m. long, has
done much to encourage the cultivation of sugar and cotton. The province comprises
immense tracts of rich and fertile soil, productive in sugar-cane, cotton, maize, fruits,
vegetables, and medicinal herbs. From the forests balsams, gums, and dye-woods are
obtained. In 1873 there were in Peruambuco 466 primary and 25 grammar schools, with
17,175 pupils.
PERNAMBTJ'CO, or RECIF'E, the most eastern sea-port of Brazil, stands at the mouths
of the Biberibe and Capeberibe, in lat. 8° 4' s., long. 84° 52' w., 80 in. s. of Parahiba.
It is the greatest sugar-mart in Brazil, and is the third in commercial importance of the
cities of the empire. It consists of 3 portions, connected by roads and bridges. — RtciJ'c
K1 Q Permutation*.
Perpendicular.
proper, the chief seat of commerce, on a peninsula; 8. Antonio, the middle district, on
an island between the peninsula and the mainland.; and Boa Vixta, on the mainland.
The inner harbor, which has a depth of from 10 to 30 ft., is i'orn.v-d \rj a reef which
extends along the coast at a distance of from a quarter to half a mile from trie coast.
This reef serves the purposes of a breakwater. Opposite, the northern extremity of the
city there is an opening- in the reef, resembling- an artificial cut, and forming a passage
of sufficient width to admit of the entrance of vessels drawing 16 ft. of water. Kp pert
is more easily accessible than the outer harbor of Peruambuco. There is a light-house
in the -harbor, and it is defended by several forts. Formerly the city was extremely
dirty, the streets unpaved, and much inconvenience was suffered from want of a proper
supply of \\atcr. Of late years, however, many improvements have been introduced;
water-works have been erected, extensive and spacious quays formed along the margins
of the rivers, and the streets have, in most instances, been paved and lighted. Numerous
cvlLyius and other educational institutions have been established, and the growing wealth
and commercial prosperity of the city has been accompanied by an increasing degree of
comfort and refinement. The principal exports are sugar, cotton, rum, hides, and dye-
woods- value of exports in 1878-74, £2,540,234:. The imports are woolen and cotton,
goods, hardware, silks, wines, flour, etc. ; value in 1873-74, £2,347,438. Pop. 120,000.
PEENAMBUCO WOOD. See BRAZIL WOOD.
PEENOW (Germ. Pernau), a sea port of the Baltic provinces, Russia, in the govern-
ment of Livonia, stands on a sandy heath at the mouth of a river of the same name, on
the guif of Riga, 102 m. u. of the port of Riga, and 350 in. w.s.w. of St. Petersburg by
sea. The mouth of the river is so shallow that large vessels are obliged to anchor in the
roads. The exports are chiefly flax, linseed, corn, and timber; the principal imports are
&alt and herrings. In 1866 124 ships, of which 44 were English and 24 Prussian, entered
the port. Pop. '67, 9,527.
PERONOSPHOR'E^E, an order of fungi having aerial conidia. It includes only two
genera, and the species are, with only one exception, parasites of living herbs. They
have the appearance of white frost, and arc usually found on the under side of the leaves.
The order includes fungi which attack unsound potatoes, lettuce, cabbage, mustard, and
the grape-vine. The mycelium penetrates all parts of the plant, even to the flowers, but
spreads much more rapidly in damp than in dry weather. It will find its way through
the stomata of the leaf to the outward air, as in the genus peronosphora, or push its way
through the epidermis in various places, as in cyslojms. This causes the death and black-
ening of the leaves of the plant upon which it lives, but by this time it lias nearly accom-
plished the end of its existence, having perfected its spores, which are ready to develop
•mycelia in fresh leaves.
PE'ROUSE, LA. See LA PE'ROUSE, ante.
PERPENDICULAR. A straight line standing on another straight line is said to be
perpendicular to that other when the angles it makes on both sides are equal (see ANGLE).
A line is said to be perpendicular to a plane when it is at right angles to any line in that
plane meeting it. Planes are said to be perpendicular to each other when any line in the
one plane perpendicular to their common line of intersection is also perpendicular to all
lines meeting it in the other plane.
The word " perpendicular," in common usage, refers to a direction at right angles to
the surface of still water, and is synonymous with vertical.
PERPENDICULAE, the name given to the style of Gothic architecture in England
which succeeded the decorated style. It prevaile'd from about the end of the 14th c. to
the middle of the 16th c., and was thus contemporary with the flamboyant style in France.
These styles have much in common, but they derive their names from the features pecul-
iar to each. Thus the flamboyant (q.v.) is distinguished by the flowing lines of its
tracery; whilst the perpendicular is remarkable for its stiff and rectilinear lines.
The lines of the window-tracery are chiefly vertical, and the mullions are frequently
crossed by horizontal bars. The moldings are usually thin and hard. The same
feeling pervades the other features of the style; the buttresses, piers, towers, etc., are
all drawn up and attenuated, and present in their shallow recesses and meager lines
a great contrast to the deep shadows and bold moldings of the earlier styles. The art of
masonry was well understood during the perpendicular period, and the vaulting was
admirably built. Fan-tracery vaulting (q.v.) belongs to this style. The depressed or
four-center arch is another of its peculiar features. This arch, over doorways, has Ihe
moldings generally arranged in a square form over th earch, with spandrels containing
shields, quatrefoils, etc. Paneling was also much used, the walls being frequently almost
entirely covered with it, as in Henry VII. 's chsipelat Westminster. There are many well-
known buildings of this style. Most of the colleges at Oxford and Cambridge belong to
it, and in almost every cathedral and church of importance there are some specimens of
it. Open timber roofs are very common in the perpendicular style, and are amongst the
peculiar and beautiful features of the architecture of this country. The roof of West-
minster hall, built by Richard II., is the largest example ever erected.
Pi -i-iictuul.
PERPENDICULAR FORTIFICATION owe* its origin to the marquis de Montalembert,
:\ distinguished French gen., who published his work upon the subject in 1770. Yanban
iuid, it w;is admitted, rendered the art of attack superior to that of defense. Monlalc -m-
bert strove to reverse this relation, and, in his endeavors, reject eil entirely the bastion
system of the older engineers. Instead of the occasional bastions, with intervening cur-
tains (see FORTIFICATION), with which they surrounded their cnn'lntr, lie broke the whole
I olygon into salient and re-entering angles, the latter being generally right an
Before the connected redans thus formed were counter-guards of low elevation and rave
lins, to which the approaches were through casemaled <'<//<»// //,<'/<*. In 'lie salient angle
of each redan, he built a brick tower, 40 ft. in diameter, twelve-sided, and lour ;-
high. The second and third tiers were built for heavy guns, and the upper loopholed for
musketry. In the center of the tower was a circular 'n'n/ni/. intended as a last refuge.1 for
the garrison. Montalembert maintained that from these towers every possible approach
could be commanded, which to a great extent is true; but it must be also remembered
that the greater space a gun commands, by so much the more is it raised above the plain.
and rendered visible. These towers would have little chance against the rilled ordnance
of the present day. Montalembert's system was violently a! lacked by the French engi-
neers, but Carnot subsequently adopted it, with some modifications, and it enter* largely
into the modern German defensive works. The system has never, however, found favo'r
with British engineers.
PERPET UAL CURE, a form of ecclesiastical benefice which grew out of the abuse of
lay impropriation (q.v.), the impropriator appointing a clergyman to discharge the spirit-
ual functions of which he himself was not capable. The substituted clergyman, in ordi-
nary cases is appointed by the bishop, and called a vicar; but when no provision is made
for a vicar the impropriator appoints the clergyman, who is called a perpetual curale.
The perpetual curate enters on his office without induction or institution, and requires
only the bishop's license. Perpetual cures are also created by the erect ion and endow-
me'nt of a chapel subject to the principal church of a parish. Such cures, however, are
not benefices unless endowed out of the fund called queen Anne's bounty. Chun-he* so
endowed are, by 2 and 3 Viet. c. 49, recognized as benefices. The district churches which
have been erected under several recent acts are made perpetual cures, and their incum-
bents are corporations.
PERPETUAL MOTION, THE. According to Newton's first law (see MOTION, LAWS
OF), all uuresisted motion continues forever unchanged. Thus, if friction coy la
a top or a gyroscope spinning in vacuo is an instance of motion which would be
unchanged forever, and which, therefore, might be called perpetual. The mrtion of
the sun in space, the 'earth's rotation about its axis, and numerous other common motions.
arc in this popular sense perpetual. [It is necessary to remark here, that even thcsu
motions are subject to retardation; for instance, those of the bodies of the solar system,
by the resistance of the luminiferous medium, which we know to be matter, and which
fills all space. This was remarked by Newton himself, for he says, "The larger bodies,
planets, and comets, preserve their motions longer (than terrestrial objects), because they
move in less resisting media." The same cause influences the motion of the gyroscope.
but in its case there is another retarding influence at work, due to the production of dec-
trie currents by the magnetism of the earth.] But this is not what is technically under-
stood by the title The Perpetual Motion. It means an engine which, without any supply
of power from without, can not only maintain its own motion forever, or as long as i
materials last, but can also be applied to drive machinery, and therefore to do external
work. In other words, it means a device for creating power energy without corre-
sponding expenditure. This is now known to be absolutely impossible, no matter wh;tt
physical forces be employed. In fact, the modern physical axiom, the conservation of
energy (see FORCE), founded on experimental bases as certain as those which convince
us of the truth of the laws of motion may be expressed, in the negative, thus: The per-
petual motion is impossible. Helmholtz's beautiful investigations regarding conservation
of energy (referred to in FORCE), are founded on this axiom So is the recent application,
by Clausius, of Carnot's remarkable investigation of the "motive power of fire," to the
true theory of heat. Other instances will be mentioned at the end of the article.
TLe complete statement of the impossibility of procuring the perpetual motion with
the ordinary mechanical arrangements, in which it was most commonly sought, is to be
found in the Principia (q.v.), as a deduction from Newton's third law of motion,
equivalent principle of conservation of energy is there stated in a manner which leaves
nothing to be desired; although not given in anything like the modern phraseology.
Yet it is usually said, in works on perpetual motion, that De La Hire (in K'>7s) gave the
first proof of its impossibility in ordinary mechanics. This proof, published long after
Newton's, is by no means so complete, as'it exposes only some of the most patent absurd-
ities which had been propounded for the solution of the problem. It is certain, and
worthy of particular notice, that Newton was far in advance of the greatest of his con-
temporaries and their immediate successors, in even the fundamental notions of mechanics.
Thus we find John Bernoulli seriously propounding a form of the perpetual motion,
depending upon the alternate mixture, and separation by a filler, of two liquids of differ-
ent densities; an arrangement which is as preposterous as the very common suggestion
521
Perpendicular.
Perpetual.
of a water-wheel which should pump up its own supply of water; and whose absurdity
must bu evident to any oue acquainted with Newton's chapter on the laws of motion.
It is curious that, long before Newton's time, the physical axiom that tjie perpetual
motion is impossible was assumed by Stevinus as a foundation for the science of statics.
This is particularly interesting when we compare it with the magnificent discoveries
which have been evolved in our own day from the same principle applied to the phys-
ical forces generally', and not to gravitation alone, as contemplated by Steviuus. His
process is as follows: Let an endless chain of uniform weight be passsed round a smooth
triangular prism ABC, of which the face I3C is horizontal.
The free portion of the chain BDC will hang in a symmetrical
curve (C.\ TERNARY, q.v.), and its tension will therefore be the
same at B and at C. Hence the other portion BAG of the chain
will be free to move, unless the resolved part of the weight of
AB, acting down the inclined plane AB, just balance that of
the corresponding portion of the chain down AC. If these
balance, the parallelogram of forces is proved; if not, one side
will preponderate, and we shall evidently obtain the perpetual
motion.
We will briefly sketch the history of the simpler part of the
problem, where mechanical and hydrostatical arrangements
alone are contemplated, and where the impossibility of procuring the perpetual motion
had been completely shown by Newton.
The leading features of the various devices suggested as self-moving engines are
three: 1. The machine being a combination of mechanical powers driven by weights,
was to be constructed so as constantly to wind up those weights as they fell, and there-
fore to be constantly in the same circumstances as to power in each successive complete
revolution. The ideal of this, in its simplest form, is that of a wheel moving about a
horizontal axis, and so adjusting certain heavy sliding pieces on its surface as to have
always a preponderance on one particular side. 2. The. type of the second class differs
Merlin's Perpetual Motion.
Bishop Wilkins's Third Form
from that of the first only in the substitution of liquids for the weights in the first class,
and the consequent introduction (often in most extravagant forms) of hydrostatical laws,
which the inventors seem to have considered 'less certain and more pliable than the stern
facts of common mechanics. 3. The machine depends on some natural power, such as
rain, change of temperature, wind, fluctuations of the barometer, tides, etc. The con-
sideration of this third class is very interesting, but we will defer it for a little.
Of the iirst class, the only machines that seem ever to have succeeded in permanently
deceiving any but their inventors are those of the marquis of Worcester and of councilor
Orffyreus. Contemporary with the former was bishop Wilkins, who candidly and inge-
niously points out the fallacies of various devices of his own, depending severally on
weights,' on magnets, and on Archimedes's screw. His first attempt seems to have been
closely allied to that of the marquis of Worcester, of whose engine we have no drawing,
and only a very vague description. The following figure gives us, however, some notion
of its probable nature. In Wilkius's and Jackson's perpetual notions, levers were used
instead of balls.
In all three, the attempt is by the sliding of the balls in their cells, or by the turning
of the levers, to give the preponderance to the descending side of the wheel. But even
Perpetual.
522
Ihe cut shows thai, though the weights on the descending side are on the whole further
1'ron! llie axis of the wheel than those on the ascending side, yet there are more balls on
the latter than on the former side; and a careful examination, like that made by Wilkins,
shows that (heir moments in opposite directions about the axis balance each other.
With reference to the invention of the marquis of Worcester — who is otherwise well
known as one of the first to foresee, and even in part to realize experimentally, the
advantage of steam as a motive-power — we find the following in his Century <>f 'inr, n-
lions: "A/i ;\<l t'<i-,i tor/eons change uf centers. — To prouide and make that till y1' v, eights
of y" descending sydeof a wheelc slial be perpetually further from yc center, then those
of ye mount in g sy'de, and yett equall in number and heft of y" one syde as y oilier.
A most incredible tiling if not seene, butt tryed before y late king of happy and glorious
memorye in y" tower by my directions, two extraordnary ambassadors accompanying
his Malie and ye D. of Richmond, D. Hamilton, and most part of y° court attending him.
The Avheele was 14 foote oner, and 40 weights of 50 p'1 apiece; Sr \Ym. Belford. then
Lieu1 of y* Tower, and yet liuing can justify it with seuerali others; They all .-aw
that noe sooner these great weights passed y8 Diameter Line of y vpper syde but they
hung a foote further from y« center, nor no sooner passed the Diameter Line of the lower
syde, butt they hung a foote nearer; bee pleased to judge y consequence."*
The machine of Orffyreus, by which 'IS Gravesarille was completely taken in, so much
so that he wrote to ISewtou expressing his belief that the perpetual motion was really
found, consisted of a large wheel or drum covered with canvas, to prevent the interior
from being seen, and rotating about a thick horizontal axle. This machine, when set
agoing in either direction, moved with accelerated speed till it reached a rate of twenty-
five turns in a minute: and on one occasion was sealed up by the elector of Cassel for
two months, and at the expiration of that time found to be moving as rapidly as ever.
Norwood's Perpetual Motion.
Bishop Wilkins's Second Form.
This, like the celebrated automaton chess-player, was evidently a case of clever imposi-
tion ; and but for its strange effect on 'S Gravesande, would probably have been forgotten
long ago. Tricks of this kind, more or less ingenious, such as that of Spenccof Linlith-
gow (1818), which many of our readers may recollect, are still common, especially in
America.
Bishop Wilkins's third form is a good example of the second class of contrivances
above mentioned. Three water-wheels, driven by the descending water, are intended to
turn an Archimedean screw, so as constantly to replenish a tank above. Wilkin's c;dm
investigation of the reasons why his device will not succeed is very interesting and
creditable.
^ As a contrast, let us take a case of special absurdity, that of Norwood. In the figure.
it is supposed that, as the weight of the water or mercury in the large vessel immen-i -1
exceeds that in the neck, it will preponderate, and drive the liquid through the spoui
into the vessel again; thereby furnishing, not only an admirable perpetual motion, but a
conclusive disproof of one of the fundamental laws of hydrostatics.
The second of Wilkins's cases is an instructive one. It depends on magnetism, and
will be readily understood from the cut. AB is a loadstone, which draws the iron bn!l.
C, up the inclined plane to E, where there is a hole through which the ball falls down
the curved incline, pushes open a trap at F, and is dragged again up the plane by the
loadstone. The error of .this is the neglect of the action of the loadstone on the falling
ball. There would be an admirable case of the perpetual motion if we could remove or
annihilate (without expenditure of work) the action of the loadstone during the de-e. -nt.
Unfortunately, the law of magnetic attraction is the same as that of gravitation, and
what is impossible with the one must be equally so with the other. A good illustration
* See Ilarleian MS. , No. 2, 12ft, in the British Museum.
523
Perpetual.
of this is Addeley's perpetual motion, represented in the annexed sketch. The spokes
projecting from the wheel are magnets, whose south poles are all turned from the center.
These are attracted by the north poles (N). and repelled by the south poles (S) of four
fixed magnets; and blocks of wood (A) are interposed,
to prevent magnetic action where it would tend to stop
the machine! If it were possible to find a substance
which would deal with gravitation or magnetism as an
opaque body does with light (casting a shadow), the
perpetual motion 'would be obtained with the greatest
ease.
It would be tedious and unprofitable to go through
the various physical forces, showing how a misconcep-
tion of their laws has led to hundreds of patented
schemes for the production of perpetual motion. We
may merely hint at magneto-electric machines turned
by electro-magnetic engines, to which they supply the
electric currents; electric machines, driven by a gas-
engine, the fuel for which is supplied by the decom-
position of water by the electricity produced, etc, ; the
absurdity of all of which may be imagined from the
perfectly analogous case of a steam-engine to which
heat might be supposed to be supplied by the friction
of bodies driven by the engine itself. An excellent
example of this absurdity is furnished by the writings
of one of our ablest geologists. He considers that the
internal heat of the earth may be due to chemical com-
bination, that the heat so produced may develop
thermo-electric currents, and that these in their turn
Addeley's Perpetual Motion.
may decompose the compounds formed, so that the process may sro on indefinitely.
But the third class of attempts above described merits a few words. It certainly dops
not give the perpetual motion, but it is capable of furnishing prime-movers which will
work uninterruptedly for perhaps hundreds of thousands of years. This is done, how-
ever, as we should expect, at the expense of other stores of energy in the universe.
Thus, the tide-wheel, or tidal engine, a little-used but most effective source of power,
derives its energy entirely from the earth's diurnal rotation. Engines driven by collected
rain-water, such as mill-wheels, etc., and others driven by power stored up from winds,
etc., depend upon energy radiated from the sun, mainly in the form of heat. None of
these can, therefore, in strictness be called the perpetual motion, since the energy of the
earth's rotat on, or of the sun's heat, is drawn upon in their production.
But the complete proof of the impossibility of procuring the perpetual motion by any
arrangement whatever, involving any known forces, was arrived at mainly by the experi-
ments of Joule (q. v.), who showed that the principle of the conservation of energy extends,
not alone to the forces for which it was enunciated by Newton, but to every known form
of physical action. The date 1840-45 may thus be said to have finally settled this
long-disputed question; at all events, until new forms of physical forces may happen to
be discovered; and we are HOW in a position to do generally, what was wisely done by
the French academy in 1775 for ordinary mechanical contrivances alone — viz., refuse to
consider any scheme whatever which pretends to give work without, corresponding and
equivalent expenditure. The language in which this decision of tiie French academy is
recorded (Histoire de I'Academie, 1775), is well worthy of being quoted, for its calm scien-
tific clearness and brevity, and for its present applicability to physical science in general;
"The construction of a perpetual motion is impossible. Even if the effect of the motive-
power were not in the long run destroyed by friction and the resistance of the medium
[in which the motion takes place], this power could produce merely an effect equivalent
to itself. In order, therefore, to produce a perpetual effect from a finite cause that
effect must be infinitely small in any finite time. Neglecting friction and resistance, a
body to which motion has been given will retain it forever; but only on condition of its
not acting en other bodies, and the only perpetual motion possible, on this hypothesis
(which, besides, cannot occur in nature), would be useless for the object which the
devisers of perpetual motion have in view. This species of research has the incon-
venience of being costly; it has ruined many a family; and numerous mechanics, who
might have done great service, have wasted on it their means, their time, and their
talents.
"These are the principle motives which have led the academy to its decision. In
resolving that it will no longer notice such speculations, it simply declares its opinion of
the uselessness of the labors of those who are devoted to them."
It has been asserted that the infatuation of the perpetual motiomsts, who (as may be
seen by a glance at the specifications of patents in Britain, France, Belgium, America,
etc.), are perhaps more numerous now than ever, is due to two causes — one, the idea
that the perpetual motion is a lost, but recoverable invention; the other, that some
immense government reward has been for years laid aside for the successful discoverer.
But, unhappily, these ideas are as fallacious as the grand delusion itself; and any one
Perpetuities
I'errot.
who, iu the present state of science, allows himself to be carried away by this fascinating
inquiry, loses his time and wastes his talents, more hopelessly than even a " squarer of
tiie circle."
In conclusion, we may mention a few of the cases already hinted at, in which the impos-
sibility of the perpetual motion formed the basis of an investigation. These will show
the great use which may be made of even a negative proposition. Helmhollz has shown
from it that the ultimate particles of matter must exert upon each other forces, who>e
direction is that of the line joining each pair of particles, and whose. magnitude depends
solely on their distance. J. Thomson employed it to show that the freezing-point of
water is lowered by pressure, as otherwise work might be created by the freezing of ice-
eold water. W. Thomson has employed it to show that a diamagnetie (see DIAMAUNKT-
ISM) body does not take the opposite magnetism to iron, when in similar circumstances;
for if it did, and if, like iron, it took time for the full development of the action, a per-
petual motion might be produced.
The literature of this subject is very extensive, but scattered mainly through patent
records and ephemeral pamphlets. The Journal des Savant*, and Moutucla's lli»toire de*
Miithemittiquc* may be consulted; but especially we would refer the curious to an inter-
esting work by Mr. Dircks (of Patent-Ghost notoriety) entitled Perpetuum Mobile (Spon,
London, 18G1); to which we have been indebted for some of our historical notices. The
tenor of the work is such that we cannot easily discover whether the author is a perpetual-
motionist or not; but, however this may be, it is extremely complete aud interesting as
a history.
PEBPETU'ITIES, LAW AGAINST, consists in a rule adopted in England to the effect
that property cannot be tied up for a period longer than the lives of some parties already
in existence, and 21 years more. Those who have the power of disposing of their prop-
erty have often attempted to regulate the succession of their estate at distant periods.
Such was the object of the original practice of entailing property, and so enforcing the
devolution of property on a certain series of heirs to the remotest generations. This
power of testators was always looked upon with jealousy, as tending to embarrass future
dealings with the property, and frustrate the purposes for which property is established.
So early as the reign of Edward IV. a decision was come to by the courts in Tall arum's
case, which had the effect of allowing the first tenant in tail in remainder, on arriving at
majority, to disentail the estate at discretion. Hence, in England, there has been ever
since no mode of settling property in any way so as to tie it up beyond the life of the rir-t
who takes an estate of freehold, and the nonage of the tenant in tail next in remainder —
i.e., the lives of persons in existence, and 21 years more. This principle applies not only
to land, but to personal property. As to the accumulation of the income of property, an
atte not was made by the late Mr. Thellusson to create an immense fortune by directing
tin; income of his property to be accumulated during the lives of all his children, grand-
children, and great-grandchildren, who were living at the time of his death, for the ben-
tit of some future descendants, to be living at the death of the survivor. The probable
amount of the accumulated fund was expected to be 19 millions. The will was in great
measure defeated by the existing law, but in consequence of so conspicuous an attempt .
an act of parliament was passed, called the Thellusson act (39 and 40 Gco. III. c. 98),
which in future forbids the accumulation of income for any longer time than the life of
the grantor or settler, or 21 years from his death. In Scotland, so far from the above
doctrines having been early adopted, the contrary doctrine was established. See ENTAIL.
PEBPIGNAN, a t. of France, and a fortress of the first rank, capital of the depart-
ment of Pyrenees Orientates, on the right bank of the river Tet, 5 m. from the Mediter-
ranean, and 40 m. by railway s. of Narbonne. It commands the passage by the eastern
Pyrenees from Spain into France, and is defended on the s. by a citadel and by ramparts
flanked with bastions, and protected by raised works. The works underwent a thorough
repair in 1823, and Perpignan, now ranks as one of the first strongholds in France. Its
appearance is exceedingly picturesque. From a distance, its houses are seen in the midst
of a forest of orchards; and a closer examination shows a collection of narrow streets.
covered with awnings; houses of semi-Moresque construction, with, wooden balconies
and courts, and other evidences of Spanish influence. The cathedral, a massive build-
ing, begun in 1324; the belfry of St. Jacques and the Castiller (now used as a military
prison), with its battlement and machicolations, give character to the town. Perpignan
contains barracks for 5,000 men. a council-house, palace of justice, mint, a college, numer-
ous schools, museums, and scientific societies. Good tin ordinaire (red) is grown in the
vicinity; woolen clothes, playing-cards, leather, etc.. are manufactured, and there is a
good trade in wine, brandy, wool, cork-bark, and silk. Pop. '72, 20,011.
Perpignan, as capital of the former county of Rou?sillon, remained long in the hands
of the kings of Aragon. and in 1349 king Pedro founded a university here. In 1642 it
was taken by Louis XIII. ; and since that time the town itself, together with the county
of Roussillon, has remained in the possession of the French.
PERQUTM'ANS, a co. in n.e. North Carolina, having Little river on the n. and n.e.,
Albermarie sound on the s., and Perquimans river dividing it centrally and emptying
into the sound; 240 sq.m. ; pop. ;80, 9,468—9,^67 of American birth, 4,668 colored. " Its
surface is level and swampy, largely covered with a thick growth of pine. The soil is
Perpetuities.
Verrot.
fertile in the central portion, where it produces corn, cotton, and wheat. Cattle, sheep,
and swine are raised. Co. seat, Hertford.
PERRAUD, JEAN JOSEPH, 1821-76; b. in a village of the Jura; apprenticed to a
wood-carver, afterward pupil of a school of sculpture in Lyons where he won its highest
pri/.e, and, in 1842 entered the school dcs beaux arts at Paris. He was then so poor that the
government allowed him a gratuity to enable him to go through his studies. In 1847 he pro-
duced " Telemacque rapportaut a Phalante les eeudresd'Hippias," a low-relief which won
I he grand prize and enabled him to go to Rome where a life size low-relief group of three
ligures, entitled " Adieux," attracted great attention, though not cut in marble til!27 years
later. He has since achieved the highest rank among French sculptors. " Adam," finished
in 1852; "L'Enfance de Bacchus" and " La Faune," in 1857; "St. Genevieve," 1868;
" Desespoir," 1869; "Galatee," 1873; and "On 1'amour va t'il se nicher?" are a few
among a great number, some colossal and others small, of busts, caryatides, and low-
reliefs by his hand. As a man, Perraud was austere, laborious, disdainful of gain, and
eminently pure in Ms influence.
PEEEATJLT, CHARLES, a French writer, b. at Paris, Jan. 12, 1628, was the son of an
advocate, and received a good education. In 1651 he became a member of the Paris bar,
and obtained a considerable measure of success as a pleader; but having made the
acquaintance of the minister Colbert, he was ere long diverted from the practice of his
profession by receiving the appointment of controller-general of the royal buildings. In
1671 the influence of Colbert procured for him an entrance into the French academy,
into which learned body he introduced several important reforms. What first made his
name well known was his famous controversy with Boileau regarding the comparative
merits of the ancients and moderns, which originated in a poem of Perrault's, entitled
Le Siede de Louis le Grand, read before his confreres of the academy, and intended to
prove that modern authors were superior to Homer, Herodotus, Plato, Aristotle, Virgil,
etc. It was followed up by an elaborate and methodically written Parallels des Anciens
et des Modernes (4 vcls. 1688-98), which, though an able and learned performance, is a
complete failure in it-; logic. Boileau was his keenest opponent, and fiercely, not to say
rudely assailed him in his Reflexions sur Longin, to which Perrault replied with equal
acrimony, but not with equal wit, in his Apologie des Femmes (1694). One good effect of
this quarrel was to turn Perrault's attention still more closely and critically to his con-
temporaries, the result of which was an admirable work, Homines Illustres du Siede de
Jjouia XIV., containing 200 critical biographies. But the work that has far more than
any other preserved his name is his Coiitcs dcs Fees, or Fairy Tales. See NOVELS. The
grace, liveliness, and ingenious child-like fancy displayed in these charming composi-
tions, are beyond all praise, and when we remember that their author was far advanced
in-years when he wrote them, the feat seems miraculous. "Second childhood" is not
always so like the " first," as that of Perrault seems to have been. Perrault died May
16, 1703,
PERRENOT, AXTOIXE DE. See GRANVELLE, ante.
PERRON, ANQUETIL DU. See ANQUETIL DUPERRON, ante.
PERRONE, GIOVANNI, 1794-1875; b. Italy; was educated in the university of Turin ;
wont to Rome at the age of 21, and joined the society of the Jesuits. After a year of
novitiate he went to Orvieto to teach theology to the Jesuit students. Being ordained
priest he was appointed in 1830 rector of the college of Ferrara, and in 1838 taught the-
ology in the Roman college. At the revolution of 1848 he went to England, and returned
in 1850. Three years later he was made rector of all the Roman colleges. Regarded as
one of the greatest theologians of Italy, he from this time took- his seat in the congrega-
tion of bishops and regulars, and in the provincial councils, and had the charge of the
revision of the books of the eastern church. He was also counselor to the propaganda
and the ritual committee. He published more than 60 works, which have been trans-
' lated into Latin, French, German, English, and Armenian, of which the principal are,
Prcfkctiones Theolocjicw, 9 vols. (of this there have been 25 editions); Synopsis Hutorfa Tlieo-
loguecum PJiilowphia Comparatce; De Immaculate B. V. Maries Conceptu, au Dogmatico
Decreto defmiri pomt; Analyse et Considerations sur la Symbolique de Moehler; Analyse et
Reflexions *ur VIHatoire d 'Innocent III; II Prolestantismo.
PERROT. GEORGES, b. France, 1820; educated at the college Charlemagne, the normal
school, and the French school at Athens. In 1861 he went on an archaeological exepedi-
tion to Asia Minor, Soon afterwards he became an officer of the lyceum Louis-le-
Grand. Among his publications are Recollections of a Journey in Asia Minor, 1864;
The Island of Crete, 1866; and Essay on the public and private Law of the Athenians, 1867.
PERROT D'ABLANCOURT, NICOLAS, 1606-64; b.Chalons-sur-Marne, France; began
his career as a lawyer, was entered at the bar 1624, abandoned law for literature,
deserted the Protestant for the Roman Catholic church, and, still unsatisfied, returned
after a time to his original faith. He removed from Paris to Holland to read with Sau-
niaise; then he went to England; again to Paris, and in 1637 he became a member of the
French academy, and translated the works of Tacitus, which have passed fli rough ten
editions. He left Paris and settled on his family estate of Ablancourt. In 1662, "at the
suggestion of Colbert, he was proposed to Louis XIV. as the historian of his reign, but
Perry.
Persecutions..
liis Protestantism stood in the way; ho was, however, granted a pension of £120 as his-
toriographer. Patru wrote his life. His works an: distingue-lied chiefly i'or elegance of
siyle; the most highly esteemed for this quality is his A n-ia //'* \\u>-> of Alexander; other
works are translations of '/'//"<•//, lft/<:i, (fowir, .\fiitninin Fflur., Xenophon's Aimhitxis, four
Orations of Cicero, the Strategemalica of Frontinus, the A^'timjinx of ihe ancients, and
an imitation of Lucian.
PERRY, fin agreeable beverage made by fermenting the juice of pears. It is exten-
sively made in Worcestershire, Gloucestershire, Herefordshire, and Devonshire, and
forme, with eider, the chief diet-drink of those districts. It contains from five to nine
JI-.T cent of ulcohol. The best pears for making perry are those which from their rough
last*; are lea>t agreeable for eating.
PERRY, a co. in central Alabama, drained by the Cahawba river flowing through it
(••nlrally; 750 sq.m.; pop. '80, 30,736—30.624 of" American birth, 23,583 colored. It is
intersected by the. Selma, Marion, and Memphis railroad; and in the s.w. by Washington
creek. Its surface is hilly and well timbered. The soil is fertile. Stock-raising is car-
ried on to some extent, and corn, cotlon, and tobacco are raised. It contains mineral
springs in the northern portion. Co. seat, Marion.
PKRRY, a co. in w. central Arkansas drained liy Fourche La Fave and the Arkan-
sas river, which bounds it on the n. and e. ; 525 sq.m. ; pop ;80, 3,910 — 3,886 of American
bir.h, 886 colored. The surface is hilly and broken; corn, cotton, and pork are the
staples. Coal and marble are found. Co. seat, Perryville.
PERRY, a eo. in P. Illinois, intersected by the Illinois Central, the St. Lonis, Alton
and Terre Haute, and the Iron Mountain. Chester and Eastern railroads: 440 sq.m.;
pop. "80, 16,008 — 13.985 of American birth, 778 colored. It is drained by Bcaucoup and
C( I limbo creeks, rising within its limits and emptying into the Mississippi river. The
surface is generally level and a large proportion covered with oak, hickory, and walnut
lives. It has an underlying stratum of bituminous eoal easily mined. Its soil is mod-
er.iiely fertile. Stock is raised, and the usual products of the western states. Coal
mining is the principal industry, and the manufactures include carriages, plows, lumber,
flour, saddlery and harness, agricultural implements, etc. Co. seat, Pinckneyville.
PERRY, a co. in s. Indiana, having the Ohio river for its 8. and s.e. boundary,
rating it from Kentucky; bounded on the w. by Anderson's creek; 400 sq.m.; pop. >*".
10.997 — 14,673 of American birth, 207 colored. Its surface is hilly, and contains coal
mines which appear to be inexhaustible, producing coals, notably those of Cannelton,
extensively used in steamboats. Sandstone abounds, and iron. The soil is fertile almii:
the water courses, producing grain and tobacco, and is adapted to stock-raising. Its
manufactures are important and constantly increasing, the product of potteries, paper-
mills, chair factories, breweries, flour and lumber mills. Co. seat, Cannelton.
PERRY, a co. in s.e. Kentucky; drained by the n. a.ul middle forks of the Kentucky
river; about 680 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 5,607—5,606 of American birth, 139 colored. The sur-
face is rugged and broken, mostly covered by forests. Corn and grass are the main
products. Coal is found. Co. seat, Hazard.
PERRY, a co. in s.e. Mississippi; drained by Leaf river and Black, Bogue Homo, and
Tallahala creeks; 1, 150 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 3,427—3,423 of American birth, 1070 colored.
The surface is almost entirely covered with pine forests. Cotton, corn, cattle and pork,
are staples. Co. seat, Augusta.
PERRY, a co. in s e. Missouri, having the Mississippi river for its e. and n.e. bound-
ary, separating it from Illinois; drained by small creeks; 420 sq.m.; pop. '80, 11,895 —
10.588 of American birth, 471 colored. Its surface is rough, large tracts being covered
with heavy timber and groves of- ash, elm, tulip-tree, etc. The hills contain carbonif-
erous limestone, lead and iron ore, and marble. Its soil is fertile, furnishing good
pasturage, and producing grain, sweet-potatoes, sorghum, dairy products, etc. Its
manufactories include cooper shops, breweries, lumber and flour mills. Co. seat, Perry-
ville
PERRY, a co. in s.e. Ohio, intersected by the Cincinnati and Muskingum Valley
railroad, and by the Strailsville division of the Baltimore and Ohio railroad; 420 sq.m.;
pop. '80. 28.218— 25,296 of American birth, 93 colored. It is drained by the head wale-
of the Hocking river, and a few small creeks. Its surface is hilly, with timber
dant and convenient for building purposes; and there are extensive beds of bituminous
coal. Its soil is a sandy loam and furnishes good pasturage, producing grain, t<>!
wool, dairy products, sorghum, and maple sugar. Its manufactures include stone ware,
eart hern ware, carriages and wagons, agricultural implements, malt liquors, cotton goods,
and furniture. Co. seat, New Lexington.
PERRY, a co. in central Pennsylvania, having the Susquehanna river for its e. and
n.e. boundary, a range of the Blue" mountains on the s. , and the Tuscarora mountain!
. on the w. and n.w. ; drained by the Juninta river and Sherman's creek; 530 sq.m. ; pop.
'80, 27.522— 327,121 of America" birth, 159 colored. Its surface is crossed by several
mountain ridges well covered with forests of hard wood, and containing limestone and
iron ore — the latter extensively mined. It is intersected by the Pennsylvania railroad
K 0*7 Perry.
Persecutions,
The soil of its beautiful valleys is adapted to stock- raising, and produces grain, dairy
products, and sweet-potatoes. Its lending industries arc tlie manufacture of leather,
fl-.mr, metallic wares, boots, woolen goods, etc., and it lias wool-carding and clotk-dress-
iag mills. Co. seat, New Bloomfield.
PERRY, a co. in w. central Tennessee; drained by the Buffalo and Tennessee rivers,
the latter being the w. boundary; about 400 sq.m. ; pop. :80, 7,174 — 7,140 of American
birth, 565 colored. The surface is uneven but fertile; corn, wheat, buckwheat, and
p -aiuits arc the chief products. Limestone is found. Co. seat, Linden.
PERRY, ARTHUR LATHAM, b. Lyme, N. H,, 1830; graduate of Williams college, 1852;
professor of history and political economy at the sands institution, 1854. He was at one
time a correspondent of the Springfield Republican, and was minister of a church in
Wiliiamstown. In 1866 he published Elements of Political Economy in advocacy of free-
trade. By the adherents of that system, his writings are regarded as of high authority.
PERRY, CHRISTOPHER RAYMOND, 1760-1818; b. R. I.; at the beginning of the rev-
• \\ lie joined the navy, rose to the rank of captain, and served with distinction
in several naval engagements. He was captured and for some time confined in the
notorious Jersey prison-ship. In 1798 he was made a post -captain, and in 1801 was
appointed collector of the port of Newport. His five sons, of whom Oliver Hazard and
Matthew Calbraith were the most famous, all served with credit as naval officers in the
war of 1812.
PERRY, MATTHEW CALBRAITH, 1795-1858; b. South Kingston, R. I. ; son of Chris-
topher R., and brother of Oliver Hazard ; entered the navy 1809; lieut, 1813. In 1819, while
c: -iiising in the Cyane, he settled the question of the location of the first occupation of Libe-
ria. In 1821-24, in command of the schooner Shark, he captured several pirates near tlie
West India islands. In 1833 after a 3-years' cruise in the Mediterranean he became the
superintendent of a school for gun practice in the Brooklyn navy-yard and superintended
the application of steam to war vessels. In 1837 he was made capt., and in 1&38 we:;t
abroad to visit the dock-yards, and inspect the danger signals on tlie coasts. In 1889-
41 lie was commandant at the Brooklyn navy -yard, afterward of the African squadron
a:id the gulf squadron, and gallantly co-operated with the land forces at the battle of
Vera Cruz. In 1852-54 he went on an expedition to Japan. He was one of the first
public men in this country who looked for the peaceful opening of Japan, and long
b 'Tore he was appointed to command the fleet, March, 1852, he had carefully studied
tit!,' land, the people, and the problem from eveiy side. He arrived off Uraga in the bay
of Yedo July 7, 1853, and after leaving letters for the tycoon, sailed away July 17, and
rv'iurued in Feb., 1854. On March 8 the formal articles of convention between the
United States and Japan were exchanged, at Yokohama, on the spot now occupied by
the Union Christian church. Perfy's one mistake was in not treating with tlie true sov-
ereign, the mikado, from Ozaka, instead of with his lieutenant, tlie tycoon. Commodore
Perry was a cultivated scholar, and the Narrative of the Expedition of an American Squad-
ron to Uie China Seas and Japan, though nominally edited by Dr. "Francis L. Hawks, is
in the main an exact reprint of Perry's diary and autograph narrative. He died in New
York. A superb bronze statue of commodore M. C. Perry, with four bas-reliefs in
bronze illustrating scenes in his public life, by J. Q. A. Ward, stands in Truro park,
.V'wport, R. I., erected by his son-in-law, August Belmont, of New York.
PERRY, OLIVER HAZARD, 1785-1819; b. South Kingston, R. I. ; son of Christopher R. ;
•_T uidson of judge Freeman Perry; entered the navy April, 1799, serving soon after in the
T;i[>olitan war, was made master-commander 1812; was in command of a small fleet of
jr:: 11 boats in New York harbor in 1812. In 1813 he served under Chauncey on lake
O.itario, co-operating in the attack on fort George; subsequently was placed in command
of a squadron on lake Erie, and with 9 small vessels gained avictory over the British fleet
S.-pt. 10, 1813. These services were publicly acknowledged by congress and the Penn-
sylvania senate, and lie was promoted to ca'pt., his commission dating from the day of
t'.ie victory. He was present at the re-taking of Detroit, co-operating with gen. Harrison,
find at the battle of the Thames, Oct. 5, 1813. In 1815 he was on the Mediterranean in
Decatur's squadron in command of the Java. In 1819 he went to the West Indies
in the John Adams, and died of the yellow fever. In 1860 a marble statue was erected
to his memory at Cleveland, Ohio.
PERSEA. -See AVOCADO PEAR.
PERSECUTIONS, THE TEN, of the Christian church, is the name by which are known
in ecclesiastical history certain periods of special severity exercised towards the rising
community of Christians, for the purpose of compelling them to renounce their new
creed, and to. conform to the established religion of the empire. The Christian com-
munity were at all times regarded with suspicion and dislike in the Roman empire — the
constitution of Rome not only being essentially intolerant of those new religions which,
like the Christian, were directly aggressive against the established religion of the state,
but being particularly hostile to private associations and private assemblages for worship,
such as those which every Christian congregation by its very nature presented; and thus
there are very few periods, during the first three centuries, "in which it can be said that
the church enjoyed everywhere a complete immunity from persecution. But the name
Persephone.
1'ei-neus.
is given particularly to certain periods when either new enactments were passed against
Christianity, or the existing one* were enforced with unusual rigor. The notion of fen
such period? is commonly accepted almost as an historical axiom; and it is not generally
knowu-that this precise determination of the number is comparatively recent. In the
«-4the., no settled theory of the number of persecutions seems to have been adopted.
Lactantius reckons up but six; Eusebius does not state what the number \vas, but his
narrative supplies' data for nine. Sulpicius Severus, in the 5th c., is the first who
expressly states the number at ten ; but he only enumerates nine in detail, and in com-
pleting "the number to ten, he adds the general persecution which, at the coming of
Antichrist, is to precede the end of the world. The fixing of ten as the number seems to
have orignated in a mystic allusion to the ten horns of the beast in the apocalyp-e
(xvii. 12).
It need hardly be said, however, that this is only a question of words, the diversity
of enumeration arising from the different notions attached by the several historians to
the designation general. If taken quite strictly to comprise the entire Roman empire,
the number must fall below ten; if used more loosely of local persecutions, the num-
ber might be very largely increased. The ten persecutions commonly regarded as gen-
eral are the following: the persecution under Nero, 64 A.D. ; under Domitian, flo-
under Trajan, 107 A.D. ; under Hadrian, 125 A.D. ; under Marcus Aurelius, 105, A.D. ;
under Septimius Severus, 202 A.D. ; under Maxim inus, 235, A,D. ; under Dec-ins, 249 A.D. ;
under Valeriauus, 257 A.D. ; under Diocletian, 303 A.D. The extent and the duration of
some of these have been the subject of considerable controversy, and indeed an ani-
mated discussion was maintained for a long period as to the probable total number of
victims in the pagan persecutions of the church. Such controversies are beyond the
scope of this publication. It is quite certain that there have been exaggerations on the
Christian as well as on the adverse side; but it has bsen shown beyond the possibility of
doubt, and the most recent explorations have confirmed the arguments, that the data on
which the estimates of Dodwell and Gibbon, the most prominent advocates of the theory
of the small number, were founded, were uncertain, and even fallacious; and that, not
to speak of the many victims of the constantly recurring local violences, the number
who fr1! in each of the above-named persecutions was both large in itself, and spread, in
most eases, over a considerable extent of the Roman empire. The most violent, as \v< f,
as the most widely-spread of these persecutions, were those under Nero, Trajan, Ma.xi-
minius, Decius, and Diocletian. The last-named, though called by Diocletian's name,
was in reality far less the work of that emperor than of his colleague Galenas; but it
was extremely cruel, and, with occasional interruptions, continued from tin; year 3ii;>
down to the victory of Constantine over Maxeutius — a period of nearly ten years.
PERSEPH'ONE. See PROSSIUMNA, ante.
PERSEP OLIS (Persian City), the Greek translation of the lost name of the capital of
ancient Persia (Parm-Kartaf), was situated on the river Araxes (Bendemir), to the e.
of the river Medus (Polwat, or river of Murghab), in the plain of Merdusht, about 35 m.
to the u. e. of Shiraz, on the road to Ispahan. A certain number of most remarkable
ruins is all that now remains of that city, with which, according to ancient writers, "no
other city could be compared either in beauty or in wealth," and which was generally
designated "the glory of the cast." Darius Hystaspes, Xerxes, Artaxerxes. and other
Acha'menides, each in his turn contributed towards its aggrandizement. Alexander the
great, in his march of conquest, is said to have destroyed Perse pol is completely; but
this must probably only be understood to apply to come of the chief palaces. It may
also be presumed that after the fall of the Achsemenides, that extension of the original
town (afterwards known, and important in history up to within a recent period, a*
Istakhar), on which were situated the royal edifices and temples used as the royal treas-
uries up to the time of Epiphanes, gradually fell into decay. The situation of thc.-«
structures, overlooking the vast luxuriant plain of Merdusht, is described in terms of
rapturous enthusiasm by every traveler from Chardin to our own day. Three groups
are chiefly distinguishable in the va?t ruins existing on the spot. First, the Chohel
Miuar (Forty Pillars), with the Mountain of the Tombs (Rachmed), also called Takht-i-
Jamshld or the structure of Jamshid. after some fabulous ancient king, popularly sup
posed to be the founder of Persepolis. The next in order is Naksh-i-Rustam, to the
n.w., with its tombs; and the last, the building called the Haram of .Jamshid. The most
important is the first group, situated on a vast terrace of cyclopean masonry at the foot
of a lofty mountain-range. The extent of this terrace is about 1500ft. n. by s., and
about 800 e. by w., and it was, according to Diodorus Siculus, once surrounded' by u
triple wall of 16, 32, and 60 cubits respectively in height, for the triple purpose of giving
strength, inspiring awe, and defense. The whole internal area is further divided ii;ro
three terraces — the lowest towards the s. ; the central being 800 ft. square, and rising 45
ft. above the plain; and the third, the northern, about 550 ft. long, and 35 ft. high. No
traces of structures are to be found on the lowest platform; on the northern, only the
so-called "Propylaea" of Xerxes; but the central platform seems to have been occupied
by the foremost structures, which again, however, do not all appear to have stood on the
same level. There are distinguished here the so-called "great hall of Xerxes," called
(Chehel Minar, by way of eminence), the palace of Xerxes, and the palace of Darius,
riOQ Persephone.
• U_C7 Perseus.
towering one above the other in successive elevation from the ground. The stone used
for the buildings is dark-gray marble, cut into gigantie square blocks, and in many cases
exquisitely polished. The ascent from the plain to the great northern platform is
formed by two double flights, the steps of which are nearly 22 ft. wide, 3| in. high, and
15 in, in the tread, so that several travelers have been able to ascend them on horseback^
What are called the propylaja of Xerxes on this platform are two masses of stone-work, -
whicli probably formed an entrance-gateway for foot-passengers, paved with gigantic
slabs of polished marble. Portals, still standing, bear figurts of animals 15 ft. high,
closely resembling the Assyrian bulls of Nineveh. The building itself, conjectured" to
have been a hall 82 ft. square, is, according to the cuneiform inscription, as interpreted
by Rawlinsou, the work of Xerxes; the inscription reads as follows:
"The great god Auram;ijda, he it is who has given this world, and who has given
life to mankind, who has made Xerxes king, both king and law-giver of the people. I
am Xerxes the king, the great king, the king of kings, the king of the many-peopled
countries, the supporter also of the great world, the sou of king Darius, the Acha?nie-
uian.
" Says Xerxes the king, by the grace of Auramajda, I have made this gate of
entrance; there is many another nobler work besides this Persepolis which I have exe-
cuted, and which my father has executed;" etc.
An expanse of 162 ft. divides this platform from the central one, which still bears many
of those columns of the hall of Xerxes from which the ruins have taken their name. The
staircase leading up to the Chehel Minfir, or Forty Pillars, is, if possible, still more mag-
nificent than the first; and the walls are more superbly decorated with sculptures,
representing colossal warriors with spears, gigantic bulls, combats with wild beasts,
processions, and the like; while broken capitals, shafts, pillars, and countless fragments
of buildings, with cuneiform inscriptions, cover the whole vast space of this platform.
350ft. from n. to s. , and 380 from e. to west. The great hall of Xerxes, perhaps the
largest and most magnificent structure the world has ever seen, is computed to have
been a rectangle of about 300 to 350 ft., and to have consequent!}' covered 105,000 sq. ft.,
or 2i acres. The pillars were arranged in four divisions, consisting of a center group six
deep every way. and an advanced body of twelve in two ranks, the same number flankinp-
the center. Fifteen columns are all that now remain of the number. Their form is very
beautiful. Their height is 60 ft., the circumference of the shaft 16, the length from the capi-
tal to the torus, 44 feet. The shaft is finely fluted in 52 divisions; at its lower extremity
begin a cincture and a torus, the first, 2 in. in depth, and the latter, 1 ft., from whence
devolves the pedestal, shaped like the cup and leaves of the pendent lotus, the capitals hav-
ing been surmounted by the double semi-bull. Behind the hall of Xerxes was the so-called
hall of hundred columns, to the s. of which are indications of another structure, which
Fcrgu>son terms the central edifice. Isext along the w. front stood the palace of Darius,
and to the s. the palace of Xerxes, measuring about 86 ft. square, similarly decorated,
and of .similar grand proportions. — For a more minute description, we refer to the travels
of Niebuhr, Ker Porter, Rich, etc.; to Fergussou's Palaces of Nineveh and Pe.rse.poh 8 .
Restored, to Yaux's Nineceh and Persepolis, and to Rawlinson's Fire Great Monarchies.
See also CYRUS, DARIUS, XERXES, CUNEIFORM, and PERSIAN ARCHITECTURE.
PERSOX; a co. in n. North Carolina, having the state line of Virginia for its n.
boundary ; drained by head waters of Dan river, and the Hycootee and Flat rivers; 400
sq.m. ; pop. 'so, 13,719 — 13,715 of American birth, 6.513 colored. Its surface is diversi-
fied by hill, valley, and plain, well covered with forests of pine, oak, and hickory, and
containing copper ores, graphite, and slate. Its soil produces grain, sweet-potatoes,
tobacco, and dairy products. Live stock is raised. Co. seat, Roxborough.
PERSEUS, also PERSES, the last king of Macedonia, was the eldest son of Philip V.,
and was 1). in the latter part of the 3d c. B.C. He was .trained to a military life from his
earliest years, and after bringing about the death of his younger brother Demetrius, who
was a favorite both with the Macedonians and the Romans, he succeeded his father on
the throne 179 B.C. Philip had long foreseen that a contest between Rome and Macedoa
was inevitable, and he had carefully prepared for it, so that Perseus, on his accession,
found himself forearmed. Meanwhile he governed Macedon with great prudence and
moderation, and became decidedly popular with his subjects and neighbors. Seleucus
IV. (Philopator) gave hiin his daughter Laodice in marriage; Prusias, the Bithyniau
king, married his sister; the Greek states looked favorably on his projects, and his
envoys were well received' even at Carthage. The Romans took the alarm, and — after
some delusive negotiations — sent an army into Thessaly (171 B.C.). The war lasted four
years; in the first three the advantage?: were so little on the side of the Romans that
there was a wide-spread feeling in Perseus's favor in the countries bordering or. the Levact
and the Archipelago. In the beginning of the fourth campaign (168 B.C.), L. ^Emilius
Paulus arrived, and took command of the Roman forces. A great battle was fought at
Pydna (Juno 22), in which the army of Perseus was utterly routed. The king himstif
was soot: afterwards forced to surrender, and conve}'ed to Rome, where he adorned the
triumph of the conqueror. He died in captivity at Alba, a few years later.
PERSEUS, in Grecian mythology, the son of Zeus and DanaS (q.v.), and grandson of
Acrisius. He was brought up at Seriphos, one of the Cyclades, where Polydectei
U. K. XI.— 34
Verscvcranc*.
Persia.
reigned, who, wishing to got rid of him for private reasons, sent him when yet a youth
to bring the head of the Gorgon Medusa, on the pretense that he wanted to present it as
a bridal gift to Hippodamia. Perseus set forth under the protection of Athene and
Hermes, the former of whom gave him a mirror, by \\liich lie eould see the- moi'stei-
•without looking at her (Cor that would have changed him into stone); the latter, a sickl •.
while the nymphs provided him with winged sandals, and a helmet of Hades, or invisible
cap. After numerous wonderful adventures, he reached the abode of Medusa, who
,, dwelt near Tartess>is, on the coast of the ocean, and succeeded in cutting off her head,
i which he put into a hair, and carried oil. On his return, he visited Ethiopia, where he
liberated and married Andronvda. by whom he subsequently had a numerous family,
1 and arrived at Seriphos in lime to rescue his mother from the annoyance of the too ardent
addresses of Polydectes. whom, along with some of his companions, he changed into
etone. After this he went to Argos. from which Acrisius tied to Thessaly, and Pcr-eii*
assumed the vacant throne. But this, like many other details of the myth, is differently
narrated. Perseus was worshiped as a hero in various parts of Greece, and, according
to Herodotus, in Egypt too. In ancient works of art, the figure of Perseus much resem-
bles that of Hermes.
PERSEVEKANCE OF SAINTS, a doctrine necessarily resulting from the most <
tial parts of the Calvinistic system, and therefore held by almost all who adopt the
Calvinistic or Augustiuiau doctrines. It is advocated not only by arguments from other
doctrines, as those of election, atonement, the intercession and mediatorial dominion of
Christ, imputed righteousness and regeneration, but also from many texts of Scripture,
as those which declare eternal life to be always connected with believing, and those which
encourage the believer to depend on the faithfulness, love, and omnipotence of God. To
tin objection very commonly urged against it. that it tends to make men careless con-
cerning virtue and holiness, its advocates reply that this objection is only valid against a
doctrine very different from theirs, the true doctrine of perseverance of saints being one
of perseverance in holiness, and giving no encouragement to a confidence of final salva-
tion which is not connected with u present and even an increasing holiness.
FEBSHOEE, a market t. in the co. of Worcester, and 9 m. s.e. of the city of that
name, on the Avon. It contains two churches — that of St. Andrew's, small and ancient;
and the church of the holy cross, in Norman and early English, with a lofty square,
tower. This church is the only remaining portion of the ancient abbey-church of thfi
same name. Pop. '71, 2,826, who are employed in wool-stapling, in manufacturing
agricultural implements, and in raising fruits and vegetables for the markets of the large
manufacturing towns in the vicinity.
PERSIA, called by the natives IRAN (see ARYAN RACE), the most extensive and pow-
erful native kingdom of western Asia, is bounded on the n. by the great plain of Khiva,
the Caspian sea, and the trans Caucasian provinces of Russia: on the e. by Bokhara,
Afghanistan, and Beloochistan; on the s. by the strait of Onnu/. and the Persian gulf.
and on the w. by Asiatic Turkey. It extends 900 m. from e. to w., and 700 m. from n.
to s., and has an area of about 648,000 miles. It consists for the most part of a great
table-land or elevated plateau, which in the center and on the east side is almost a de;i<!
level; hut on the n., w., and s. is covered with mountain-chains. The province of
Az&rbijan, in the n.w., is almost 'wholly mountainous. From its southern boundary, the
majestic range of the Elburz runs eastward, following the Hue of the Caspian const at a
distance varying from 12 to 60 miles. On reaching Astrabad, the mountains sink into
ridges of lower elevation, one of which joins the Paropamisus in Afghanistan. A hill
country lies n. of this line; it terminates in the Daman-i-koh chain, which sinks abruptly
to the low plain of Turkistan. South and e. of Azerbijan, a broad mountain-belt trav-
erses Persia from n.w. to s.e., the chains and valleys of which it consists lying in the
same direction. To this region belong the mountains running from Hamadan to Shira/.
many of the peaks of which are clad with perpetual snow; and the Zagros mountains
and Pushti Kuh on the western frontier. The Persian mountains are mostly primitive;
granite, porphyry, feldspar, and mountain-limestone enter largely into their composition*.
They also exhibit indications of volcanic action — Taftan, south of lake Zirreh, or Zamoon,
being an active, and Demavend an extinct volcano; and the destructive earthquakes
which are still of frequent occurrence in the n. and n.w. of Persia, indicate the presence
of subterranean fires. The Persian plateau, which lies in an angle formed between these
mountains, and spreads eastward to the plateau of Afghanistan, ranges from 2,000 to
5.000 ft, above sea level, the lowest portion being the great salt desert in the-s.w. of
Khorassan, which has 2.000 ft. of elevation above the sea; while the average elevation of
the whole plateau above the sea is about 3,700 feet.
Almost the whole of Khorassan (q.v.). the n. half of Kerman (q.v.), the e. of Irak-
Ajemi (q.v.), which form the great central plain, and detached portions of all the other
provinces, with the exception of those on the Caspian sea, forming more than three-
fourths of the surface of Persia, are desert. In some parts of this waste the surface is
dry, and produces a scanty herbage of saline plants: in otlv.-r parts, it is covered with
salt marshes, or with a dry. hard, salt crust, sometimes of considerable thickness, which
glitters and flashes in the sunlight, forcinir the traveler on tncsc inhospitable wastes to
•wear a shade to protect his eyes; but by far the greatu portion of this region consists of
Perseverance.
Persia.
sand, sometimes so light and impalpable as to be shifted hither and thither by the slight-
est breeze. This great central desert contains a few oases, but none of great extent. A
narrow strip of low and level country extends along the shores of the Persian gulf and
the strait of Ormuz. It consists of a succession of sandy plains, occasionally interrupted
by a plantation of palms near the scanty rivulets which traverse it. It is called Dusk-
tistan, or Gurmsir— that is, the warm region, in opposition to the mountainous districts,
called Sirhud. or the cold country.
Although so much of Persia is desert, some parts of the country arc of exceeding fer-
tility and beauty; the immense valleys, some of them 100 m. in length, between the
various ranges of the Kerman mountains, abound with the rarest and most valuable veg-
etable productions. Great portions of the provinces of Fars, Khuzistau, Ardelan, and
Azcrbijan have been lavishly endowed by nature with the most luxuriant vegetation ;
while the provinces of Ghilan and Mazanderan, which lie between the Elburz and the
Caspian FQ\\, and the southern slopes of the Eibun;, are as beautiful as wood, water, and
a hot climate cnn make them — the mountain-sides being clothed with trees and shrubs.
and the plain, 800 m. long by from 5 to 80 m. wide, studded with mulberry plantations,
rice fields, vineyards, orchards, orange grounds, and sugar and cotton plantations.
'.Iti'cers. — Persia has hardly one river that can properly be termed navigable, though
some of them are several hundred miles in length, and of great width and volume of
water; among those of sufficient importance to deserve mention is the Karun, which
rises in the mountains to the s. of Ispahan, and falls into the Shat-el-Arab near Moham-
merah. The rivers which flow to the southward receive, in the latter part of their course,
lew tributaries, and fertilize only a narrow strip of land on each side of them, except
when their waters are applied, by means of canals or other works, to the artilicial irriga-
tion of the soil. This mode of increasing and extending the productive powers of the
country was much employed in ancient times; but the constant change of masters, and
the never-ending disturbances under which Persia has so long suffered, led to the neg-
h.'ct of the practice, and most of these monuments of the architectural skHl and laborious
industry of the ancient Persians are now ruinous.
Lakes. — Persia, as a natural consequence of the nature and situation of its surface,
abounds with saline lakes, and there are nearly thirtj^ of them having no visible outlets.
The chief lake is lake Urumiah (q.v.), in Azerbijan. Lake Bakhtegan, in the e. of Fars,
t'.ie receptacle for the drainage of the northern half of that province, is about 60 English
m. in length by 9 in breadth. Lake Shiraz (q.v.) is much smaller. Part of lake Zirreh
is now included in the frontier of Persia, but it may still be considered as chiefly belong-
ing to Afghanistan.
Climate and Products. — The climate is necessarily very varied. What the younger
Cyrus is reported to have said to Xenophon regarding the climate, "that people perish
\\ith cold at the one extremity, while they are suffocated with heat at the other," is
li'.crally true. Persia may be considered to posse a three climates — that of the southern
Dushtistan, of the elevated plateau, and of the Caspian provinces. In the Dushtistan,
the autumnal heats are excessive, those of summer more tolerable, while in winter and
^pi-ing The climate is delightful. On the plateau, the climate of Fars is temperate.
.About Ispahan, the winters and summers are equally mild, and the regularity of the
seasons appears remarkable to a stranger. To the n. and n.w. of this, the winters are
severe. The desert region of the center and e., and the country on its border, endure
m< st oppressive heat during the summer, and piercing cold in winter. The Caspian
provinces, from their general depression below the sea level, are exposed to a degree of
heat in summer almost equal to that of the West Indies, and their winters are mild,
limns, however, are frequent and heavy, and many tracts of low country are marshy
and extremely unhealthy. Except in the Caspian provinces, the atmosphere of Persia is
remarkable above that of all other countries for its dryness and purity.
The cultivated portions of Persia, when supplied with moisture, are very fertile, pro-
ducing an immense variety of crops. The chief cultivated products are wheat (the best
in the world), barley, and other cereals, cotton (of which, according to the statement
of the Persian ambassador at London in 1SG1, enough could be grown in the southern
provinces to supply the manufactories of western Europe), sugar, rice, and tobacco.
The vine flourishes in several provinces, and the wines of Shiraz are celebrated in eastern
poetry. Mullvrries are also largely cultivated, and silk is one of the most important
products of the kingdom.
The forests of the Elburz abound with wild animals, as wolves, tigers, jackals, boars,
buffaloes', foxrs, and the Caspian cat. Lions and leopards also abound in Mazanderan.
Among domestic animals, the horse and camel hold the first place. The horses have
always been celebrated as the finest in the east. They are larger and more handsome,
but less fleet than the Arabian horses. The Caspian rivers abound with fish, especially
sturgeon, great quantities of which arc cured and exported to Russia. The mineral
products of Persia are insignificant, with the sole exception of salt. Iron is abundant in
Azerbijan, but is little worked; copper occurs in considerable quantity in the mountains
of Mazanderan and Kerman; and lead, antimony, sulphur, and naphtha also abound.
Dr. Fulze, of the imperial Austrian mining school, who had been sent to Persia by baron
Renter to explore the mineral wealth of the country, reported, in Jan., 1874, the dis-
covery of an important coal-field.
re^u. 532
Inhabitants. — The settled population are chiefly Tajiks, the descendants of the
anci'jnt Persian race, with an intermixture of foreign blood. To this class belong the
agriculturists, merchants, artisans, etc. The Tajik-* or Mohammedans of the iSh i in-
sect, with the exception of the remaining 1'arsees or Gnel'crs iq.v.), numbering 70o in
1868, who are found in Kerman and Kar>. and still retain their purity of race and
religious faith. The Tajiks have been spoken of as timid, cunning, and servile, but in
the cities of Turkistan recently conquered by Russia, they make excellent subjects.
ready and apt to adopt and appreciate the knowledge and habits of Europe. In the
work quoted below, Vanibery speaks of their industry, and their capacity for and love
of culture. He says, that which the Japanese are in the e. the Tajiks may become in
the w. of Asia; and it is a settled matter, that they will form the medium i'or the intro-
duction of the civilization of the west into the interior of Asia. The nomad or pastoral
tribes, or eylats (eyl, a clan), often spelt ilh/nix, nre of four distinct race.— Turkomans,
Kurds, Luurs, and Arabs. Their organization is very similar to that which formerly
subsisted among the Highland clans of Scotland, with the exception that the former arc
nomad, while the latter inhabited a fixed locality. Each tribe is ruled by its hereditary
chief (ujnk), and under him by the heads of the cadet branches i '//•. //M of 'his family. ( M"
the four noinad races, the Turkoman is the most numerous, and fi.rins at tin- present
day the ruling race in Persia. The Kurds are few in number, the greater part of their
country and race being under the sway of Turkey. The Arabs are also few in number,
and at the present day can hardly be distinguished from the Persians. ha\ing a<:
both their manners and language. The Luurs are of nearly pure Persian blood. The
nomad races, especially the Turkomans, profess the Sunni cr< ed: ihey are distinguished
from Tajiks by their courage, manliness, and independence of character; but they are
inveterate robbers, and since their entrance into the country in the 10th <-., it has been
continually distracted by civil wars and revolutions. There is a small population of
native Christians — the Kestorians of Urmah and Telmais. Including those v.lm have
joined the Roman Catholic and Protestant churches, their whole number does not ei
25,000. They are agriculturists, and suffer great wrong and oppression from the chiefs
who own the villages in which they live. *The Jews number 15,000.
We have no certain information regarding the population of Persia. There can be
no doubt that in antiquity, and even during the middle ages, while ihe irrigation works
still fertilized great tracts of country, it supported a great population. A native esti-
mate, referred to by sir John Malcolm, fixed the modern population at 200.000,000 In
the 17th c., the French traveler, Chardiu, thought 40,000,000 not too hiu'h a '•'•
Recent travelers, however, reduced these sums to numbers vaiying from 15 to 8,0( <
Much surprise was accordingly expressed when Mr. R. Thomson, who had traveled
in every province of Persia, and collected statistical information, made careful cal-
culation from the taxes collected, etc., and reported that the entire population did
exceed 5,000.000, and was probably not over 4.000,000. His estimate has since been
generally accepted as the most trustworthy we have. He divides the total rouirhly
into 1,000,000 inhabitants of cities, 1,700,000 nomads, and 1,700,000 peasants and villa-
gers; and the following are his estimates of the population of the chief cities: Tabree/.
110,000; Teheran, 85,000; Meshid, 70,000; Ispahan, 60.000; Yezd, 40,000; Kerman, 30,000;
Kermanshah, 30,000; Hamadan, 30,000. There can be no doubt that the population has
been long diminishing, a fact. attributable to misrule and extortion — neglect of the
great irrigation works — and the frequent occurrence of famines in a dry country \\heie
cultivation depends on an artificial supply of water.
The insecurity of property has prevented the improvement of land, the extension of
trade, and public works of every kind. The roads are utterly neglected. The houses
those of the wealthiest people not excepted, appear contemptible, being generally built
of earth or mud, and are grouped, even in the towns, with little attention to uniformity
or order. They scarcely ever exceed one story in height, and they are surrounded by
high blank walls. The public buildings, such as mosques, colleges, and caravansaries,
are of similar appearance to the ordinary houses, and built of the same materials. The
interiors, however, of the houses of the rich are sometimes perfect paradises of luxury
and elegance; and however much dwellings constructed of mud may offend a European
eye, it is questionable whether, with all its disadvantages, mud is not a bitter building
material than wood or stone in a country possessing such a climate as Persia. The mis
erable look of the towns is, however, greatly improved by the beauty of the ga
•which surround them.
Manufactures and TVwfe.— The trade of Persia is comparatively of little importance.
The silk is the great staple, and is produced in every province, but chiefly in tin
the north. The failure of the crop since 1870 has, however, interfered very s-er:
with this branch of industry. Cotton and woolen fabrics, shawls, carpets, and felts arc
largely manufactured for us'e and export in Khorassan. Trade is curried on by caravans
•with flic interior of Asia and the chief towns of Persia. These caravans exchange the
products of Persia for muslin, leather, skins, nankeen, china, glass, hardware, gums,
dye-stuffs, ;ind spices. The greater part of the commerce of Persia centers at Tabree/.. to
winch are conveyed all the products of e. Persia, Turkistan, Cabu!, Beloochisian,
and India. European goods are brought to Tabreez by Constantinople and Trebizond.
While in recent times the great overland routes have been rendered insecure by the
533
Persia.
ir.i : :(lcd state of Turkistan and Afghanistan, the communication between Persia and
foreign countries has been increased by the Caspian and the Persian gulf. On the for-
mer sea, in 1878, there was a Russian fleet of schooners and screw steamers. Two or
three of these vessels sailed weekly from Astrakhan with merchandize for the Persian
coast. There were three passenger steamers, one of which ran weekly to the southern
shores of the Caspian, touching at Entzdi, Mashadisar, and Ashurada. In tile Persian
gulf the British India steam-navigation company had recently a regular line of fine
steamers running fortnightly from Bombay to Bassora, and touching at Bender-Abbas
and Bushire. The exports to India consist chiefly of horses, dried fruit and drugs; and
the imports from that country and Europe, of broadcloths, cotton goods, jewelry, arms,
cutlery, watches, earthen, glass, and metal wares, etc. The whole foreign trade of
Persia" has been estimated roughly at — imports, £2,500,000; exports, £1,500,000. The
trade by the eulf ports is rapidly increasing. The value of exports from Britain and
Ireland to Persia in 1871 was £8,884; in 1872, £23,811; and in 1876, £63,384. It is
doubtful, however, how far the existing commerce of Persia will make the construction
of railways a profitable speculation. Baron Renter, under a concession made to him by
the shah, obtained power to construct railways from the Caspian to Teheran, and from
Teheran to the Persian gulf; but there is little expectation of this concession being suc-
cessful.
Government, Taxation, Education, etc. — The government of Persia is a pure despotism,
limited only by domestic intrigues, dread of private vengeance, and an occasional ins.ir-
^rection. The last-named is the principal check against unjust government on the pa: j
'of the monarch, while the former two operate as powerful restraints on his ministers.
The monarch, who has the title of "shah" and "padishah," possesses absolute author-
ity over -he lives and property of his subjects. His deputies, the governors of province:;
and districts, possess similar authority over those under them; their actions are, how-
ever, liable to revision by the shah, who may summarily inflict any punishment upon
them for real or alleged misgovern men t. Oppression of the working and mercantile
el-i^cs is almost a necessity of such a form of government. The central government
consisted till lately of the mdri-azem, or grand vizier, with various dependent officials,
there is a ministry, nominally modeled after the cabinets of European slates, of
which the head is called president of the council. He is supported by the ministers of
foreign affairs and of war, of justice, of public worship and of mines, of commerce,
telegraphs, agriculture, industry and public works, the commander-in-chief, and the
master of the ceremonies. The law, which in civil cases is administered by Mollnhs
(q. v.), in criminal cases by a state court, is founded on the Koran and on tradition. The
punishments commonly inflicted are fines, flogging (the bastinado), and death, either by
decapitation, stabbing, or torture. The beglerbegs, or governors of provinces, who are
al-.vays chosen from the governing race, the Turkomans, and are generally of the blood-
royal, oppress to the utmost the poor Tajiks. They are seldom able, however, to pro-
tect their provinces from the ravages of the predatory eylat hordes, who, though nomi-
nally subject to the shah, are governed by their own khans, and are really independent.
The revenue is derived— (1.) From a tax on the gross produce of land, 20 per cent, is,
supposed to be the amount payable to the crown by the landholders. As a general rule,
ho'.vever, this amount is somewhat exceeded, and 25 per cent may be taken as the
average a-s'--<ment; (2.) Duties on cattle and flocks — in case of goats, sheep, and cows,
8 per cent on value of wool and butter yielded; (3.) Customs dues; (4.) Capitation tax
of 8d. on each male over 18; (5.) Rates levied on incomes of artisans and dealers of 20
per cent, and duties on provisions brought to market. In theory, these are the taxes
authorized by the government, but Mr. R. Thomson states that in practice a frightful
sy tc.m of bribery and extortion prevails. The wealthy and influential escape the rapacity
of the provincial governors, but as much as possible is taken from the hard-working
pc;t-.;mts. He believes that the irregular exactions amount to a sum equal to the legal
assessments, and that not a penny of the money so extorted is applied to public pur-
!'• e& Large sums are extorted from the Jews. The revenue in 1876 was about £1,643,-
200, of which £1,240,000 were from the direct taxes.
Elementary education is very generally diffused among all classes. There are a
large number of colleges where students are instructed in religion, and Persian and
Arabian literature. Among the upper classeT it is asserted that the Mohammedan
religion is rapidly losing its hold, and that unbelief is widely prevalent.
Political Divisions, etc. — From the earliest times down to the present century, Persia
was divided into seven or eight great divisions; but about the time when it was attempted
to introduce European civilization into the country, and discipline into the army, the
country was anew divided into 25 provinces — viz., the three Caspian provinces of Ghilan,
Mazanderan, and Astrabad, in the north; Azerbijan, Ardelan or Persian Kurdistan,
Lurislan, and Khuzistan, in the west; Fars, Laristan, and Kerman with Mogistan, in
the south; while the great province of Irak-Ajemi in the center was divided into
Khamsah, Kasbin, Teheran, Hamadan, Kum, and Ispahan; and that of Khorassan in
tiie cast, into Yezd, Tabas, Ghayn and Birjun, Turshiz, Meshid, Damghan, Semnum,
and !!*e Dasht Beyad. or the Great Snlt Desert. There are many interesting ruins of
ancient, populous, sind celebrated cities in Persia — for example, Persepolis (q.v.), Rhages
or Rhe, fjiiakpur, Ltukhar, Tus, ILcrv, Shushau, Hamadan, etc. ; and the monuments
Persia. 534
and inscriptions found at some of these places form a highly interesting study. Sec
Army. — The standing army, according to the army list of 1875, consisted of 200,000
men, but the majority of these exist only on paper. Tile regular army ia ivally com-
]>osed of about 80,000 infantry and 1000 artillery, while theiv arc about 10,000 irregular
cavalry, a few thousaml irregular inianiry, and the guards. The ofh'eers in the 1'.
army are said to be ignorant ami inetticieut, but the soldiers are described as
obedient, sober, intelligent, and capable of enduring great fatigue. The irregular
cavalry, which forms tlu- bravest portion of the Persian anny, is equal to the Cossacks
in the Russian army, and much superior to the Turkish sultan's bashi-bazouks.
Uiistoi-y. — According to the Shah Kaineh of Firdusi (q.v.), the history of Persia
begins some thousands of years before the Christian era. Little has yet been done
towards extracting the grains of historical truth that may be contained in the mass of
fable that constitutes the native Persian annals; although hopes are cheri-hed that by
aid of the many inscriptions and monuments that are being daily ui-eover< d, light may
yet be thrown upon many points. In the meantime, we must rest contented with the
accounts derived from Greek writers. The north-western part of Iran, anciently called
.Media (q.v.), was, at the earliest period known to tae Greeks, a part of the Assyrian
empire, but the Medes revolted, and (708 B.C.), under Dejoces, established an empire
which subdued both that of Assyria and their own kindred tribes of Pcrsis. See
MEDIA. About 537 B.C., the Persians under Cyrus (q.v.)— the Kai-Khusru of the
Persians — (559-529 B.C.) rebelled, subdued their former masters, the .Medes (\vlio from
this time became amalgamated with them), and established a mighty empire, whicli
included besides Persia, as far as the Oxus and Indus, Asia Minor, Syria. Pale.-tine, a;,d
Mesopotamia. His son, CAMBYSES. a most ferocious and blood -thirsty tyrant (5v;!)-."i22
B.C.), subdued Tyre, Cyprus, and Egypt. After the brief rule of the usurper S:.n cms
(522-521 B.C.), Darius I. (q.v.), surnamed HYSTASPES — the Gushtasp of the Persians —
(521-485 B.C.), mounted the throne. He was a politic and energetic prince, and .suc-
ceeded in firmly establishing his dynasty, and adding Thrace and Macedonia to his
empire; but his two attempts to subdue Greece were completely foiled, the lir.-t by the
Thracians, and the second by the Athenians at Marathon (490 B.C.). His son, X;
I. (485-405 B.C.) — the Isfundear of the Persians — renewed the attempt to subdue the
Greek states, and though at first successful, the defeats of Salainis and PI at tea compelled
him to limit himself to a defensive warfare, which exhausted the resources of his king-
dom. His eon, AKTAXERXES I. (465-425 B.C.), surnamed LONGIMANUS (the Bahman of
the Persians, better known as Ardeshir Dirazdust), was a valiant prince, but he was
unable to stay the decadence of Persia, which had now commenced. He, ho\.
crushed a formidable rebellion in Egypt, though his wars with the Greeks and louians
were unsuccessful. The empire now became a prey to intestine dissensions, which con-
tinued during the reigns of his successors, Xerxes II., Sogdianus, Darius II., Artaxer.xes
II., and Artaxerxes III. DAKIUS III., OODOMANNUS (336-829) (the Darab II. of the
Persians), the last of the dynasty, was compelled to yield his throne to Alexander (q.v.)
the great, king of Macedon (known as Sccunder by' the Persians), who reconquer
the former provinces of Persia, and founded a vast empire, which, at his death h
B.C., was divided into four parts, Persia along with Syria falling to the share of the
Scleucidae (q.v.), and its old dependency, Egypt, to the Ptolemies (q.v.). The HeleuHd.e
soon lost Bactria(novv Balkh), which became independent under a series of Greek sover-
eigns; and about 246 B.C., Parthia (q.v.) — now northern Khorassan — also rebelled under
AKSACES I. (the Ashk of the Persian writers), who founded the dynasty of the Arsaeiii • •.
under whom the greater part of Persia was wrested from the Greeks, and maintained
against both the Greeks and Romans. The Greek empire of Bactna, which is said to
have included a great part of Hindustan, was overthrown by an influx of nomad trii.'cs
from Turkistan, and these invaders having been driven out by the Parthiaus, Bactria
was added to their empire. But the dynasty of the Arsacidte was brought to an end by
a Persian named Ardeshir Babegau, w'ho managed to gain possession of Fars. Kerman,
and nearly the whole of Irak, before Arduan, the Parthian king, took the field against
him. At last, a great battle was fought (218 A.rx) on the plain of Hormuz, in which the
Persians were complete])' victorious. Babegan was now hailed as Ardeshir, king of
Persia, and '• Shahan Shah," or king of kings" The history of this dynasty will be found
under the head of SASSANIO/K. The Sassanian kings raised Persia to a height of power
and prosperity such as it never before attained, and more than once periled the exist-
ence of the eastern empire. The last king was driven from the throne by the Arabs
(636 A. D.), who now began to extend their dominion in all directions; and from this
period may be dated the gradual change of character in the native Persian race, for they
have been from this time constantly subject to the domination of. alien races. During
the reiirns of Omar (the first of the Arab rulers of Persia), Othman, Ali, and the Omini-
ades (634-750), Persia was regarded as an outlying province of the empire, aiu.
ruled by deputy governors; but after the accession of the Abbaside dynasty (750 A. D.),
Bagdad became the capital, and Khorassau the favorite province of the early and more
energetic rulers of this race, and Persia consequently came to be considered as the center
and nucleus of the caliphate. But the rule of the caliphs soon became merely nominal,
and ambitious governors, or other aspiring individuals, established independent priuci-
Persia.
palities *:n various parts of the country. Many of 1hcse dynasties were transitory, others
lusted for centuries, and created extensive and powerful empires. The chief were tho
T.MifcurrL.s (820-72), a Turkish dynasty in Khorassan; the SOFFARIDES (Persian, 869-
903), in Seistan, Fars, Irak, and Mazanderan; the SAMANI, in Transoxiana, Khoiassan,
and Seistan; the DJLKMI (Persian, 933-1056), in western Persia; and the Ghizncvidea
(q.v.), in eastern Persia. These dynasties supplanted eacli other, and were finally 7'ooted
out by the Seljuks (q.v.), whose dominion extended from the Hellespont to Afghanistan.
A branch of this dynasty, which ruled in Khaurezm (now Khiva, q.v.) gradually
acquired the greater part of Persia, driving out the Ghiznevides and their successors,
the Ghumk-s (q.v.); but they, along with the numerous petty dynasties which had
established themselves in the south-western provinces, were all swept away by the Mon-
gols (q.v.) under Genghis-khan (q.v.) and his grandson, Hulaku-khan, the latter of
whom founded a new dynasty, the PEKso-MoxGOL (1258-1335). This race becoming
effeminate, was supplanted by the EYLKIIANIANS in 1335, but an irruption of the Tartars
of Turkistan under Timur (q.v.) again treed Persia from the petty dynasties which mis-
ruled it. After the death of Timur's sou and successor, shah Rokh, the Turkomans
took possession of the western part of the country, which, however, they rather preyed
upon than governed; while the eastern portion was divided and subdivided among
Timur's descendants, till, at the close of the loth c., they were swept away by the
Uzbeks (q.v.), who joined the whole of eastern Persia to their newly founded khanate of
Khiva. A new dynasty now arose (1500) in western Persia, the first prince of which
(Ismail, the descendant of a long line of devotees and saints, the objects of the highest
reverence throughout western Persia), having become the leader of a number of Turkish
tribes who were attached by strong ties of gratitude to his family, overthrew the power
of the Turkomans, and seized Azerbijan, which was the seat of their power. Ismail
rapidly subdued the western provinces, and in 1511 took Khorassan and Balkh from the
l.'zheks; but in 1514 he had to encounter a much more formidable enemy — to wit, the
mighty trelim (q.v.), the sultan of Turkey, whose zeal for conquest was further inflamed
by religious animosity against the Shiitcs, or " Sectaries." as the followers of Ismail were
termed. The Persians were totally defeated in a batttle on the frontiers; but Selim
reaped no benefit from his victory, and after his retreat, Ismail attacked and subdued
Georgia. The Persians dwell with rapture on the character of this monarch, whom they
deem not rally to be the restorer of Persia to a prosperous condition, and the founder of
a great dynasty, but the establisher of the faith in which they glory as the national
religion. Ills son Tamasp (1523-76), a prudent and spirited ruler, repeatedly drove
out" the pr-'datory Uzbeks from Khorassan, sustained without loss a war with the
Turks, and assisted Homayun, the son of Baber, to regain the throne of Delhi. After a
considerable period of internal revolution, during which the Turks and Uzbeks attacked
the empire without hindrance, shah Abbas I. the great (1585-1628), ascended the throne,
restored internal tranquillity, and repelled the invasions of the Uzbeks and Turks. In
1605 he inflicted on the Turks such a terrible defeat as kept them quiet during the rest
of his reign, and enabled him to recover the whole of Kurdistan, Mosul, and Diarbekir.
which lad for a long time been separated" from Persia; and in the east, Candahar was
taken from the great Mogul. Abba^'s government was strict, but just and equitable;
roads, bridges, caravansaries, and other conveniences for trade, were constructed at
immense expense, and the improvement and ornamentation of the towns were not
neglected. Ispahan more than doubled its population during his reign. His tolerance
w;i> remarkable, considering both the opinions of his ancestors and subjects; for he
encouraged the Armenian Christians to settle in the country, well knowing that their
peaceable and industrious habits would help to advance the prosperity of his kingdom.
His successors, shah Sufi (1628-41), shah Abbas II. (1641-66), and shah Soliman
(1666-94), were undistinguished by any remarkable talents, but the former two wens
sensibi and judicious rulers, and advanced the prosperity of their subjects. During
the reign of sultan Hussein (1694-1722). a weak and bigoted fool, priests and slaves
were elevated to the most important and responsible offices of the empire, and all who
rejected the tenets of the Shiites were persecuted. The consequence was a general dis-
content, of which the Afghans (q.v.) took advantage by declaring their independence,
and seizing Candahar (1709). Their able leader, Meer Vais, died in IJlo; but his suc-
cessors were worthy of him. ana one of them, Mabmud, invaded Persia (1722), defeated
Hussein's armies, and besieged the king in Ispahan, till the inhabitants were reduced to
the extremity of distress. Hussein then abdicated the throne in favor of his conqueror,
who, on his accession, immediately devoted his energies to alleviate the distresses and
gain the confidence of his new subjects, in both of which objects he thoroughly suc-
ceeded. Becoming insane, he was deposed in 1725 by his brother Ashraf (1725-29);
b'!t the atrocious tyranny of the latter was speedily put an end to by the celebrated
Nadir shah (q.v.). who first raised Tamasp (1729-32) and his son, Abbas II. (1732-36).
of the Suffavean race, to the throne, and then, on some frivolous pretext, deposed him,
and seized the scepter (1736-47). But on his death, anarchy again returned ; the country
was horribly devastated by the rival claimants for the throne; Afghanistan (q.v.)
and Beloochistan (q.v.) finally separated from Persia, and the country was split upintoa
number of small independent states till 1755, when a Kurd, named Kerim-khan (1755-
1779), abolished this state of affairs, re-established peace and unity in western Persia.
Persian.
536
and by his wisdom, justice, and warlike talents acquired the esteem of his subject?, and
the respect of neighboring stati •>. After tuo usual contests 1'or tiu: succession, accom-
pauied with the usual barbarities ami devastations, Kenm was .succeeded in 17>4 by Ali-
Murad, Jiiat'ar, and Luft-Ali. during whose iviirns Ma/.an deran b.-eami independent
under Aga-Mohamtted, a Turkoman eunuch of the Kajar race, who repeatedly defeated
the royal armies, and ended by depriving I.ut't Ali of his crown (1795). The great
eunuch-king (as he is frequently called), who founded the present dynasty, on lib acces-
.'!OD announced his intention of restoring the kingdom a* iv Lad been established by Kerim
Khan, and accordingly invaded Khorassan and Georgia, subduing the fornu-i country
almost witho'ut effort. The Georgians besought the aid of Russia; but the 1'ersian mon-
arch, with terrible promptitude, poured his army like a torrent into the country, and
devastated it with tire and sword; his conquest was. however, nardly completed when
lie was assassinated, .May 14, 1797. His nephew, Futlch-Ali (1797-l!5o4), after numerous
conflicts) fully established his authority, and completely subdued the rebellious tribe* in
Khorassan, but the great commotions in western Europe produced for him bitter fruits.
lie was dragged into a war with Russia soon after his accession, and by a treaty, concluded
in 1797, surrendered to that power Derbend and several districts on the Kur. In 1802
Georgia was declared to be a Russian province. War with Russia wa* recommenced by
Persia, at the instigation of France; and, alter two years of conflicts disastrous to the
Persians, the treaty of Gulistan (Oct. 12, 1813) gave to Russia all the Persian po:-<->Mons
to the n. of Armenia, and the right of navigation in the Caspian sea. In 1826 a third
war, equally unfortunate for Persia, was commenced with the same po\\e..
Persia the remainder of its possessions in Armenia, with Erivaii, and u sum of 18,000,000
rubles for the expenses of the war. The severity exercised in procuring this sum by
taxation so exasperated the people that they rose in insurrection (Oct. 1','. IHvit), and
murdered the Russian ambassador, his wife, and almost all who belonged to or were
connected with the Russian legation. The most humiliating concessions to Rui da, and
the punishment by mutilation of 1500 of the, rioters, alone averted war. The death of
the crown-prince, Abbas-Mirza (q.v.), in 1833, seemed to give the final blow to the
declining fortunes of Persia, for he was the only man who seriously attempted to raise
his country from the state of abasement into which it had fallen. By the assistance of
Russia and Britain, Mohammed-shah (1834-48), the sou of Abbas-Mirza, obtained the
crown. He conceived ambitious ideas of annexation. In the days of ^Nadir-shah, and
indeed at many other periods, the Persian frontier had extended over a great part of the
Afghan, Belooch, and Khivan boundary. Mohammed resolved to demand reacknowlcdg-
meut of sovereignty from his alleged vassals in these countries, but an attempt he made
to re-annex Herat, "the key to India," was resisted by England. The war was termi-
nated in 1838 by the landing of a small sepoy force on the shores of the Persian gulf.
Nazir-uddin succeeded to the throne on his father's death in 1848; and the new govern-
ment announced energetic reforms, but failed as completely as those which had preceded
it in carrying them out. Following his father's example, the new shah resolved to re;:-;
serf his claims in Afghanistan and Beloochistan. The ruler of Herat having recognized
the claims of Persia, the English government remonstrated with the shah, and' 1;
compelled to sign an engagement on Jan. 25, 1853, by which he became bound not to
interfere further with the internal affairs of Herat. In Oct., 1856, however, on ti»
text that Dost Mohammed, the ameer of Cabul, was about to invade Herat, the Persians
again took the city. Having thus violated the terms of the treaty witli Britain, war was
declared against them, and a British army was landed on the coast of the gulf, which,
under gens. On tram and Havelock, repeatedly defeated the Persians, and compelled
them to restore Herat (July, 1857). Since this time the Persians have not interf<>red
with the "key to India," to which so much importance has been attached by England,
but they have been engaged in a long series of disputes with regard to their frontier n.
and s. of it. After the war of 1857 their encroachments became systeriiatic. In 1868
they occupied Seistan, a province claimed by the Afghans, and extended their jurisdic-
tion over the western third of the country appearing on our maps as Beloochistan. To
put an end to the incessant strife to which these pretensions gave rise, the Persians at
length agreed with the ameer of Afghanistan and the khan of Kelat to refer the ques-
tions in dispute to an English commissioner. Gen. sir Frederick Goldsmid accordingly
visited the eastern frontier of Persia, and in 1872 delivered his award. It entirely alters
t!io form familiar to us as that of s.e. Persia. It carries the Belooch frontier back from
58 J to 63° e. long., so as to include in Persia the inland town of Jalk, and Guadar on the
Indian ocean. All the western shores of the lake of Zirreli, and a large triangular tract
to the e. of it, watered by the Hclmund, are also annexed to Persia. The n.e. frontier
has not yet been settled. In 1870 the Russians admitted that the jurisdiction of Persia
should extend over the whole basin of the Atrek. It has been found, however, that
between it and the Khivan desert there lies the fertile ridge of the Damau-i-koh and the
water-course of the Tejend Rud, along which lies a route from the Caspian to Mcrv
and Herat. Merv, the center of the oasis of Margiana, and which is almost as much a
key to India as Herat itself, has been claimed both by Khiva and Persia, and now that
the Russians have become masters of the former country, the settlement of the frontier
of Persia in this direction has become the most urgent question of Persian politics, con-
nected closely as it is wilh the determination of the Aiujlo-Ru-ssian frontier in central
537
Persian.
Asia. In 1873 the shah visited Europe. By the treaty of Berlin in 1878 the town and
territory of Khotour, on the Turco-Persian frontier, was ceded to Persia by Turkey.
See Report on the Population, Revenue, Military Force, and Trade of Persia, by Mr.
Ronald Thomson, dated Teheran, April 20, 1868; Glimpses of Life and Manners in
Persia, by lady Shiel (Loud., 1856); History of Pertia from 1800 to 1858, by 1{. .G-. Wat-
son (Loud. 18^3); History of Persia, by G. Clements K. Markham (1874); Central Asia
and the Aii>i!»-I{;<;--inu Frontier fyitdion, by A. Vambery (1874); and F. Martin's titalc*-
i/i'i/i'fs Year- Book. See also German works on Persia by F. Spiegel (Berlin, 1868); Dr.
H. Brugsh (Leip., 1864); and Dr. J. E. Polak (Leip., 1865).
PERSIAN ARCHITECTURE. The architecture of Persia is of considerable interest,
both on iu own account and .as supplementary to and explanatory of that of Assyria,
which, together with the similar editices in Egypt, is the earliest architecture of which
we have any knowledge. The buildings Of Persia and Assyria closely resemble one
another, and, owing to the mode and the materials iu which they were constructed, their
remains serve to illustrate and complete eacii other's history. Iu Assyria, where no
solid building-materials exist, the walls are composed of masses of sun-dried brickwork,
lin; d on the inside, to a certain height from tlie floor, with large sculptured slabs of
alabaster. These have been preserved to us by the falling in of the heavy earthen roofs,
with which, as the later Persian buildings explain to us, the Assyrian palaces were cov-
ered. The explorations of Layard and Botta, and the specimens brought home by he
former, and now in the British museum, have made these sculptures familiar to us.
The subjects usually are large bulls with human or lions' heads; priests with human
bodies, and eagles' or lions' heads, performing religious service before the "sacred tree."
The Assyrian remains are all of palace-temples, buildings somewhat resembling the
Egyptian temples (which were also palaces); and many of the sculptures represent the
exploits of the king in war and in peace. The palaces' are always raised on lofty artifi-
cial mounds, and approached by magnificent flights of steps.
The buildings of Assyria extend over a very long period, the oldest at Nimroud being
from 1300 to 800 B.C., arid the more recent at Khorsabad and Koyunjik from SCO to 600
B.C. To these succeeded Babylon in the reign of Nebuchadnezzar, and the Birs Nim-
roud; but these are mere masses of decomposed brickwork, without any sculptures of
harder material.
After Babylon came Pasargadse — where the splendid palaces of Cyrus and Cambyses
still exist in ruins — aud Pcrsepolis, the capital of Darius and Xerxes (560-23 B.C.), and
some remains are still to be found at Susa, Ecbatana, and Teheran. At Persepolis we
rind the very parts preserved which at Nirnroud and Khorsabad are wanting; for here
there is abundance of stone, and the pillars, walls, doorways, etc. (which, in the early
examples, were no doubt of wood, and have decayed) being of stone, are still preserved.
This has enabled Mr. Fergusson to " restore" these buildings, and to produce most inter-
esting designs, showing not only how the palaces of Persia were constructed and lighted,
but from them to suggest how the arrangements of all the ancient architecture of Egypt
aud Syria must have been designed.
The halls at Persepolis were square in plan, having an equal number of pillars in
each direction for the support of the roof,
which was flat. In the center a portion was
left open for the admission of light, and
sheltered by another roof raised upon pillars.
The great hall of Xerxes is the most splendid
building whose remains exist in this part of
the world. The remains of the 72 columns
with which it was adorned, are still extant.
The hall had 36 columns, six on each side,
and on three sides had an external portico,
each with two rows of six columns. These
columns had capitals, composed of bulls'
heads and shoulders (Fig. 1), between which
the beams of the roof rested; while others
wrere ornamented with scrolls like the Ionic
order (Fig. 2). The bases are also suggestive
of the origin of that Greek style. This hall
was 350 ft. by 300, and covered more ground
than any similar buildings of antiquity, or
any mediaeval cathedral except that of Milan.
The palaces of Persepolis stand on lofty plat-
forms, buiit with walls of Cyclopean masoi:r; ,
and approached by magnificent flights o
stairs, adorned, like the palaces, with scnl; •
tures somewhat similar to those of Assyria. FIG. l. FIG. a
The interiors were ornamented with paint! Details of Persian Architecture.
The use of the arch was known in Assyria,
as has been shown by the subterranean arched conduits discovered by Layard, and
Persian.
538
the gates of Khorsnbnd discovered by M. Plnce. The arches of the latter spring from
the backs of sculptured hulls, and are beautifully ornamented with enameled bricks.
PEKSIAN GULF, an arm of I lie Indian ocean which penetratts between Arabia and
Persia to the extent of 650 English in. in a general north-westerly direction. Ils breadth
varies from 55 m. at the nioulii to 250 in., and the area is estimated at 117.300 sq. in..
from which about 1930 sq.in. must be subtracted for the islands, which are scattered
over the western half, or lie close inshore along the eastern side. The chief of these
islands1 are Ormuz (q.v.), at the mouth; Kishm, 810 sq.m. in extent: and the Balm in
islands (q.v.), chief of which is Samak. Tin- great pearl bank stretches along the west-
ern side from Kas Hassan to nearly half-way up the gulf. The const is mostly formed
of calcareous rocks. On the Arabian side it is low and sandy, occasionally broken bv
mountains and cliffs; while, on the Persian side, it is higher and abrupt, with deep
water close inshore, owing to the mountain-ranges of Fars and haristan running close ti-
the water's edge. The islands are partly of limeMor.e and partly of iron-tone, and are
generally destitute of springs, barren, desolate, and presenting numerous traces of vol-
canic eruptions. With the exception of the Shat-el-Arub (q.v.), the Persian gulf receives
only insignificant streams. Its eastern side presents abundance of good anchorage,
either in Ifae numerous bays or in the lee of islands. The greater portion of its shores
now belongs to the imaum of Muscat. The coasts of the gulf have been explored by
successive British expeditious, the last of which, in 1821-25, made a complete trigono-
metric survey of the Arabian shore. The older of the periodic currents in this gulf is
precisely the reverse of that of the Red sea (q.v.) currents, as they ascend from May to
October, and descend from October to May.
Oriental geographers give to this gulf the name of the " Green sea," from a remark-
able strip of water, of a green color, which lies along the Arabian coast. It is strange
that from the time of Nearchus, the admiral of Alexander the great, who was the lirsi
to make the Persian gulf known to Europeans, the Persians have never ruled supreme
over its surface.
FEESIAN LANGUAGE AND LITEEATUEE. The ancient and modern idioms of Per-
sia, which are in general designated as Iranian or West Aryan, belong to the great class
of the Indo-Gcrmanic languages; but the term Persian itself applies more particularly
to the language as it is now spoken, with a few exceptions, throughout Persia, and in a
few other places, formerly under Persian dominion, like Bokhara, etc The more impor-
tant and better known of the ancient idioms are (1) the Zcnd((\\c East Iranian or Hadrian
L.nguage, in two dialects — the " Gatha idiom," and the "ancient " or " classical Zend "),
which died out in the 3d c. B.C. — one of the most, highly developed idioms, rich in inilec
lions, in the verbs as well as in the nouns, and.in the former almost completely agreeing
with Vedic Sanskrit; yet such as we find it in the small remains which have survived, it
is no longer in the full vigor of life, but almost decaying, and grammatically somewhat
neglected; it is'in fact held by a great authority on the subject (llaug), that the grammar
was never h'xed in any way by rules. To increase the difficulty still more, the t<
the Zoroastrian books — never seem to have bscn copied with proper care, or by men who
had any correct knowledge of the language; so that the critical restoration of the liter-
ary remains is matter of extreme difficulty, and /end studies in general may be said to
be in their infancy yet. Geographically, this idiom may be placed in northern Persia.
Ils alphabet is of Semitic origin, and the writing goes from right to left (see ZEND, Zi M>
A VESTA). (2) Ancient Persian, the oflief remnants of which are found in the cuneiform
inscriptions of the time of the Achacmenid-'s, discovered in the ruins of Persepolis, on
the rock of Behistun, and some other places of Persia (see CUNEIFORM). Some relics.
chiefly consisting of proper names for gods and men, and terms for vess< Is and gar-
ments, have survived in the writings of the classical period, and in the Bible, chiefly in
Daniel. This idiom is much nearer to Zeirtl and Sanskrit than to modern Persian. It
has still the structure of an ancient organic Indo-Gennanic language, with the distinct
peculiarities of an Iranic tongue. (3) P,:I>/<n (q.v.) (West Iranian, Median, ami
shin), in use during the period of the Sas-anides (3d to 7th c. /.P.). an idiom largely
mixed with Semitic words, and poorer in inflections and terminations than Zend. Its
remnants consist of a certain number of books relating to the Zoroastrian religion, of
coins and inscriptions; and the language is not quite the same in all cas< s— i.ccording to
the larger or smaller infusio-i of foreign Avords. The non-Iranian element is known ;:s
Huzvaresh, and is simply Chaldee; while the Iranian element is but little different from
modern Persian. There' are three distinct idioms to be distinguished in Pehle\ i, and the
writing varies accordingly, yet it is not certain whether the difference arises from their
belonging to different districts or periods. When, however, Pehlevi ceased to 1 c a liv-
ing language, and the restoration of the pure Iranian had begun, people, net daring to
change the writings, chiefly of a sacred nature, as they had descended to them from the
Sassanian times, began to substitute, in reading, the Persian equivalents to the Ilu/.var-
esh words. At last a new form of commentaries to the sacml writings sprang up. in
which more distinct and clear Zend characters were used, where each sign has but one pho-
neticnl value, and where all the foreign Huzvaresh words were replaced by pure Persian
ones; and this new form was called (4) Pdzcnd. The transition from the ancient to the
539
Persian.
modern Persian is formed by the Parsee, or, as the Arabs call it, Far?i, in UPC from 700
to 1100 A. ix, once the language purely of the sou.h-svestern provinces, and distinguished
chiefly by u peculiarity of style, rigid exclusion of Semitic words, and certain now obso-
lete forms and words retained in liturgic formulas. It is the Persian once written by
the Parsees or fire-worshipers, and is in other respects very similar to the present or mod-
ern Persian, the language of Jami, Nizami, and Hiifiz — from 1100 to the present time —
Avith its numerous dialects. The purest dialect is .said to be that spoken in Shirax and
Ispahan and their neighborhood. In general, the language is pronounced by universal
consent to be the richest and most elegant of those spoken in modern Asia. It is the
most sonorous and muscular, while at the same time it is the most elegant and most
flexible of idioms; and it is not to be wondered at that, throughout the Moslem and
Hindu realm, it should have become the court language, and that of the educated world
in general; holding a position somewhat similar to that which the French language held
up to wiLiiin a recent period in Europe. Its chief characteristic, however, is the enor-
m ;,is intermixture of Arabic words, which, indeed, almost make up half its vocabulary
Respecting its analytical and grammatical structure, it exhibits traces only of that of the
ancient dialects of Zend and Achsemenian, of which it is a direct descendant. Thy
elaborate system of forms and inflections characteristic of those dialects has been utterly
abandoned for combinations of auxiliary words, which form independent connective
links, and which impart fullness and an incredible ease to speech and composition, but
which, at the same time, correspond as little to the classical notion of inflection. The
grammar of the Persian language lias been called "regular;" but the fact is, that there
is hardly any gnlmmar worth mentioning — at all events, no grammar the rules of which
could not be mastered in the briefest possible period. To begin with: there is no gen-
der distinguished in declension; the plural is always formed in the same manner, the.
only distinction consists in animate beings receiving ths affix an, while the inanimate arc
terminated in hd; further, that instead of the inflection i;i the different cases found in
the ancient languages, either a mar (hitherto unexplained) is prefixed, or a rd (rdh =
way, by reason of, Pehlevi, Pars!) is affixed. Between the genitive and the word which
governs it, also between a noun and its following adjective, an i is inserted. This is
the whole declension, not only of the noun, but also of the adjective and pronoun. The
comparative is formed, as in the mother-tongues, by the addition of ter; the superlative
adds terin, which is New-Persian exclusively. Not even the pronouns have a gender
of their own; the distinction between masculine and feminine; must be expressed by a
special word, denoting male or female. There is no article, either defi-aite or indefinite.
Singularity of a noun is expressed by an appended e, a remnant of aeva, one. The flec-
tion of the verb is equally simple. There is a set of personal terminations for all tenses:
am. i, d'l or a*!; cm, e:l. ni; the infinitive ends in lin or dan, tin; past participle in ta,h
or (Ink. Th-j aorist is formed by adding to the root the terminations am, i, ad; em, ed,
anl; the preterit <? by dropping the n of the infinitive, and substituting the usual ter-
minations. The prefix mi or hami (Parsi and Huzvaresh = always) transforms the pre-
terite into the imperfect; while the prefix hi or bill (the present of the verb " to will ")
alf<-rs ihe aor:-1 into the simple future. The other tenses are compounds of the past
participle and auxiliary verbs, as in the Teutonic and other modern tongues. The pa«-
sive is formed by the various tenses of the verb s/iudan, "to be, to go, to beware,"
beiii.1- placed after the past participle. As to syntax, there is none, or, at all events, none
which would not come almost instinctively to any student acquainted with the gener.il
l:i\vs of speech and composition. As the time of its greatest brilliancy may be designated
that in which Firdusi wrote, when Arabic words had not swamped it to the vast degree
in which it, is now found, and were still, as far as they had crept in, amenable to what-
ever rules the Persian grammar imposed upon the words of its own language.
In the history of the Persian writing, three epochs are to be distinguished. First, we
have the CuneiForm (q.v.), by the side of which there seems, however, to have been in
use a kind of Semitic alphabet for common purposes. This, in the second period,
appears to have split into several alphabets, all related to each other, and pointing
to a common Syriac origin (such as the different kinds of Pehlevi characters and the
Zend alphabet) cleverly adapted to the use of a non-Semitic language. In the third
period, we find the Arabic alphabet enlarged for Persian use by an addition of diacritical
points and signs forsuch sounds asare not to be found in Arabic (p, ch, zh,g). The char-
acters are written in a somewhat more pending manner (Talik) in Persian, and the writ-
ing is thus slightly different from the usual Arabic Neskhi.
The rnuch-spoken-of close connection between German and Persian-1— both of Indo-
Germanic kin — is neither more nor less than a popular fallacy, caused by a misunderstood
dictum of Leibnitz: " Integri versus Persice scribi possunt quos Germanus intolligat,"
which was enthusiastically taken up and "proved" by A'lelung, Hammer-Purgslall,
and others, and which has even led to the assumption* that the Germans came direct
from Persia, or that the Goths once were mixed with the Persians. We only mention it
as a philological absurdity of bygone days
Of the literature of the Persians before the Mohammed conquest, we shall not spe;:k
here, but refer to the special articles ZEND, PEHLEVI, PARSEES, etc. The literary period
now under consideration is distinguishable by the above-mentioned infusion of Arabic
Persian. 540
•word* into the Persian language, imported together with the Koran and i!s teaching.
Tiic writers are, in fact, one and all, Mohammedans. With the fanaticism peculiar to
conquering religions, more particularly to I.-lani, all the representatives of old Persian
literature and science, men and matter, were ruthlessly persecuted by Omar's general,
Sa::d Ibn Abi \Vakkas. The consequence was, that for the first two or three centuries
after the conquest, all was silence. The scholars and priests who would not bow to
Allah and his prophet and to the new order of things, and who had found means to
emigrate, took with them what had not been destroyed of the written monuments of
their ancient culture; while those that remained at home were forced to abandon their
wonted studies. Yet, by slow degrees, as is invariably the case under such circumstances,
the conquered race transformed the culture of the conquerors to such a derive, that
native influence soon became paramount in Persia, even in tin.- matter of theology — the
supreme science. It, is readily granted by later Mohammedan writers, that it wa> out of
the body of the Persians exclusively that sprang the foremost, if not ail, the greatest
scholars and authors on religious as well as grammatical subjects, historians .
philosophers* and men of science; and the only concession they made con.-isted in liieir
use of the newly imported Arabic tongue. A further step was taken when, aiier the
Islam sway had ceased, the Persians, under upstart native dynasties, relumed ;;!>o to
the ancient language of their fathers during the first centuries of Mohammedaui m. The
revived national feeling, which must have been stirring for a long time previously
among the masses, then suddenly burst forth in prose and in verse, from the lip* of a thou-
sand singers and writers. The literary life of Persia, the commencement of which is thus
'& be placed in the 9th c. A.D., continued to flourish with unabated healthy vigor for live
centuries, and produced a host of writers in every branch of science antl beiles leans,
of whom we can only here give the most rapid of surveys, referring for the most impor-
tant names to the special articles throughout this work. Beginning with poetry, we
hear, under the rule of the third of the Samanides, Nasr (about 952;, of Abul Ila>.-.u
Kudegi, the blind, who rose by the king's favor to such an eminence that ho had 200
slaves to wait upon him. But little has remained of his 1,300,000 distichs, and •
metrical translation of Bidpai's fables. About 1000 A. D., we hear of Kabus, ihe !)!!.•-
mite prince, as the author of T/m Perfection, of Rlietoric, and poems. In the time of the
Gasnevides, chiefly under Mahimid, who surrounded himself with no less than 400 court-
poets, we find those stars of Persian song, Ansari (1039), the author of Wamik and . \xm,
and 30,000 other distichs and Kassidahs in honor and praise of the king; I'm -ther. IVr-
ruchi, who, besides his own poems, also wrote the first work on the laws of the I'
metrical art; and above all Firdusi (q.v.), that greatest epic poet, the author of the
Namth, or Book of Kings; who led one of the most brilliant and romantic lives th;
fell to the lot of genius, and ended it, forgotten and in misery. With him, but darkened
by his brightness, flourished Esedi, his countryman, from Tus. Among the poets who
flourished under the Atabek dynasty, we find that most brilliant Persian panegyrist,
Anhad Addin Enweri, who, with his praise, well knew how to handle satire. The bi st.
of the older mystic poets of that period is Senayi, author of 30,000 .distichs, who for his
poem Hadiknt was nominated official singer of the Sufis. Nizami (about 1200) i - founder
of the romantic epos; the greater part of his Chamxhe. or collection of five romantic
poems (Cltosru and Shirin, Mejnun and faila, etc.), being almost as well known in
Europe as it is in the east; and to whom Kisilarslan the king presented for one of
poems no less than fourteen estates. His grave at Gendsheh is still visited by m
pious pilgrim. And here wre must mention that the branch of eastern theopophicaj
literature pre-eminently cultivated in Persia is the mystic (Sufistic) poetry, which, under
Anacreontic allegories, in glowing songs of wine and love, represented the my.-tery of
divine love and of the union of the soul with God (see SUFTSM). In this province vie.
find chiefly eminent poets like Senavji (about beginning .of 13th c.), and Ferid Eddin
Attar (born 1216), the renewed author of Pend Nameh (Book of.Connsel). a work con-
taining the biographies of saints up to his day. His principal strength, however, lay in
his mystic poems; and such is the depth and hidden meaning of his rhymes, that for
centuries after him, the whole Moslem world has busied itself with commentary
conjectures on the meaning of a great part of his sacred poetry. He died about \'.\:','.\,
more than a hundred years old, as a martyr. Greater still, in this peculiar field, is
Djalal Eddin Rumi, born at Balkh (died 1266), the founder of a still existing most popu-
lar order of dervishes (Mcwlewi). His poem on Contemplative Life has made him the
oracle of oriental mysticism up to this day. He wrote also a great number .of lyrical
poems, which form, 'as far as they have been collected for this special purpose, a brevi-
ary for the faithful Sufi. Anhadi of Mcrasra (died 1297) also deserves mention.
The 18th c. cannot better be closed than with Sheik Muslin Eddia Sadi of Shim/,
(died 1291), the first and unrivaled Persian didactic poet. His lioxtmi and Gnlfxlnii,
(rose and fruit garden) are not only of eastern but also of European celebrity, and most.
deservedly, embodying as they do all the mature wisdom, the grace, and happiness of
composition of a true poet, ripe in years as in experience. At the beginning of the 14th
c. we meet several meritorious imitators of Sadi in didactic poetry.
But far above all these, as above all other Persian lyrical and erotic poets, shines
Hafiz (q.v.), the "sugar-lip," who sang of wine and love, and nightingales and flowers,
Persian,
and who so offended mock-piety that it even would have tried to refuse him a proper
burial, had not the oracle of the Koran interposed. After Mm, the full glory of Persian
poetry begins to wane. Among these that came after him, stands highest Djami, who
died m 1492, a poet of most varied genius, second only in every one of the manifold
branches to its chief master — in panegyric to Enveri, in didactic to SMi, in romance to
Nizami, in mysticism to Jelal-ed-din, in lyric to Sadi; and he, with these and Firdusi,
form the brightest representatives of Persian poetry. Most brilliant, however, is Djami
as a romantic poet. Of prose works, we have by him a history of Sufis, and an exceed-
ingly valuable collection of epistolary models. Before concluding this branch of litera-
ture, we must take notice of the dramatic poetry of the Persians, which is not without
merit, but of small extent, and to be compared principally with the ancient French
mysteries.
" The numerous tales, stories, novels, anecdotes, anthologies, and all the miscellaneous
entertaining literature in which Persia abounds — and of which the best known, perhaps,
are the adaptation of Bidpai's fables; Aifcari Suheili, by Husein Vais Kashifi; the Tuti-
lui.iitiJi, or book of parrots, a collection of fairy tales, by Nechshebi; the Behari -Danish,
by'Inajeth Allah, etc. — form a fit transition from poetry to prose, for little more is to be
said of Persian poetry after the loth century, Modern imitations of ancient classical
works, such as the New Book of Kings, the Bhahiruhah-Namek, which treats of modern
Persian history; the George Nameh, which sings the English conquests in India, etc., are
hardly worth pointing out in so brief a summary as ours. Of native writers on the poets,
are to be named Dewlet Shah (who describes the poets from the 10th to the 15th c.), Sam
IMirsa (the poets of the 16th); and Luft AH Beg (the poets of modern time). In prose, it is
chiefly history which deserves our attention. Able rivals of the great Arabic historio-
graphers sprang up at an early period. For the mythical times, or those of which no
km -.vledge, save through a medium of half-legend, has reached later generations, Firclusi's
uigantic. epos remains the only source. But after the chroniclers we find Fadhl Allah
Iteshid Eddin, the vizier of Ghazan, born 1247 at Hamadan, who was executed in 1320.
lie wrote the Collector of Histories, in three volumes, to which he afterwards added a
fourth geographical volume: a summary of the history of all Mohammedan countries
and times, containing besides a complete history of sects. Worthy and contemporaneous
rivals, are Fachr Eddin Mohammed Bina Kiti, author of a universal history; and Khodja
Abdailah Wassaf, the panegyrist, the model of grand and rhetorical style. His most
successful imitator in the 14th c. is Abdel Ressak; and in the 15th, Sheref Eddin Ali
Yezdi, who wrote the history of Tamur. Up to that period, pomposity of diction was
considered the principal beauty, if not the chief merit, of a classical Persian history.
From the loth c. downwards a healthy reaction set in, and simplicity and the striving
after the real representation of facts 'became the predominant fashion. As the facile
princep* among these modern historians is to be mentioned, Mirkhond, whose Universal
History (Eanset Emifa] comprises the period from creation to the reign of Sultan Hasan
Beikara, in seven books. After him are to be mentioned his son Khondemir, Gaffari,
Moslih Eddin Mohammed Lari, and Abu Tahir, of Tortosa, in Spain, who wrote the
Demi) Xn-Mfh, a biographical work on the Persian and Macedonian kings, and the ancient
Greek physicians and philosophers.
Among Indian historians — and they form a most important class — who wrote in Per-
sian, we have Mohammed Kasim Ferishtah (1640), who wrote the ancient history of
India up to the European conquest; Mohammed Hashim, Abul Fadel Mobarrek (Akbar
NameJf); further, Abdel Ressak (History of the Padishah*), Mirza Mehdi, Gholam Hussein
Khan, and others. One of the most recent works of this description is the Measiri Svl-
laniye. which contains the history of the present dynasty of Persia, and which was pub-
lished in Teheran, 1825, and translated by Bridges (Lond. 1833).
Biographies, legends, histories of martyrs, and the like are legion. Most of the bio-
graph ies of the prophet, however, are tnken from the Arabic.
Little is to be said of Persian productions on special branches of exact science.
There are a few works on geography— more generally treated together with history —
such as those of Mestafi, Ahmin Ahmed Rasi, Berdshendi, etc. In theology, little
beyond translations of the Koran, and a few commentaries on single chapters, and of
some portions of the Traditions (Su-nnah), has been produced— the Arab works being
completely sufficient, in religious matters, for all Mohammedans. For the history of
early Persian religion are of importance the Ulemai Islam and the DaMstan, a description
of all the creeds of the east. Jurisprudence has likewise to show little that is original,
and not mere translation, partial commentary, or adaptation in Persian. The Hcdadshah,
the Inadshah, the Futawa Alemgiri, are the most important legal works to be mentioned
hero. A greal deal has been done in the field of medicine, surgery, pharmacy, physical
sciences, by Persians; but nearly all their chief works being written in Arabic, they do
not concern us here. Mathematics, astronomy, and philosophy have received due
attention; rhetoric, the art of letter-writing, metrical and poetical arts, have likewise
been cultivated with great assiduity, but few standard works are to be enumerated.
Grammar and lexicography found their principal devotees in India; and of dictionaries,
the Ferhenyi-Shiuri, Bv-rhani Katiu, and principally the Heft Kulzym (the seven seas),
by the sultan of Oude, deserve attention. Translations from Greek, Indian, Arabic,
Persian. r,JO
Pei-bouul.
Turkish, and other works into Persian, exist in great abundance, and some of them have
paved tho way to the knowlegc of the original sources in Europe. Chief authorities and
writers on the subject of Persian language and literature are Meninsky, Richardson,
Lumsdeu, Forbes, Ibrahim J)c Lacy, Hammer-PurgBtall, Briggs, Jones, Duperron,
Stewart, Quatremere, "VVilken, Defremery, Vuilers, Iken, Kosegarten, Ouseley, Chodzko,
Bland, Sprcnger, Graff, Brockhaus, Dorn.
PEBSIAN POWDER, a preparation of the flowers of the composite plant, pyrethrum
cnrne.it m or rofeum, which are dried and pulverized. This powder has wonderful
efficacy in destroying noxious insects, and is extensively used for that purpose in Russia,
Persia, and Turkey. It has lately been introduced into France and Britain, and promises
to be of great use" not only in riding houses of their insect pests, but in aiding the horti-
culturist in protecting his plants. The plant is a native of the Caucasus, where the
flowers are gathered wild, and sent to be manufactured chiefly at Tiflis. It might
readily be cultivated in this country, where its value for destroying moths alone would
render it a profitable crop. Its habit is very similar to that of camomile.
PERSIGNY, JEAN GILBERT ViCTon, Due de, whose proper name was FIALIX, a
noted adherent of the emperor Napoleon III., was born at Samt-Germain-Leapiaaaae, in
the department of Loire, Jan. 11, 1808, entered the cwle de cavalcric at Sauinur in 1820,
and obtained an appointment to the 4th regiment, of hussars in 1828. At this period
Fialin was royalist in his politics; but he soon changed to a liberal, and took an active
part in the July revolution. Insubordination, however, led to his final expulsion from
the army in 1833. After a brief trial of Saint-Simonianism, Fialin was converted to the
Bonapartist cause, dropped the name of Fialin, and took up that of Persigny (from an
" hereditary estate"), with the title of vicornte. Introduced to Louis Napoleon b;
ex-king Joseph, he at once formed the most intimate relations with the prkice, and com-
menced a career of Bonapartist propagandisra throughout France and Germany, in
which he displayed extraordinary energy, pertinacity, and fertility of resource. He had
the chief hand in the affair of Strasburg, and subsequently apologized for its humiliating
failure in a pamphlet entitled Relation de ^Enterprise da Prince Napoleon Ijouis (Lend.
1837), in which he throws the blame of the disaster on " fate." He also took part in the
descent on Boulogne, where, like his master, he had the misfortune to be captured, and
was condemned to twenty years' imprisonment. His confinement, however, after a short
time, became almost nominal, and lie beguiled his leisure by literary study, a partial
result of which may be seen in his voluminous memoir, addressed to the institute, on the
Utilite des Pyramides d'Egypto (1844). On the breaking out of the revolution in 18-48
Persigny hurried to Paris, and set himself, with his accustomed vigor and swiftne-s. io
organize the Bonapartists. It is hardly too much to affirm that it was this dexterous
agitator who made his master president of the republic. He was then appointed aide-de-
camp to the president, and maj.gen. of the Parisian national guard — perhaps with a view
to future contingencies. In 1849 he was chosen a member of the legislative assembly,
and immediately signalized himself in parliament, as he had previously clone out of
doors, by his absolute devotion to the policy of the Elysee. He was sent to Berlin as
ambassador at the close of the same year, and afterward held other high diplomatic
offices; took a prominent part in the coup d'etat of Dec. 1851; and, in Jan. 1852, suc-
ceeded M. de Morny as minister of the interior. On the 27th of May following he mar-
ried a granddaughter of marshal Ney, when the president conferred on him the title of
comte, and presented him with 500,000 francs. In 18~>5 he became ambassador at the
English court, which office he held till 1858, and again during 1859 to I860, leaving on
both occasions the most favorable impression on English statesmen, by his talent and
diplomatic tact. In the latter year he was recalled, to resume the office of minister of
the interior. He laid down the portfolio of this office in .lune 1863, when the elections
of Paris and other large towns showed dissatisfaction Avith his policy. In September of
the same year he was created duke. Thereafter he proved himself in the senate a zeal-
ous Bonapartist, till the overthrow of the empire. He did not long survive it, having
died in 1872.
PER SIMMON. See DATE PLUM.
PER'SITJS (Aulus Persius Flaccus). one of the most famous Roman satirists, was b. at
Volaterra in Etruria, 34 A.D. lie was of a distinguished equestrian family, was educated
under the care of the stoic, CornuUis, lived on terms of intimacy with the most distim;ui--hed
personages of his time in Rome, among whom were Lucun and Seneca, and died S"»-
02 A.u., in tiie 28th year of his age. The principal authority for the life of Persius is ;m
abridgment of a "commentary" by one Probus Valerius, which presents the character
of the satirist in a most amiable light. Modest and gentle in his manners, virtuous and
pure in his whole conduct and relations, he stands out conspicuously from the ma s of
corrupt and profligate persons who formed the Roman " society" of his age: and vin-
dicated for himself the right to be severe, I)}' leading a blameless a; d exemplary lift;.
His six satires are very commonly printed with those of Juvenal. They were immensely
admired in Persius's own day, and long after, all down through the middle ages. The
KJO Persian.
Personal.
church fathers, Augustine, Lactantius, and Jerome, were particularly fond of him — the
latter, it is said, has quite saturated his style with expressions of the heathen satirist; but
the estimate which modern critics have formed of his writings, in a literary point of
view, is not quite so high. They are remarkable for the sternness with which they cen-
sure the corruption of morals then prevalent at Rome, contrasting it with the old Roman
austerity and with the stoic ideal of virtue. The language is terse, homely, and some-
times obscure, from the nature of the allusions and the expressions used, but his dia-
logues are the most dramatic in the Latin tongue. The edit.io princeps appeared at Rome
in 1470; later editions are those of Isaac Casaubon (Par. 1605), Passow (Leip. 1809),
Jahn (Leip. 184 j), and Heinrich (Leip. 1844). Persius has been frequently translated;
as many as 14 English. 20 French, and considerably more German versions, being
known. The two best English ones are those by Dryden and Gitt'ord.
PERSON (Lat. persona, a mask) has come, from its original signification, to be applied
to the individual wearing the mask, and thus to mean in general an individual, or a
numerically distinct being. Beyond the idea of individuality, it involves that of a
sentient or intelligent nature, in which it differs from " substance" or "thing." The
theological use of the word, although strictly identical with its philosophical significa-
tion, is made difficult of apprehension from its being applied to the Christian doctrine of
the trinity, which in itself involves a mystery. Nevertheless, when theologians declare
that there are three persons in one God, they intend to .strictly convey that each of the
three persons is a being individually subsisting and numerically distinct; and the diffi-
culty ot apprehension is derived, not from these terms, but from the reconciliation of
the numerical distinction of persons with the unity of the divine nature.
The name perwna, person, was first applied to the trinity by the Latins; the corres-
ponding Greek word, proxupon, being of later use. The earlier Greek fathers used the
word It-ypostaxis, substance, where the Latins used persona, and considerable controversy
fora time grew out of this diverse use. It became apparent, however, that the differ-
ence was but of words; and after the condemnation of the Sabellian heresy (see SABEL-
LIANISM), an 1 still more after the council of Nicaea, all ambiguity of words being at an
end, the controversy turned upon the substance of the doctrine, in the well known form
of the Arian controversy. See Aiuus.
PERSONAL ACTIONS, in English law. are actions which are brought to try the riglut to
damages for breach of contract, or for injuries to the person ci personal estate; in con-
tradistinction to real actions, which were designed to try the right and title to real
property.
PERSONAL EQUATION. See EQUATION, PERSONAL.
PERSONAL EXCEPTION means, i:i the Roman law, a ground of objection which
applies to an individual, and prevents him doing something which, but for his conduct
or situation, he might do. The term is adopted in the law of Scotland. In England it
is generally called an estoppel. Thus, a person who executes a deed is prevented by per-
sonal exception or estoppel from disputing the obligation thereby contracted, unless a
case of fraud be made out.
PERSONAL PROPERTY. Things personal are divided into chattels, chattels
real, and choses in action. Chattels comprehend all movable material objects not
affixed to the soil. When attached to the soil so as to become a part of it, a chattel is
converted into a fixture. See FIXTURE. A chattel real is an interest annexed or rclat-
ino: to real estate, as a lease for years. The treatment of chattels real belongs to the law
of real property, and they resemble personal property only in this respect, that upon the
lessee's death the residue of his term goes to liis executor or administrator, and not to
the heirs. Any interest in real estate, whose continuance is limited to a certain period,
i.e., which is less than a freehold, is a chattel real. Choses (things) in action are rights
not enforceable without bringing action to recover a debt, or money or damages for
breach of contract or for the commission of a tort connected with a contract. Properly
speaking, these were not a species of property, but a right whose enforcement will give
the holder a property right. The main legal distinction between real and peVsonal
property is that the latter, on the death of its owner, goes to his' personal representa-
tives instead of his heirs. Anciently, personal property of a deceased intestate went to
the king; and afterwards the bishops succeeded to it. holding it absolutely, but being
supposed to apply it to pious uses. The statute 18 Edward L, c. 19, ordered the pay-
ment by the bishops of the debts of intestates, and the statute 31 Edward III., c. li,
took the right of administration from the bishops and gave it henceforth to ' the next
and lawful friend of the deceased person intestate." whose appointment was made obi-
fatory on the bishops. Up to the time of the statute of distributions (22 and 28 Charles
I. c. 10), the administrator, after paying the debts, was allowed to keep the balance as
his own. The statute of distributions compelled the distribution by the administrator of
the surplus, under the court's order, among the next of kin, in a definite order. The.
statute of distributions, in all its main provisions, had been adopted by most of the
states. Title to personal property is acquired by occupancy; by transfer by act of the
Personalty.
1'erspettive.
party, as a sale; by transfer by act of the l.-i\v, as by judgment; by accession, and by
prescription.
PEESONALTY, in English law, means all the property -whirl), when a man dic«, gor?
to his executor or administrator, as distinguished from the realty, which goes to his heir-
at-law. Personalty consists of money, furniture, stock in the funds; while realty consists
of freehold land and rights connected with land. See INTKSTACV; Km, NEXT OF.
PERSONIFICATION (called by the Greeks prosopnpai'a) is a figure of rhetoric by
which inanimate objects, or mere abstract conceptions, are invested with the forms ;md
attributes of conscious life. Oratory and poetry often d-iivc ^i-cat power and beauty
from the employment of this figure. Nowhere do we iind more sublime example's
than in the Hebrew Scriptures, e.g., " The sea SHIP it, and lied." Such abstract concep-
tions as wisdom, justice, charity, are often, personified in the gravest and most argu-
mentative compositions.
PEESONNEL, in speaking of an army, represents the officers and soldiers, as opposed
to the materiel, in which are comprised the guns, provisions, wagons, and ston s of
every description.
PERSONS, or PARSONS, ROBEUT, 1546-1610; b. England; educated at Balliol col-
lege, Oxford, in 1568, of which he became bursar and dean. 1'eing charged with
embezzling the college money, he left Oxford in 1574, went to Rome, became a 1'oman
Catholic; resided in the Netherlands; studied law and medicine at Padua; joined the
Jesuits at Rome in 1575; studied divinity at the Jesuits college; was ordained ;•
sent by Gregory XIII. with other Jesuits to attempt the conversion of England. He
obtained leave 'from the pope to establish a seminary for the education of English stu-
dents as missionaries of the Roman faith in their native land. He became rector of the
English college at Rome, and provincial of the English missions; founded seminaries
for English Roman Catholic* in- Spain and France, and in 1590 attempted without suc-
cess to be appointed cardinal. He frequently visited England, where he v\as charged
will) endeavors to excite sedition, and a price was set upon his head. He was :.
disputant, and wrote many polemical books. Many Romanists as well as Prou slants
impeach the integrity of his character.
PEESPECTIVE (Lat. pe.rspicio, I look through), is the art of representing natural
objects upon a plane surface in such a manner that the representation shall atl'ect
the eye in the same way as the objects themselves. The distance and position of
objects affect both their distinctness and apparent form, giving rise to a subdivision
of perspective into linear pcrxpcctire which, as its name denotes, considers o.\cl»si\ely
the effect produced by the position and distance of the observer upon the apparent
form and r/roupi.n<:/ of objects; while aerial perspective confines ilsrlf to their ilixtinct-
uess, as modified 'by distance and light. The necessity of attending to the principles
of perspective* in all pictorial drawing is apparent when we consider, for instance,
that a circle, when seen obliquely, appears to be not a circle, but an eclipse,
• with its shortest diameter in line with the spectator, and its longest at right angles
to this. A square, when looked at from a position opposite the center of one of its sides,
appears as a trapezoid, the sides which are perpendicular to the direction of usion ap-
pearing to be parallel, while the other two appear to converge to a point in front of
the spectator, etc. For the same reason, two rows of parallel pillars of equal height,
seen from a point between and equidistant from each row, appear not only to converge
at the further end, but to become gradually smaller and smaller An excellent id-
perspective plan can be easily obtained by interposing a vertical transparent |
glass— a window, for instance) between the observer and the objects of his vision, and
supposing that the objects he sees are not seen through the glass, but painteii
sketch made on a glass plane in this position by following with a pencil all the lim
shades of the objects seen through it, the eye being all the time kept quite steady, would
form a picture in perfect perspective. In practice, however, it is found, uufortui
that glass is not a suitable material for sketching on, and that the vertical position is not
the most convenient; it is therefore preferable to make a careful study of the ell'ects
produced by change 'of position and distance on the appearance of objects in nature.
and, from the results of this to compile a body of rules, by the observance of which
painters may be enabled to produce an effect true to nature. After the " scope" (i. e.,
the number of objects to be introduced, and the distance at which they are to be
viewed) of the picture has been determined, and before the design is commenced, it is
necessary to draw upon the perspective plan three lines: 1. The /»<••« line, or /.
whirl) limits the sketch sketch towards the operator, and is the base line of the picture.
2. The horizontal Hue, which represents the ordinary position of the sensible hori/on.
The height of the horizontal line is about one-third of the height of the picture, when the
sketcher is placed at or little above the level of the horizon; but it may rise in a degree
corresponding to his increase of elevation till it reaches near to the top of the pcrsj>
plan. The general rule is to have a high horizontal line when the view is taken, or
supposed to be taken, from an eminence; but when the station is on a level, either
545
Personalty.
Perspective.
actual or assumed, as is the case when a statue or a mountainous landscape is figured,
the horizontal line must be low. The horizontal line in nearly all cases is supposed to
be level with the spectators eye. 3. The vertical line, which is drawn from the supposed
position of the sketclier, perpendicular to the ground and horizontal lines, meeting the
latter in a point which is called \\\Q point of sight, or center of the picture. The vertical
line has no representative in nature, and is merely a mechanical adjunct to the construc-
tion of the picture, all vertical lines in nature being parallel to it in. the picture. The
B t.
U.L
FIG. 1.
Illustrating the more important points and lines; PVR is the principal and visual ray.
point of sight, being the point directly opposite to the observer, is properly placed in the
center of the picture, for it is most natural that the view should lie symmetrically on
each side of the principal visual line; but this is not by any means a universal rule, for
•we very frequently find it on the right or leftside, but always, of course, on the horizon-
tal line. All lines which in nature are perpendicular to the'ground line, or to a vertical
plane which is raised upon it as a base, meet in the point of sight, which is thus
their vanishing point (see the line of the tops and bottoms of the pillars in fig. 1). The
points of distance are two points in the horizontal line on each side of the point of sight,
and in a " direct " sketch are at a distance from it equal to the horizontal distance of
the sketcher's eye from the ground line. The equality of distance of these points from
the point of sight is not, however, necessary, as it occurs only in those cases where the
lines, of which the points of distance are the vanishing points, are inclined (in nature) at
an angle of 45° to the base line; but, in all cases, the two points of distance are about
twice as far apart as the eye is from the picture. One important use of the points of
FIG. 2.
The lines O O converge to the accidental point aerial, and P P to the accidental point terrestrial.
distance is to define the distance of objects in a row (fig. 1.) from each other. For this
purpose, two points of distance are not necessary, as, when the position of one pillar is
found, that of the opposite is at once obtained by drawing a line parallel to the base
or ground line. We have seen that the point of sight is the vanishing point of all level
lines which meet the ground line or a vertical plane on it at right angles, and that the
points of distance (in a -direct picture) are the vanishing points of all lines which cut the
ground line at an angle of 45°; but there are many other groups of parallel lines in a
picture which have different situations, and therefore different vanishing points.
Such lines with their vanishing points (called, for distinction's sake, accidental
points) are represented in fig. 2. If the accidental point is above the horizontal
line, it is called the accidental point aerial— it below, the accidental point
terrestrial; and a little consideration makes it evident that these points may or mav not
be situated within the plane of the picture. Such are the points and lines "necessary for
the construction of a plan in true perspective: and from the above explanation, we may
deduce the two general principles: 1. That all parallel straight lines in nature are no
longer parallel when projected on the perspective plane, but meet in a point which is
called the vanishing point, arid is some one of the three above described, unless these
lines happen to be also parallel to the ground line or the vertical line, in which case they
U. K. XI.— 35
Perspiration.
1'erlhcs.
remain parallel when trnn?forre(l to ih" picture; aixl 2. That since the bodies drawn
In-low the horizontal line arc- seen a> il' from above, those above as if from below, and
those to the right and left of the point of .sight as if observed from the left and right, it
follows, that straight lines which in ilu- pit-lure arc above the horizontal line lower them-
selves, and those below raise themselves to it; Uiosc; to the left, following the same law,
direct themselves to the right, and n>'f rersd.
Aerial per.-</n ftir,, consi-:.s in a modulation of the brightness and colors of objects in
accordance with the state of the atmo-phere, the depth of the body in the perspective
plane (i.e., distance in nature from the ground line), and other accidents of place and
time. As the distance of objects increases, their illuminated parts are made less brilliant,
and their shaded parts more feeble. The bluish tint imparted by a large mass of the
atmosphere to the bodies seen through it, is frequently imitated by the mixing of a slight
tint of blue with the colors to be applied; a yellow object thus assumes a greenish tint;
a red one a violet tint, etc. The air, when charged with vapor, is represented 1., a
diminution of the brightness of colors, and by the grayish tint imparted to them. But
in this part of the subject rules are of little avail, for experience alone can guide tiie
painter in faithfully copying the myriad aspects presented by nature.
A thorough knowledge of perspective is a sine qua, non to the painter or designer, and
though many are inclined to think it a superfluity, and that the sketr-her has only to
make use of his eyes, and copy justly, the very fact that such is their opinion shows
that they have never made the attempt; for it is impossible for the painter, and much
more so for the designer, to execute a ropy of nature with sufficient accuracy by th
aid of the eye and hand, a fact that is unfortunately much too frequently proved by
many of the sketches exhibited in fine-art collections. Perspective was known to the
ancients, but seems to have become extinct, during the disturbances that convulsed Italy,
and was revived by Albert DrQrer, Pietro del Borgo, and Bramantino of Milan \ i
whose body of rules was extended and completed by Pernz/.i and Ub.aldi about 1600.
Dr. Brook "Taylor was the first Englishman who discussed the subject scientifically.
Works on. perspective are now abundant in every language.
PERSPIRATION. See SWEAT.
PER STIRPES, a law term of Latin origin (stfrps, a root), meaning literally "by
the stocks" or roots of a race; and used technically as the opposite t< '•' (q.v.), in
the law of succession, to denote descent of property rights not as to individuals but by
representation. Thus the descendants or next of kin of A B are said to inhei
xtirpes when they receive, not equal shares, but such portion as by the laws of di
their immediate ancestor would have been entitled to receive. To illustrate, if A B had
five sons, and of these all are alive at the time of his death except C D, who has left thn-e
children, and if each of these three children are to receive one-third of the fifth share
which would have come to their father if alive, this is succession per st ••'/•/ *. So if all
five of A B's sons being dead, the properly be divided among the grandchild.-
that each group (or the children of each son) receives the same amount. The principle
may be applied also to collateral kindred. In most states^the statu'es provide that, if the
deceased be intestate and the next of kin stand in degrees of relationship varying in
remoteness, the succession shall be per stirpes.
PERTH, a co. in s.w. Ontario, watered by the Maitland and Thames rivers, on the
Grand Trunk, and the Buffalo and Goderich railroads; about 840 sq.m. ; pop. '71, 38,083
—11.183 of English birth,
PERTH, a city, royal, municipal, and parliamentary burgh, and capital of the county of
the same name, is situated on the right bank of the Tay, 45 m. n.n.w. of Edinburgh by
rajlway. through Fife. The charming scenery of the immediate vicinity; the Tay. a
broad and noble river, sweeping southward along its eastern side; and the superb back-
ground of the Grampians on the n., render the site of the "Fair City" exceedingly
interesting and beautiful; while its rank, as in some sort the ancient metropolis oi
land, ihe important role it has played in the history of the country, and the picturesque
associations with which history and fiction have invested it, claim for it a high rank
among the cities. of Scotland. A handsome bridge of nine arches, 880 ft. in length,
and stretching over a water-way 590 ft. in width, connects the town with the suburb
of Bridgend, on the left bank of the river. Further down, the Perth and Dundee mil-
way crosses the river on a fine stone and iron bridge, which also admits foot-passengers.
The appearance and salubritv of Perth are much enhanced by two beautiful public parks,
called the North and South Inches. The water-supply, obtained from the Tay, is filtered.
raised by steam into two elevated reservoirs, and thence distributed over the town, rising
to the upper stories of the highest houses. Among the most interesting public buildings
are the church of St. John, an ancient structure in the pointed style, surmounted by a
massive square tower; the county buildings, a Grecian edifice; the town-house, part of
which is as old as 1210; king James VI. 's hospital; the infirmary; and the local prison.
At the head of the South Inch stands the penitentiary, or general prison, one of the
largest buildings of the kind in Scotland, where all criminal* sentenced to imprisonment
for Jong periods are confined. The town also contains a statue of the late prince consort;
Perspiration.
Perthes.
Marshall's monument, erected in honor of a former lord provost, and containing a public
library and the museum of the antiquarian society; the public seminaries. Sharp's and
other educational institutions. The river is navigable to Perth for vessels of considerable
burden. The linen and wincey manufactures are thriving. There are dye-works, iron-
foundries, breweries, etc., but ship-building has declined. The salmon fishery on the
Tay is very valuable, the rental being Upwards of £15,000. In 1»76, 161 ve.s~e.ls, of
12,852 tons" entered and cleared the port. Six fairs are held annually, find horse-races
take place every year on the North Inch. Perth has a charter as a royal burgh from
king William the lion, 1165-1214. It returns a member to the house of commons. Pop.
(1871) of royal and parliamentary burgh, 26,356. There are twenty-four places of wor-
ship. The city revenue in 1876-7 was £6,700.
PERTH, a city in s.w. Australia, incorporated 1856; on the n. bank of the Swan
river; pop. '71, 5,007. It is the capital of the colony of western Australia, and of the
co. of Perth. It is 12 in. above Freemantle, and 1700 in. n.w. of Melbourne, in the
vicinity of the Victoria range of mountains, surrounded by picturesque scenery. It is tlie
seat of an Anglican and a Roman Catholic bishopric. The convicts and military consti-
tute a large proportion of the inhabitants, and its city hall was built entirely by convict
labor. It has two newspapers, a mechanics' institute, the governor's palace* and tlje
pensioners' barracks.
PERTH, THE FIVE ARTICLES OF, memorable ^n the ecclesiastical history of Scotland,
were five articles agreed upon in a meeting of the general assembly of the church of Scot-
land, convened at Perth, by command of James VI., on Aug. 25, 1618. These arti-
cles enjoined kneeling at the Lord's-supper, the observance of Christmas. Good Friday,
Easter, and Pentecost, and confirmation, and sanctioned the private administration of
baptism and of the Lord's-supper. They were highly obnoxious to the Presbyterians of
Scotland, not only on their own account, but as part of an attempt to change the whole
constitution of the church; and because they were adopted wtihout free discussion in
the assembly, and in mere compliance with the w^ill of the king, who was also regarded
as having unduly interfered with the constitution of the assembly itself. They were,
however, ratified by the parliament on Aug. 4, 1621 — a day long remembered in Scot-
land as "black Saturday" — were enforced by the court of high commission, and became
one of the chief subjects of that contention between the king and the people, which pro-
duced results so grave and sad for both in the subsequent reign. The general assembly
of Glasgow, in 1638, declared that of Perth to have been " imfree, unlawful, and null,"
and condemned the five articles.
PERTH AMBOY, a city and port of entry of Middlesex co.. N. J., at the head of
Raritan bay, and at the mouth of Raritan river; on the New York and Long Branch
and the Railway branch of the Pennsylvania railroads; connected by a ferry te Totten-
ville, N. Y., and by a bridge and ferry to South Anaboy, on the opposite bank of the
Raritan; pop. 4,808. It contains large deposits of kaolin and fire-clay, which is manufac-
tured into fire-brick and largely exported, being considered the best in the United States.
It has a cork factory, and a pottery. It was settled in 1680 by a Scotch colony, who
named it Perth after the earl of Perth, to which the Indian name Ambo was subsequently
added. The last British governor of the colony, William Franklin, was captured here
in 1776. It v;a» incorporated as a city in 1718.
PERTHES, FRTEDRICH CHRISTOPH, an eminent German publisher, distinguished not
only in his professional capacity, but for his sincere piety and ardent patriotism, was
born at Rudolstadt, April 21, 1772. In his 15th year he was apprenticed to a Leipsic
Ixwkseller, with whom he remained six years, devoting much of his leisure time to the
acquisition of knowledge. In 1793 he passed into the establishment of Hoffmann,, the
Hamburg bookseller; and in 1796 started business on his own account; and, by his keen
and wide appreciation of the public wants, his untiring diligence, and his honorable
reputation, he ultimately made it the most extensive of the kind in modern Germany.
During the first few years or so of his Hamburg apprenticeship his more intimate friends
had been either Kantian or skeptical in their opinions, and Perthes, who was not distin-
guished for either learning or speculative talent, had learned to think with his friends; but
a friendship which he subsequently formed with Jacobi (q.v.), and the Holstein poet and
humorist, Matthias Claudius, led him into a serious but liberal Christianity. The iron
rule of the French in northern Germany, and the prohibition of intercourse with Eng-
land, nearly ruined trade, yet Perthes, even in this great crisis of affairs, found ways and
means to extend his. He endeavored to enlist the intellect of Germany on the side of
patriotism, and in 1810 started the National Museum, with contributions from Jean Paul
Richter, count Stolberg, Claudius, FouqutS, Heeren, Sartorius, Schlegel, Go'rres, Arndt,
and other eminent men. Its success was far beyond Perthes's expectations, and encour-
aged him to continue his patriotic activity, till Hamburg was formally incorporated with
flic French empire. He subsequently took a prominent part in forcing the French gar-
rison to evacuate Hamburg, Mar. 12, 1813: and on its reoccupation by the French, he
was one of the ten Hamburgers who were specially excepted from pardon. After peace
had been restored to Europe, Perthes steadily devoted himself to the extension of his
Perthshire. Fi/lft
Perturbations.
business, and to the consolidation of the sentiment of German national unity, as far as
that could be accomplished by literature and speech. In 1822 he removed to Gotha,
transferring his Hamburg business to his partner Besser. Here he laid himself out
mainly for the publication of great historical and theological works. His subsequent
' correspondence with literary, political, and theological notabilities — such as Niclnihr
(one of his dearest friends), Neander, Schleiermacher, Lticke, Nits/.ch, Tholuck, Schell-
iug, and Umbreit — is extremely interesting, and throws a rich liuht upon the recent inner
life of Germany. He died May 18, 1843.— See Frudrick Perth&a Ltben (12th edit. 1803),
written by his second son, Clemens Theodor Perthes, professor of law at Bonn, v. ho died
in 1867. — The uncle of Friedrich Christoph Pert lies was JOHANX GKOH. JTSTUS
PEKTKES, who established a publishing and bookselling house at Gotha in 1785, which
has acquired, in the hands of his sons, a great reputation, and 1'ioiu which issues the
famous Almanack de Gotha. He died in 1816.
PERTHSHIRE, one of the most important counties in Scotland, is bounded on the s.
by the shires of Stirling and Clackmannan; on the n. by Inverness and Aberdeen; on the
w. by Argyle and Dumbarton; and on the e. by Forfar, Fife, and Kinross. It extends
from e. to w. about 70 m., and from n. to s. about 6G miles. Its area is 2,834 m., or 1,814.-
063 acres, of which above 32,000 are covered with water. It is divided into the higidand
and lowland districts, the former occupying much the larger surface, and the-:r a;v sub-
divided into ten divisions — viz., Mcnteith, Strathearn, Gowrie, Btormout, Strathardle,
Glenshee, Athole, B read al bane, Rann*ch, and Balquidder. Perthshire, from its i:
position and other advantages, has a comparatively mild climate; and the soil, in Strath-
earn, Carse of Gowrie, and other less extensive tracts, being mostly composed of a rich
loam, crops of all kinds are brought to the utmost perfection. These districts fire als •>
famed for their fruit and Moral productions. Perthshire is not less distinguished for its
magnificent mountain, lake, and river scenery. The Grampians here attain to nearly
their maximum height, Ben Lawers being within a few feet of 4,000 in altitude; while
Ben More is 3,843; and several others above 3,000. The lakes are numcrou^, the princi-
pal of which are lochs Tay, Ericht, Ranuoch, Tummel, Lydock. Garry, Lyon, and
Dochart. There are several streams of note, the principal being the Tay, which i> fed
by numerous other streams, and is said to discharge as much water into the sea as any
other river in the kingdom. These lakes and streams afford excellent fishing. ;.;,d the
Tay is valuable for its salmon, yielding in rent about £15.000 a year.
The monuments of hoar antiquity to be found in this county afford an interesting
field of investigation for the curious. Lying northward of the Roman wall. Perthshire
comprises the scenes of the last struggle for independence which the inhabitants of the
lowland districts of Scotland made against those formidable enemies of theirs who were
regarded as invincible. The last battle fought by the Caledonians against the Romans
was at Mons Gramp, or rather, as it should be read. Graup, supposed to be indicated by
the great camp at Ardoch, between Dunblane and Crieff, and which does not at all M m
to be connected with the Grampian range. In this final struggle, the result of which was
that the Lowlanders were defeated, Agricola commanded the conquering host, and the
Caledonians were led by a chief named Gatgacus.
The chief towns of Perthshire are Perth, Conpar- Angus, Auchtcrarder. Crieff, Dun-
blane, and Blatrgowrie. According to agricultural statistics taken in 1876, the number
of acres under all kinds of crops, bare fallow, and grass was 336,924; under corn crops,
106,00(5; under green crops, 50,393; clover, sanfoiu, and grasses under rotation, 9'.). it><);
permanent pasture and meadow land (exclusive of heath or mountain land), 79 ::<:;.
Horses used for agriculture, etc., 13,764; cattle, 80,024; sheep, 659,210: pigs. 9,597. The
valued rent of Perthshire for 1674 was equal to £28,330; for 1875-76, £855.928— exclusive
of £110,533 for railways and water-works. The rate of assessment is: For prison-
police, 6s. 2d. ; lunacy, 5s.; sheriff court-houses, 2s.; bridge money, Is.; contag.ous dis-
eases, animals, 6d. ; general. 9d. ; and land valuation and voters, 7d. per £100.
The old red sandstone, granite, and slate abound. In this county are situated some of
the stateliest mansions in Scotland, but, except Scone palace, none of "them contain any his
lorical memorials; and objects of antiquarian interest more recent than Roman road- and
camps, are the cathedrals of Dunblane and Dunkeld, and the Abbey of Culross. There
are two royal burghs, Perth and Culross, besides which there are several villages of eon
siderable size, where trade in flax, etc., is carried on to some extent. Pop., '71. 127,768.
PER TINAX, HELVIUS, Roman emperor, was born, according to Dio Cassius, at Alba-
Pompeia, a Roman colony of Liguria, Aug. 1, 126 A.D. He received a good education.
and, entering the military service, rose through the various grades till he obtained the
command of the first legion, at the head of which he signalized himself in Rluetia and
Noricum against the native tribes. In 179 he was chosen consul, aided to repress the
revolt of Avitus in Syria, and was governor successively of the provinces of Mo-sia.
Dacia, and Syria. Being sent by the emperor Commodus to take the command of the
turbulent legions in Britain, these troops, against his will, proclaimed him emperor; on
which he solicited to be. recalled, and was appointed proconsul of Africa, prefect of
Rome, and consul (a second time) in 192. On the death of Commodus. his assassins
almost forced Pertinax to accept of the purple, which with great hesitation he did : but
in spite of his promise of a large donation, he was unable to gain over the pnetoriau
KJ.Q Perthshire.
Perturbations.
guard. TTis accession was, however, hailed with delight by the senate and people, who
were rejoiced to have, as ruler, an able captain, instead of a ferocious debauchee; and
Pertiuax, encouraged by this favorable reception, announced his intention of carrying .
out an extensive series of reforms, having reference chiefly to the army, in which he
hoped to re-establish the ancient Roman discipline. Unfortunately for his reforms and
himself, he was attacked by a band of the rebellious praetorians, two months and 27
days after his accession; and disdaining to flee, was slain, and his head carried about the
streets of Rome in triumph. From his history, nothing can be gathered respecting his
character and talents (except in military affairs); but the respect and esteem in which lie
was held by the senate and people of Rome argue well in favor of his disposition.
PERTY, JOSEPH ANTON MAXIMILIAN; b. at Ohrnbau, Bavaria; studied at Munich,
and became in 1833 professor of zoology and natural history in the university of Bern,
of which he was also rector. His principal works are Allgemeine Naturgeachiclite als
phi'oifphixche und HnmamtatsiC'issensckaft; l)ie mystischen Erscheiimngen der menschlichen
Natur; Ueberdas Seelenleben der Thier; Blicke in das verborgene Leben des Menschengeistes.
PERTURBATIONS, in physical astronomy, are the disturbances produced in the sim-
ple elliptic motion of one heavily body about another, by the action of a third body, or
by the non-sphericitjr of the principal body. Thus, for instance, were there no bodies
in space except the earth and moon, the moon wou,ld describe accurately an ellipse about
the earth's center as focus, and its radius-vector would pass over equal areas in equal
i::ui;s; but only if both bodies be homogeneous and truly spherical, or have their constit-
uent matter otherwise so arranged that they may attract each other as if each were col-
lated at some definite point of its mass. The oblatenessof the earth's figure, therefore,
produces pertubations in what would otherwise be the fixed elliptic orbit of the moon.
.Again, when we consider the sun's action, it is obvious that in no position of the moon
can the sun act equally upon both earth and moon; for at new moon, the 'moon is nearer
to the sun than the earth is, and is therefore more attracted (in proportion to its mass)
than the earth— that is, the difference of the sun's actions on the earth and moon is equiva-
lent to a force tending to draw the moon away from the earth. At full moon, on the
other hand, the earth (in proportion to its mass) is more attracted than the moon is by
the sun; and the perturbing influence of the sun is again of the nature of a force tending
to separate the earth and moon. About the quarters, on the other hand, the sun's attrac-
tion (mass for mass) is nearly the same in amount on the earth and moon, but the direc-
tion of its action is not the same on the two bodies, and it is easy to see that in this case
the pertubing force tends to bring the earth and moon nearer to each other. For any
given position of the moon, with reference to the earth and sun, the difference of the
accelerating effects of the sun on the earth and moon is a disturbing force; and it is to
this that the pertubations of the moon's orbit, which are the most important, and among
the most considerable, in the solar system, are due. [By the word difference, just em-
ployed, we are of course to understand, not the arithmetical difference, but the resultant
of the sun's direct acceleration of the moon, combined with that on the earth reversed in
direction and magnitude; as it is only with the relative motions of the earth and moon
that we are concerned.] This disturbing force may be resolved into three components;
for instance, we may have one in the line joining the earth and moon, another parallel
to the pane of the ecliptic, and perpendicular to the moon's radius-vector, and a third
perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic. The first component, as we have already seen,
tends to separate the earth and moon at new and full, and to bring them closer at the
quarters; but during a whole revolution of the moon, the latter tendency is more than
neutralized by the former; that is, in consequence of the sun's disturbing force, the moon
is virtually icss attracted by the earth than it would have been had the sun been absent.
The second component mainly tends to accelerate the moon's motion in some parts of its
orbit, and to retard it at others. The third component tends, on the whole, to draw the
moon towards the plane of the ecliptic. We cannot, of course, enter here into even a
complete sketch of the analysis of such a question as this; but we may give one or two
very simple considerations'which will, at all events, indicate the nature of the grand
problem of perturbations.
The method, originally suggested by Newton, which is found on the whole to be the
most satisfactory in these investigations, is what is called the Variation of Parameters,
and admits of very simple explanation. The path which a disturbed body pursues is, of
course, no longer an ellipse, nor is it in general either a plane curve or re-entrant. But
it maif be considered to be an ellipse which is undergoing slow modification* in form, position,
and dimensions, by tJie agency of the disturbing forces. In fact, it is obvious'that any small
arc of the actual orbit is a portion of the elliptic orbit which the body would piirs'ue for-
ever afterwards, if the disturbing forces were suddenly to cease as it moved in that arc.
The -pantruftern, then, are the elements of the orbit; that is, its major axis, eccentricity,
longtitude of apse, longitude of node, inclination to the ecliptic, and epoch; the latter
quantity indicating the time at which the body passed through a particular point, as the
apse, of its orbit. If these be given, the orbit is completely known, with the body's
position in it at any given instant. If there be no disturbing "forces, all these quantities
are constant; a'id therefore, when the disturbing forces are taken into account, they
change very slowly, as the disturbing forces are in most cases very small. To give an
Peru.
550
instance of the nature of their changes, let us roughly consider one or two simple cases.
First, to find the nature of some of the
effects of a disturbing force acting in the
radius-vector, and tending to draw tin- dis-
turbed, from the central, body. Let S be
the focus, P the nearer apse, "o[ the uudis
turbed elliptic orbit. "When the moving
body passes the point M, the tendency of
the disturbing force is to make it describe
the dotted curve in the figure — i. c.. the new
direction of motion will make with the line
MS an angle more nearly equal ton ri.ui.t
angle than before; and therefore the ap>c (I
in the disturbed orbit \\ill he sooner arrived
at than P wouLi have been in the undis-
turbed orbit — that is, the apse rxjrnlt*. or
revolves in the contrary sense to that of M's
motion. Similarly, the effect of M, is :sl.-o
to make tlie apse regrede to Q,. At 31 „
and Ms, on the other hand, the tendency is to make the apse progrcde. Also, as the
velocity is scarcely altered by such a force, the major axis remains unaltered. Thus at
M the eccentricity is diminished, and at Mi increased, since the apsidal distance is
increased at M, and diminished at Mi.
Next, consider a tangential accelerating force. Here the immediate effect is to
increase the velocity at any point of the orbit, and therefore to make it correspond to a
larger orbit, and, consequently, a longer periodic time. Conversely, a retaiding force,
such as the resistance of a medium, diminishes the velocity at each point, and thus makes
the motion correspond to that in an ellipse with a less major axis, and therefore with a
diminished periodic time. This singular result, that the periodic time of a 1 ody is
(i.'tit/iifx/ted by resistance, is realized in the case of Encke's comet, and ibis ob,-ei ved
effect furnishes one of the most convincing proofs of the existence of a resisting medium
in interplanetary space.
Again, the effect of a disturbing force continually directed toward the plane of the
ecliptic, is to make the node regrede. Thus, if N'N represent the ecliptic. NM a portion
of thy orbit, the tendency of the disturbing force at M is to make MQ the new orbit, and
therefore N' the node. Thus the mule regredes,
and the inclination of the orbit to the ecliptic is
diminished, when the planet has ju-t passed the
ascending node. In the second figure, let M! be
a position of the planet near the descending node NI.
The effect of the disturbiag force is to alter the orbit
to MN»'. Thus, again, the node regmi< s, but the
inclination is increased.' If NN' and N,X,' in these
figures represent the earth's equator, the above rough
sketch applies exactly to the case of the moon as
disturbed by the oblateness of the earth. The reac-
tion of the moon on the earth gives rise to the pre-
cession of the equinoxes (q.v.).
By processes of this nature, Newton subjichd
the variation of the elements of the moon's orbit to calculation, and obtained the
complete explanation of some of the most important of the lunar inequalities. S. i
MOON. Others of them — for instance, the rate of progression of the apse — cannot be
deduced with any accuracy by these rough investigations, but tax, in some ca-cs, tin-
utmost resources of analysis. Newton's calculation of the rate of the moon's apse was
only about half the observed value; and Clairaut was on the point of publishing a
pamphlet, in which a new form was suggested for the /aw of gravitation, in order to
account for the deficiency of this estimate; when he found, by carrying his analysis
further, that the expression sought is obtainable in the form of a slowly converging
series, of which the second term is nearly a large as the
first. The error of the modern lunar tables, founded
almost entirely on analysis, witli the necessary introduc-
tion of a few data from observation, rarely amounts to
a second of arc; and the moon's place is predicted four
years beforehand, in the Nautical Almnnac, with a
degree of precision which no mere observer could attain
even from one day to the next. This is the true proof,
not only of the law of gravitation, but of the laws of
motion (q.v.), upon which, of course, the analytical in-
vestigation is based.
With respect to the mutual perturbations of the planets, we may merely mention that
they are divisible into two classes, called periodic and *enilar. The former depend upon
the configurations of the system — such, for instance, is the diminution of the inclination
Fio. 2.
. a.
551
Pern.
of the moon's orbit, after passing the ascending node on the earth's equator, already
mentioned, or its increase as the moon comes to the descending node. The secular per-
Jurbations depend upon the period in which a complete series of such alternations have
been gone through, and have, in the case of the planets, complete cycles measured by
hundreds of years.
A very curious kind of perturbation is seen in the indirect action of the planets on the
moon. There is a secular change of the eccentricity of the earth's orbit, due to planetary
action, and this brings the sun, on the average, nearer to the earth and moon for a long
period of years, then for an equal period takes it further off. One of the effects of the
sun's disturbing force being, as we have seen, to diminish, on the whole, the moon's
gravity toward the earth, this diminution will vary in the same period as the eccentricity
of the earth's orbit; and therefore the moon's meau motion will be alternately accelerated
and retarded, each process occupying an immense period.
\Vith special reference to the planetary motions, we may notice that the major axis
of cacli planetary orbit is free from all secular variations; and those affecting the inclina-
tion and eccentricity are confined within small limits, and ultimately compensate them-
selves. These facts, which have been clearly and beautifully demonstrated by Laplace
and Lagrange, assure the stability of the planetary orbits, if we neglect the effects of
resistance due to the interplanetary matter; which, however, must, in the long run, bring
all the bodies of the system into collision with the sun, and finally stop the rotation of
the sun itself.
Newton commenced the investigation of perturbations by considering those of the
moon; Euler followed with a calculation of Saturn's inequalities; while Clairaut,
D'Alembert, and others successively gave those of the other planets.
Every one knows that it was by observing the perturbations of Uranus, and thence
discovering the direction of the disturbing force, that Adams and Leverrier were led to
their great and simultaneous discovery of the planet Neptuue.^
PSEU', an important maritime republic of South America, bounded on the n. by
Ecuador, on the w. by the Pacific, on the s. and s.e. by Bolivia, and on the e. by Brazil.
It lies in lat. 3D 25' — 21° 30' s., and in long. 68D — 81° 21' west. The general outline resem-
bles a triangle, the base of which is formed by the boundary-line between Peru and
Ecuador on the north. Its area is above 500,000 sq.m. ; and according to a census made
in 1876, the pop. is 2,720,735, not including wild Indians. On the e. side of tiie Andes,
and between the Ama/on and the Purus, there is a wide and unexplored expanse of
country, upon which both Peru and Brazil have claims, though the boundary is now
generally regarded as marked by the Rio Javary. The country is 1100 m. in length,
780 m. in extreme breadth along the northern bormdary, but is, little more than 50 m.
wide in the extreme south. Following the general direction, and not including windings,
the coast-line is 1060 in. in length. The shores are in general rocky and steep; in the
s., lofty cliffs rise from the sea, and, in some places, the water close inshore has a
depth of from 70 to 80 fathoms. Further n., however, sandy beaches occur, and in the
extreme n., the shores are often low and sandy, covered with brushwodd. Owing to
the comparative unfrequence of bays and inlets along the coast, the harbors .are few and
unimportant. Those of Callao (the port of Lima) and Payta afford the most secure
anchorage, and the others are Trujillo, Cafiete, Pisco, Cauaua, Islay, Ilo, Arica, and
Inquique. Landing by boats is always dangerous, on account of the dreaded surf,
occasioned \>y the swell of the Pacific, which perpetually beats upon the coast; and
when goods or passengers require to be landed on unsheltered shores, recourse is had to
the primitive balsas, or rafts, worked by the natives, and capable of carrying two or three
persons.
Islands. — The islands on the Peruvian coast, although valuable, are extremely few in
number, and small in extent. In the n., are the Lobos (i.e., Seal) islands, forming a
group of three, and so called from the seals which frequent them. The largest of them,
Lobos de Terra, is 5 m. long by 2 m. broad, and the others, lying 30 m. s.w., are much
smaller. Ou their eastern sides, they are covered with guano, and the quantity on the
whole group, when it began to be exported from them, was stated to be 4,000,000 tons.
The islands of Macabi and Guanope, near the Lobos, were originally calculated to con»
tain 2,280,000 tons of guano; but the guano exported has very greatly exceeded that
amou::t, and in 1872, it was calculated that there will still 750,000 Ions of guano on the
former and 500,000 tons on the latter. The Chincha islands, three in number, and the
most famous of the whole, which began to supply Europe in 1841, had very little guano
left on them in 1873. They are called the North, Middle, ana South islands respectively.
Each presents, on the eastern side, a wall of precipitous rock, with a general slopi/
towards the western shore. The cavities and inequalities of the surface used to be filled
with guano, and this material covered the western slopes to within a few feet of the
water's edge. There was no vegetation. The North island has an. area of 202 acres.
It is formed of felspar and quartz, and is slowly but certainly decreasing in size. This
island used to be wholly covered with thick layers of guano, which was quarried in
some places to a depth of 80 feet. Hundreds of convicts were employed in cutting the
guano and loading the vessels. The Chincha islands ceased to be worked for foreign
c::poi-t in 1872, and now guano is only taken for Peruvian use from the northern island,
Peru.
552
where there is still supposed to be 1.10,000 tons. In 1874, hovcvor, valuable new-
deposits of guano wen' discovered on the southern coast of Peru, which are estimated to
contain about 80,000,000 tons.
The grand physical feature of the country, and the source of all its mineraJ wealth,
is the great mountain system of the Andes. A general description of the formation and
character of the Peruvian Andes is given under the arti< k- A .SDKS (q.v.).
Surface, Soil, and Ci'i'imtte. — The surface of Peru is divided into three distinct and
well-defined tracts or belts, the climates of which are of every variety from toirid heat to
arctic cold, and the productions of which range from the stunted herbage of the high
mountain-slopes, to the oranges and citrous, the sugar-canes and cottons, oi the luxuriant
tropical valleys. These three regions are the Coast, the Mirni, and the M»tit</rm. — The
Coast is a narrow strip of sandy desert between the base of the western Cordillera and
the s:-a. and extending along the whole length of the country. This tract, varying in
breadth from 30 to 60 in., slopes to the shore with an uneven surface, mark', d by arid
ridges from the Cordillera, and with a rapid descent. It is for the most part a barren
waste of sand, traversed, however, by numerous valleys of astonishing fertility, most of
which are watered by streams, that have their sources high on the slopes of the Cordillera.
Many of the streams are dry during the greater part of the year. Between these valleys
extend deserts, which are sometimes 90 in. in width. These are perfectly ira>
being covered with a fine, shifting, yellow sand, which is often carried about by the
wind in pillars of from 80 to 100 ft. in height. In the coast-region, properly so called, rain
is unknown. This is caused by the coast of Peru being within the region of perpetual
s.e. trade-winds. These winds, charged with vapors from the Atlantic, strike upon the
e. coast of South America, and traverse that continent obliquely, distributing rains over
Brazil. But their vapor is thoroughly condensed by the lofty Cordilleras, and their l:..-t
particles of moisture are exhausted in powdering the summits of these ranges with .-now,
after which they fall down upou the coast of Peru, cool and dry. The want of rain,
however, is compensated for to some extent by abundant and refreshing dews, which
fall during the night. The climate of the coast is modified by the cool winds. In the
valleys, the heat, though considerable, is not oppressive. The highest temperature
observed at Lima in summer is 85°, the lowest in winter is 61° F.
The Sierra embraces all the mountainous region between the western b ise of the
maritime Cordillera and the eastern base of the Andes, or the eastern Cordillera. Thesn
ranges are, in this country, about 100 m. apart on an average, and have beeu estimated
to cover an area of 200,000 sq.miles. Transverse branches connect the one range with
the other, and high plateaux, fertile plains, and deep tropical valleys lie between the
lofty outer barriers. The superiority in elevation alternates between the two principal
ranges. The e. range, or, as it is generally called, the Andes, has the superiority in
height in the southern half of this mountain system. It. abuts upon the plain, from the
Bolivian frontier, in a majestic mass, surmounted by stupendous pinnacles. rugir'-d in
outline, and most frequently rising in splintered needle-like peaks, covered with snow.
North of lat. 13° s., however, the western Cordillera assumes the grander character, and
preserves it until it crosses the northern frontier. The scenery of the western Cordillera
is broader and more massive in character, and its summits less pointed than those
of the Andes. Rugged paths, sometimes so narrow' as barely to afford footing to the
mules which are invariably used in such ascents, lead up its steep sides. Occasionally,
from these narrow passes, gaping and apparently bottomless precipices slide perpendicu-
larly downward from the very feet of the traveler, and the prospect is rendered still
more hideous by the distant roar of a torrent, hidden by mists, at the bottom of the
ravine. Occasionally, also, the mountain route leads over abysses 500 ft. in depth, :
which, by way of bridge, a few poles are thrown, which roll about in an \incoinfortable
manner under the feet. In traversing these dangerous passes, which line the huge; rocks
like aSrial threads, the traveler often comes upon scenery of the most picturesque and
beautiful description. The clefts and sides of the hills, "even at altitudes which might
be called alpine, are clothed with wild-flowers, many of which, now long cultivated in
Britain, have become highly prized among us as garden-plants. Verbenas lupines, blue
and scarlet salvias, fuchsias, calceolarias, and the fragrant heliotrope, add a ser
beauty to the sense of power which the stupendous scenery imparts. The following are
the most striking and distinctive physical features of the Sierra, beginning from the
south: 1. The plain of Titicaca, partly in Peru, and partly in Bolivia, is < -n -l.^ed
between the two main ridges of the Andes, and is said to have an area of 30,000 m. —
greater than that of Ireland. In its center is the great lake Titicaca, 12,846 ft. aboi
level, or 1600 ft. above the loftiest mountain pass (the col of Mont Cervin) of Europe.
The lake is 115 m. long, from 30 to 60 m. broad, from 70 to 180 ft. deep, and 400 m. in
circumference. Its shape is irregular; it contains many islands, and several peninsulas
abut upon its waters. 2. The knot of Cuzcc. The mountain-chains which girdle the
plain of Titicaca trend toward the n.w., and form what is called the knot of Cu/.co.
The knot comprises 6 minor mountain-chains, and has an area thrice larger than that
of Switzerland. Here the valleys enjoy an Indian climate, and are rich in tropical pro-
ductions; to the n. and e. of the Knot extend luxuriant tropical forests, while the num-
berless mountain-slopes are covered with waving crops of wheat, barley, and other
cereals, and with potatoes; and higher up, extend pasture-lands, where the vicuna and
553 Pern.
alpaca feed. 3. TV Bailey of the Apuriinac, 80 in. in average breadth, and extending
n.\v. for about 800 miles. This valley is the most populous region of Peru. 4. The
Knot of Pasuo. From Cuzco proceed two chains toward the n.w. ; they unite again in
the Knot of Pasco. This Knot contains the table-land of Bomhon, 12,300 ft. above sea-
ievel; as well as other table-lauds at a height of 14,000 ft., the highest in the Andes;
otherwise, however, the physical features of the country resemble those of the vicinity
of Cuzco. .j. The vale of the river Marauon. This valley, which is upward of COO m.
in length, is narrow, deep, and nearer the equator than any other valley of the Sierra,
and consequently, it is the hottest portion of this region ; and its vegetation is thoroughly
tropical in character. The conformation of the surface of the Sierra is of the most won-
derful description. Afier the table-lands of Tibet, those of the Peruvian Andes are the
highest in the world; but, unlike those of Tibet, which are mere grassy uplands, the
table-lauds of Peru are the seat of a comparatively high civilization, and are studded
over with towns and villages, perched on heights exceeding in elevation the summits of
the Jungfrau and the Wetterhoru. ISTor are such towns the mere eyries of miners who
are templed to ascend thus high in search of the precious metals; for, even at this eleva-
tion, the climate is pleasant, and wheat, maize, barley, rye, and potatoes thrive well.
The city of Cuzco, situated in a region of rare beauty, and enjoying a temperate climate,
is 11,380 ft. above sea-level, or 2,000 ft. higher than the great S"t. Bernard. The climate
of the Sierra, however, is not always so charming. In general terms, it may be des-
cribed as mild and variable, with moderate rains. In the district of Pauciutambo, rain
falls 300 days in the year. A country, however, of such an uneven surface, of snow-
covered peaks and tropical valleys, embraces every variety of climate. In all the lower
regions of the country the climate is warm, but healthy; in the uplands, and on the
highest plateaux, it is often inclement. Violent storms beat upon the plain of Titicaca;
and terriilc temptests, accompanied with thunder and lightening, roll frequently around
the table-lands of Pasco (q.v.); where, indeed, the climate is so cold, that but for the
mines, which have attracted hither a numerous population, this region might have
remained uninhabited. At the height of 9,COO ft. above sea-level, the mean temperature
is 60° Fahr., and the variation throughout the year is not great. The highest peaks of
the country reach to upward of 32.000 ft., and many peaks in both ranges are from
17,000 to £0,000 ft. high. In the western Cordillera, and in the s. of the country, are
4 volcanoes — Candarave, Ubinas, Ornate, and Arequipa. The soil of the Sierra is of
great variety ; but wherever it is cultivated, it is productive.
The Ihutand, forming two-thirds of the entire area of the coxmtry, stretches away
for hundreds of leagues eastward from the Andes to the confines of Brazil. On the n.,
it is hounded by the Amazon, on the s. by Bolivia. It consists of vast impenetrable for-
ests and alluvial plains, is rich in all the productions of tropical latitudes, is of inex-
haustible fertility, and teems with animal and vegetable life. It is still, however, almost
wholly unproductive to man. The silence of its central forests has never been disturbed
by the civilized explorer, and its only human inhabitants are a few scattered tribes of
Indians. The Montana is watered by numberless streams, and, by a large number of
important rivers. It belongs wholly to the basin of the Amazon. Along the head-waters
of ihe Purus, which, flowing through beautiful forest-covered plains, approaches to
within 60 m. of Cuzco, there were at one time numerous Spanish farms, where great
tracts of forests had been cleared, and where crops of coco, cocoa, sugar, and other trop-
ical productions were regularly raised. These farms have since 1861 been abandoned,
an-1 the encroaching forest has already obliterated their sites. The upper waters of the
Purus are the head quarters of a savage and barbarously cruel tribe of wild Indians called
Chunchos. These untamable savages have shown the greatest hostility to the advance
of civilization. They murdered the settlers, or drove them to take refuge in some less
1 advanced settlement. When Mr. Markham visited this region in 1853, a few farms still
I existed: from a paper, however, which he communicates to the Journal of the Royal
' G«i</r«phii'<il, fri'iiiy, and which is dated 1861, it would appear that the Chuuchos have
finished their barbarous work, for the settlers bi.ve either all been massacred or driven
back from the forest, so that now not a single settlement remains. The rich valleys of
Paucartarnbo, once covered with flourishing Spanish farms, have again become'one vast
tropical forest. The virgin soil of the Montana is of amazing fertility; while its climate,
though not oppressively hot, is healthy. The forests consist of huge trees, of which
some are remarkable for the beauty of their wood, others for their valuable gums and
resins, and others as timber trees. "A rank undergrowth of vegetation covers the coun-
try, and the trees are often chained together and festooned with parasites and closely-
matted creepers. In this region, for the most part undisturbed by the voice of man,
civilized or savage, animal life flourishes in endless variety, and birds of the brighest
plumage flit among the foliage. Among the products which are yielded here in spon-
taneous abundance, are the inestimable Peruvian bark (see CINCHONA), India-rubber,
gum-copal, vanilla, indigo, copaiba, balsam, cinnamon, sarsaparilla. ipecacuanha, vege-
table wax, etc. On the western fringe of the Montana, where there are still a few
settlements, tobacco, sugar, coffee, cotton, and chocolate, are cultivated with complete
success.
Hydrography. — The hydrography of Peru may be said to be divided into three sys-
tems— those of lake Titicaca, the Pacific, and the Amazon. The streams that flow into
Peru.
554
lake Titicaea are few and inconsiderable. The rivers winch, having their sources in the
western Cordillera, flow w. into the Pacific, arc about GO in number; but many of them
are dry in summer, and even the more important are rapid and shallow, have a short
course, are not navigable even for canoes. ;uul are mainly used for the purpo<e of irri-
gation. All the ^rcat rivers of Peru aretributarics of the Amazon. The Maranon, rising
between the eastern and western Cordilleras, and flowing tortuously to the n.n.w., <s
generally considered to be the head-waler of the Amazon (q.v.). The Hualtega ris, i
the town of Huauuco, and flows northward to the Amazon. It is navigable for fiUO in.,
the head of its navigation (for canoes) being at Tingo .Maria, within 100 in. of i;s source.
The Yucayali, or Ucayali, an immense river, enter> the A ma/on 210 m. below the llual-
laga. Its tributaries and upper waters, among which are the Pampa.- and the Apurimae,
drain lh<' greater portion of the Peruvian Sierra. The Purus, which reaches to the val-
leys of Paucartambo, within GO in. of Cuzco, has recently been explored. We know
several of its sources, and that it enters the Amazon by four mouths, a little above
Harra. It tl<>\vs through what is perhaps the richest and most beautiful region . !' Peru.
Many attempts have been made to explore this river, but none were successful till
Mr. Chandiess (1865-66) explored it and its tributary, the Aguirey. Sailing down the
Rio Negro, from Manoas to the Amazon, he reached the mouth of the Purus, and
ascended it a distance of 1866 miles. He found that it flowed in a tortuous course
through a rich alluvial plain, and that the few Indians on its upper course were still as
primitive as is indicated by the use of only stone hatchets. He ascertained that the Hio
Madre de Dios is not the head-water of the Purus. He then ascended the Aguirey, the
principal affluent of the Purus, in the hope that it might afford communication with that
south Peruvian river, but failed, owing to difficulties insuperable by him, to settle the
question.
Productions, Ef ports and Imports, Revenue, etc, — The wealth and resources of Peru
consist, not in manufactures, but entirely in mineral, vegetable, and animal products.
As no statistics are taken in the country, it is impossible to give the quantity and value
of the productions, and of the exports and imports, even approximately. Of the precious
metals, the production has greatly fallen off since Peru became an independent state; and
this country, which once stood in the same relation to Spain that Australia d
Great Britain, now contributes little to the metallic wealth of the world. The immense
stores of gold and silver found here by the Spanish invaders represented the aceummula-
tion of centuries, and that among a people who used the precious metals only for the
purposes of ornamentation. Nevertheless, Peru possesses vast metallic riches. The Andes
abound in mines of gold, silver, copper, lead, bismuth, etc.; and in the Montana, irohl
is said to exist in abundance in veins and in pools on the margins of rivers. The public
revenue of Peru is derived mainly from the sale of guano, and only to a small extent
from customs. The total annual exports of Peru are valued at about £7,500,000; and
Peru imports yearly about £1,000,000 worth of British goods. The actual revenue in
1875 was £6,263,320; the expenditure was £5,789,100. Peru has a considerable public
debt, divided into internal and external: the former, exclusive of a floating debt of
unknown amount, is estimated at £2.500,000; the latter made up of sundry loans amount-
ing to £49,010,000. The metric system of weights and measures was established by law
in 1860, but has not }ret come into general use. Besides the precious metals. Pern pos-
sesses other most important mineral resources. In addition to the guano, to which allu-
sion has already been made, another important article of national wealth is nitrate of
soda, which is found in immense quantities in the province of Tarapaca. This substance,
which is a powerful fertilizer (see NITIIE), is calculated to cover, in this province alone,
an area of 50 square leagues, and the quantity has been estimated at 63.000,00) tons.
Here also great quantities of borax are found. The working of this valuable substance.
however, is interdicted by government, which has made a monopoly of it, a> it has of
the guano; but such small parcels of it as have been exported bring about i'30 per ton
in the English market. In 1876 there were in Peru 608 m. of railway completed, and
several hundreds in course of construction, including a line across the summit of the Cor-
dillera de los Andes, and presenting engineering difficulties even more extraordinary than
those overcome in the Mont Cenis tunnel.
The vegetable productions of Peru are of every variety, embracing all the products
both of temperate and tropical climes. The European cereals and vegetables are grown with
perfect success, together with maize, rice, pumpkins, tobacco, coffee, sugar-cane, cotton,
etc. Fruits of the most delicious flavor are grown in endless variety. Cotton, for which
the soil and climate of Peru are admirably adapted, is now produced here in gradually
increasing quantity. The land suited to the cultivation of this plant is of immense
extent, and the quality of the cotton grown is excellent. The animals comprise those of
Europe, together witli the llama (q.v.) and its allied species. Although Peru produces
so much excellent wool, almost the whole of the woolen fabrics used as clothing by the
Indians are manufactured in Yorkshire, England. .
Ancient Oimlizatwn and 'History. — Peru, theorigirrof whose name is unknown, is now
passing through its third historical era, and is manifesting its third phase of civilization.
The present era may be said to date from the conquest of the country by the Spaniards
in the enrly port of the 16th c. ; the middle era embraces the rule of the IIHVIS; and the
earliest era, about which exceedingly little is known, is that Pre-Incarial period, of
555 Peru.
unknown duration, during which a nation or nations living in large cities flourished in
the country, and had a civilization, a language, and a religion different, and perhaps in
some cases even more advanced than those of the Incas who succeeded them, and over-
ran their territories. Whence these Pre-Incarial nations came, and to what branch of
the human family they belonged, still remain unanswered questions. Their existence,
however, is clearly attested by the architectural remains, sculptures, carvings, etc., which
they have left behind them. Ruins of edifices constructed both before the advent of the
Incas, and contemporary with, and independently of them, are found everywhere
throughout the country. On the shores of lake Titicaca, for example, are the ruins of
Tia-Huanacu, consisting of sculptured monolithic doorways, one of which is 10 ft. high,
and 13 ft. wide; of pillars, 21 ft. high, placed in lines at regular distances; and of
immense masses of hewn stone, some 30 ft. long by 18 broad. In 1846, several colossal
idols were excavated, some being 18 ft. long, 18 wide, and 6 thick. The idols are in the
form of statues, and the ears are not enlarged by the insertion in the lobes of silver rings,
as those of sculptured figures, executed in Incarial times invariably are. The ancient
fragments of buildings on these shores were beheld with astonishment by the earliest of
the Incas, who, by their own confession, accepted them as models for their own archi-
tecture. The name Tia-Huanacu is comparatively modern, having been conferred by
one of the Incas; neither history nor tradition has handed down the original name. The
ruins stand at a height of 12,930 ft. above sea-level, and one of the many mysteries whicL
have crowded around this ancient site is, that this spot, in the midst of what is now gen-
erally a frozen desert, and where the rarity of the air must be so great as to be hurtful,
should have been chosen as the seat, as it is generally believed to have been, of an
ancient government. Of the character and degree of the" civilization of The Pre-Iutarial
races, almost nothing is known. It is worthy of note, however, that at Pachacamac, 25
m. s. of Lima, where there are the remains of a now wholly deserted city, ond of a great
temple, the religion seems to have been a pure Theism; for when the Peruvians of Cuzco
carried their victorious arms across the Cordilleras to this district, they beheld this tem-
ple (the doors of which are said to have been of gold inlaid with precious stones) with
astonishment, not only because it rivaled if not surpassed in splendor the famous tem-
ple of the sun at Cuzco, but because it contained uo image or visible symbol of a god.
It was raised in honor of an invisible and mysterious deity, whom the inhabitants called
Pachacamac, the creator of the world (from two words of the ancient Peruvian language,
pacha, the earth; and camac, participle of the verb cnmani, to create). The Peruvians
did not dare to destroy this temple, but contented themselves with building by its side
a temple of Ihe sun. to the worship of which they gradually won over the inhabitants.
For further information regarding Pre-Incarial times and races, sec "W. Bollaert's Antiq-
uities. Etfinolor/y, etc., of South America (Load. I860); Squier's Pmi (1876).
Regarding- the origin of the Incas, nothing definite can be said. We have no author-
ities on the subject save the traditions of the Indians, and these, besides being outrage-
ously fabulous in character, are also conflicting. It appears, however, from all the
traditions, that Manco, the first inca, first appeared on the shores of lake Titicaca, with
his wife Mama Ocllo. He announced that he and his wife were children of the sun,
and were sent by the glorious Inti (the sun) to instruct the simple tribes. He is said to
have carried with him n golden wedge, or, as it is sometimes called, a wand. Wherever
this wedge, on being struck upon tiie ground, should sink into the earth, and disappear
forever, there it was decreed Manco should build his capital. Marching northward, he
came to the plain of Cuzco, where the wedge disappeared. Here he founded the city of
Cuzco, became the first inca (a name said to be derived from the Peruvian word for the
sun), and founded the Peruvian race, properly so-called. Manco, or Manco Capac (i. e.,
Manco the ruler), instructed the men in agriculture and the arts, gave them a compnratively
pure religion, and a social and national organization; while his wife, Mama Ocllo, who is
also represented as being his sister, taught the women to sew, to spin, and to weave.
Thus, the inca was not only ruler of his people, but also the father and the high-priest.
The territory held by Manco Capac was small, extending about 90 m. from e. to w., and
about 80 m. from n. to south. After introducing laws among his people, and bringing
them into regularly organised communities, "he ascended to his father, the sun." The
year generally assigned as that of his death, after a reign of 40 years, is 1062 A.D. The
progress of the Peruvians was at first so slow as to be almost imperceptible. Gradually,
however, by their wise and temperate policy; they won over the neighboring tribes, who
readily appreciated the benefits of a powerful and fostering government. Little is
clearly ascertained regarding the early history of the Peruvian kingdom, and the lists
given of its earl}' sovereigns are by no means to be trusted. They invented no alphabet,
and therefore could keep no written record of their affairs, so that almost all we can
know of their early history is derived from the traditions of the people, collected by
the early Spaniards. Memoranda were indeed kept by the Peruvians, and, it is said,
even full historical records, by means of the quipu. a twisted woolen cord, upon which
other smaller cords of different colors were tied. Of these cross threads, the color, the
length, the number of knots upon them, and the distance of one from another, all had
their significance; but after the invasion of the Spaniard?, when the whole Peruvian
system of government and civilization underwent dislocation, the art of reading the
quipus seems cither to have been lost, or was effectually concealed. Thus it is that we
Pera. 556
have no exact knowledge of Peruvian history further back than about one century before
tue coming of the Spaniard*. In 14.");! Tupac Inca Yupanqui, tlie llth inca, according
to the list given by (Jarcilasso do la Vega, greatly enlarged liis already wide spread
dominions. lie led his armies southward, crossed into Chili, inarched over the terrible
desert of Ataeaina, and penetrating as far s. as the river Maule (lat. <>(i° s.), fixed there
the southern boundary of Peru. Returning, iie crossed the Chilian Andes by a puss ol'
uuequaled danger and difh'culty, and at length regained his capital, which he cult red
in triumph. While thus engaged, his son, the young Ihiayna Capac, heir to the fame as
well as the throne of his father, had inarched northward to the Amazon, crossed that har-
rier, and conquered the kingdom of Quito. In 1475 Huayna Capac ascended the throne,
and under him the empire of the incas attained to its greatest extent, and the height of
its glory. His sway extended from the equatorial valleys of the Amazon to the t< niper-
ule plains of Chili, and from the sandy shores of the Pacific to the mar.-hy source- of
the Paraguay. Of this immense territory, Cuzco, as its name implies (the word signifies
naval), wa* the great center; great roads branched off from it to the n., s., <•., :.;,d w.,
and ramilied through every part of the kingdom. The greatest highway of the country
was that which led from Quito through Cuzco into the ( hilian dominions. Jn its con-
struction, galleries were cut for leagues through the living rock; rivers were crossed by
bridges of plaited osiers, that swung in the air; precipices were ascended by stai
artificially cut; and valleys were filled up with solid masonry. It was from l~i<;o to
2,000 in. long, was about 20 ft. broad, and was built of heavy flags of freestone. Upon
all the great routes were posts or small buildings, about 5 m. apart, attached to which
•were a number of runners, whose business it was to carry forward the dispatches of
government. By means of these messengers, fresh fish caught on one day at Lurin, on the
Pacific, is said to have been eaten the next day at Cuzco. The distance between thisc
places is uOO m., and the road traverses the wildest and most mountainous country in
the world. Order and civilization accompanied conquest among the Peruvians, and
each tribe that was vanquished found itself under a careful paternal government, which
provided for it, and fostered it in every way.
The government of Peru was a pure but a mild despotism. The inca, as the n pre-
sentative of the sun, was the head of the priesthood, and presided at the great religious
festivals. He imposed taxes, made laws, ami was the source of all dignity and power.
lie wore a peculiar head-dress, of which the tasseled-fringe, with two ftathtrs placed
upright in it, were the proper insignia of royalty. Of the nobility, all those descended
by the male line from the founder of the monarchy, shared, in common with the ruling
monarch, the sacred name of inca. They wore a peculiar dress, enjoyed special privi-
leges, and lived at court ; but none of them could enter the presence of the inca except
with bare feet, and bearing a burden on the shoulders, in token of allegiance and he:
They formed, however, the real strength of the empire, and, being superior to the other
races in intellectual power, they were the fountain whence flowed that civilization and
social organization winch gave Peru a position above every other state of South An.
Prior to the arrival of the Spaniards, Peru contained a pop. of 30,000,000 — twelve times
greater than it is at the present day. The empire was divided into four parts, into < ach
of which one of the great roads branched from Cuzco. Each of the four provinci
administered by a viceroy or governor. The nation was further subdivided into depart-
ments of 10,000 inhabitants, each also administered by a governor; and there were other
subdivisions into various numbers, the lowest of which was 10, and every one of which
was ruled by head-men, who were responsible for offenders, and were required i
that those under them enjoyed the rights to which they were entitled. The governors
and chief rulers "were selected from the inca aristocracy. The laws related almost
wholly to criminal matters, and were few, and remarkably severe. Theft, adultery,
murder, blasphemy against the sun, and burning of bridges, were all capital crimes.
The territory of the empire was divided into three portions, and from these portions
TV ere derived the revenue that supported the sun, the Inca, and the .••, : respectively.
The numerous priesthood, and the costly ceremonial of the national worship, were sup-
ported by the first; the royal household and the government expenditure were dc i
out of the second; and the people, at so much per head, divided the third of these por-
tions. There was a new- division of the soil every year, and the extent of land appor-
tioned to each householder was regulated by the numbers in his family. It might be
supposed tjiat this arrangement would be fatal to improvement of the soil, and to the
pride in and love of home; but this was not the case: and it is probable that at each
partition of the soil, tho tenant was, as a rule, confirmed in his occupation. The three
divisions were cultivated by the people, the territory apportioned to the sun being
attended to first, that belonging to the people themselves next, and lastly, the <lhi-:on
belonging to the inca. The' labor on the inca's share of the land wns engaged in by the
whole population at the same time, and the work was lightened by the national songs
and ballads, and the scene made picturesque by the holiday attire of the workers. The
manufactures of the country were managed in the same way, the people laboring first
in making clothes for themselves, and afterwards giving their work to the inca. The
mines were worked by the people, but no one gave more than a certain amount of time
to the government service (during which time he was maintained at th* government
expense) and after discharging the stipulated amount of duty he was succeeded by another.
557
Peru.
Money was unknown among the Peruvians. They were a nation of workers, but they
wrought as the members of one family, labor being enforced on all for the benefit of all.
Tlie national policy of the Peruvians had its imperfections and drawbacks, and
though capable of unlimited extension, it was not capable of advancement. It was in
the last degree conservative, and was of such a nature that the introduction of reform in
any vital particular must have overturned the whole constitution. Nevertheless, the
wants of the people were few, and these were satisfied. Their labor was not more than
they could easily perform, and it was pleasantly diversified with frequent holidays and
festivals. They lived contentedly and securely under a government strong enough to
protect them; and a sufficiency of the necessaries of life was obtained by every individ-
ual. Still, in the valleys of the Cordilleras and on the plain of Cuzco, may be heard
numberless songs, in which the Peruvian mourns the happy days of peace, security, and
comfort enjoyed by his ancestors. Further, they revered and loved their monarch, and
considered it a pleasure to serve him. With subjects of such a temper and inclination,
the ineas might direct the entire energies of the nation as they chose; and it is thus that
they were able to construct those gigantic public works which would have been wonder-
ful even had they been performed with the assistance of European machinery and appli-
ances. .
The Peruvian system of agriculture was brought to its highest perfection only by the
prodigious labor of several centuries. Not only was the fertile soil cultivated with the
utmost care, but the sandy wastes of the coast, uuvisited by any rains, and but scantily
watered by brooks, were rendered productive by means of an artificial system of irriga-
tion, the most stupendous, perhaps, that the world has ever seen. Water was collected
in lakes among the mountains, led down the slopes and through the sands of the coast,
apparently doomed to sterility, by canals and subterranean passages constructed on avast
scale, anil the ruins of which, to be seen at the present day, attest the industry, ingenuity,
avl admirable patience of the Peruvians. The aqueducts, which were sometimes be-
. tweeu 400 and 500 m. in length, were in some cases tunneled through massive rocks, and
carried across rivers and marshes. They were constructed of large slabs of freestone,' fit-
ting so closely as to require no cement, ami answering perfectly the purpose for which
they were intended, for the sandy wastes were converted into productive fields and rich
pasture-lauds, and the coast teemed with industrious inhabitants. In the valley of Santa,
there were once 700,000 inhabitants; there are now only 12,000: in that of Ancullama,
there were 30,000 individuals ; there are now only 425. The fields on the coast were also
enriched with the manure of sea-fowls, which has since come to be known as guano.
Fragments of the aqueducts still remain, and are surveyed with astonishment by the
traveler, who wonders that such works could have been constructed by a people who
appeal1 to have employed no machinery, had no beasts of burden, who did not know the
secret of the true arch, and who did not use tools or instruments of iron. But the tri-
umphs of industry were not more decide. 1 on the coast than they were in the Sierra.
II: iv, at elevations visited now only by the eagle and the condor, the rocky heights, riven
by innumerable chasms and deeply-cut precipices, were crowned with waving crops of
.wheat and maize. Where the mountain-slopes were too steep to admit of cultivation,
terraces wore cut, soil was accumulated on them, and the level surfaces converted into a
species of hanging-gardens. Large flocks of llamas were grazed on the plateaux; while
the more hardy vicunas and alpacas roamed the upper heights in freedom, to be driven
together, however, at stated periods, to be shorn or killed. The wool yielded by these
animrd-, and the cotton grown in the plains and valleys, were woven into fabrics equally
remarkable for fineness of texture and brilliancy of color.
The character of the architecture of the Peruvians has already been alluded to. The
edifices of incarial times are oblong in shape and cyclopean in construction. The mate-
rials used were granite, porphyry, and other varieties of stone; but in the more rainless
ivgion-, sun-dried bricks were also much used. The walls were most frequently built of
stones of irregular size, but cut with such accuracy, and fitting into each other so closely
at the; sides, that neither knife nor needle can be inserted in the seams. Though the
buildings were not, as z rule, more than from 12 to 14 ft. high, thev were characterh. d
by simplicity, symmetry, and solidity. Tlie Peruvian architects did not indulge much
in external decoration; but the interior of all the great edifices was extremely rich in
ornament. In the royal palaces and temples, the most ordinary utensils were of silver
and gold; the walls were thickly studded with plates and bosses of the same metals; and
exquisite imitations of human and other figures, and also of plants, fashioned with per-
fect accuracy in gold and silver, were always seen in the houses of the great.' Hidden
among the metallic foliage, or creeping among the roots, were many brilliantly colored
birds, serpents, lizards, etc., made chiefly of precious stones; while in the gardens, inter-
spersed among the natural plants and flowers, were imitations of them in gold and silver,
of such truth and beauty as to rival nature. The temple of the sun at Cuzco, called 6V
icnndia, or " Place of Gold," was the most magnificent edifice in the empire. On the
Avcstern wall, and opposite the eastern portal, was a splendid representation of the sun,
the god of the nation. In consisted of a human face in gold, Avith innumerable golden
rays emanating from it in every direction; and when the early beams of the mornnigsun
fell upon this brilliant golden disk, they were reflected from it as from a mirror, and again
reflected throughou-' the whole temple by the numberless plates, cornices, bands, and
Peru. 558
images of gold, until the temple seemed to glow with a sunshine more intense than thai
of nature.
The religion of the Peruvians, in the later ages of the empire, was far in advance of
that of most barbarous nations. They believed in a Great Spirit, the Creator of the uni-
verse, who, being a spirit, could not be represented \>y any image or symbol, nor he.
made to dwell iti~a temple made with hands. They also believed in the existence of the
soul hereafter, and in the resurrection of the body. The after-life they considered to
be a condition of ease and tranquillity for the good, and of continual wearisome labor,
extending over ages, for the wicked. But while they believed in the Creator of thu
world, they also believed in other deities, who were of some subordinate rank to the
Great Spirit, Of these secondary gods, the sun was the chief. They reverenced the sun
as the source of their royal dynasty; and everywhere throughout the land, altars smoked
with offerings burned in his worship.
About the year 1516, and 10 years before the death of Huayna Cupac, the first white
man had lauded on the western shores of South America; but it was not till the. year
1532 that Pizarro (q.v.), at the head of a small band of Spanish adventurers, actually
invaded Peru. On his death-bed the great inca expressed a wish that, the kin.
of Quito should pass to Atahualpa, one of his sons by a princess of (Juito whom he had
received among his concubines, and that all his other territories should fall to hi
Huascar, the heir to the crown, and who, according to the custom of the incas, should
have inherited all its dependencies. Between these two princes, quarrels, r. Milting in
war, arose; and when Pizarro entered Peru he found the country o < up'.cd by two rival
factions, a circumstance of which he took full advantage. Atahualpa had completely
defeated the forces of his brother, had taken Huascar prisoner, and was now stationed at
Caxamalca, on the eastern side of the Andes, whither, with a force of 177 men, of wiio;n
27 were cavalry, the dauntless Spanish leader, in Sept., 1532, set out to meet him. For
the capture of Atahualpa by the Spaniards, his subsequent life and violent death, s^e
article ATAHUALPA. Shortly after the execution of the inca at Caxamalca, the adven-
turers set out for Cuzco. Their strength had been recently increased by re-enforcem nN,
and they now numbered nearly 500 men, of whom about a third were cavalry. They
entered the Peruvian capital Nov. 15, 1533, • having in the course of their progress
toward the city of the incas, had many sharp, and sometimes serious encounters with Ihe
Indians, in all of which, however, their armor, artillery, and cavalry gave them the
advantage. At Cuzco they obtained a vast amount of gold, the one object tor which t he-
conquest of Peru was undertaken. As at Caxamalca, the articles of gold were for the
most part melted down into ingots, and divided among the baud. Their sudden wealth,
however, did many of them little good, as it afforded them the means of gambling, and
many of them, rich at night, found themselves again penniless adventurers in the morn-
ing. One cavalier having obtained the splendid golden image of the sun as his >hareof
the booty, lost it in play in a single night. After stripping the palaces and temple- of
their treasures, Pizarro placed Manco, a son of the great Iluayana Capac, on the throne
of the incas. Leaving a garrison in the capital, he then marched w. to the sea coast,
with the intention of building a town, from which he could the more easily repel inva^
sion from without, and whjch should be the future capital of the kingdom. Choosing
the banks of the river Rimac, he founded, about 6 m. from its month, the (1i>i>la>i
Reyes, "City of the Kings." Subsequently its name was changed to Lima, the modified
form of the name of the river on which it was placed. But the progress of a hisrhor civ-
ilization thus begun, was interrupted by an event which overturned the plnns of the
general, and entailed the severest sufferings on many of his followers. The inca Manco,
insulted on every hand, and in the most contemptuous manner, by the proud Castilian
soldiers, effected his escape, and headed a formidable rising of the natives. Gatl,
round Cuzco in immense numbers, the natives laid siege to th" city, and set it on rive.
An Indian force also invested Xauxa, and another detachment threatened Lima, The
siege of Cuzco was maintained for 5 months, after wnieh time the Peruvians were com
iHfinded by their inca to retire to their farms, and cultivate the soil, that the country
might be saved from famine. The advantages, many, though unimportant, which the
inca gained in the course of this siege, were his last triumphs. He afterwards retired to
the mountains, where he was massacred by a party of Spaniards. More formidable,
however, to Pizarro than any rising of the natives, was the quarrel between himself and
Almagro, a soldier of generous disposition, but of fiery temper, who. after Pixarro, held
the highest rank among the conquerors. For the insurrection, trial, and execution of
this chief, see article ALMAGRO. The condition of the country was now in every
deplorable. The natives, astonished not more by the appearance of cavalry than by (he
flash, the sound, and the deadly execution of artilbry, had succumbed to forces which
they had no means of successfully encountering. Meantime the Almagro faction had
not died out with the death of its leader, and they still cherished schemes of vengeance
against the Pizarros It was resolved to assassinate thegeneral as he returned from mass
on Sunday, June 26, 1541. Hearing of the conspiracy, but attaching little importance
to the information, Pizarro nevertheless deemed it prudent not to go to mass that day.
His house was assaulted by the conspiritors, who, murdering his servants, broke in upoa
the great leader, overwhelmed him by numbers, and killed him (see PIZARRO). The son
of Amalgro then proclaimed himself governor, but was soon defeated in battle, and put
559
Pern.
to death. In 1543 a council was called at Valladolid, at the instigation of the ecclesi-
#slic Las Casas, who felt shocked and humiliated at the excesses committed ou the
Natives. The result of this council was that a code of laws was framed for Peru, accord
ing to one clause of which, the Indians who had been enslaved by the Spaniards were
virtually declared free men. It was also enacted that the Indians were not to be forced
to labor in unhealthy localities, and that in whatever cases they were desired to work in
any particular locality, they were to be fairly paid. These and similar clauses enraged
the adventurers. Blasco Nunez Vela, sent from Spain to enforce the new laws, rendered
himself unpopular, and was seized, and thrown into prison. He had come from Spain
accompanied by an " audience" of four, who now undertook, the government, Gouzalo
Pi/arro (the last in this country of the family of that name), who had been elected cap-
tain-gen, of Peru, now marched threateningly upon Lima. He was too powerful to
withstand, and the audience received him in a friendly manner, and after the adminis-
Iraiiou of oaths, elected him governor as well as captain-gen, of the country. The
career of this adventurer was cut short by Pedro de la Gasca, who, invested with Ihe
powers of the sovereign, arrived from Spain, collected a large army, and pursued
Pizarro, who was eventually taken and executed.
A series of petty quarrels, and the tiresome story of the substitution of one ruling
functionary for another, make up a great part of the subsequent history. The country
oecame one of the four viceroyalties of Spanish America, and the Spanish authority was
fully established and administered by successive viceroys. The province of Quito was
separated from Peru in 1718; and in 178*, considerable territories in the s. were detached,
and formed into the government of Buenos Ay res. At the outbreak of the war of inde-
pendence in South America, the Spanish government, besides having much declined in
internal strength, was distracted with the dissensions of a regency, and torn by civil war;
nevertheless, in 1820, the Spanish viceroy had an army of 23,000 men in Peru, and all
the large towns were completely in the hands of Spanish officials. Peru was the last of
the Spanish South American possessions to set up the standard of independence, In
Aug., 1820, a rebel army, under gen. San Martin, one of the liberators of Chili, sailed for
Peru, and, after a number of successes both on sea and laud, in which the patriots were
most effectively assisted by English volunteers, the independence of the country was pro-
claimed July 28, 1821, and San Martin assumed the protectorate of the young republic.
From this date to the year 1860, 21 rulers, under various titles, have held sway. For
the first 24 years of its existence as an independent republic the country was distrackd
and devastated by wars and revolutions. In 1845 Don Ramon Castilla was elected presi
dent: and under his firm and sagacious guidance the country enjoyed an unwonted
measure of peace, and became regularly organized. Commerce began to be developed,
and important public works were undertaken. The term of his presidency ended in
1851, in which year pen. Kufino Jose Echenique was elected president. The country.
however, was discontented, and Castilla again found himself, in 1855, at the head of
affairs. Slavery, which, although abolished by the charter of independence, still existed,
was put an end'to by a decree dated Oct., 1854. In Aug., 1883, a quarrel had taken place
at the estate of Talambo, in the north, between some Basque emigrants and the natives,
in which several of the disputants were killed or wounded. Taking advantage of this
occurrence, the Spanish government sent out a " special commissioner" in the spring of
1864. to complain of injuries sustained by Spaniards. The "commissioner" left Lima
on April 12, and on the 14th, a Spanish squadron, under admiral Pinzon, took forcible
possession of the Chincha islands. The European consuls protested loudly against this
outrage, and the Peruvians were greatly excited. War was, however, averted, president
Pezet being unwilling to risk hostilities with Spain; and, in Jan., 1865, a treaty of peace
was signed. This did not lead, however, to internal peace. The president was declared
a iraitor by the assembly in the same month that saw the treaty of peace ratified in the
Spanish capital. Gen. Canesco, after a severe struggle, assumed the presidential
authority, and retained it till November, when col. Prado was nominated temporary dic-
tator. The obnoxious treaty was now rejected, and Peru entered, January, 1866, into a
treaty, offensive and defensive, with Chili (q.v.), which country was then at war with
Spain; but this led to no serious consequences to Peru, an unsuccessful attack on Callao
having vindicated Spanish honor. In October, gen. Prado wyas regulaily elected presi-
dent, and, in Feb., 1867, he recommended a new constitu4ion, which was formed and
issued in July, when he was again elected president. At the close of 1867 the river
Amazon was declared free for navigation to ail nations, an event most auspicious for
Peru as regards commercial prosperity and national influence. Prado was compelled to
resign in 1868, and was succeeded by col. Balta, who v;as assassinated in 1872. Don
Manuel Pardo was elected his successor. Under the new constitution, the president and
vice-president are both elected by the people for a term of four years There is a senate
and a house of representatives, the former composed of 44 members, and the latter of
110 in 1875. The army, in the same year, numbered 13,200, distributed thus: infantry,
5.600; cavalry, 1200; artillery, 1000; gendarmerie, 5,400. The navy consisted of 6 iron-
clads and 6 other steamers.
PERL1 (miic). The administration of Don Manuel Pardo was generally excellent, and
from 1872 to 1875 the financial condition of the country was improved ; and energy was
Pern.
Perugino.
displayed in the organization of a railroad system. But a failure in the product of
guano, upon -.vliich Peru has chiefly relied Tor its advancement, brought about bu'inc:-s
prostration, and flic destruction of Peruvian credit abroad; and the construe! i<>n of pub-
lic works necessarily ceased. In 1S76 col. Prudo was for tlio second time clec;cd pres>-
dent. Early in 1879 war broke out between Chili and I'.oiivia. The former eon. .try had
transferred to the latter certain territory on condition that the Chilians residing therein
should be exempted from taxation, and that special mining and guano privil<-ges should b«
guaranteed to the Chilians in the district under consideration. In consequence of this
guarantee, which was made a part of specific treaty stipulation, a number of Chilian
merchants and capitalists organized to develop the resources of the te;ritory in question,
and the town- of A.ntofagasta, MeJHlonea and Caracolas began to assume considerable
importance on account of the investment in their vicinity. But the Bolivian congress
having imposed an export duly on the nitrates of the district of Atacama; in diiect con-
travention to the treaty which guaranteed that there should be no augmentation of
export duties for twenty-live y.ears; the result was an ultimatum from Chili, which
followed this act bv taking arm ell possession of Antofagasta, and the entire district Off
Ai:i -nma. This movement was met by a declaration of war, on the part of Bolivia, in
Feb., 1879. A secret treaty existing between Peru and Bolivia brought Peru into the
difficulty, notwithstanding the most earnest efforts were made by piesM-nt Pi-ado and
the Peruvian diplomatic representative, in Chili to avert such a conclusion. On April G,
war was declared against Peru; and the Chilian army, which had already entered Bolivia,
berime chiefly engaged in burnina the sea-port towns of Peru, and everywhere driving
its antagonists before it. Both Chili and Peru possessed navies: and sea-lights occurred
•without any conclusive result, until the destruction of the Peruvian ironclad Hn, (.•«•<! r in
October, which occurred near Antofagasta. after which Peru remained at a disadvantage.
In November the Chilians attacked and routed the Bolivian army, and being in turn
attacked by the Peruvians, were equally successful in that engagement, The Peruvian
president, Prado, left Peru and went to New York and thence to Europe, when Nicholas
de Picrola succeeded him as dictator. The latter put forth every energy to organize a
S^werful allied army, to oppose the invading Chilian force; under gen. Baqncdano.
ut in April, 1880, the latter captured Moquega.'and in May, Tacna. two important cities
in southern Peru; the allied armies experiencing a defeat at the latter place which was
almost a rout. Early in June the same victorious general carried the supposably in
liable stronghold of Arica by storm, thus placing the Chilians in possession of the.
whole of southern Peru. In the meantime the Chilian fleet was blockading or pillaging
the northern Peruvian sea-ports, and Baqucdano organized an expedition against Lima.
This expedition started in November, by water, and landed at Pisco, about 200 in. s. of
Lima. The city of Lurin was first captured; and the Peruvians having made their last
stand at Chorillos, a town in the suburbs of the capital, they were dislodged from there,
and Lima surrendered on Jan. 17, 1881. The Chilian army "numbered about 17,000 men,
most of them, being infantry; while the Peruvians had 30,000 troops, well armed and
equipped, besides 6,000 citizen-soldiers; 100 field-guns, 120 siege-guns, an abundance of
ammunition, and the city protected by breastworks and other fortifications. The value of
foreign interests in the cities of Lima and Callao, was estimated to be about $'23.000,000,
of which amount $16,000,000 belonged to Great Britain. American capital to the amount
of $5,000,000 had been recently invested in the Peruvian guano fields. Peru has 3,000
m. of railroad, and a coast-line of 2,700 miles.
PERU, a city in La Salle co., HI., at the head of navigation, on the n. bank of
the Illinois river, here spanned by a handsome bridge; on the Chicago, Rock Island
and Pacific railroad; the terminus of the Illinois and Michigan canal; 100 m. s.w. of
Chicago; pop. '75, 5,000. It has an extensive trade ami large manufacturing in:
125,000 tons of ice are shipped from here annually to St. Louis and other southern
points; bituminous coal is found near by, and extensively mined. Horse cars run to
La Salle, a distance of 2 m. ; and steamboats ply to Peoria and St. Louis. The sur-
rounding scenery is picturesque, and the region healthy. The city is lighted with gas,
and has a fire department. It has 4 grain elevators, 7 churches, anil 5 public schools.
PERU, seat of justice of Miami co., Ind. ; junction of the "Wabash. and the Indian-
apolis, Peru, and Chicago railroads; on the Wabash river, and the Wabash and I-Yie
canals; 75 m. n. of Indianapolis, 16m. e. of Logansport; pop. '75, 6,250. It has a large
trade with the surrounding country which is exceedingly fertile. It contains manufac-
tories of plows, furniture, splint baskets, wooden ware, flax, and carriages, and the
extensive works of the Howe sewing-machine company; also a brass foundry, and the
work-shops of the Indianapolis, Peru, and Chicago railroad.
PERU BALSAM, the product of a tall leguminous tree, mi/ro^pernvm perniferum,
growing in a limited portion of San Salvador, Central America, and cultivated .in Cey-
lon. It is a thick, glutinous substance, dark brown in color, has a fragrant balsamic
odor, and contains cinnamic and benzoic acid, a resin, and alcohol. It was introduced
into Europe about 1527, and was considered valuable for the treatment of bronchial and
respiratory diseases, and in local applications for wounds and ulcers. The balsam is
obtained by crushing or beating the bark of the trees, and, by a subsequent application
KP1 Peru.
1'erugino.
of fire, causing the bark to fall off in a few days, whereupon the balsam oozes from the
trees thus laid bare, and is collected.
PERU'GIA, a province of n. Italy, compartimento of Umbria; 8,719 sq.m.; pop.
549,601. Its surface is mountainous, crossed by several ranges of the Apennines, the
highest spurs of which appear in the n. and s. portion. It borders on Aezzo, Pesaro, ed
Urbiuo, Ancona, Macerata, Ascoli-Piceno, Aguila, Rome, and Siena. It is intersected
by the Tiber, and between the mountain ranges are long, broad, fertile plains. . Its
soil is remarkably fertile, producing corn, wine, oil, fruit, and silk; honey is among the
products, and live stock is raised. Much attention is paid to the culture of bees, the vine,
and poultry. Lumber is an article of export, and is sent largely to Rome. Its manufac-
tures are cotton, woolen and silk goods. It is divided into six districts. Capital,
Perugia.
PERTTGIA, a city of central Italy, capital of the province of its own name, stands on
a lofty elevation, 800 ft. high, on the right bank of the Tiber, 10 m. e. of the lake of
Perugia (ancient Lucius Traximenua), and 84 m. n. of Rome. It is surrounded with walla
pierced with numerous gates, of which the Arch of Augustus (so called from the inscrip-
tion Augusta- PeritSM over it, inscribed by Augustus) is the finest. It is the st e of a
bishop, and contains upwards of 45 churches, and many monastic establishments. Its
streets arc wide, and there are several squares lined with massive buildings. The broad
Corso, which contains the finest edifices, unites two squares, one of which is occupied
by the Duomo, r.r cathedral, dedicated to San Ix>renzo, and dating from the end of the
15th century. It is in a fine, bold, Gothic style, and contains many excellent paintings,
carvings, etc. , Many of the churches and convents are noble Gothic structures, and all
of them arc more or less famous for their pictures, some of which are by Raphael, Peru-
gino, and other great masters. In the vicinity of the city, a number cf tombs, supposed
to mark the site of the necropolis of ancient Perugia, were discovered in 1840. Tho
tombs contain numerous beautiful cinerary ttrnx, in marble and travertine; and lamps,
vases, bronze armor, ornaments, paterae, etc.. were also found, but have for the most
part been removed to a neighboring villa. The university of Perugia, founded in 1320,
is not one of the 17 state universities, bat is supported by the province. It has various
museums, and a library of 80,000 vols., with some valuable manuscripts. The attend-
ance is not numerous. Besides the picture-gallery of the academy of fine arts, there are
numerous private art-collections. Perugia contains also many interesting palaces, a
beautiful fountain, an exchange, theaters, etc. Velvet, silk stuffs, woolen goods, soap,
brandy, and liqueurs, are manufactured; and a considerable trade is carried on in corn,
oil, wool, wine, and cattle.^ Pop. '72, 16,708.
Perugia, the ancient Pprusia, was one of the twelve Etrurian republics. It l>ecame
tributary to Rome 294 B.C. During the war between Mark Antony and Augustus, it was
taken by the latter, and was burned down.. It was captured by the Goths under Totila
at Ihe fall of the Western Empire. Under pope Paul III., it was united to the papal
states. In 1860, it became a part of the kingdom of Italy under Victor Emmanuel.
PERUGIA, LAKE OF. Sec TRASIMESTCS LACUS.
PERTJGII70, a celebrated Italian painter, whose real name was PIETTCO VANXUCCT, was
b. at Citta deila Picvc in Umbria, about 1446, but having afterwards established himself
in the neighboring and more important city of Perugia,~where he had the right of citi-
zenship, he is commonly called II Perupino. It is generally thought that he studied
under Andrea Verocchio at Florence. He executed numerous excellent works in various
cities, particularly in Florence, Siena, Pavia, Naples, Bologna, Rome, and Perugia.
Sixtus IV. employed him in the capella Sistina; and his fresco of " Christ giving thb
keys to Peter" is by far the best of those painted on the side-walls of that chapel. He
also, along with other contemporary painters, decorated the Stanze of the Vatican; and
his works there are the only frescos that were spared when Raphael was commissioned
to substitute his works for those formerly painted on the walls and ceilings. The fact
of his having had Raphael for his pupil has no doubt, in one way, increased the reputa-
to his great pupil. His high standing as a painter, however, is established by many
admirable works, in which no hand superior to his own could have operated; and, with
the exception, perhaps, of Francia, who in some respects is esteemed his equal, he is
now acknowledged as the ablest of the masters of that section of the early Italian school
in which religious feeling is expressed with great tenderness, in pictures remarkable for
delicate execution. Perugino's works are also distinguished by rich and warm coloring.
An excellent example of this master's work may be studied in the collection of the
national gallery, London — "No. 288. The Virgin Adoring the Infant Christ." Peru-
gino's reputation was high, when the introduction of the cinquecento style, by Leonardo
and Michael Angeio, tended to throw into the shade the art of the earlier masters. Dis-
putes ran high between the leaders of the old and new styles, and Michael Angeio is said
to have spoken contemptuously of Perugino's powers. This, of course, lias biased
Vasari's opinion m his estimate of the opponent of his idol, but Perugino's reputation
now stands very high, and his works are greatly esteemed. Raphael was about 12 years
U. K. XI.-3G
Peruvian.
Peshito.
of age when he wa? entered as a pupil with Perugino, who was then (1495) engaged on
the frescos in the Sala del Cainbia (the Exchange) at Perugia. Perugino died at ( ;t-
tello di Fontignano, near Perugia, in 1524.
PERUVIAN ARCHITECTURE. Although the buildings of Peru were (reeled proba-
bly about the 12th c. A.D., they possess ;>,n extraordinary • ilm-e of the Pclasgi
in Kurope. This resemblance in style must be accidental, arising probably from the cir-
eum~tance, that both nations used bronze tools, and were unacquainted \\ iili iron. The
Peruvian walls are built with large polygonal blocks of stone, exactly like what we call
"Cyclopean masonry." The jambs of the doorways slope 'nuards. like those of Etrus-
can tombs, and have similar lintels. The walls of CM/CO arc good examples of this
style. It is further remarkable, that these walls are built with re-entering angles, like
the fortifications which were adopted in Europe onry after the invention of gunpowder.
PERUVIAN BARK. See CINCHONA. An important instance of commercial enter-
prise, directed to providing relief for human suffering, has been the introduction of
cinchonas, or Peruvian-bark trees, into British India. This had long been urged on the
East Jndiit company by Dr. Royle, but was not undertaken till after Li- death. The
same thing had been attempted a year or two before by the Dutch in Ja\a. on thei,
representations of the botanist Blume, but with very imperfect success, owing to their
having procured chiefly plants of a species which produces bark of very inferior quality,
and yields little quinine. But Mr. Markham, who was sent to South America by tin;
J'ast India company to procure seeds and plants, \\as successful in introducing into
P>riiish India, in the latter part of 1861, a number of the very best .species, which were
planted chiefly on the Neilghcrry hills, and partly also on the mountain.-- of Ceylon and
l!ie Himalaya, and from these stations have been diffused throughout the Madras presi-
dency. There are now about 2, TOO, 000 cinchona trees on the government plantation -
the harvest for 1875 amounted to 65,200 Ibs., worth about £6,700. The whole yield of the
Madras presidency is about double that, 204,000 Ibs. having been brought into the Lon-
don market in 1877-78. Thus an abundant supply of Peruvian bark, and consequently
of quinine, has been secured at a moderate price, and yet with profit to the cultivator.
In procuring the young trees and seeds which he conveyed to India, Mr. M;:rkham
experienced great difficulty from the jealousy of the South American governments, anx-
ious to maintain a rigid monopoly in this precious commodity, and yet taking no effect-
ual means to prevent the rapidly extending waste of the trees in the ir native i
Mr. Markham in all his travels saw only one Peruvian-bark tree which had been planted
by the hand of man. (See Markham's Travels in Peru and India, 1862.)
PERUVIAN GOOSEBERRY. See PHYSALIS.
PE'RUWELS, a t. of Belgium, in the province of Hainaut, with breweries, lime-kilns,
and some linen manufactures. Pop. '70, about 8,000.
PERUZZI, BALDASSAKE DA SIENA, 1481-1536; b. Volterra, Italy, of Sianese par-
ents; son of Antonio Peruzzi. He studied the art of painting at Siena, and began his
professional career at Rome. Among his first ambitious efforts were .-• me frescos in
the church of Sant Onofrio, in the church of San Rocco a Ripa, and in the forti
Ostia; evincing remarkable genius, particularly one in chiaroscuro representing a
by Roman warriors. Assisted by a liberal patron, Agostino Chigi, he studied architec-
ture and ornamented many facades; among them the Farc...se p:dace, the objects on
which were mistaken by Titian for real persons; it was accrued with his fresco of the
" History of Medusa." He is supposed to he the inventor of the architectural perspec-
tive painting perfected by Del Pozzo. In 1520 he succeeded Raphael as the architect of
St. Peter's, appointed by Leo X. In 1527, when Rome was pillaged by constable Bour-
bon, he parted with all his effects and barely escaped with his life. He went to Siena,
and his subsequent career, though fulfilling the promise of his youth, brought him little
pecuniary reward. His work oil the palazzo Massimi he did not live to complete. He
was buried near Raphael in the Pantheon. His "Adoration of the Magi" is in the
national gallery; also a drawing in chiaroscuro of the "Adoration of the Kings."
PEKUZZI, UBALDINO, b. Florence, 1822; graduated at Siena, 1840, and subsequently
'at the Ecole des Miues in Paris. In 1848 he was sent to Vienna in the interest of the
Tuscan government, and was gonfaloniere of Florence a short time previous to 1850, in
which year he was removed. He was prominent in the overthrow of the Tuscan gov-
ernment, and became a member of the provisional government in April, 1859. Subse-
quently he went as envoy to Paris, and was deputy from Florence to parliament. In
1 60 he was elected a member from Florence to the parliament at Turin, Tuscany having
been united to the dominions of Victor Emmanuel. In 1861-62 he was minister of public
works appointed by Cavour, and minister of the interior until Sept., 1864, when the
Minghetti administration was overthrown. He succeeded Cambray Digny as syndic of
Florence.
Urbino,
mouth
is surrounded by walls and defended by a citadel. -It is a bishop's seat, and contains a
cathedral and other churches. The country in the vicinity is fruitful and beautiful; the
KfiO Peruvian.
Peshito.
figs of the district being esteemed the best in Italy. The port cannot now accommodate
vessels of more than 70 tons burden, but is large enough to contain 200 vessels of light
draught. Silks, pottery, glass, and leather are manufactured; aud an active trade in
silk, hemp, and woolen goods is carried on. Pop. 12,400.
PESARO-E-URBINO, a province in Italy, bounded on the n. and n.e. by the Adri-
atic, on the s.e. by the province of Ancona, on the s. by the province of Perugia, and
on the w. by Forli and Tuscany; 1407 sq.m. ; pop. 213,072. The surface is mountainous
in the w., separated from Tuscany by the A'ppenines, and drained by the Foglia,
Mctauro, Cantiano, and Misa. There is pasturage in the hills, and pulse, hemp, corn.
I and flax are grown on the lower lauds. The silk of Fossombroue iu this province is
considered the best in Europe.
PESCARA. See AYALOS.
PESCHIE'RA, a frontier t. and fortress of the kingdom of Italy, and a member of tlu>
famous Quadrilateral (q.v.), stands partly on an island in the channel of the Mincio, and
partly on the right bank of that river, at its outlet from the lake of Garda. The town itself
is a poor place of less than 2,000 inhabitants. Peschiera commands the right bank of the
river, and in connection with it is the extensive work called the " Salvi," which covers
the approaches of the riv.er in that direction. During the French republican war, Pesch-
iera was a simple pentagon. Its fortifications, however, were greatly strengthened by
the Austriaus. It is defended by walls and by forts, lunettes, fosses, and a covered way ;
and the purpose which it is mainly intended to serve, beside that of forming an
entrenched camp capable of accommodating a considerable number of troops, is to
harass an army attempting to cross the Mincio by Goito or Valeggio. In the island
portion of the town are extensive barracks, forming three sides of a square. Peschiera.
is a station on the Milan and Venice railway, and is also a station of the Austrian gov-
ernment steamers that ply on the lake of Garda. Peschiera was taken by the Pied-
montese under king Charles Albert in 1818. and was again invested by them in June,
1859, after the battle of Solferino. The conclusion of the treaty of Villafranca, however.
(July 11, 1859), relieved Peschiera from a siege.
frE'SCIA, a t. in Tuscany, Italy, n.w. of Florence, on the Pescia, Lucca, and Pisa
railroad; pop. of town about 5,000; of commune, 12,500. The town is walled, is the
seat of a bishopric, and is surrounded by groves of olive and mulberry trees. There are
several convents, a cathedral, and a citadel. The principal industries are the manufac-
ture of silk, paper, and broadcloth.
PESHAWER, or PESIIAWUR, an important t. on the n.w. frontier of India, capital of
a province of the same name, 18 m. e. of the eastern extremity of Khyber p.sss, and
150 m. e.s.e. of Cabul. It is defended by a bastioned wall, and commanded by a fort,
the fear of which prevents-internal disturbances. At the commencement of the present
century, Peshawer had 100, OdO inhabitants. Under the stern rule of the Sikhs, however,
its trade languished, and its splendid mosques, many of them in the richest style of
oriental architecture, fell into decay. It is on the route from Hindustan to Cabul and
Khorassan by the Khyber pass, and is the seat of a British garrison, maintained here for
the purpose of preserving the security of the route. Under "British protection, the town
lias revived, trade lias become more active, and the appearance of the suburbs and envi-
rons is improved. Pop. '68, 58,555. The district of Peshawer, included in the Punjab,
and formerly forming a portion of Afghanistan, is 1929 sq.m. in extent, and has 523,152
inhabitants. It is exceedingly fruitful. The division of Peshawer, which includes the
district of Peshawer and two others, has an area of 7,767 m. and a population of
1,035,785.
PESHTTO, or rather PESTTTT'TO (Syr. not, as generally supposed, ''simple," "faith-
ful," scil. version, but the ". explained," i.e., translated, Bible), is the name given to the
authorized Syriac version of the Old, and the greatest part of the New Testament. This
\vrsioii holds among the Syrian Christians the same place as the Vulgate in the Roman,
and the "authorized version" in the English church. Many are the traditions about its
origin. Thus, the translation of the Old Testament is supposed to date from the time of
Solomon and Hiram; or to have been done by Asa, the priest; or, again, that it belongs to
the time of the apostle Thaddseus (Adaeus), and Abgar, the king of Osrhrene, in the let c.
after Christ. To the same period is also supposed to belong the translation of the New
Testament, which is ascribed to Achseus, a disciple Of Thaddeens, the first Edessian
bishop and martyr. Recent investigation has not as yet come to any nearer result than
to place the latter vaguely in the 2d, and the former in the 3d c., and to make Judaic-
Christians t-he authors of both. Ephnem Syrus (q.v.), who wrote in the 4th c., certain!}'
speaks of the Peshito as our version, and finds it already necessary to explain some of
i:s terms, which had become obsolete. Five books of the New Testament (the apoca-
lypse and four of the epistles) are wanting in all the MSS., having probably not yet
formed part of the canon when the translation was made. The version of the" Old Tes-
tament was made direct from the Hebrew, and by men imbued with the Palestinian
mode of explanation. It is extremely faithful, and astonishingly free from any of those
paraphrastic tendencies which pervade more or less all the Targums or Aramaic ver-
sions. Its renderings are mostly very happy, and coincide in many places with those of
Pestalozzi.
Petard.
the Septuagint, a circumstance which IKIS given rise to the'erroncous supposition, that the
hitter itself h;ul been drawn upon, Its use for the Old Testament, is more of an excgeiical,
for the New Testament, more of a critical, nature. Anything like an edition of the
PesbitO worthy of its najuc. is still as much u desideratum as is a critical edition of
Uic Septuagint or the Targums, and consequently investigators have as yet been -unable
to come to anything but very ha/.y conclusions respecting some very important questions
connected with it. The ecHtio princ0ps of the Nevr Testament pan dales Vienna, l,V)5.
that of the Old Testament is contained in the Paris Polyglot of 1G45. Several portions
of the Peshito have been translated again into Arabic. The Syriac translation of those.
parts of the New Testament which are not to be found in the Peshito, but are now incor-
porated into our Syriac Bibles, are of late and uncertain date.
PESTALOZZI, JoiiANN-IlEiNRicn, was b. at Zurich, Jan. 12, 1745. His family
belonged to the middle-class gentry. He was destined for the Christian ministry, but
turned aside, however, from this profession, and betook himself to the study of law.
To this pursuit he did not long remain constant. The perusal of Ifyusscau's h,,/i'<', and
the unsatisfactory political condition in which he found Ivirope, united to di>gust. him
with the artificial life of cities, and he accordingly removed to the country, to devote his
life to farming. Purchasing some waste land (after he had acquired the necessary
experience), he applied himself successfully to its cultivation, marrying about the same
time the daughter of a wealthy merchant. His mind continuing to be atliicted by tlie
contemplation of the unhappy condition of the masses of the people, he devoted himself
during the intervals of his work to the consideration of the means best suited to pro-
mote their elevation. , He was convinced that, by means of a sound education, a remedy
might be found for the many evils by which he was surrounded, and by which society
was infected. To give effect to his theories he converted his own house into an orphan
asylum, and endeavored, by a judicious blending of industrial, intellectual, and moral
training, to afford fi specimen of sound education, and one so contrived as to be practi-
cable as a national scheme. Meanwhile, the pursuit of his benevolent enterprises involved
him, after the lapse of fifteen years (1775-90), in bankruptcy. The failure of his plans,
and the democratic tendency of his opinions, brought upon him a good deal of contempt
and opposition. His only consolation was having saved from degradation and n<J|feet
upward of 100 children, and having issued several volumes on education, containing the
results of his experience, and his hopes for the future of the masses. Many subsequent
attempts to found schools and to give a specimen of rational scholastic training, were made
by Pestalozzi, with varying educational success, but with invariable pecuniary embarrass-
ment. His writings, meanwhile, increased in number and importance. The great idea
which lay at the basis of his method of intellectual instruction was, that nothing should
be treated of except in a concrete way. Object* themselves became in his hands the sub
J'ect of lessons tonding to the development of the observing and reasoning powers — not
essons about objects. In arithmetitic, he began' with the concrete, and proceeded to tho
abstract; and into the teaching of writing, he for the first time introduced graduation.
His special attention, however, was directed to the moral and religious training of chil-
dren, as distinct from their mere instruction; and here, too, graduation, and a regard to
the nature and susceptibilities of children, were conspicuous features of his system.
Almost all Pestaloz/i's methods are now substantially adopted by the instructors of ele-
mentary teachers in the normal schools of Europe, and to no man perhaps has primary-
instruction been so largely indebted. He died in 1827 at Brugg, in the canton of Basel,
overwhelmed with mortifications and disappointments.
PEST1I, a central co. of Hungary, partly bordered by the Danube on the w. and the
Thriss on the e. , 4,196 sq.m. ; pop. 70, 775,030, composed of Magyars. Germans. Jews,
and Slovaks. It is the second largest co. in Hungary, and has the largest population.
The soil is sandy, the surface partly level, the portion lying w. of the Danube being
mountainous. Cultivating grapes on Buda mountains, and raising cattle and swine, aro
the principal business interests.
PESTH, the most populous and important commercial city of Hungary, on the left
bank of the Danube, opposite Buda (q.v.), and 171 m. e.s.e. of Vienna by railway. It
occupies a low and level site, and contrasts strongly with the antique, picturesque, and
rock-built Buda, on the other side of the river. The two cities are connected by a mag-
nificent suspension bridge, erected in 1849, and which spans a water-way of about 1500
feet. The official name of the united cities is, since 1872, compounded of the two, in the
form Biulftpesl. Along the Pesth side of the river runs a wide quay, paved and terraced,
and backed by a handsome row of buildings, H m. long. The city consists of five divi
•ions — the Inner, Leopold, Theresa, Joseph, and Francis towns. The inner town, on
the bank of the Danube, is the oldest, and the other divisions surround it in the form of
a semicircle. Pesth is the seat of the chief judicial courts of Hungary. Its universily,
founded at Tyrnau, was transferred to Buda in 1780. and thence was removed hither in
1784. It is richly endowed, and is attended by upward of 2,000 students, while the pro-
fessors and other teachers number 140. Attached to it are a museum, a botanic garden,
an observatory, and a library containing over 100,000 volumes, with 1COO MSS. besides.
A handsome new chemical laboratory was opened in 1872; and in the same year a decree
was passed that a new military academy should be opened, of which the teaching staff
Festal ozzi.
Petard.
counts 24. Of the chief buildings and institutions the principal are the synagogue, a
large and beautiful structure, completed in 1857; the new buildings (nevgclaudc) — an
immense edifice, now used as barracks and as an artillery depot; the' gymnasium: mili-
tary school; academy of arts; national museum, with a library of 200,000 volumes, and
valuable collections of coins, medals, and antiquities; veterinary school; the national and
other theaters; and the Hungarian scientific society. The town contains several impor-
tant silk-spinning factories, and the principal articles of manufacture are silk, cotton,
leather, jewelry, and musical instruments. The distilling of brandy and {he grinding of
grain into meal and flour are among the most important branches of industry. Four
great fairs take place here annually, which draw together a concourse of more than
oO,000 strangers, and at which exchanges, amounting in value to upwards of 32,COO,(X>0
florins, are made. The trade is chiefly in wines, raw hides, honey, wax, and in inferior
spirit made from plums. After Vienna, Pesth has the greatest trade of any city on the
Danube. Pop. '69, 201,911.
Pesth is mentioned for the first time in the 12th c. ; but although one of the oldest
towns in Hungary, its importance dates only from the reigns of Maria Theresa and
Joseph II. It was desolated by the Mongols in the 13th o; and after the battle of Mohacs
(q.v.), it fell into the hands of the Turks, who held it til] 1686. At th<; beginning of the
18th c. it was an inconsiderable town, and has only risen into importance within the last
150 years. It has suffered much from inundations of the Danube on several occasions,
on one of which, in 1838, 2,280 houses were destroyed. In May. 1849, while Gorgei,
with an army of 40,OUO Hungarians, occupied the heights above Budn, and bombarded
the fortiess, which was held for the imperial government by gen. Heutzi, the latter gen.
retaliated by bombarding Pesth ; but on the night of May 20 the: Hungarians stormed and
took the fortress; and on the following morning raised above its battlements the standard
of revolt. On the field of Rakos, in the vicinity, where the great national assemblies of
the Magyars used to be held, horse-races, on the English, model, cow take place annu-
ally.
PESTILENCE. The terms plague and pestilence, corresponding to the Greek loirnos
andjlhe Latin ? c *J/'<, have until recent times been used indiscriminately to denote any dis-
eases of an epidemic character which affected large masses of the community, and were
remarkable for their fatality, such as the oriental plague, the sweating sickness, cholera,
certain virulent forms of fever, etc. "Thus," says Dr. Craigie, in his learned work oil
The Practice of PLytics (vol. i. p. 049), "the term loimos was applied by the Greeks to
designate a species of epidemic remittent fever; and the plague of Athens described by
Thucydides is n arifcstly an epidemic form of the same disease, which has been at ah
time s in the suivmer season endemiai on the coasts and islands of the Mediterranean and
Arohipclarro. The instances of loiinos, ?o frequently mentioned by Dionysius of Halicar-
iiassus, and of ;;e.v"«, so often mentioned by Livy and other Roman historians in the early
Li-Uay of Home, are manifestly the remittent or remittent-continuous fever, which has
been at all times the native product of that district, and which acquired, after inunda-
tions of the Tiber, or a certain train of weather, the characters of a very generally dif-
fused, a very malirnant, and a very mortal distemper. Numerous instances of a similar
inaccurate mode of expression occur in designating the remittent fevers of the middle
ages mid of modern times; and we find, even in the early history of the colonization of
the "West Indian islands and the United States, frequent examples of the term plaguo
1 eing applied to the remittent fever of these regions, and especially to epidemic ai tacks
of yellow fever." During the middle ages we find the tenn pcfiin applied to numerous
disorders such as syphilis, small-pox, erysipelas, epidemic sore throat, petecchial fevei,
the sweating sickness, gangrenous pneumonia, ergotism, etc.
Several Hebrew words are translated pestilence or plague, in the authorized version of
the Old Testament. Some of these pestilences were sent as special judgments, and are
beyond i he reach of inquiry; others have the characteristics of modern epidemics, in so
far as their action was not unnaturally rapid, and they were general in their attacks
Sufficient data are not in our possession to enable us to identify with certainly any of
those epidemics. It has been supposed by some critics that in some of th'ese cases (as in
Deuteronomy, xxviii. 27: Amos, iv. 10, and Zechariah, xiv. 18: and in the case of Hezo-
kiah) the oriental plague is referred to; but Mr. Poole (Smith's Dictionary of the Bible,
vol. ii. p. 883) is of opinion that there is not any distinct notice of this disease in lh«
Bible.
PESTO. Sec PAESTUM.
PETAL. Sec COROKLA.
PETALUMA, a city in Sonoma co., California, on Petaluma creek, and the San
Francisco and JN'orlh Pacific railroad; pop. '70. 4,588. It is connected by steamer with
San Francisco. It has churches, schools, banks, and newspapers. There are woolen
and flour mills. Lumber, wheat, and barley are the principal exports.
PETARD, an instrument for blowing opes gates, demolishing palisades, etc. It con-
sisN of a hair'-cone of thick iron filled with powder and ball; this is firmly fastened to a
plank, and the latter is provided with hooks, to allow of its being attached securely to a
gate, etc. The engineers attached the petard, lighted the slow-match by which it was to
IN-U-hary. £££
Peter.
bo fired, and fled. When the explosion took effect a supporting column charged through
the hreacii, while the defenders \vt -re yet iu consternation. The petard ha- been almost
universally superseded by the use of powder-bag.s. Large petards contained as much as
13 Ibs. of powder.
PETCHARY, the popular name, of a number of species of the genus ///m n nna, some-
trues ranked with the shrikes (laniadae}, and sometimes \vitli the fly -catchers (TOWSCWM-
The name seems to be derived from the cry of the GRAY IV.n MAKY (T. (!»n<ini-
:\ bird very common in the warm parts of America and in some of the island- of
the West Indies, gregarious and migratory, spending the spring and summer in the
islands, and retiring to the hotte-t parts of the main-land from the end of September to
the beginning of January. Its cry is a kind of shriek, c onsisting of three or four shrill '
noies, incessantly repeated. The entire length of the gray petcharv is about 9A- inches.
Il is a very bold and strong bird, and in defense of its young will maintain the battle
tigainst any h:i\vk. It feeds partly on insect-, sometimes on humming-birds, and partly
on berries. When fat it is much esteemed for the table, and great numbers are shot on
tiiis account. — The COMMON PKTCHARY (T. cau(Uf,i.<ri<itnx) is one of the must common
birds of the West Indies. At Certain seasons of the year, when very fat. it is in great
request for the table. This bird has been observed to play with a large beetle, as a cat
does with a mouse, letting it drop and catching it before it can reach the ground. It is
a very bold bird, and does not scruple to attack a dog passing near its nest.
PETCHO'EA, a large river in the n. of European Russia, rises on the western slope of
the Ural mountains, flows n. through the eastern parts of the governments of Vologda
and Archangel to about 66° 25' n., then s.e. for about 150 m., and finally sweeping toward
the n., and expanding into an estuary 30 m. wide and full of islands, falls into the Arctic
ocean, after a course of 940 miles. It is said to be navigable for large river-boats i' r
upwards of 700 miles. The estuary, which is open from the middle of June till tin;
middle of September, has a depth of from 20 to 30 feet. The country through which
this river flows is still quite uncultivated; dense forests extend on both sides, and the
character of the scenery is wild, somber, and melancholy. The forests abound in larch-
wood, now largely used in the construction of iron-clad vessels. Within recent years ;i
colony has settled at the mouth of the Petchora, for the purpose of felling, dressing, and
exporting timber.
PETEC CHLZE. This term is given to spots of a dusky crimson or purple color, quitu
flat, with a well-defined margin, and unaffected by pressure, which closely resemble tle.i-
bites. These spots result from a minute extravasation of blood beneath the cuticle.
They occur most frequently on the back, at the bend of the elbow, and in the groin.
They indicate an altered state of the blood, and are often symptoms of very serious dis-
eases, as of typhus fever, plague, scurvy, etc. They likewise occur in very severe
of small-pox* measles, and scarlet fever, when their presence must be regarded as indica-
tive of extreme danger.
PETEE, SAINT, Apostle, named originally SIMON, was a native of Bethsaida, on the
lake of Gcnnesaret. His father was called Jonas; and the name by which Peter is
known iu Christian history was given to him by our Lord, who cfianged his name of
origin (Bar-Jona) into Cephas, a Syro-Chaldaic word, which means " rock" or stone, and
for which petm, or, in the masculine form, petros, is the Greek equivalent. lie was a
fisherman by occup.itiou, and, together with his brother Andrew, was actually em
in this occupation on the sea of Galilee when "our Lord called both to be his disciples.
promising to " make them fishers of men." For this invitation they had been prepared
by the preaching of John the Baptist, and they accepted it without hesitation. For \}\s
incidents recorded of Peter's life as a- disciple, we must refer to the gospel narrative.
These incidents all chiefly evince a warm and impulsive character, even down to the
hour of weakness in which he denied his master. It is plain from the gospel narrativ
that he was regarded by our Lord with special favor and affection, and the events which
followed ths ascension of our Lord fall in with this inference from that narrative. II"
was the first mover of the election of a new apostle in the room of Judas I<cariot ; he was
the spokesmen of the rest on the day of Pentecost : he it was who answered to the ch
when they were brought before the council; he is the chief actor in the tragii
the death of Ananias and Sapphire; he was the first to break down the wall of the prej-
udice of race by receiving a Gentile convert into the church; he was the first to pro-
pound in the council of Jerusalem the question to be discussed as to the obligation of
the Mosaic observances. The last incident of Peter's life supplied by the Scripture nar-
rative is his presence in the council of Jerusalem, 49 A.D. Of his subsequent career, our
only knowledge is derived from tradition. His special mission was to the Hebrew race.
as Paul's to the Gentile; and he is supposed to have preached through Pontus, Galatia.
Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia, chiefly to those of his own nation dispersed in these
countries, all which are named in the address of the first of the two epistles which he
has left. Another tradition which, until the 16th c., met general acceptance, reports
that he preached at Rome, that he took up his residence there as bishop, and that he
there suffered martyrdom. This tradition is the main foundation of the Roman claim
to supremacy in the church. It early encountered the opposition of the reformers; its
first antagonist being a writer named Valerius, whose work was published in 1520, and
Petchary.
Peter.
•who was foWowed by Flacius, Salmasius, and, above all, Spanheim. This view lias
found supporters in Bauer and the Tubingen school; but the main current of scholar-
ship, Protestant as well as Catholic — from Scaliger, Casaubon, Usher, Pearson, Cave,
etc., down to Neander, Gieseler, Bertholdt, Olshausen, and others in our own country —
has accepted the Roman tradition without hesitation. The time of his going to Home
has also been the subject of much discussion. By some, he is alleged not to have gone
to Rome till the year 63, or, at all events, a short time before his martyrdom; others date
his first visit as early as 42 or 43, without, however, supposing his residence after this
date to have been continuous. In his first epistle, it is implied that at the time of writing
it he was at Babylon; and the name Babylon is by many critics held to be employed as a
mystic designation ui' Rome, in accordance with a practice not unusual with the Hebrews
ami other orientals; but there is nothing to fix very conclusively the date of this epistle.
He is held by Roman Catholic writers to have fixed his see at Antioch before his coming
to Rome; but of this supposed event also, the date is uncertain. His martyrdom is fixed
in, with much probability, the year 66, and is supposed to have been at the same time
and place with that of St. Paul. Peter was sentenced to be crucified, and, according to
the tradition (preserved by Eusebius from Origeu), prayed that he might be crucified
with his head downwards, in order that this death might exceed in ignominy that of his
divine master.
PETEK J., ALEXIEVITCH, Czar of Russia, generally denominated PETER THE
GREAT, was the sou of the czar Alexei Mikailovitch by his second wife, Natalia Xary-
skine, and was born at Moscow June 9, 1672. His father, Alexei, died in 1676, leaving
the throne to his eldest sou, Feodor, Peter's half-brother. This prince, however, died
in 1682 without issue, after naming Peter as his successor, to the exclusion of his own
full brother, Ivan. This step immediately provoked an insurrection, fomented by the
children of the czar Alexei's first marriage, the most prominent among whom was the
grand-duchess Sophia, a woman of great ability and energy, but of unbounded ambition.
Disdaining the- seclusion customary among the females of the royal family, she showed
herself to the 5,'mVfc (q.v.), excited them to fury by an ingenious story of the assassina-
tion of her brother Ivan, and then let them loose on the supporters of Peter's claims.
After a carnage of three days, during which more than sixty members of the most noble
families of Russia were massacred, she succeeded in obtaining the coronation (July, 1682)
of Ivau and Peter as joint rulers, and her own appointment as regent. Up to Peter's
coronation his education had been greatly neglected, but -after this time he became
acquainted with lieut. Franz Timmerman, a native of Strasburg, who gave him lessons in
the military art and in mathematics; after which he had the good fortune to fall under
the guidance of Lefort (q.v.), a Genoese, who initiated him into the sciences and arts of
civilization, and by showing him how much Muscovy was in these respects behind the rest
of Europe, influenced the whole of his future career. Lefort also formed a small mili-
tary company out of the young men of noble family who attended Peter, and caused
Peter himself to pass, by regular steps, from the lowest (that of drummer) to the highest
grade in it, rendering him all the while amenable to strict discipline. This course of.
training, in all probability, saved Peter from becoming the mere savage despot, which
his brutal and passionate disposition, and indomitable energy inclined him to be; it also
protected him from the jealousy of his half sister, the regent Sophia, who, seeing him
absorbed in military exercises and other studies, imagined that he had wholly given
himself up to amusement. She, however, soon discovered her error, for Peter, contrary
to her wishes, married (Feb., 1689), by his mother's advice, Eudoxia Feodorowna, of the
family of Lapoukin; and in October of the same year, called upon his sister to resign the
government. In the ensuing contest Peter was at first worsted, and compelled to flee
for his life; but he was speedily joined by the foreigners in the Russian service, with a
Scotchman named Patrick Gordon (q.v.) and the Swiss Lefort at their head; and the
Strelitz, who were his antagonist's mainstay, flocking to his standard, she resigned the
contest, and was shut up in a convent, whence, till her death, in 1704, she did not cease
to annoy him by her intrigues. On Oct. 11, 1689, Peter made his public entery into
Moscow, where he was met by Ivan, to whom he gave the nominal supremacy and prec-
edence, reserving the sole exercise of power for himself. Ivan only enjoyed his puppet
sovereignty till 1696. Though Peter was all his life under the dominion of ungovern-
able pas-ions and sensual habits, yet during great part of his reign he was so exclusively
engaged in projecting and carrying out his schemes for the regeneration of Russia, that
his gross animal nature had little opportunity of displaying itself.
His first care on assuming the government, was to form an army disciplined accord-
ing to European tactics, in which labor he was greatly aided by the valuable instructions
of Gordon and Lefort, both of whom were military men, and'had served in some of tl e
best disciplined armies of western Europe. He also labored to create a navy, both,
armed and mercantile; but at this period Russia presented few facilities for such an
attempt, for she was shut out from the Baltic by Sweden and Poland (the former of
whom possessed Finland, St. Petersburg (then called Ingria), and the Baltic provinces),
and from the Black sea by Turkey, which, extending along the whole of the north coast,
had reduced that sea to the rank of an inland lake; leaving only the White sea and the
Arctic ocean, with the solitary port of Archangel, available for the Russian navy. Peter
thinking the possession of a portion of the Black sea would best supply the required
Peter.
568
facilities of accessible sea-board and port, declared war against Turkey, and took (lG9ff)
the city of A /.of at the mouth of the Don, after a lo-ig siege, which the ineffective con-
dition of his iK'wly-discipliued army compelled him to convert into a blockade. Skilled
engineers, architects, and artillerymen were now invited from Austria, Venice, Prussia,
and Holland; ships were constructed; the army further improved both in arms and dis-
cipline; and many of the young nobility ordered to travel in foreign countries, chiefly
in Holland and Italy, for the purpo>e of acquiring such information a- might be useful
in the modernization and civilization of their country. They were ordered to take
special notice of all matters in connection with ship-building" and na\al equipments.
Others were sent to Germany to study the military art. Not quite i-alislied with this
arrangement, Peter was eager to .sec for himself the countries for which civilization had
done so much for, and which had so highly developed the military :irt, science, trade.
and industrial pursuits; so after repressing a revolt of the. St relit/ (Feb., Hi1.)?), and dis-
persing them among the various provinces, he intrusted the reins of government to
prince Romonadofski, assisted by a council of three, and left Russia in April, 1697, in
the train of an embassy of which Lefort vas the head. In the gui-c of an inferior
official of the embassy he visited the three Baltic provinces, Prussia, and Hanoxer, reach
ing Amsterdam, where, and subsequently at Saardam, he Avorkcd for some time as a
common shipwright. His curiosity was excessive; he demanded explanations of every-
thing which he did not understand; and to his practice of ship-building and kindred
trades, he added the study of astronomy, natural philosophy, geography, and even
anatomy and surgery. On receipt of an invitation from William 111., king of England,
he visiu-d that country, and for three months, spent partly in London and partly at
Deptford, labored to amass all sorts of useful information. \Vhen in England" lie-
received the honorary degree of D.C.L. from lie univer.-ity of Oxford! lie left Eng-
land in April, 1698, carrying with him English engineers, artificers, surgeons, artisans,
artillerymen, etc., to the number of 500, and next veiled Vienna, for the purpose of
inspecting the emperor of Austria's army, then the best, in Europe. He was about to
visit Venice also, when the news of a formidable rebellion of the Strelitz recalled h;m
to Russia, Avhieh he reached by way of Poland, arriving at MOSCOAV Sep. 4, 1Q98. Gen.
Gordon had already crushed the revolt, but these turbulent soldiers had so enraged
Peter against them by their frequent outbreaks, that he ordered the Avhole of them to be
executed, even occasionally assisting in person on the scaffold. A few, however, w< re-
pardoned, and sent to settle -at Astrakhan. The czarina Exidoxia, who \ < ted of
complicity in the conspiracy, which had been the Avork of the old Russian or anti-relorm
party, was divorced, and shut up in a convent; the c/ar's own sister, JVhirtha, was like-
wise compelled to take the. veil. To show his gratitude to his faithful adherents, Peter
conferred upon the chief of them the order of St. Andrew, now first instituted. He put
the press on a proper footing, caxised translations of the most celebrated works of f<
authors to be made and published, and established naA'al and other schools. At this
period, fhe ordinary arithmetic was first introduced for the management of accounts,
these having been previously kept by means of balls strung; on a AVI re (the Tartar
method). Peter also introduced the mode of raising revenue by taxation of commodities
in common use. Trade with foreign countries, which was formerly punished as a capi-
tal crime. Avas now permitted, or rather, in the case of (he principal merchants, insisted
upon. Many improvements in dress, manners, and etiquette A\ere introduced authorita-
tively among the public functionaries, and recommended to the people at large. Even
the organization of the national church could not escape Peter's reforming zeal.
In 170'.), Peter, desirous of gaining possession of Carelia and Ingria, provinces of
Sweden, which had formerly belonged to Russia, entered into an alliance, with the kings
of Poland and Denmark to make a combined attack on Sweden, taking advantage of the
tender age of its monarch, Charles XII.; but he was shamefully defeated at Narva, his
raw troops heirg Avholly xinable to cope with the Swedish veterans. Peter was by no
means disheartened, for, taking advantage of the Swedes being employed elscAvhere, he
quietly appropriated a portion of Ingria. in Avhieh he laid the foundation of the new
capital, St. Petersburg, May 27, 1703. Great inducements Avere held out to those who
would reside in it, and in a feAv years 1t became the Russian commercial depot, for the
Baltic. In the long contest with Sweden, the Russians Avere almost always deflated,
but Peter rather rejoiced at this, as lie saw that these reverses Avere administering to his
troops a more lasting and effective discipline than he could have hoped to give them in
any other way. He had his revenge at last, in totally routing the SAvedish king at Pol-
tava (q.v.). July 8, 1709, and in seizing the whole of the Baltic provinces and a portion
of Finland in the following year. His success against Sweden helped much to consoli-
date his empire, and to render his subjects more favorably disposed toAvards the new
order of things. After re-organizing his army, he prepared for strife Avith the Tr.rks.
who, at. the instigation of Charles XII. (then residing at Bender), had declared Avar
against him. See OTTOMAN EMPIIIE. In this contest Peter was reduced to such straits
that he despaired of escape, and, looking forward to death or captivity, Avrote a letter
to his chief nobles, cautioning them against obeying any orders he might give them
while a captive, and advising them regarding a successor to the throne in case of hia
death. But the finesse and ability of his mistress, Catharine, aftenvards his wife and
successor (see CATHAHINK I.V extrfcated him from his diiliculties; and a treaty was coa-
Peter.
eluded (July 23, 1711) by which Peter lost only his previous conquest — the port of Azof
and the territory belonging to it. Shut out from the Black Sea, the possession of a good
sea-board on the Baltic became the more necessary to' him, and the war against Swollen
in Pomerania was accordingly pushed on with the utmost vigor. On March 2, 1712, his
marriage wi lli his mistress, Catharine, was celebrated at St. Petersburg: and two months
afterwards the, .offices of the central government were transferred to the new capi-
tal. His arms in Pomcrania and Finland were crowned with success, and in 1718 the
latter province was completely subdued. Peter neglected nothing lo develop the naval
power of the empire, and the Strictness with which he enforced the discharge of their
duties on his ministers and officers, appears from the refusal, by the court of admiralty,
of the czar's own application for the grade of vice-admiral, until by defeating the Swed-
ish fleet at Hangoend, and taking the Aland isles, and several coast-forts in Finland, he
had merited the honor. In the end of 1716, and beginning of 1717, in company with
the czarina, he made another tour of Europe, this time visiting Paris, where he was
received with great empressemeut, and returned to Russia in Oct., 1717, carrying with
him books, paintings, statutes, etc., to a large amount. It was soon after this lime that
he ordered his son Alexei (q.v.) to be executed, and many of the nobles who had been
implicated in his treasonable plans were punished with savage barbarity. In 1721 peace
was made with Sweden, and on condition of thai power giving up the Baltic provinces,
Ingria (now government of St.. Petersburg), Viborg, and Kexholm, and a small portion
of Finland, with all the islands along the coast from Courland to Viborg, she received
back the rest of Finland, with a sum of £400,000. In 1722 Peter commenced a war with
Persia, in order to open up the Caspian Sea to Russian commerce (sec PERSIA). The
internal troubles of Persia compelled the shah to yield to the demands of his formidable
opponent, and to hand over the three Caspian provinces along with the towns of Derbend
and Baku. On Peter's return to his capital, he inquired into the conduct of his finance
ministers, and punished with fines, imprisonment, and even death, those whom he
detected in fraudulent acts. To save the empire which he had established and consti-
tuted from being abandoned to the weak government of a minor, he, in Feb., 1722, pro-
mulgated his celebrated law of succession (see PETER II.). For the last years of his life
he was chiefly engaged in beautifying and improving his new capital, and carrying out
plans for the more general diffusion of knowledge and education among his subjects.
In the autumn of 172-1 he was seized with a serious illness, the result of his imprudence
and now habiiual excesses; and after enduring much agony, he expired, Feb. 8, 1725,
in the amis of the empress.
PETEE II., AIEXEIVITCH, Czar of Russia, was the sole male representative of Peter
the great, being I he son of the unfortunate Alexei (see PETER I.) by his wife the prin-
cess Charlotte of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel, and was born Oct. 23, 1715, at St. Petersburg.
On the death of the czarina Catharine. I., he ascended the throne. May 17, 1727, in
accordance with a decree of Peter the great, which enjoined that each czar should name
his successor; and the ambitions Menchikoil, who hoped to govern more easily in the
name of a minor, prompted the empress to choose Peter. In order to secure himself in
his high position, Menchikoff affianced one of his daughters to the youthful czar, and
compelled his relative, Anna Petrowna, and her husband, the duke of Holstein, to retire
to their own estates. But, notwithstanding these and other precautions, his power was
overturned by a mere child, a playfellow of the boy -ruler, who was of the powerful
family of Dolgorouki. Instigated by his friends, tnis boy, Ivan Dolgoiouki, opened
the eyes of hii sovereign to the humiliating dependence in which he was held by Men-
chikoff, and inspired him with a strong desire to free himself. The plan succeeded, and
the minister and his family were exiled to Siberia, the Dolgorouki family taking their
place as favorites. The marriage of a lady of this family will) Peter had been arranged,
and was almost on the point of being celebrated, when he was seized with small-pox,
and died at St. Petersburg, Jan. 29, 17i!0. During his reign the three Caspian provinces,
Asterabad, Ghilun, :uid Mazauderan, which had been seized by Peter the great, were
recovered by Persia. .
PETES III., FSOBOEOVITCH, Czar of Russia, grandson of Peter the great (being the
son of his eldest daughter Anna Petrowna, wife of Karl Friedrich, duke of Holstcin-
Gottorp), was born at Kiel, Mar. 4, 1728, and on Nov. 18, 1742, was declared by Ihe
czarina Elizabeth (q.v.), her successor on the throne of Russia. From the time
of his being publicly proclaimed heir, he lived at the Russian court; and, in obedience
to the wishes of the czarina, married Sophia-Augusta, a princess of Anhalt-Zerbst, who,
on entering the Greek church (a necessary condition of marriage of a foreigner with the
czar present or presumptive), assumed the name of Catharina Alexiowna. Peter suc-
ceeded Elizabeth on her death, June 5, 1762; and his first act of authority was to with-
draw from the confederate league of France, Austria, and Russia against Prussia, restoring
to the heroic monarch of the latter kingdom, Frederic II., the provinces of Prussia
Proper, Avhich had been conquered during the seven years' war, and sending to his aid a
force of 15,000 men; a line of conduct which seems to have been prompted solely by his
admiration for the Prussian sovereign. He also recalled many of the political exiles
from Siberia, among whom were L'Estocq, Munriich, and the duke of Courland; abol-
ished the sanguinary law which proscribed any one who should utter a word against the
Peter.
Peterborough.
Greek church, the czar, or the government; and then attempted the realization of hia
favorite project, which was to recover from Denmark that portion of Slesvig which had
been ceded to her in 1713, and to avenge the tyranny and annoyances to which his family
— that of HoLsteiu-Gottorp — had been subjected Hut before the army lie had dispatched
could reach its destination, a formidable conspiracy, headed by his wife, and supported
by the principal nobles, had broken out against him. This conspiracy originated in the
general discontent which was felt at the czar's conduct and government, for the nobility
were offended at his liberal innovations, and the preference he showed for Germans;
the people and clergy, at his indifference to the national religion, and his ill-concealed
contempt for Russian manners and customs; while the whole nation murmured at bis
servility to Frederic II. of Prussia. His wife had still deeper cause for dislike; for
though he was himself addicted to drunkenness and debauchery, he never ceased to
reproach her with her infidelities, and hud even planned to divorce her, di>inherit her son
Paul (q.v.), and elevate his mistress Elizabeth Woron/of to the conjugal throne. The
revolution broke out on the night of July 8, 1762; Peter was declared to have for-
feited his crown, and his wife Catharine was proclaimed czarina at' Catharine II. (q.v.)
by the guards, the clergy, and the nobility. Peter who was then at Oranienbuum,
neglecting the counsels of field-marshal Munnich. who proposed to march at once on the
capital at the head of the regiments which were still faithful, or at any rate to lake secure
possession of Cronstadt and the fleet, soon found even the opportunity of flight cut off,
and was compelled to submit. He abdicated the crown on July 10, and on the 14?.h of
the same mouth was put to death by Orlof (q.v.), to secure the safety of the conspirators.
PETEE (I)oN PEDRO) THE CRUEL, King of Castile and Leon, was the son of Alfonzo
XI. and Maria of Portugal, and was born at Burgos, Aug. 80, 1334. On his father's
death (1350), Peter succeeded to the throne without opposition, but left the whole exer-
cise of power to his mother, Donna Maria, and Albuerque, his father's prime mMii-ter
and chancellor. But by the instigation of his mistress (afterward his queen), Marie do
Padilla, Peter emancipated himself (1353) from the guidance of the queen-mother aiul her
coadjutor Albuerque, taking the reins of government in his own hands. His rule being
much more impartial than that of the regency, obtained exceeding popularity, which
was increased by i is affable manner towards the mass of his subjects; but the strict
J'ustice with which he decided all causes between the rich and poor, the clergy and th-
aity, combined with a haughty and imperious carriage toward them, alienated from him
the nobles and clergy. The plottings of Albuerque,"who had fled to Portugal, having
culminated (1354) in an outbreak in the province of Estremadura, Peter inarched against
the rebels, but was betrayed by his brother, Henry of Trastamare, and taken prisoner
(Dec., 1354). Popular opinion now declared loudly in his favor; and havi:^
from prison, he found himself speedily at the head of a powerful army, with which,
despite the excommunication of the pope, he speedily reduced his opponents to submis-
sion. But this episode in his career had a disastrous influence on his character for the
rest of his life. Betrayed by his relatives, and even by his mother, he becani'
•picious of every one; and having experienced to the full the power of his euemi-
scrupled not as to the weapons to be employed against them. The rest of his reign was
devoted to the destruction of the power of the great vassals, the establishment of his own
authority on the ruins of their feudal tyranny, and long-continued and bloody wars with,
the kingdoms of Aragon and Granada. As the people, however, were in general well
and justly governed, it is not improbable that he might have retained his throne in spite
of his numerous enemies, had not the heavy taxes which were imposed to maintain the
cost of his long wars with Aragon and Granada dissipated his popularity. Henry, who had
fled to France, now seizing the favorable opportunity, returned (1306) at the head of a body
of exiles, backed by Bertram! du Guesclin (q.v.) with an army of mercenaries, and aided
by Aragon, France, and the pope. Peter, however, by promising to England the sea-
board of Biscay, with the provinces of Guipuzcoa and Logrono, and supplying a con-
tribution of 56,000 florins, prevailed upon Edward the Black Prince to espouse his cause.
Edward invaded Castile in the spring of 1367, totally defeated Henry and Du Guesclin
at Navarette (April), taking the latter prisoner (releasing him almost immediately after),
and speedily restoring Peter to the throne. But the king disgusted his chivalrous ally
by his cruelty to the vanquished, and paid no heed to his remonstrances; Edward
accordingly repassed the Pyrenees, and left the misguided monarch to his fate. The
whole kingdom groaned under his cruelties; rebellions broke out everywhere; and. in
autumn 1367, Henry returned with 400 lances, the people immediately* flocking to hi*
standard. Peter's scanty and ill-disciplined forces were routed at Montiel (Mar. 14,
1369), and himself compelled to retire for safety within the town, whence he was
treacherously decoyed and captured by Du Guesclin. He was carried to a tent, where a
single combat took place between him and Henry, in which the latter would have been
slain, had not some of his followers come to his aid, and slain the unfortunate Peter, '
Mar. 23, 1369.
PETEE THE HEEMIT, the first mover of the great mediaeval drama of the CRUSADES
(q.v.), was of gentle birth, and a native of Amiens, where he was born about the middle
of the llth century. Having been educated at Paris, and afterward in Italy, he became
a soldier. After serving in Flanders without much distinction, he retired from the
K71 Peter.
Peterborough.
army, married, and had several children; but on the death of his wife he became a
monk, and ultimately a hermit. In the course of a pilgrimage to the holy land about
1093, lie was moved by observing that the holy sepulcher was in the hands of the infidel,
as well as by the oppressed condition of the Christian residents or pilgrims under the
Moslem rule; and on his return, spoke so earnestly on the subject to pope Urban II.,
that that pontiff warmly adopted his views, and commissioned him to preach throughout
the west an armed confederation of Christians for the deliverance of the holy^city.
Mean in figure, and diminutive in stature, his enthusiasm lent him a power which no
external advantages of form could have commanded. "He traversed Italy," writes the
historian of Latin Christianity, "crossed the Alps, from province to province, from city
to city. He rode on a mule, with a crucifix in his hand, his head and feet bare; his
dress "was a long robe, girt with a cord, and a hermit's cloak of the coarsest stuff. He
preached in the pulpits, on the roads, in the market-places. His eloquence was that
which stirs the heart of the people, for it came from his owyi — brief, figurative, full of
bold apostrophes; it was mingled with his own tears, with his own groans; he beat his
breast: the contagion spread throughout his audience. His preaching appealed to every
passion — to valor and shame, to indignation and pity, to the pride of the warrior, to the
compassion of the man, the religion of the Christian, to the love of the brethren, to the
hatred of the unbeliever aggravated by his insulting tyranny, to reverence for the
Redeemer and the saints, to the desire of expiating sin, to the hope of eternal life."
The results are well known, as among those moral marvels of enthusiasm of which his-
tory presents occasional examples. All France, especially, was stirred from its very
depths; and just at the time when the enthusiasm of that country had been already
kindled to its full fervor, it received a sacredness and an authority from the decree of a
council held at Clermont, in which Urban himself was present, and in which his cele-
brated harangue was but the signal for the outpouring, through all western Christen-
dom, of the same chivalrous emotions by which France had been borne away under the
rude eloquence of the hermit. For the details of the expedition we must refer to the
article CRUSADES, our sole present concern being with tbe personal history of Peter.
Of the enormous but undisciplined army which assembled from all parts of Europe, one
portion was committed to his conduct, the other being under the command of a far
more skillful leader, Walter the pennyless. Peter placed himself at their head, mounted
upon his ass, with his coarse woolen mantle and his rude sandals. On the march
through Hungary, they became involved in hostilities with the Hungarians, and suffered
a severe defeat at Semlin, whence they proceeded with much difficulty to Constantinople.
There the emperor Alexis, filled with dismay at the want of discipline which they
exhibited, was but too happy to give them supplies for their onward march ; and near
Nice they encountered the army of the sultan Solyman, from whom they suffered a ter-
rible-defeat. Peter accompanied the subsequent expedition under Godfrey, but worn
out by the delays and difficulties of the siege of Antioch, he was about to withdraw from
the expedition, and was only retained in it by the influence of the othft- leaders, who
foresaw the worst results from his departure. Accordingly, he had a share, although
not marked by any signal distinction, in the siege and capture of the holy city in 1099,
and the closing incident of his history as a crusader was an address to the victorious
army delivered on the mount of Olives. He returned to Europe and founded a monas-
tery" at Huy, in the diocese of Liege. In this monastery he died, July 7, 1115.
PETER CLAVER, 1582-1654; b. in Catalonia. He joined the Jesuits at Tarragona
in 1602, and in 1610 went to Cartagena, the center of the African slave-trade. He was
soon afterward ordained priest, and from that time devoted himself to the care and
instruction of the slaves on their arrival from Africa. To gain consent of the authorities
for access to the slaves, he signed himself the "slave- of the negroes forever," and
thenceforth lived among them on shipboard and in the hospitals, especially the leprosy-
hospitals, ministering to their wants,' and eating only the refuse of their food. A body
of catechists that he organized, aided him in the instruction of the slaves. His exertions
during the plague in Cartagena resulted in utter exhaustion and paralysis. He was
beatified by Pius IX. in 1852. His life was written in Spanish and French.
PETERBOROUGH, a co. in central Ontario, Canada, drained by the Obanobee
river, traversed by the Midland railroad; about 2,500 sq.m. ; pop. '71, 30,473. Capital,
Peterborough.
PETERBOROUGH, the seat of justice of Peterborough co., in the province of
Ontario, Canada; on the Otonabe river; 31 m. e. of Port Hope, and -94 m. n.e. of Toronto;
connected by a handsome bridge with the village of Ashburton opposite, and on the
Midland railroad; pop. 4,611. The town is lighted with gas, has good water-power, and
manufactories of leather, engines, farming tools, wooden ware, and woolens. It has a
large export trade in grain, pork, and lumber.
PETERBOROUGH, an episcopal city and parliamentary borough of Northamptonshire,
stands on the left bank of the Nen — which is thus far navigable for boats — 37 m. n.e. of
Northampton, and 76 m. n.n.w. of London by railway. The Great Northern, the
Eastern Counties', the Northampton and Peterborough, and the Midland^ Counties' rail-
ways pass the city, and have stations here. Peterborough is regularly laid out, has an
excellent grammar-school with an endowment, a corn-exchange in the Italian style, a jail
Peterborov.4— F\*70
Peter-pence.
and house of correction, a handsome parish-church, and a number of chapels and meet-
ing houses, schools, and charitable institutions.
But the great edifice of Peterborough is the famous cathedral, which holds a high,
if not the highest rank among English cathedrals of the second classs. The choir and
eastern ai.>ies of the transept (built 1118-33) arc early Norman; the transept (1155
middle iS'orman; the nave (1177-93) is late Gorman: ilie western transept (dating from the
same period), is transition Norman; the w. front, which, as a portico (using that term in its
classical seas •). is said to tie the grandest and finest in Kurope. is early English; and iho
eastern aisle (bogun in 1438, but not completed til! 15^N), is perpendicular. The beautiful
western front consists of three arches 81 ft. in height, supported by triangular piers
del;: hed from the w. wall. Each arch is .surmounted by a beautiful pediment and
The front is limited on each side with turrets 150 ft. high, and crowned with pinnacles.
The roof of the uave is painted in lozenge-shaped divisions, containing figures of kings,
bishops, grotesque-*, etc., in^olors. A central tower, lantern-shaped, rises at the int
tion of the nave and transept. Jiithe north-choir aisle, a slab of blue stone still eov.-rs the
remains of Catlr<ri:ie of Aragon. On the stone is carved the simple inscription. " Queen
Catharine, A.D. 1536." In July, 1587, the remains of -Mary, queen of s'co;s, were
brought here from Fotheringay for interment, and here they rested until, %J5 years after,
they were removed to Westminster Abbey. The entire length of the cathedral is 4
5 in.; the breadth of uave and aisles, 78 ft. ; height of the ceiling of the church, 7<S ft. ;
breadth of the church at the great, transepts, 203 ft. ; height of lantern, 135 ft. ; length of
western front, 153 ft.; height of central tower from the ground, 150 feet.
Peterborough carries on :;n active trade in corn, coal, timber, lime, bricks. ;md stone.
Two newspapers are published weekly. Peterborough returns two members to the
house of commons. Pop. '71, 17,434.
The city had its origin in a great Benedictine monastery, founded in 055 by Os'.vy. king
of Nortliumbria. an:l Peada, son of Penda king of Mercia. This monastery, which
became one of the wealthiest and most important in England, was reared in honor of St.
Peter; but it was not until after being destroyed by the Danes in 807, and rebuilt
960, that the town was called Peterborough. 'On the dissolution of the monasierie
magnificent edifice was spared, owing, it is supposed, to its containing the remains of
queen Catharine of Aragou. — Murray's Handbook to tlie English Cathedrals
PETEHBOSOTJGH, LOUD. See MORDAUNT.
PETEH, EPISTLES GENERAL OF, the name given to two epistles contained in the
canon of the New Testament. They are called f/cncml, because they are not add:
to particular churches or persons, like those of St. Paul; but (a; in the ease of the 1st
epistle) to all the Christians scattered throughout Asia Minor, or (as in the case- of the
2d) to the entire bod}' of Christians without exception. The objects of the 1--I epistle are
to strengthen believers under trials; to exhort them to the earnest performance of all
duties — p?rsou», social, and domestic; and to demonstrate how thoroughly that per-
formance depends on a spiritual recognition of Christ and his work. There is a strong
eschatologicnl tendency in the epistle; the apostle seems to grow more i:
under the conviction that "the end of all things is at .hand" (chap. iv. 7). "That the
epistle is the composition of Peter is very generally admitted. The external evidence
is singularly strong; while the internal, derived from a consideration of style, sentiment,
and doctrine, is equally so. We see in ever)- sentence the ardent, impassioned, practical,
Unspec ulative character of Peter, who held with a line Hebraic vehemence of faith the
great facts and principles of Christianity, but could not, like the more subtle and 1-
Paul, give them a systematic representation. Many critics have warmly praised the
beauty and strength of the language. — The second epiatle stands in a very different posi-
tion fro ui the first. So far as external authority is concerned, it has handy a:iy. The
most critical and competent of the fathers were suspicious of its authenticity; it was
rarely, if ever, quoted, and was not formally admitted into the canon till the council of
Hippo, 393 A.D. The internal evidence is 'just as unsatisfactory. The gr<-;:t difference
of style between it and the 1st epistle is universally admitted. Buiueiu Ullmann, and
Lauge hold indeed that the second chapter is an interpolation, but. consider the first and
thira genuine. Many of the ablest critics, however, regard the whole < fabri-
cation; and believe that its contents prove it was meant as an attack on the Gnosticism
of the 3d century. [Seethe remarks on the second epistle of Peter in NY;-
chichte dcr Pjltnizunr/ und faitu-ngder Kirclw (lurch die Apostel.] The principal avgu-
adduced for maintaining its apostolic character arc: 1. that its rejection would endanger
the authority of the canon: 2. that it is inexplicable how the church should have
received it if it had not thought that Peter was the author.
PETEHZEAD', a sea-port and municipal and parliamentary burgh, in the district of
Buchan, Aberdeenshirc, on a peninsula, the ea.«tmost point of land in Scotland, 44 m.
n.n.e. of Aberdeen, by railway, It is irregularly built, clean, and much pav«i with the
reddish granite, called after the town, ami used for polishing. The earls of Marischal.
before their attainder, 1715, owned much of the parish, and v.ere superiors of the town
of Petcrhead. The property was bought by the Merchant Maiden hospital of F.tiin!
the governors of which have greatly improved the town and pert. Pe'crhea*; has no
very striking edifices. The parish churcli has a granite spire, 118 ft. hiuh, ;.ud a granite
K'TO
Peterborough.
Tus«$* pillar stands on the market-cross. Peterhead has Episcopal, Free, Roman
Catholic ami other churches; an academy and other schools, and two libraries. Peter-
head has cloth and wincey manufactures, and considerable ship-building. The chief
exports are herrings, cod-lish, butter, grain, and granite; and imports, lime, wool, and
general merchandise. Peterhead was long the chief British depot of the seal and whale
fishing, but the interest has declined. In 1873, 12 vessels brought home 900 tons of oil,
seal-skins, and \vhale-bone, v;orth £50,000. In 1876, 1167 ships, of 93,289 tons burden.
entered the port; and in 1877 it owned 650 fishing-boats, manned by 2,006 persons, "and
cured 123,381 barrels of herrings, besides, large quantities of cocl and other lish. Peter-
head has a harbor on the u., another on the s. side of the isthmus of the peninsula on
which it is built, and they are connected by a passage cut across the istlunus, thus alloy-
ing vessels to leave the harbor in different winds. On the s. side of the bay of Peter-
head, and about 2J m. from, the town, are the Buchanuess and its light-house, and Bod-
dam castle ruins. "The Ugie enters the sea a mile u.w. of Peterhead; and on its banks,
3 or 4 m. n.w. of the town, are the ruined castles of Inverugie and Ravenscraig. The
•walls of the former are still standing, and access is 'obtained to the roof by means of
a winding staircase in one of the towers, whence a magnificent view may be had of the
valley of the Ugie. Ravenscraig stands on the opposite side of the river; it is built upon
a rock, and is considered a good specimen of the anckut Scottish barouiul style, in the
square form so common in the beginning of the 13th century. Its walls are so strong as
to have been deemed impregnable previous to the use of artillery. Peteihead unites with
Elu'in, Kinore, Culleu, Bault', and Inverury in sending a member to parliament; constitu-
ency (1877-78) 1103. Pop. '41, 4,762; '71, 8,535. Annual value of real property, £28,982.
PETEEHOF, a palace of the emperor of Russia, on the southern shore of the gulf of
Finland, 15 m. w. of St. Petersburg. The palace was built by Peter the great in 1711,
contains a fine collection of paintings, and is surrounded by a beautiful park. The town
of Peterhof has '67, 7,745 inhabitants.
PETER LOMBARD. Sec LOMBARD, PETER.
PETERLOO MASSACRE. the name popularly given to the dispersal of a large meeting
by armed force in St. Peter's field, Manchester, Monday, July 16, 1810. The assemblage,
consisting chiefly of bodies of operatives from different parts of Lancashire, was called to
consider the question of parliamentary reform, and the chair, on open hustings, was
occupied by Mr. Henry Hunt. The dispersal took place by order of the magistrates;
several troops of horse, including the Manchester yeomanry, being concerned in the
affair, of which an account will be found in History of the Peace, by Harriet Martineau,
edition of 1858, p.. 107. Five or six persons were killed and many wounded. St. Peter's
field is now covered by buildings. Peterloo was a fanciful term, sugested by Waterloo.
P'ETERM.VXN, AUGUST, 1822-78; b Prussian Saxony; educated at Nordhanser
for the chun:!), but developed a decided taste for geography, went to Potsdam in 1839,
remained there 6 years and became the private secretary and librarian of prof. Berghaus,
the founder of the academy. In 1841 he drew the illustrated map for baron Humboldt's
Central Axni ; in 1845 went to Edinburgh as assistant to Mr. A. K. Johnston in his
Physical Atlas based upon Berghans's Physical Geography, on which he had worked. In
3847 he was associated with the rev. Thomas Milner in publishing an Atlas of Physical
Geography; went to London and became a member of the royal geographical society.
He was author of an Account rftJic Expedition to Central Africa. He contributed to the
Encydopcedia Britainnca, and to the geographical division of the English Cyclopedia. In
1854 he was appointed professor of "geography at Gotha by the duke of Saxe-Coburg-
Gotha. He was for some years employed as superintendent of Justus Perthes's establish-
ment, preparing maps; and edited a monthly journal, MiWteilunr/en, devoted to modern
discoveries in geography. He contributed some of the best maps, including one of the
United States in 6 parts, for the late edition of Sticler's Hand-Atlas, visiting the United
States in 1876.
PETERM ANN, JULIUS HEINKICH, 1805-76: b Germany; educated at Leipsic and
Berlin, studied Armenian at Venice, and in 1837 was called to the chair of oriental
literature at Berlin. He was German consul at Jerusalem 1867-68. He published gram-
mars of the Hebrew, Chaldaic, Armenian, and Arabic languages, and a number of works
relating to oriental literature.
PETER-PENCE, the name given to a tribute which was collected in several of the
western kingdoms, and offered to the Roman pontiff, in reverence of the memory of St.
Peter, whose successor that bishop is believed by Catholics to be. From an early
period, the Roman see had been richly endowed; and although its first endowments were
chiefly local, yet as early as the days of Gregory the great, large estates were held by the
Roman bishops in Campania, in Calabria, and even "in the island of Sicily. The first
idea, however, of an annual tribute appears to have come from England. It is ascribed
by some to Ina (721 A.D), king of the west Saxons, who went as a pilgrim to Rome, and
there founded a hospice for Anglo-Saxon pilgrims, to be maintained by an annual con-
tribution from England; by others, to Offa and Ethelwulf, at least in the sense of their
having extended it to the entire of the Saxon territory. But this seems very uncertain;
and although the usage was certainly anterior to the* Norman conquest, Dr. Lingard is
Peters. KJ A
Fetorwartlein.
disposed not to place it higher than the time of Alfred. The tribute consisted in the
payment of a ..ilvi.T penny by every family possessing land or cattle of the yearly value
of :;i) pence, and it was collected during the Yive weeks between St. Peter's and St.
1 'a ul's day and Aug. 1. In the time of king John the loial annual payment was !'l!l!»,
8s., contributed by the several diocc-es, in various proportions, which will be found in
Lingard's History <>f Jlny'iuxl, vol. ii. p. 830. The tax, called Romescot. with some,
variation, continued to be paid till the reign of Henry VIII., when it wa- abolished. By
Gregory VII. it was sought, to establish it. for France; and it appears also in Denmark,
Sweden, Norway, and Poland. This tribute differs from the payments of the feudatory
kingdoms, such as Naples, Aiagoii, and England under the reign of John.
The pope having suffered a considerable diminution of his own revenue since the
revolution of 1848, an effort has been made in several parts of Europe to revive this
tribute. In some countries it has been very successful, and the proceeds have been
among the chief of the resources by which Pius IX. has been enabled to meet the pres-
sure of pecuniary emhaiTa — mrnN Caused by his diminished territorial possosions. Since
the total annexation of the Papal states to the kingdom of Italy, the tribute has been
largely increased, in France, Belgium, England, and Ireland.
PETERS, ABSALOM, p.D., 1793-1869; b. N. II. ; graduated at Dartmouth college in
1816, and Princeton theological seminary in 1819; was pastor of the Congregational
church at Benniugton, Vt., 1820-25; secretary of the American home missionary society
until 1837; edited the Home At'isniona /•// ami J'uxfiir'x J"">/</'1'; edited the Ann r»-<m /.'/////-
cal Repository; professor of pastoral theology and homiletics in the Union theological
seminary, New York, 1842-44; and pastor of the First church (Congregational), \Villiams-
town, Mass., 1844-57; originated while there and edited the American Eclectic, and the
Annrican Journal of Education, lie published A Pka for Voluntary Sociefai; >;//•//'/•-
ling the only Mode of Baptism; Sermon against ll»rxi -Hin-ing; Sacred Music. After he had
passed his 70th year he published a volume of poems.
PETERS, CHRISTIAN HENRY FRIEDERICH, PH.D. ; b. Germany, 1818: uraduated at
the university of Berlin-, after which he traveled for several years making scientific
investigations in Italy and the eastern countries. He came to the United E
was employed by the government in making coast surveys. In 1858 he acct pfd the
professorship of mathematics and astronomy at Hamilton college, and was director
of the Litchfield astonomical observatory, where he made many valuable discovei ie> con-
cerning comets and asteroids; he also determined the exact longitude of several points in
the state, and of Ann Arbor, Mich., which was an essential point in the U. S. lake sur-
vey; also determined the western boundary of New York state. In the observation of
the total solar eclipse, Aug. 7, 1869, he was at Des Moines, Iowa, and" took a prominent
part. He has discovered 22 asteroids, catalogued 16,000 zodiacal stars, and recorded
more than 20.000 solar spots. He had charge of the party sent by the United States to
New Zealand to observe the transit of Venus, Dec. 9, 1874, and his were the only sue
cessful observations made on that island. 237 photographs of the transit being tak- n.—
Wilhclm Karl Hartwig, brother of the above, b. Germany, 181. "i, was employed in the
survey of Mozambique, by Prussia, 1842-47. He was next engaged in the medical
department of the university of Berlin, becoming professor of zoology there in 18.17.
PETERS or PETER, HUGH, 1599-1660; b England; educated at Trinity college,
Cambridge; was ordained and preached at the church of St. Sepuleher, London, until
he was silenced and imprisoned for non-conformity. When liberated he went to Rot-
terdam, and became pastor of the Independent church; came to New England in ] <;:;.-);
was settled pastor of the First church in Salem, Mass., as successor of Roger Williams.
He was active in civil and mercantile affairs, advised coasting and foreign voyages, and
the plan of the fisheries. In 1638 he was appointed by the general court to assist in col-
lecting and revising the colonial laws, and sailed for England in 1641 to " rcpicst nt the
sense of the colony upon the laws of excise and trade." In 1643 he was a preacher in
Cromwell's army which fought against the king, and was in Ireland in 1649 with the
rank of col. He was rewarded for his services by filling important civil and ecelesi
astical positions. In 1658 he was chaplain to the garrison at Dunkirk. After the resto-
ration, being suspected of complicity in the king's death, he was committed to the
Tower, indicted for high treason, condemned, and beheaded Oct. 16. 1660. luring his
imprisonment he wrote several letters of advice to his daughter, which were published
in 1717 Tinder the title of A Dying FatJwr's last Legacy to an only Child. He published
Peters'* last Iteporl of the English Wars; A Word for the Army and Two Words for tl<A
Kingdom; A Good Work for a Good Magistrate.
PETERS. JOHN CHARLES, b. N. Y., 1810; studied medicine in the medical depart-
ment of Columbia college, and in Europe, and commenced practice in New York as a
homeopathist, but afterwards became an allopathist. He was one of the first members
of the New York pathological society, and has been president of the medical library and
journal association. He^ has published treatises on diseases of the head, diseases of
females, diseases of the eyes, and Asiatic cholera. In connection with Dr. WothersppOD,
he translated Rokitansky's pathological anatomy, and in conjunction witli Dr. E. F.
Snelling, and others, he has published a Materia Medico,. Has been editor of the J
American Journal of Homeopathy, and of the transactions of the pathological society.
PETERS, RICHARD, 1744-1828; b. Blockley, Pcnn. ; graduate of Philadelphia col-
leg-;; studied law, with great success at the outset. He had brilliant social qualities, wit,
and conversational powers of a high order, speaking German fluently. In the revolu-
tionary war he was capt. of a militia company, and secretary of the board of war from
June, 1770, to Dec., 1781; judge of the TJ. S. district court of Pennsylvania from 1789
to his death. In 1797 he published an accoun^, of some experiments by which he had
ascertained the value of the use of gypsu.man agriculture, thus introducing it to the
farmers of the country. He contributed valuable articles to the Philadelphia agricultu-
ral society, of which he at one time was president. In 1780-1807 he published Admiralty
Decisions in the U. S. District Court of Pennsylvania, 2 vols. His son, Richard, jr., was
successor of Henry AVheaton as reporter of the \J. S. superior court, and has published
numerous condensed reports of the U. S. superior and circuit courts, Cane of the Clitrnkte
Raiimi nr/ainst the State of Georgia; also editor of Chitty on Bills; and Washington's Cir-
cuit Court Reports, 3d Circuit (1808-27), 4 vols.
PETERS, SAMUEL ANDREW, D.D., LL.D., 1735-1826; b. Hebron, Conn.; graduate of
Yale college, 1737. In 1758 he went abroad for a year. Returning to Connecticut in
1759, he became a clergyman of the Episcopal church, and was placed in charge of the
churches of Hebron and Hartford. He was a tory, so pronounced in his loyalty that he
was forced to take flight to England, where, in 1781, he seems to have revenged him-
self by publishing a Lli'tn ral History of Connecticut, absurdly 'untruthful — among other
misrepresentations, setting forth a code of "blue laws," winch had no existence. In
1794 he was chosen (but never consecrated) bishop of Vermont. In 1805 he came to
New York, and published, 1807, a History of Rev. Hugh Peters, his great uncle; and a his-
tory of Hebron. In 1817 he visited the falls of St. Anthony, taking up a claim there of
a large extent of country. He is the original of the "Parson Peter" in TrumbuH's
M'Fiugal. He received a pension and a grant as indemnification for losses during the
war.
PETERSBURG, a city and a port of entry of \7irginia, on the s. bank of the Appo-
mattox river, 12 m. above its junction with James river, at City Point. It is 23 m. s. of
Richmond. Five railways contribute to make it the third city in the state in respect of
population, and connect it with Baltimore, Wilmington (N. C.), Norfolk, Richmond,
Mobile, etc. Petersburg is well built, It contains churches of the Presbyterians, Method-
ists, Episcopalians. Baptists, and Catholics. There are here several cotton and woolen
factories, forges, and numerous mills, to which the falls in the river furnish extensive
power. In the campaign of 1884, lieut.gen. Grant, commander of the federal army, fail-
ing to take Richmond, besieged Petersbunr, and was repulsed in several attacks by gen.
Beauregard, with heavy loss. Pop. '70, 18,950.
PETERSBURG (ante), in Dinwiddie co., Va., on the Atlantic, Mississippi and Ohio,
the Richmond and Petersburg, and the Petersburg railroads; pop. '80, 21,656. The
chief export is tobacco. In June, 1834, Grant, with about 100,000 men, was at City
Point, at the junction of the James and Appomattox, and Lee crossing the Chickahominy
had taken up a position protecting Richmond from attack on the n. and e. banks of the
James.., The federal forces assaulted Petersburg June 15-16, but were repulsed with a
loss of over 10,000 men. The siege of Petersburg began June 19. Mines were exploded,
and a number of unsuccessful attempts made to take the city by storm, till after a week's
bombardment, gen. Lee evacuated it, Apr. 3, 1865.
PETERSBURG, ST. See ST. PETERSBURG.
PETERSEN, CLEMENS, b. Denmark, 1834; educated at the Copenhagen uni-
versity, where he took a course of study in philosophy and theology, and from 1853-69
was connected with a Danish paper as critic. In 1869 he came to this country, settled
in New York, has contributed to many papers and the best periodicals, and was engaged
in editorial work in the preparation of Johnson's Cyclopedia.
PE TERSFIELD, a parliamentary borough and market t. in Hampshire, 23 m. e.n.e.
of Southampton, and 55 m. s.w. of London by railway. It is a pleasant country town,
and contains a Norman parish chapel of the 12th c., and an educational institution
called Churchcr's college. An equestrian statue of William III., once richly gilt, stands
in the market-place. Petersfield returns a member to the house of common's. Pop. '71,
6,104.
PETERWAR DEIN, a t. in the Austrian province of Croatia and Slavonia. and one of
the strongest fortresses in the Austrian dominions, is situated in a marshy, unhealthy
locality on the right bank of the Danube, 50 m. n.w. of Belgrade. The ordinary gar-
rison is a very strong one, and besides it the town and suburbs contain a population of
(1809) 4,023, mostly Germans. The most ancient part of the fortifications, the upper
fortress, is situated on a rock of serpentine, which on three sides irises abruptly from the
plain. Peterwardein is situated on a narrow peninsula formed by a loop of the Danube,
occupies the site of the Roman acumincum (acumen, point), and is said to have been
named in honor of Peter the hermit, who marshaled here the soldiers of the first crusade.
In 1688 the fortifications were blown up by the imperialists, and the town was soon
after burned to the ground by the Turks; but at the peace of Passarowitz, on July 21,
Petherlck. K*-/>
Peto. ° I 0
1718, it remained in the possession of the emperor. It was here that, on Aug. 5, 1716,
prince Eugene obtained a great victory over the grand vizier Ali.
PETII'ERICK, JOHN, b. England; went to Egypt, 1845, engaged in mining, attached
himself to tlic service of Mehemet AH, and in 1847 was sent to Konlofan. lie passed
several years in the region of the upper Nile, and retired from the service on the death
of Mchem-jt Ali to accept the position oM3riti.sh consul at Khartoom, engaging in mer-
cantile pursuits. In 1N09 he went to England. lie published. 1801, Jfyy]>f, the Soudan,
and Ventral Africa, with Explorations from Khartoom on, the White A'ile to ilic liegionis of
tirt Equator.
PETIC', or PITIC, a t. in the state of Sonora, Mex., on tho lower pnrt of the river
of the same name; pop. about 12,500. It was formerly of more importance- than at
present, ovv ing to the decrease in the yield of several gold minis in its neighborhood.
From it are shipped large quantities of' wine, wheat, and fruit, the products of the fertile
and thickly-populated valley at the entrance to which it is situated.
PETIGRU, JAMES Louis, 1789-1863; b. S. C. ; of Huguenot and Irish descent; edu-
cated in the state college, and after graduating in 1809 studied law and practiced in
Abbeville and Charleston. From 1822 to 181)0 he was the attorney-general of South
Carolina. From the time when Calhoun enunciated his doc-trine of imililicaiion (q.v.)
until Mr. Petigru's death, he was in a position of opposition to the gi-in-ral s •utimeiit of
the community in which he lived, as he was an uncompromising antagonist of both nul-
lification and secession. Though incurring personal odium for this cause, his personal
character and professional ability maintained him in the position of the foremost lawyer
at the state bar. Before the war he was U. S. district attorney for a short time, was a
member of the legislature, and in 18C1 took part in codii'ying the stale statutes, and was
president of the South Carolina historical society.
PE HOLE. See LEAVES.
PETION, ANNE A.LEXANDEK SABES, 1770-1818; b. Port-au-Prince; first president
of tho republic of Hayti: educated at a military school in France. In the revolution in
St. Domingo he was first made an artillery officer, then raised to the rank of adjt.gen.
He was associated with Rigaud in opposition to Toussaint L'Ouvcrture; but failed in his
projects and set out fur France, returning with a col.'s commission under gen. Leclerc.
Not coinciding with the violent measures of Leclerc or Rocham beau, he left their service,
and joining himself to Dessalines drove the French from those shores. In 1804, with
the help of the English, they established the independence of Hayti. He was made
governor of the western district, embracing Port-au-Prince, Dcssalir.es being chief. His
election as president, Jan. 27, 1807, was disputed by Christophe, occasioning a civil war,
but he retained his office till death.
PETION DE VILLENETJVE, JEROME, noted for the part he played in tho first French
revolution, was the son of a procurator at Chartres, and was born there in 17,">:>. He was
practicing as an advocate in his native city when he was elected in 17S9 a deputy of the
tiers etat to the states-general. His out-and-out republican principles, and his facile
oratory, sonorous rather than eloquent, quickly made him popular, though he had an
essentially mediocre understanding, and was altogether a windy, ve> n;tge. He
was a prominent member of the Jacobin club, and a great ally of Robespierre: the latter
was called the "incorruptible," and Petion de Villeneuve the "virtuous." He was sent
along with Barnavc and Latour-Maubourg to bring back the fugitive royal family from
Varcnnes, and in the execution of this commission he acted in an extremHy unfeeling
manner. He afterward advocated the deposition of the king and the appointment of a
popularly-elected regency, and along with Robespierre received, Sept. 30, 1791, the
honors of a public triumph. On Nov. 18 he was elected maire de Pnrix in Bailly's stead,
the court favoring his election, to prevent that of Lafayette. In this capacity he encour-
aged the demonstrations of the lowest classes and the arming of the populace. But as
the catastrophe drew near he awoke to a sense of its terrible nature, and sought in vain
to arrest the torrent. On the triumph of the terrorists, Petion de Villeneuvc's popularity
declined, and he joined the Girondists. On the king's trial he voted for death, but with
delay of execution and appeal to the people, upon which he became suspected of being
a royalist, and of partaking in the treason of Dumouriez. He was thrown into prison,
June 2, 1793, on the fall of the Gironde, but escaped from prison and joined the other
Girondists at Caen. Upon the defeat of their army by that of the convention, he fled,
in July, 1793, into Bretagne, and in company with Buzot reached the neighborhood of
Bordeaux, which, however, had already submitted. A short time after, Potion de Viile-
neuve's and Bu/ot's corpses were found in a corn field near St. Emiiion, partly devoured
by wolves. They were supposed to have died by their own hands. Petion de Yilie-
ncuve's character has been defended by Mme. de Genlis and Mine. Roland. It
appears that he was extremely virtuous in alibis domestic relations; but, on the other
hand, his public career shows him to have been weak, shallow, ostentatious, and vain.
Le» CEutres de Petion, containing his speeches, and some small political treatises, were
published in 1793.
Petherick.
Peto.
PETI'TIO PRIB'CIP'n ("a begging of the principle or question") is the name given
in logic to that species of vicious reasoning in which the proposition to be proved is
assumed in the premises of the syllogism.
PETITION (Lat. p?to, I ask), a supplication preferred to one capable of granting it.
The right of the British subject to petition the sovereign or either house of parliament
for the redress of grievances is a fundamental principle of the British constitution, and
has been exercised from very early times. The earliest petitions were, generally for the
redress of private wrongs, and the mode of trying them was judicial rather than legisla-
tive. Receivers and triers of petitions were appointed, and proclamation was made •
inviting all persons to resort to the receivers. The receivers, who were clerks or masters
in chancery, transmitted the petitions to the triers, who were committees of prelates,
peers, and judges, who examined into the alleged wrong, sometimes leaving the-matter
to the remedy of the ordinary courts, and sometimes transmitting the petition to the
chancellor or the judges, or, if the common law afforded no redress, to parliament.
Receivers and triers of petitions are still appointed by the house of lords at the opening
of every parliament, though their functions have long since been transferred to parlia-
ment itself. The earlier petitions wen; generally addressed to the house of lords; the
practice of petitioning the house of commons 'first became frequent in the reign of
Henry IV.
Since the revolution of 1688, the practice has been gradually introduced of petition-
ing parliament, not so much for the redress of specific grievances as regarding general
questions of public policy. Petitions must be in proper form and respectful in language;
and there are cases where petitions to the house of commons will only be received if
recommended by the crown, as where an advance of public money, the relinquishment of
debts due to the crown, the remission of duties payable by any person, or a charge on the
revenues of India have been prayed for. The same is the case with petitions praying
for compensation for losses out of the public funds. A petition must, in ordinary cases,
be presented by a member of the house to which it is addressed; but petitions from the
corporation oi London may be presented by the sheriffs or lord mayor. Petitions from
the corporation of Dublin have also been allowed to be presented by the lord mayor of
that city, and it is believed that a similar privilege would be acceded to the lord provost
of Edinburgh.
The practice of the bouse of loids is to allow a petition to be made the subject of a
debate when it is presented; and unless a debate has arisen on it, no public record is
kept of its substance, o;- the parties by whom it. is signed. In the house of commons,
petitions not relating lo matters of urgency are referred to the committee on public
petitions, and in cerlain cases ordered to be printed.
In the live years ending 1842. the number of petitions presented to the house of com-
mons was 70,072; in the rive years ending 1872, 101,573.
PETITION OF RIGHTS, a declaration of certain rights and privileges of the subject
obtained from kinu diaries I. in his third parliament. It was so called because the
commons stated their grievances in the form of a petition, refusing to accord the supplies
till its prayer was granted. The petition professes to be a mere corroboratiou and
explanation of the ancient constitution of the kingdom; and after reciting various
statutes, recognizing ilie rights contended for, prays "that no man be compelled to make
or yield any gift, loan, benevolence, tax, or such like charge, without common consent
by act of parliament; that none be called upon to make answer for refusal so to do; that
freemen be imprisoned or detained only by the law of the laud, or by due process of
law. and not by the king's special command, without any charge; that persons be not
compelled to receive soldiers and mariners into their houses against the laws and customs
of the realm; that commissions for proceeding by martial law be revoked." The king
at first eluded the petition, expressing in general terms his wish that right should be'
done according to the laws, and that his subjects should have no reason to complain of
wrongs or oppressions; but at length, on both houses of parliament insisting on a fuller
answer, lie gave an unqualified assent on June 26, 1628.
PETITOT, Louis MKRSTDOH LKBON, 1794-1802; b. Paris; son of Pierre, with whom
he studied the art of sculpture, subsequently attending the school of fine arts in his
native city, won the prize 1S14. and went to Rome. In 1820'he returned to Paris. In
1821 he produced " Ulysses Visiting AlciBOUS;" 1822, " St. John the Baptist;" 1824, " A
Young Sportsman Bitten by a Serpent;" 1847, "A Calabrese Pilgrim and his Son
Imploring the Aid of the Virgin," which was given a conspicuous position in the garden
of tiie Luxembourg.
PETIT-THOUARS. See Du PKTIT-THOUARS.
PE TO, Pir SAMUEL MORTON, b. England 1809; was apprenticed to his uncle, a
l:uild'T, at whose rbath. in 1830, he succeeded to a half interest in the business, in part-
nership with another. In 1845 he retired from the firm, and conducted the building of
railroads on his own account, constructing a large portion of the leading railway works
in England. He built the Norwegian Grand Trunk line and the Royal Danish* line in
1854; receiving for the latter service, and as a testimonial to his ability, the order of
Darmebrog, presented to him by the king of Denmark. He constructed, without
U. K. XI.— 37
Pctofl.
1'utrarca.
pect of profit, the railway from Balaklava, during the Crimean war; and, in recognition,
of this patriotic service, reeieivcd a patent of baronetcy, Feb. ?2, 1855. He built two
chapels in London, for the Baptist denomination, at his own expense. lie entered par-
liament in the liberal interest in 1847; was re-elected in 1852; and retired in ls;Vi. in
1851) he was again eier!>il; ami again in 1865; but retired tin ally in 1868, on'account of
tlie bankruptcy of ihe lirm of IV to, Belts and Crampton, with liabilities amounting to
more than £7,000,000. He wrote 2'dxation, itx J^ry and K.rpe nditur, ; and AY.v".'/.
Prospect x of . \nuric.ii, having visited the latter country, and examined its railroad system
and industries. He also constructed one of the Canadian railways.
PETOFI, SANDOU (AI.KXAXDKK), who may fairly be described as the national poet of
Hungary, was born at Little Koros, in the county of IVsth, in 1822. His father was a
butcher, and a small landowner in Little Rumania, and bore the name of IVirovieh
(son of Peter) — a name indicating a Slavonic origin, which the poet, when he came to
manhood, exchanged for the Magyar equivalent, IVioii. In 1808 his father was reduced
to poverty by an overflowing of the Danube, which destroyed his little estate; and it was
by the help of relatives that he was able to carry out his design of educating his sou for
a profession. Petoii was sent to the lyceuui of the town of Sehemnitz. It was while
there that he began to write verses, and first displayed the extravagant fond'i--
theatricals which characterized him throughout life. From the first he neglected his
studies; ultimately, he ran away with a baud of German strollers. His father after
some time found him out, and brought him home, and he remained for a period in q
custody among his relatives. When at length he was again sent to school at Oedeuburg,
lie almost immediately ran away, and enlisted as a common soldier. After he had been
about two years in the army, a physician, who had taken pity upon him, procured his
discharge, and he went back to his relations. lie afterwards went to Papa, to complete;
his education. His passion for the stage, however, drew him away from Papa, as it had
formerly done from Schemnitz; in 1842 he left it to join a troop of coni'dians.. His
stage attempts were utter failures, and he soon parted from the comedians, if. in
lie was not dismissed by them. He made his way to Presburg, and afterward to Pcsth,
where he got some employment as a translator froin the English and the French. Ainonir
other works, he translated a novel by Mr. G. P. R. James. As soon as his literary
labor supplied him with the me uis of "traveling, his passion for the stage returned up m
him; he went to Debreczin, and made another venture as an actor — playing the part, of
Othello — but failed even more completely than before. At last h" had the good for-
tune to be invited to contribute to a newspaper at Pesth — the ./) r >" '/' — an.i he imme-
diately closed with the proposal. lie made his way on foot from Debreczin to IVsth —
a distance of nearly 200 m. — wearing shoes padded with straw, and carrying in his
bosom a MS. volume of verses, his whole provision for the journey consisting of two
florins, which he got from an old school-fellow. It was on his arrival at Pcs'h that h"
exchanged the name of Pctrovich for Petoli. Within a few weeks of his arrival he
had troops of friends and a reputation.
He introduced himself to Vorosmarti, then the most popular poet of Hungary, who
received the shabbily-dressed stranger coldly, and did not readily consent to listen to
his verses. But when he had listened, he expressed his admiration warmly, "Hun-
gary," he exclaimed, "never had such lyrics: you must be cared for." And from that
time he treated Petofi as a son, and never rested until his merits were fully acknowl-
edged by his countrymen. Petoli was almost at once received into the literary national
circle, at the expense of which was published his Versek. which appeared in 1844. This
was soon followed by other volumes, which succeeded each other with amazing rapidity;
all of them, though regarded as vulgar by some of the critics, obtaining an unbounded
popularity; so that it was said of Petofi that "he never Avent to bed at night, he never
arose in the morning without hearing his songs from the multitudinous passengers in the
public streets." He sprang almost at a bound into a position in Hungary similar to that
which Burns holds in Scotland — that at once of the greatest poet and the representative
man of his country. In 1848, when the revolutionary movement, which spread over
Europe, began to affect the Hungarians, his energies and enthusiasm found a more use-
ful direction; he became, by speech and pen, the advocate of the independence of Hun-
gary. He. was for some lime a member of the diet, but in Oct., 1848, he became a capt.
in the Hungarian army; and in the beginning of 1849 he was appointed adjutant and
secretary to gen. Bern. He was present at the battle of Segesvar, fought on July ;jl.
1849, in which Bern's army was defeated with gre:.t slaughter; and he was never !
of after that battle. It is believed that ho was trampled to death in the flight, a. id that
his body, so defaced as to escape recognition, was buried with the multitude of ^1;
dead left upon the field. His countrymen Jong believed that he was not dead, but a
prisoner in an Austrian dungeon; and it is said that among the peasantry this belief i*
cherished still. Several false Petofis have made their appearance since Ins death, and
much spurious poetry lins been published under his name. Lately, however, his coun-
trymen have subscribed for the erection of a monument to his memory, and have pur-
chased, with a view to its preservation, the house; in which lie was born at Little Koros.
He left a wjelow — v.he) marri-d again — and one son. His brother, STEPHEN, has gained
some reputation as a poet.
Petrofl.
Petrarca.
His poems, 1775 in number, were published in 10 volumes. Most of them are lyrics,
of which he published several collections, under the titles, Cypress Leaves on Etelka's
Grave; Pearl* of Lore; Starless Nights; C.ouda. The most celebrated of his narrative poems
— also the longest — are, Junos, the Hero; Istok, the Fool. His earliest work was The Vil-
lage llafKvier, published in 1843; his latest, The Assessor of the Judgment-seat, which
appeared in 1849. A volume, containing a poem entitled The Apostle, was suppressed by
the Austrian government after the pacification of Hungary. Petofi published a novel, The,
Han 'jinan's Hope, which was by no means successful, and several volumes of tales, criti
, cisms, and sketches of travel; and he translated largely from English and French intG
the Magyar.
A selection from his earlier pieces, translated into German, was published in 1845
and several volumes of translations from his writings have since appeared in Germany
They have also been translated into French. Flemish, Polish, Danish, and Italian; and
an English version, comprising his finest poems, was published in 1866 by sir John Bow
ring. Tlie quality of his poetry has been as fully recognized among foreigners as among
his countrymen; thus, Grimm declared that " Petofi will rank among the very greatest
poets of all times and tongues;" Henry Heine spoke rapturously of his "rustic song,
sweeter than that of the nightingale:" and Uhland avowed that only old age could pre-
vent his learning Magyar, that he might enjoy Petofi in his native dress.
PE'TEA (Heb. SELA, both names signify "rock") was anciently the capital of the
Xnbatlueans, and was situated in the "desert of Edom" in northern Arabia, about 72 m.
n.e. of Akabah — a town at the head of the gulf of Akabah, an arm of the Red sea. It
occupied a narrow rocky valley overhung by mountains, the highest and most celebrated
of which is mount Hor, where Aaron, the first Hebrew high-priest, died, and was thus in
the very heart of the region hallowed by the forty years' wanderings of the Israelites.
The aboriginal inhabitants were called Horim ("dwellers in caves"). It was then con-
quered by the Edomites or Idumeans (but it never became their capital); and, in the 3d
or 4th c. B.C., it fell into the hands of the Nabathseans, an Arab tribe, who carried on a
great transit trade between the eastern and western parts of the world. It was finally
subdued by the Romans in 105 A.D., and afterwards became the seat of a metropolitan;
but was destroyed by the Mohammedans, and for 1200 years its very site remained
unknown to Europeans. In 1812 Burckhardt first entered the valley of ruins, and sug-
gested that they were the remains of ancient Petra. Six years later it was visited by
Messrs. Irby, Mangles, Banks, and Leigh, ninl in 1828 by M.M. Laborde and Linant, and
since then by numerous travelers aud'tourists to the ea'st, as Bartlett, Porter, and dean
Stanley. Laborde's drawings give us a more vivid impression of the ruins of Petra than
any descriptions, however picturesque. These ruins stand in a small open irregular
basin, about half a mile square, through which runs a brook, and are best approached
by an extraordinary chasm or ravine, called the Slk, narrowing as it proceeds till in
some places the width is only 12 ft., while the rocky walls of red sandstone tower to
the height of 300 feet. Hardly a ray of light can pierce this gloomy gorge, yet it
was once the highway to Petra, and the remains of an ancient pavement can be traced
beneath the brilliant oleanders that now cover the pathway. All along the face of
the rocky walls are rows of cave-tombs, hewn out of the solid stone, and ornamented
with facades. These are also numerous elsewhere. Originally, they were probably
dwellings of the living, not of the dead — a supposition justified by* an examination
of their interior; but when the Nabathseans built the city proper in the little basin
of the hills, they were in all likelihood abandoned, and then set apart as the family
sepulchers of those who had formerly been "dwellers in the clefts of the rocks.*"
The principal ruins are: 1. L-Klinzneh (" the Treasure-house"), believed by the natives
to contain, buried somewhere in its sacred incloaure, the treasures of Pharaoh. It
directly faces the mouth of the gorge we have described, and was the great temple
of the Petrasaus. 2. The Theater, a magnificent building, capable of containing from
3,000 to 4,000 spectators. 3. The. Tomb with the Triple Ranye of Columns. 4. The Tomh
irith Latin Inscription. 5. The Deer or Conixnt, a huge monolithic temple, hewn out of
the side of a cliff, and facing mount Hor. 6. The Acropolis. 7. Kusr Faroii, or Pha-
raoh's palace, the least incomplete ruin of Petra. Most of the architecture is Greek, but
th MV are also examples of the influence of Egypt, pyramidal forms being not unknown.
PETSARCA, FRANCESCO, the first and greatest lyric poet of Italy, was the son of a
Florentine notary named Petracco, who belonged to the same political faction as the
poet Dante, and went into exile along with him and others in 1302. Petracco took up
his residence at Arez/o. and here the future poet was born in the month of July, 1304.
His original name was Francesco di Petracco, which he subsequently changed to that by
which he is now known. When Petrarca was about eight years of age, his father
removed to Avignon, where the papal court was then held; and here, and at the neigh-
boring town of Carpentras, the youth studied grammar, ihetoric, and dialectics. Con-
trary to his own inclination, but in compliance with the wish of his father, he spent seven
years in the study t>f law at Montpellier and Bologna; but in 1326 his father died, and
Petrarca now devoted himself partly to the gayeties of Avignon, and partly to classical
studies, or rather to the study of the Latin classics, as it was only towards the end of his
life that he attempted to master Greek. At this time he ranked among his friends, the
Petrel. 580
Petroleum.
jurist Soranzo, John of Florence, the apostolic secretary, Jacopo Col on mi. bishop of
Lombes, in Gnscony, ciizcl Li- brrv'.rr, tLe cauir.r.1 Giovn ;r'\ Azzo cla Corrcgio, lord of
Panna, any many other noble and learned personages. Ki- Illustrious ftdmin is — among
•whom were emperors, popes, doges, kings, and sovereign dukes— obviously thought
themselves honored by their intimacy with the son of a poor notary, and sonic were even
forward in proffering him their favor. But the great even! in Petrarca s life (viewed in
the light ot its literary consequences) was his tenderly romantic and ultimately pun-
passion for Laura — the golden-haired, beautiful Frenchwoman. Some slight obscurity
still hangs over his relation to this lady, but it IB almost certain that she was no less a
paragon of virtue than of loveliness. He met her on April (i, 1327, in the church of St.
Clara in Avignon, and at once and for ever fell deeply in love with her. The lady was
then 19, and had been married for two years to a gentlemen of Avignon, named llugucs
de Sade. For ten years Petrarca lived near her in the papal cilv. and frequently met
her at church, in society, at festivities, etc. He sung her beauty and his lovr in those
sonnets whose mellifluous conceits ravished the ears of his cont< mporaries. and have not
yet ceased to charm. Laura was not insensible to a worship, v hicn made 8D emperor
(Charles IV.) beg to be introduced to her, and to be allowed to kissher fovcliead; but she
seems to have kept the too-passionate poet at a proper distance. Only once did he dare
to make an avowal of his love in her presence, and then he v as sternly reproved. In
1338 Petrarca withdrew from Avignon to the romantic valley of Vaucluse, where he
lived for some years, spending his time almost solely in literary pursuits. . A most brill-
iant honor awaited him at Koine, in 1341, where, on Faster tlay. he was crowned in the
capitol with the laurel-wreath of the poet. The ceremonies which marked this corona
lion were a grotesque medley of pagan and Chri -tian representations. Petrarca was.
however, as ardent a scholar as he was a poet; and throughout his whole life, he was
occupied in the collection of Latin MSS., even copying some with his own hand. To
obtain these, he traveled frequently throughout France. Germany, Italy, and Spain His
own Latin works were the first in modern times in which the language was classically
written. The principal are his Epitstolce, consisting of letters to Ins numerous friends and
acquaintances, and which rank as the best of his prose works: 1>: Vili* ('/>>//•//.
triii m; DC liemedii* utriusque Fortvnm; De Viitt S»Waria; ILnnn M('iiii>r<unhirni
IV.; De Contemptu Jlfund-i, etc. Besides his pro.-c epistles, IVtrarca wrote nun.
epistles in Latin verse, eclogues, and an epic poem called Afrira, on the subject of the
second Punic war. It was this last production which obtained for him the laurel-wreath
at Rome. Petrarca, it may be mentioned, displayed little solicitude about the fate i !
his beautiful Italian verse, but built his hope of his name being remembered on h
Latin poems, which, it has been said, are now only remembered by his name. ]
he finally left Avignon, and passed the remainder of bis life in Italy — partly at Milan,
where he spent nearly ten years, and partly at Parma. Mantua. Padua. Verona. Yen
Ice, and Rome. At last, in 1370, he removed to Arqua, a little village prettily situated
among the Euganean hills, where he spent his closing years in hard scholarly work,
much annoyed by visitors, troubled with epileptic fits, not overly rich, but ,-crene in
heart, and displaying in his life and correspondence a rational and beautiful piety. Ik-
was found dead in his library on the morning of July 18, 1374, his head dropped on
a book! — Petrarca was not only far beyond his age in learning, but had risen above
many of its prejudices and superstitions. He despised astrology, and the childish
medicine of his times; but, on the other hand, he had no liking for the com
skepticism of the mediaeval mranlz; and, in his De sni /;/*/>/.•< <t Mullornm A
Ignorantia, he sharply attacked the irreligious speculations of tnose who had acquired
a shallow free-thinking habit from the study of the Arabico-Arislotelian school of
writers-such as Averrhoes. Petrarca became an ecclesiastic, but was contented witto
one or two inconsiderable benefices, and refused all offers of higher ecclesiastical appoint
ment. — The Italian lyricsof Petrarca — the chief of which are the Rime, or Can* m re, in
honor of Laura — have done far more to perpetuate his fame than all his other works.
Of Italian prose, he has not left a line. The Rime, consisting of sonm-ls. can/onets.
madrigals, were composed during a period of more than forty years; and the later- ones
— in which Petrarca's love for Laura, long since laid in her grave, appears purified from
all earthly taint, and beautiful with something of a beatific grace — have done as much to
refine the Italian language as fhe Ditina Cmnrncdia of Dante. Of his Ri.)ic there have
been probably more than 300 editions; the first that of Venice, 1470: the most accurate,
that by Marsand (Padua, 1819; Eng. trans, by Macgregor, 1851). Collective tuitions of
his works have been published (Basel, 1495, 1554, and 1581 et seq.). Of numerous lives
of 'him the principal are those of Bellutello, De Sades, Tiraboschi, Ugo Foseolo, and
Gciger (1874); in Em:.. Campbell (1841); Reeve in Modern Classics for i
(1878).
PETSEL, Procdlfirifi. a genus of birds, sometimes ranked among laridce. (q.v.), and
sometimes constituted into a separate family, proc^nn-'nlti'. which is now subdivided
into several genera, and distinguished by having the bjll hooked at lift lip. the extremity
of the upper mandible being a hard nail, which appears as if it were articulated to the
rest, the nostrils united into a tube which lies along the back of the upper mandible,
and the hind loe merely rudimentary. They possess great power of wing, and are among
KOI Petrel.
Petroleum.
the most strictly oceanic of birds, being often seen at great distances from land. Among
Hit; Pr'>celltirid!.e are reckoned thefulmurs(q.v.), shearwaters (q.v.),etc., and the small birds
designated PKTKEI.S, of which the stormy petrel is a familiar example. These form the
g 'nus T/iulaesicbyma of recent ornithological systems, the name (Gr. sea -runner) being given
to them iu allusion to their apparent running along the surface of the waves, which
they do in a remarkable manner, and with great rapidity, particularly when the sea is
stormy, ;md the moliu.sks and other animals forming their food are brought in abun-
dance to the surface — now descending into the very depth of the hollow between two
waves, now touching their highest foamy crests, and flitting about with perfect safety
and apparent delight. Hence also their name petrel, a diminutive of Peter, from the
apostle Peter's walking on the water. From the frequency with which flocks of these
birds are seen iu stormy weather, or as heralds of a storm, they are very unfavorably
regarded by sailors. They have very long and pointed wings, passing beyond the point
of the tail; and the tail is square in some; slightly forked in others. Their flight much
resembles that of a swallow. They are to be seen in the seas of all parts of the world,
but are more abundant iu the southern than in the northern hemisphere. The names
stormy petrel and Mother Carey's chicken are someiimes more particulary appropriated
to th(i''<i!<-!ir!rviiii'i peli.ifjica, a bird scarcely larger than a lark, and the smallest web-
footed bird known, of a sooty black color, with a little white on the wings and some
near the tail. Two or three other species are occasionally found on the British shores;
one of which, the fulmar petrel, breeds on the rock of the Scilly Isles, St. Kihla, the
Orkneys, Shetland Isles, etc. Like many others of the family, it generally has a quan-
tity of oil in its stomach, which, when wounded or seized, it discharges by the mouth
or nosirils; and of this the people of St. Kilda take advantage, by seizing the birds
during incubation, when they sit so closely as to allow themselves to be taken with the
hand, and collecting the* oil in a vessel.
PETRIE, GEORGE, LL.D., 1789-1866; b. Dublin; son of a portrait painter; studied
paiiring in his native city, winning a prize at the age of 14. In 1816 he was permitted
to place his pictures on" exhibition at Somerset house, London, and was then called a
skillful draughtsman, lie furnished sketches of noted places in Ireland for the engravers;
in 1H32 was one of the editors of the Dublin, Penny Journal (illustrated), and ten
years later edited the IrMt Penny Journal with illustrations. He gained an intimate
knowledge of the archaeology of Ireland, and purchased curious and rare mauu-
.-•cripts for the Royal Irish academy. He collected over 400 vols. of letters and docu-
ments while conducting the antiquarian and historical department of the Ordnance
M< ,/"(/•; 1 vol. was published 18o9, the rest failed to appear. In 1832 he received a
pri/e and the gold medal of the academy, for an essay on the round towers; iu 1836 a
i.">ld. medal for his Ancient Military Architecture of Ireland, and another medal for his
Hi&ories » <// .1 utirjuiticn of Tarn Hill. He published works on ecclesiastical architecture,
and in 1855 some old songs and unwritten melodies, taking them from the lips of peas-
ants to whom they had descended from ancient bards. He was granted a pension
of £300.
PETRIFACTION, a name given to organic remains found in the strata of the earth,
because they are generally more or less mineralized or made into stone. The word has
fallen very much into disuse, having given place to the terms fossil (q.v.) and organic
remains.
PETROBRUSSIANS. See BRTJYS, PETER DE.
PETROICA, a genus of birds of the family sylviadai, natives of Australia, nearly
allied io the redbreast, and to which its familiar name robin has been given by the
colonists. The song, call-note, and manners of P. multicolor, a species abundant in all
the southern parts of Australia, very much resemble those of the European bird, but
its plumage is very different: the male having the head, throat, and back jet-black, the
forehead snowy white, one longitudinal and Uvo oblique bands of white on the wings,
and the breast bright scarlet; the female is brown, with red breast. There are several
other species, birds of beautiful plumage.
PETRO'LEUM. See NAPHTHA. In consequence of the dancer attending the storing
and keeping of petroleum, an act of parliament was passed in 1861 (25 and 26 Viet, c.'
66) to regulate the subject, putting it on a similar footing to gunpowder. A license is
required to keep large quantities, which is obtained in England from the aldermen of
the city of London, the metropolitan board, the mayor and aldermen of boroughs, or
the harbor commissioners, according to the locality where it is proposed to be kept; and
in other places, in England and Scotland, from two justices of the peace. If the license
is refused, the party may appeal to the home secretary. Not more than forty gallons
iiiiist be kept within fifty yards of a dwelling-house or a warehouse for goods, except in
pursuance of a license, under a penalty of £20 per day. One moiety "of the penalty is
given to the informer. A search-warrant may be obtained from justices, in case i't is
suspected that the act is violated.
PETROLEUM (mite), a natural rock-oil, composed principally of hydro-carbons,
with bituminous elements, and essential oils. Long known in various parts of the world
by its components appearing, either as bituminous springs on the surface, or floating on.
Petroleum.
1'ettis.
•water, as naphtha. Sec rrrr:.;;:s", r.nd NAPHTHA. Tt i«. in fr.ot, a product of
natural distillation in the fonnutio.i of coal-u and occurs as a saturativo with
shales, clays and duals. Prof. New bury long ago asserted that this was the case with
the grahainite of Virginia, destined to be largely vi>cd as an asphalt in street pavirg ju
this country. Similar, probably, arc Ihe asphalts of Trinidad and the Juia. Si e
ASPHALT. Factories were established; for manufacturing burning lluid from imported
bog coal as early as 1854, but in 1868 the sinking of the first well dunged them all to
refineries, In this country the great supply of petroleum, and at present we market
for the world, is in u.w. Pennsylvania, in two districts, an upper and lower. There
are also districts, for as a rule, petroleum-wells arc con lined to an area which is
always limited and well-defined, in Ohio, West Virginia, and a large, but not profitable,
area in California. Petroleum wells are sunk much as artesian wells (which see),
eitating the erection of large frames, derricks, and the necessary machinery, etc., known
as a "rig." A well may flow water, oil, or oil and water, depending upon the point
struck in the internal reservoir. Flowing wells gradually diminish their delivery, arid
finally have to b« pumped. Oil is found on any one of the different hori/.ons abovo
the Eocene, and therefore, varies in depth from over 2,000 to less than 200 feet. Three
layers cf sand, found at varying distances apart in the first 900 ft., serve as n mark of
depth in the oil region. The oil is stored in enormous tanks, and thence Iran >port; '<i to
the refineries, to New York, the great center of export, or to the sea-board farther south.
Pipe lines are now laid from the oil region to the principal refineries, and ti
of the pipe line companies for so many barrels in tank are negotiable like certificates <,f
grain-delivery. Oil-cars have iron tanks upon them, and oil-barrels are very strongly
made, and often serve as return freight for Italian and German ships engaged in the
export of oil. Oil is refined in a still (sec DISTILLATION) by applying heal, and
cooling the worm. The first and highest products are the volatile oils. These are
known under various names, and are used for portable or small local gas generators,
air being allowed to mix in proper proportion with the material, and the vapor pumped
or forced through tubes like common gas. See NAPHTHA. By applying artificial
coolers a still more volatile product may" be obtained. The last and hca\iest products
of distillation are the crude oils, dark and disagreeable in smell. They are sold at a
low price, either to adulterate commercial petroleum, to be used as antiseptics, like
coal-tar, or in extracting paraffine. See PAKAFFINE. The medium products are the
burning-fluids of commerce, known under an infinity of names, and more or le-s
refined or adulterated. The best kerosene is simply the best "run" of bcr./ine. nu.st
carefully treated. The product is filtered, by centrifugv piston, or other filters, t :
•with ammonia or sulphuric acid, bleached, deodorized and relieved of the acid. The
variety of appliances used in these processes is endless, but the work is accompanied
by a noisome odor, and the production of several stinking and deleterious compounds,
for which no efficient remedy has yet been discovered. From the heavier gnu;
middle oils and the finer crude oils, may be manufactured by careful treatment a
rior article of machinery oil, now a very valuable export to England and the ecu:
The illuminating properties of all the products of petroleum depend upon their union
in proper quantities with the air; the test of oils is their flashing point and their burn-
ing point, and varying as they do in different ratios, both should always be known.
Stringent laws, based upon both these tests, can alone regulate traffic' in such dangerous
commodities. See KEROSENE; OIL-WELLS, ante. The. yield of petroleum, estin
twenty years before at about a million barrels, increased as shown by the following table:
1880. 1879. 1878.
Number of bbls. of 42fcallous each 15.7fi5.POO 16,1X36,000 13.7.->0,000
Total exports 10,000.000 12,800,000 10,000,000
Home consumption or accumulation at sea-board... 5, 705,800 3,736,000 3,750,00*
PETROLEUM V. NASBY (psevd.) See LOCKE, DAVID Ross.
PETKOL OGY (Gr. science of rocks), a term recently introduced into geology to desig-
nate particular aspects of the study of rocks, apart from their organic contents. By
some, it is confined to an examination of their structure and composition; by others it is
extended to the study of rock-masses, their planes of division, their forms, their position
and mutual relations, and other characters not bearing on the question of the geological
time of their production.
PETBOMY'ZON. See LAMPREY.
PE TRONEL, an ancient and clumsy description of pistol.
PETBONITJS, C., a Roman voluputaryat the cou-t of Nero, whose profligacy is said to
have been of the most superb and elegant descripti...-. We know, however, very little
about him. He was at one time proconsul of Bithynia, was subsequently appointed
consul, and is certified as having performed his official duties with energy and prudence.
But his grand ambition was to shine as a court exquisite. He was a kind of Roman
Brummcll, and Nero thought as highly of him as did the prince regent of the famous
Beau. He was intrusted by his imperial master and companion with the charge of the
royal entertainments, and thus obtained (according to Tactitus) the title of . !
ffantue. Nero would not venture to pronounce anything commt, ilfaut, until it had received
?. Q q Petroleum.
Pettis.
the approval of the oracle of Roman fashion. The influence which he thus acquired was
the cause of Ids ruin. Tigelliuus, another favorite of Nero, conceived a haired of
Pelronius, brought false accusations against him, and succeeded in getting his whole
household arrested. Pctronius saw that his destruction was inevitable, and committed
suicide (60 B.C.), butiu languid and graceful style, such, he thought, as became his life.
lie opened some veins, but every now and then applied bandages to them, and thus
stopped the How of blood, so that he was for a while enabled to gossip gayly with his
friends, aud even to appear in the streets of Cumae, before he died. We are told that he
wrote, sealed, aud dispatched to Nero, a few hours before his death, a paper containing
an account of the tyrant's crimes aud flagitious deeds. It has been generally supposed
that Petronius is the author of a well-known work entitled, in the oldest MSS., Pttronii
Arbitri Satyricon, a series of fragments belonging apparently to a very extensive comic
novel or romance (see NOVELS), the greater portion of which has perished, but there is
really no satisfactory evidence to show whether or not he was so. It is probable, however,
that the work belongs to the 1st c. A.D. The fragments exhibit a horrible picture of the
depravity of the times; but there is no indication that the author disapproves of what he
describes. The cdliio princepa of the fragments appeared at Venice in 1499; later editions
are those of Burmauu (Traj. ad. Rhen. 1709; 2d edit. A-mst. 1743), and of Antonius
(Leip. 1781).
PETBOPAVLOVSK', a t. of Asiatic Russia, in the province of Akmollinsk, on the river
Ishim, 173 m. w.n.w. of Omsk. Pop. '67.8,220. It is an important military station,
aud has a cannon foundry. A large trade is carried on. — Petropavlovsk is also the
name of a small port of Russian Siberia, near the mouth of the river Avatcha. Pop.
'67, 479.
PETROVSK', a t. of Russia, in the province of Saratov, 55 m. n.w. of Saratov, situated
on the Medviedit/a, a tributary of the Don. Pop. '67, 12,749.
PETEOZAVOBSE', an important mining-town in the n. of European Russia, capital of
the government of Oionetz, stands on the western shore of lake Onega, 300 m. by water
u.e. of St. Petersburg. A cannon-foundry was erected here in 1701 by Peter the great,
who himself hud discovered the rich resources of this northern region in iron and copper
ores. The town itself dates from the year 1703; and from that to the present time it has
been the great center of the mining industry of the government. The Alexandrovsky
arms factory is specially deserving of notice. It was founded in 1773, and, besides other
arms, it has produced many thousand pieces' of cast-iron ordnance. Works are also fitted
up for the preparation of sieel. Wood abounds in the vicinity, and there is easy com-
munication by water with St. Petersburg. Pop. '67, 10,910.
PETRUS LOMBARDUS. See LOMBARD, PETEK, ante.
FETSH, or IPKK (i.e., silk), a t. of European Turkey, in Albania, stands on the Bis-
tritza, or White Drill, 73 m. u.e. of Scutari. It is a pleasant town; the houses are large
and handsome, and, as a rule, have gardens attached, in which fruit and mulberry- trees
are cultivated. Water, from the river, is Jed up in!o all the houses. Silk is extensively
made, tobacco and fruits are largely cultivated, and arms manufactured. Petsh was
formerly the residence of the Servian patriarchs. Pop. upwards of 12,000.
PETTENKOFFER. MAX VON, b. Bavaria, 1818; a chemist, studied at Munich, and
1845-47 was employed in the Bavarian mint; afterward prof, of medicine. He was
associate editor of the Zeilsehrift fiir Biologie in 1865. He wrote a valuable work on
ventilation, and of his productions -there were published, in 1858, Die atmosphenache
Luff, in Woln'tehandf.n; in 1870-72, Ueber OtWfarbe und Comert-irur/r/ tier Gemaldega-
Icrien d>/rch I !<'.:,•/>, n< .mi ion der Bllder; in 1871, DieVerbreitungsart der Clwlera in Indien.
PETTIGREW. CHARLES, D.D., 1750-1807; b. Perm. His father was originally of a
Scot I is!) family, and emigrated to Pennslyvania about 1770, and thence to North Caro-
lina. In 1773, Charles became a teacher in Edenton; was ordained in the Protestant
Episcopal church at London in 1775. and elected bishop of N. C. in 1794. He took a,
leading part in establishing the university of North Carolina.
"PETTIGREW. THOMAS J.. 1791-1865, b. Eng. ; studied for the profession of medi-
cine, and was appointed secretary and registrar of the medical society of London. Iii
1810 he founded the philosophical society of London, and 3 years later was made secretary
to the royal humane society, which office he held until 1820. He was surgeon-in-
ordinary to tiie duke of K< nf, and the duke of Sussex: and being appointed librarian to
the latter, compiled the Ribliothcca Snitsemnna, one of the chief bibliographical works, on
which lie was engaged for 12 years. He was a friend of Coleridge; was one of the
founders of the- Charing Cross hospital, and of the British archaeological association; and
was for a long time a prominent official in the latter institution, and editor c, its Journal.
He was devoted to antiquarian research, particularly in Egyptian archaeology, a fact
which brought him into intimate relation with Belzoiii. Wilkinson, and other Egyptolo-
gists. He published a number of works on curious and recondite subjects, including
Superstitions connected with Medicine and Surgery.
PETTIS, a co. in w. central Missouri, drained by Muddy and Flat creeks, intersected
by Black river, on the Missouri, Kansas and Texas, and the Missouri Pacific railroads;
Pettrich.
Pewee.
650 sq.m. pop. '80, 27,298—3,008 colored. The surface is diversified and heavily wooded.
The soil is fertile, and the principal productions are com, wheat, oats, huy, and live stock.
It contains extensive deposits of coal. Co. r>eat, Sedalia.
PETTRICH, FERDINAND, 1798-1872; b. Dresden; son of Fran/ a cculptor, studied
the art of sculpture at the academy al Dresden, and with Thorwaidsen at Home.. He
came to this country in his youth, was appointed director of the academy of art iu
IVnnsy.vania, and passed snm. time in Bra/il. He is best known by hi< .-.tallies of " Belisa-
Vms," " Christ, "and the bas-relief "Day and Night."
PETTY. Sir WILLIAM, 1623-87; b. Ramsey. Kng. ; son of Anthony Petty; educated
nt the grammar school in his native town, and at the university at Caen, Normandy.
After his return from France he held an official position in the British na\ \ , but left it
for the study of medicine at Paris, reading Vesalius with Ilobhes, and vi --itiim- Leyden
and Utrecht. Pie invented the /,< ntn-irnjili, a copying machine patented 1647, but there
was then no demand for it. He went to Oxford as assi-iant to Dr. Clayton, prof, of
anatomy, at the same time giving private instruction; obtained a fellowship al lira/
college 1648. He was prof, of anatomy in the university of Oxford i('»50; prof, of medicine
in Gresham college 1651 ; physician to the army in Ireland 1652, serving as secretary under
3 successive lords — lieut. Lambert, Fleetwood, and Henry Cromwell; entered parliament
1658; was knighted and made surveyor-general of Ireland. He was one of the founders
of the Royal society which held its first meetings at Ids lodgings; was ihe progenitor of
the house of Lausdowne, and is called the founder in England oi the science of political
economy. Among his published works are, ilie Political Anaionij of Irdaiul, 1691.
Taxes and Contributions, 1667.
PETTY BAG OFFICE, one of the branches of the court of chancery, was abolished in
1874, and its duties were transferred. The clerk of the petty bag. an officer appointed
by the master of the rolls, drew up writs of summons to parliament, r«//»/< il'<':Ure for
bishops, writs of wire facias, and all original writs. A great deal of miscellaneous busi-
ness was also transacted iu the petty bag office, which the lord chanccllo;- a..d m i<lcr of
the rolls were empowered to regulate and transfer from time to time. By the acl of :.7
and 38 Viet. c. 81, these various duties have devolved on the clerk of the crown in chan-
cery and on officers of the supreme court.
PETTY OFFICERS, in the royal navy, are an upper class of seamen, analogous to the
non-commissioned officers in the army. They comprise the men responsible for the
proper care of the several portions of the ship, the foremen of artificers, the signalmen,
and many others. They are divided into three classes: chief petty officers, at ::s. 5d. to
6s. a day; first-class working petty officers, at 2s. 3d. a day; and second class working
petty officers at 2s. a day. Petty officers are appointed ami can be degraded by the cap-
tain of the ship. Her efficiency much depends on this useful class of sailors
PETTY SESSIONS is the court constituted by two or more justices of the peace in
England when sitting in the administration of their ordinary jurisdiction. Though for
many purposes statutes enable one justice todo acts auxiliary to the hearing and adjudi-
cation of a matter, yet the jurisdiction to adjudicate is general! v conferred upon the
justices in petty sessions, in which case there must be at least two justices pivsent. and
this is called a petty sessions, as distinguished from quarter sessions, which generally
may entertain an. appeal from petty sessions. For the purpose of securing always suffi-
cient justices, the whole of the counties of Enirland are subdivided into what are called
petty sessional divisions, those justices who live in the immediate neighborhood bei;;<_r
the members who form the court of such division. This subdivision of counties is con-
firmed by statute, and the justices at quarter sessions have power from time to time to
alter it. Each petty sessions is held in some town or village which gives it a name, and
a police-court or place is appropriated for the purpose of the sittings of the court. There;
is a clerk of each petty sessions, usually a local attorney, who advises the justices and
issues the summons and receives the fees made payable for steps of the proivsv. The
justices in petty sessions have a multifarious jurisdiction, which they exercise chiefly by
imposing penalties authorized by various acts of parliament, as penalties against poaobers,
vagrants, absconding workmen and apprentices, etc. They also have jurisdiction to
hear charges for all indictable offenses, to take depositions of witnesses, and, if they
think a case of suspicion is made out, to commit the party for trial at the quart
sions or assizes, and to bind over the witnesses to attend. See also JUSTICE OF THK
PKACE.
PETTTNIA, a genus of plants of the natural order solanace®, natives of the warmer
parts of America. They are herbaceous plants, very nearly allied to tobacco, and with
a certain similarity to it in the general appearance of the foliage, which has also a slight
viscidity and emits when handled a disagreeable smell, but the ilowers are very beautiful.
and varieties improved by cultivation are amongst the favorite ornaments of our \
houses and flower-borders. The petunias, although perennial, are very often treated as
annuals, sown on a hot-bed in spring, and planted out in summer, in which way they
eucceed very well, even in Scotland. They are tall plants, with branching weak stems.
and may readily be made to cover a trellis. Although, when treated as green-house
plants, they become half-shrubby, they do not live more than two or three years. The
KQK Pettrich.
Pewee.
name petunia is from the Brazilian petun. The first petunia was introduced into Britain
iu 1825.
PETUNTSE', a white earth used by the Chinese in the manufacture of porcelain, and
said to voiisisr of comminuted but uudecornposed feldspar. It is fusible, and is used for
gla/ing porcelain.
PET WOETH, or SUSSEX MAHBLE, is a thin layer of limestone, composed of the shells
., of fresh-water paludinse. It has been long, but not extensively, used for ornamental
\ purposes. A polished slab of it was found iu a Roman building at Chichester, and pillars
' formed of it exist in the cathedrals of Chichester and Canterbury.
FETJTINGERIAN TABLE, the name given to a most interesting ancient document,
•which exhibit* the military roads of the Roman empire, and indeed of the world known
to the Romans. It is not, properly speaking, a map; no regard being paid to geographic
position, or the extent of countries. The great lines of road are laid down in a narrow
strip, as if nearly parallel, all proceeding from Rome as a center; and as to rivers, it only
appears whether they cross the road from left to right or from right to left of the traveler
proceeding from Rome. The Mediterranean and other seas are represented by mere
narrow channels. A small house is the mark for a town; important towns and military
stations are distinguished by walls and towers. Rome, Constantinople, and Antioch are
each represented by a circle, within which is a human figure seated; in the ease of Rome
the figure is crowned. Until very recently a portion of the only copy of this valuable
relic of antiquity known to exist was evidently wanting, as it terminated abruptly on the
we^t at, the confines of Spain, and included only the eastern parts of Britain. In the e.
it traces roads through India to a number of places of trade as far as the mouths of the
Gauges. It is on parchment, and as described in all the publications devoted to it, 21
ft. in length, and about 1 foot wide. It was found in the library of the Benedictine
monastery at Tegernsee, in upper Bavaria, in the 15th c., by Conrad Celtes, who
bequ. allied it to Conrad Peutinger of Augsburg, a zealous antiquary, and one of the
earliest authors on the Roman and other antiquities of Germany. Peutinger began to
prepare a copy of it for publication, but died before he could accomplish his purpose,
which, however, was partially executed by Mark Welser, in his F-ragmcnta Tabulae
AH fir/ 'ire t'.t Pcutiiu/erorium Biblivtheca (Venic •, 1591). The ancient document itself
remained in the hands of the Peutinger family, and attracted no further notice till it was
offered for sal-.' in 1711, and purchased by prince Eugene, who presented it to the impe-
rial library of Vienna, in which it still remains. An exact copy of it was published at
Vienna iu 1753, with an introduction and index by F. C. von Scheyb. It was again
published as an appendix to Ivatancsich's Oi'bis Antiquus (Ofen. 1825); and at the request
of the academy of Munich, a revised edition, with an introduction, was published by
Conrad Mannert (Leip. 1824). Since that time a leaf detached from the rest has been
found in the imperial library at Vienna, but we are not aware that any particular account
of it or its contents has yet been given to the public.
The Peutingerian table does not ah/ays agree with the Antonine itinerary (see ITFX-
ERAKY); sonif stations' and towns being marked in the one which are not in the other,
the distances marked being also sometimes different. But the two together throw great
light on ancient geography. It appears almost certain from internal evidence that the
Peutingerian table belongs to the 3d c. of the Christian era,, or the beginning of the 4th,
although the existing copy seems to belong to a later date. The general character of the
work seems to show that its authorship is to be referred to times of prevalent paganism;
whilst a few things appear, probably alterations or insertions of a copyist, which refer
to Christianity.
PEWEE, a common name given to several species of American insectivorous birds,
of the sub-order clammatores, family tyrannicide, and related, of course, to the common
barn-yard fowl, but more nearly to the king-bird and other fly-catchers. The common
pewee or phoabe bird (sayornis fuscus, Baird) measures about 8 in. across the extended
wings. It is a beautiful brown on the back, darker on the head, with a yellowish-white
breast and belly; quills brown, slightly edged with a lighter color, a sort of dull white.
Its principal habitat is the middle and" Atlantic states, from northern Maine to Florida,
living in northern portions during summer and migrating to the south in the autumn. It
comes north in April, and usually hatches a brood by the middle of May and another by
the first of August. In October it returns to the south, migrating at night. It makes a
liest like a barn swallow, attached to a wall or rafter, of mud, grass, mosses, etc., lining
it with down and other soft materials, and the same" bird may use the nest more than
one season. It lays from four to six eggs, white, with a few reddish spots at the larger
end. The hatching takes about 13 days, and in 3 or 4 days more the young birds leave
the nest. This bird has been seen by prof. Aughey in eastern Nebraska along the Mis-
souri river, who found in its stomach numerous locusts and other insects; in one instance
43 locusts. Its note of pee-iree. or pJiai-be, is well known. The WOOD PEWEE (cantopus
virenr;. Cab.) measures from 10 to 11 in. across the outspread wings, with the color of the
back much like that of the phcobe bird, but it has two pale grayish bands across the
wings, a narrow whitish circlet, around the eyes, and has a greenish-yellow belly and
grayish throat and breast. Its flight is rapid, with sudden sweeps when darting after its
insect prey, which it pursues in the night. It aL-o eats berries. Its note somewhat
Pfeifler.
KOfi
resembles that of the phocbc bird, but is more frequently single syllable! than with that
bird. It conies north two or three weeks later than the pboebe bird, some <•!' tliein going
as far north as New Bnuiswick and Nova Scotia. They re! urn as far south in the \\ in-
ter as New Grenada. Tliey also penetrate tlie wot as far as the high eentral plains.
One dissected by prof. Aughcy in I860 was found to he a desl rover ot locusts. Its ne.st
ia attached to the b ranch of a tree, the eggs four or five, light yellowish, \\ilh reddish
spots at the larger end. It is very courageous, defending its nest against uU intruders.
r'Vo broods are raised at the north where the season is long enough. Pro1'. Augliey also
jtices the western wood pewee (rfiHtojm* fiirhiirdwiii, Baird) which resembles the "wood
pewee" except having sliorter legs. He saw none as far e. as Missouri. rl hey were
observed along timbered streams in western Nebraska, but of course they extend LI. and
B., and reach to the Pacific. Their stomachs contained many locuMs.
PEWS (anciently pittx; Old Fr. puijx; Dutch, puyes; Lat. podium, "anything on
which to lean;" a'appni/( /•). inclosed seats in churcbes. Church-seals were in use in Eng-
land some lime before the reformation, as is proved by numerous examples still extant,
the carving on tome of which "is as early as the decorated period, i.e., before 1400 A.D. ;
and records as old as 1450, speak of such seals by the name of piif*. They were origi-
nally plain lixed benches, all facing east, with partitions of wainscoting about 3 ft.
high, and sides of the width of these;;.!, paneled or carved; the sides sometimes rising
above the wainscoting, and ending in linials or poppies, or else ranging with it and
finished with a molding. After the reformation, probably under Ihe inlluence of the
Puriuins, who, objecting to some parts of the service which they were compelled to
attend, sought means to conceal their nonconformity, pews grew* into large and high
inclosures, containing two or four seats, lined with bai/e, and titled with doors, desks,
and cushions. Pews were early assigned to particular owners, but at lirst only to tho
patrons of churches. A canon made at Exeter, in 1287, rebukes quarreling for a scat in
church, and decrees that none shall claim a seat as his own except noblemen and the
patrons. Gradually, however, the system of appropriation was extended to other inhabit-
ants of the parish, to the injury of the poor, and the multiplication of disputes.
The law of pews in England is briefly this: All church-seats are at the disposal of
the bishop, and may be assigned by him, either (1) directly by faculty to the hoi/
any property in the parish; or (2) through the churchwardens, whose dun il Is a* officers
under the bishop, to " seat the parishioners according to their degree." In the \'<
case, Ihe right descends with the property, if the faculty can be shown, or immemorial
occupation proved. In the latter, the right can at any time be recalled, and lap-
the party ceasing to be a regular occupant of the seat, It appears that by common law
every parishioner has a right to a seat in the church, and the churchwardens are bound
to place each one as best they can. The practice of h-ttinfi pews, except under the
church-building acts, or special local acts of parliament, and, much more, of selling them,
has been declared illegal.
In Scotland, pews in the parish churches are assigned by the heritors (q.v.) to the
parishioners, who have accordingly the preferable claim on them: in to^\ns the practice
•is to let them annually. As is well known, pews in dissenting churches are rented as a
means of revenue to sustain general charges. In some parts of the United States, pews
in churches are a matter of annual competition, and bring large sums. Latterly, in
England, there has been some discussion as to the injuriously exclusive diameter of the
"pew system." and a disposition has been manifested to abolish pews altogether, and
substitute movable seats available by all indiscriminately. Several pamphlets have
appeared on the subject. ' In the Roman Catholic churches on the continent pews aro
seldom to be seen.
PEW TEH, a common and very useful alloy of the metals, tin and lead. Two other
kinds of pewter lmve-a more compound character. Common, or hy-paritr, consists of
4 parts of tin and 1 part of lead; plnte-pftirter is made of 100 parts of tin, 8 parts of anti-
mony, 2 parts each of bismuth and copper; another kind, called (rijle. is composed of 83
parts of tin and 17 parts of antimony. Although these are the standard formulas, each
kind is often much varied to suit the purposes of the manufacturer; the chief tdteiation
being the addition of a large proportion of lead to the last, and a large increase of the
same melai in the other two.
PEYER, JOFIANN CONRAD, 1653-1712; b. Switzerland. He graduated in medicine
at Basle in 1681, practiced mediciile there, became professor of elocution and ol ;
and afterwards of natural philosophy. He made many dissections and examinations of
glands of the mucous membrane of the intestines, particularly of certain aggregation* of
lymphoid follicles which have since been known ns Peyer's gknds, or the patches or
plaques of Peyer. See PEYEK'S GLANDS; also, DIGESTION, ante.
PEYER'S GLANDS, aggregations of solitary lymphoid follicles, first described by
Johann Conrad Peyer (q.v.), principally found in the Hewn, the lower division of the
small intestine, and connected with the functions of dJ-C<'stion and chylification. See
DIGESTION, ante. The solitary glands which are not aggregated have essentially the
same structure as those which make up the patches of Peyer, or •' Peyer's glands."
Pews.
Pfeiffer.
PEYROX, AMEDBO, AbbC-,17S.>-18G9, b. Italy; professor of the oriental languages at
Turin. He placed the study of Coptic on a .scientific basis by his Grammatica. Lingua
Coptica, and Lexicon Lingua Coptic®; edited a number of Greek and Latin texts, some
of which he discovered himself, and rendered Thucydides into Italian. He was a sena-
tor of the kingdom of Italy, and corresponding member of the French institute.
PEYROXXET, PIKUKB DENIS, Comte de, 1788-1854; b. at Bordeaux, France;
whose father was one of the victims of the guillotine in 1793. He was educated for the
bar, where he was eloquent but not able: a pronounced advocate of the Bourbohs;
entered public life with the advent of Louis XVIII. to the throne, and became minister
of justice in 1831. In 1S22 he proposed the law to muzzle the press, and favoivd all
measures looking to the restoration of absolute kingly power, and the feudal status,
including the re-establishment of the law of primogeniture. On the dismissal of the
Yillelc cabinet in 1828 by Charles X., Peyrouuet went with it; but became minister of
the interior in 1800, and by his policy of reaction contributed to the overthrow of
Charles X. the same year. He was subsequently imprisoned at Ham for illegal use of
power while in office" and there wrote an Hiatoire des Pi'ancs in 2 vols.
PEZENAS, a manufacturing t. of France, in the department of Heranlt, on the left
bank of the river of that name, 25 in. w.s.w. of Montpellier. It stands in a district
remarkable for its beauty, and so well cultivated as to have received the name of the
garden of Herault. It is famous for its healthy climate and clear sky. The vicinity
produces excellent wine, and woolen and linen goods are manufactured. The trade,
however, is chiefly in liquors, and Pezenas is known as one of the principal brandy-mar-
kets of Europe. Pop. '76, 7,570.
PFEFFERS, an extraordinary and much-visited locality in the canton of St. Gall,
Switzerland, 5 m. s.e. of Sargans. It has been famous since the middle of the llth c.
for its hot baths, situated 2,180 ft. above sea-level, and 520ft. above the village of Ra-
gatz The old baths of Pfelfers are built on a ledge of rock a few feet above the roaring
torrent of the Tamina, and are hemmed iu by walls of rock towering above them to tiie
height of 600 ft., and so far burying the baths within the gorge that even in the height
of summer, sunlight appears above them only from ten to four. Above the old baths,
the Avails of the ravine of the Tamina contract until the}' meet, covering up the river,
which is there seen from a cavernous gap. The hot springs are reached from the baths
by means of a railed platform. This platform, leading to the hot spring, is secured to
the rocks, and the Tamina churns its way through the cleft 30 or 40 h. below. The
waters of the hot spring are now conveyed to Ragatz (about 2 m. below Pfeffers) by
i wooden pipes, 12,500 ft. long. The waters, as they issue from the spring, have a tem-
perature of 100° Fahr. A pint of the water, which is used both for drinking and bath-
ing, contains only about three grains of saline particles.
FFEIFFEE, IDA (nee REYEK), a celebrated female traveler, was b. at Vienna, Oct.
15, I ;••?, and iroin he,1 eari I; st years showed a resolute and fearless, but not unfeminine
disposition. In 1820 she married an advocate, named Pfeiffer, from whom she was
obliged to obtain a separation, after she had borne him two sous, Oscar and Alfred,
whose education devolved on herself. When she had settled them in life, and was free
to act as she pleased, she at once proceeded to gratify, at the age of 45, her long-cherished
inclination for a life of travel and adventure. Her first expedition was to the Holy Land.
She left Vienna in Mar., 1842, and returned in December of the same year, having
traversed, aloae and without guide, European and Asiatic Turkey, Palestine, and Egypt.
She published an account of her eastern rambles in the following year (Reise einer Wie-
neri/i in clan Utilise Land), which, like all her other works, has gone through many edi-
tions, and been translated into French and English. In 1845 she visited northern Europe
— Sweden, Norway, Lapland, and Iceland — and recorded her impressions in her Reise
ii.!<--, iUrn Skandinasvwh, Nordtn and tUr Imd I»lnnd (2 vols., 1846). But these j< scys,
which would have satisfied most women, were but little excursions in the eyes oi this
insatiable nomad, and only served to whet her appetite for something vaster. She
resolved on a voyage round the world, and on June 28, 1846, sailed from Hamburg in
a Danish brig for Brazil. Her descriptions of the scenery of that country and of the
inhabitants — both native Indians and Brazilians — are exceedingly interesting, She then
sailed round cape Horn to Chile, and thence, after some time,"across the Pacific to Ota-
heite, Cliinti, and Calcutta; crossed the Indian peninsula to Bombay, whence she took
ship for the Persian gulf, landed at Bassora, traversed a great part of western Asia,
southern Russia, and Greece, and re-entered Vienna Xov. 4, 1848. Two years later she
published a narrative of her travels and adventures, entitled Eiue F-rauenfahn um die
Welt (Vienna, 1850, 3 vols.). As a small recognition of her services, and of her singular
energy, fortitude, and perseverance of her character, the Austrian government granted
Mine. Pfeiffer a sum of £100. She now determined to go round the world again,
but by a different route. Proceeding to England, she, in May, 1851, took ship for Sara-
wak, rounding the cape of Good Hope, penetrated alone to the heart of Borneo, visited
Java and Sumatra, lived for a time with some cannibal tribes, and sailed from the
Moluccas to California, thence to Peru, scaled the peaks of Chimborazo and Cotopaxi,
made a run through tiie principal of the United States, and returned to London in 1S54.
This second voyage, signalized by several scientific observations, is described in
Pforzlieim.
Phalanx.
Zweite Wdtreiae (Vicn., 1856). But the more she traveled, the fiercer became her hunger
for movement. In Sept., 1850, she set out on what was to be her last expedition —
namely, to Madagascar. After enduring terrible hard.-hip.-;, .she got away, and came
home to Vienna — to die. Her death took place Oct. 28," 1858.
PFORZHEIM, an important manufacturing t. of the grand duchy of Baden, on the
northern bor. L-r of the Black Forest, stands on the En/, at its confluence with the
N-.u'cild and \Vurm, ;">."> in. B.S.6, of .Vannhcim, and on a recently constructed branch of
the .Mannheim and Basel railway. Its trade has been greatly advanced by its position at
the intersection of several minor lines of railway. Pl'or/heim r.>ntains the remains of
1 an ancient castle, formerly the residence of the markgral's pf Baden-Durlach ; .
churches, one of which, the &7</W-;/ ••/'/<, on a heigh!, contains a number of monuments,
with marble statues of the princes of Baden ; a convent for noble ladies; industrial and
other schools; chemical and iron works; machine-shops, tanneries, and cloth and other
factories. The principal articles of manufacture are gold and silver wares and irinkeis,
the chief markets for which are Germany and America. An important trade is carried
on in timber, which is cut in the neighboring forests, and is floated down to HoiLnd bv
the Neckar and Rhine, Pop. '71, 19,801; '75, 23,537.
PFLEDO, or PII/KDON, b. Greece 4th c. ; taken prisoner in war and made a slave.
Coming to Athens he became acquainted with Socrates, who induced Ale v rito
to release him from servitude. He wrote a number of dialogues, wa- -ier of
the Eleatic school of philosophy, and is the person to whom Pluto inscribed in.-> dialogue
of that name.
PIL-EDRA, in Greek legend and tragedy, the daughter of Minos, king of Crete, and
of PasiphaS, sister of Ariadne and wife of Theseus. Venusj enraged ngain-t liippol-
ytus, Phaedra's step-sou, for neglecting her worship, and against Pluedra, as being the
daughter of Pasiplme", inspired the latter with a passion for Hippolytus. On the rejection
of her advances, she falsely accused the youth to Theseus, who demanded his life from
Neptune. Hippolytus was thrown from his chariot on the sea-shore and dragged upon
the sands till dead. Phaedra died by her own hand and Theseus learned too Late ihut
he had destroyed his sou without cause. This story, with modifications, was ;he sub-
ject of tragedies by Sophocles and Euripides, and Racine's Phedre, 1677, is one of the
masterpieces of the French drama.
PH-ZS'DRTTS, a Latin poet, whose works consist of fables. He was probably a Tlira-
cian or Macedonian, carried to Rome as a slave in his childhood, and brought up at the
court of Augustus, who emancipated him. Under Tiberius, he was exposed to irre.'it
danger from the hostility of Sejanus, but lived to see that general's overthrow, and died
at an advanced age, probably in the reien of Claudius. Five books of -fables, after the
manner of ^sop, and called Pnbiilat JK&ojrioi. have been usually ascribed to him. The
faults of the style have led. however, to the suspicion, not merely of alterations at a later
date, but of later, and even much later, composition. The dry "morals" have been
supposed to indicate the middle ages as the porind to which the work should p-obablv
be referred; but. its authenticity is generally admitted. The first edition was pub'Mud
at Troves in 1596. The text has subsequently occupied the attention of some of the
greatest scholars and critics, from the days of Burmann and Bentley to the present lime.
A sixtli book, containing 32 fables, has recently been discovered and published, of the
authenticity of which, however, there are greater doubts than that of the other books.
The best edition is that of J. C. Orelli (Zurich, 1831).
PHJJNOG'AMOUS PLANTS. See PHANEROGAMOUS PLANTS.
PHAETHON (i.e., the shining), in the writings of Homer and Hesiod. a frequent title of
Helios the sun-god, and subsequently employed as his name. — Phaethon. in Greek mythol-
ogy, is also the name of a son of Helios, famous for his unfortunate attempt to drive
his father's chariot. Scarcely had the presumptuous youth seized the reins, when the
horses, perceiving his weakness, ran off, and approaching too near the earth, almost
set. it on fire. Whereupon the earth cried to Jupiter for help, and Jupiter struck do\\ n
Phnethon with a thunderbolt into the Eridanus or Po. His sisters, the Ileliades, who
had harnessed the horses of the sun, were changed into poplars, and their tears into
amber.
PHAETON. See TROPIC BIRD.
PHAGEDE'NA (Gr., from phaqein, to eat or corrode) designates 'a variety of ulcora-
tion in which there is much infiltration, and at the same time rapid destruction of the
affected part. The sore presents an irregular outline find a yellowish surface; it gives
off a profuse bloody or ichorish discharge, and is extremely painful. It usually attacks
persons whose constitutions are vitiated by scro''ula. by the syphilitic virus, by the abuse
of mercury, by intemperance, etc It not very unfrequently appears in the throat after
scarlatina in a severe form. Ifrv,..cf is not afforded by the internal administration of
opium (to allay the pain), and of quinia, or some other preparation pf bark, wine, beef-
tea, etc., to improve the tone of the constitution, together with astringent and sedative
KCQ Pforzheim.
Phalanx.
local applications, recourse must be had to Use destruction of the part by strong nitric
acid, or some other caustic.
The terrible disease known in civil practice as SLOUGHING PIIAGED.ENA, and in mili-
tary and naval practice as HOSPITAL GANGRENE, is merely, according to some of our
highest surgical authorities, a state of phagedoena in its fullest development. This dis-
order requires for its development the influence of some of those undefined causes which
regulate the outbreak of epidemics, and is peculiarly characterized by iis contagious and
infectious nature. It is usually engendered by the overcrowding of sick and wounded
men. and some idea of its virulence may be formed from the fact that on the return of the
French fleet from the Crimean war, no less than GO deaths from it occurred in one sln'p in
the course of 88 hours. It is not of frequent occurrence in the London hospitals; but it
broke out in the Middlesex hospital in*1885, in University College hospital in 1844, and
in St. Bartholomew's and St. George's hospitals in 1847 (l)ruitt's Surgeon's Vade-mecum,
8th ed. p. 72, note). For details respecting this disorder the reader is referred to
Henneh's Principle* of Military Surgery, Boggie On Hospital Gangrene, and the article
on "gangrene," by Mr. Holmes Coote in Holmes's System of Surgery, vol i.
PHALACEO CORAX. See CORMORANT.
PHALJE'JTA. See MOTH.
PHA LANGER, or PHALANGIST, Phalangista, a genus of marsupial quadrupeds, hav-
ing a rather short head, short ears, short woolly fur, a long prehensile tail, sometimes
completely covered with hair, and sometimes only at the base, and scaly towards the
extremity; the dentition somewhat various as to the number of premolars, the incisors
always six in the upper jaw and two in the lower, the true molars eight in each jaw,
the canines of the lower jaw very small, and close to the incisors. The fore-paws are
strong, and capable of much use in grasping food and bringing it to the mouth. A
number of species inhabit Australia and the islands to the n. of it. They live chiefly in
trees, and feed on insects, small animals of various kinds, eggs, and fruits. The SOOTY
PHALANGKK or TAPOA (P. fuli'jinosd) is pretty common in Van Diemen's Land, and is
much sought after on account of its fur, which is of a uniform smoky-black color, or
tinged with chestnut, warm and beautiful. The tail is very bushy. It is nocturnal in
its habits. — The VULPINE PHALAKGER (P. vulpina), also called the VULPINE OPOSSUM,
is very plentiful and widely diffused in Australia. The length of the animal from the
point of the muzzle to the root of the tail is about 26 ia. ; the tail is about 15 in. long,
and is bushy; the color is grayish-yellow on the upper parts, and tawny -buff below. The
fur is i ot so much valued as that of the last species, but is used for various purposes.
The flesh, although it has a strong peculiar flavor, is a favorite food of the Australian
aborigines. — Nearly allied to this genus, is the genus cuscus, of which one species, whit-
is ii -gray, spotted with brown, is plentiful in the Molucca and Papuan islands. — Allied to
Ihe pluilu gers also are the flying phalangers (q.v ).
PHALAN GLD2E, a family of trachearian arachnida, popularly called harvest-men,
some of the species appearing in great numbers in fields during the hay and corn har-
vests. They resemble spiders in their general form, although their organs of respiration
are very different. Their legs are extremely long and slender. Most of the species are
very B
PHA^ANSTE'RIANISM (from Gr. signifying phalanx and solid), the system of iiving
in communities called phalansteries, as suggested by Fourier, the French socialist. See
FOURIERTSM.
PHA'LANX, the ancient Greek formation for heavy infantry, which won for itself a
reputation of invincibility, may be described as a line of parallel columns, rendered by
its depth and solidity capable of penetrating any line of troops. The oldest phalanx was
the Lacedaemonian or Spartan, in which the "soldiers stood eight deep: the Athenian
phiilanx had. been the same, until, at the battle of Marathon (480" B.C.) Miltiades reduced
the depth to four men in order to increase hiS front. When Epaminondas organized the
Theban army against Sparta, he felt that the Spartan line of battle would be impregna-
ble to troops organized in their own manner. ' He therefore increased the depth and
lessened the front of his phalanx, which enabled him to burst through the Spartan line,
inflicting the sanguinary defeat of Leuctra (371 B.C.). Philip of Macedon had learned
the art of war under-Epaminondas, and when he resolved to make his state a military
power, he formed the celebrated Macedonian phalanx (359 B.C.), which enabled him to
conquer Greece, and with which his son Alexander subdued the eastern world. The
Macedonian phalanx, as the latest form that organization assumed, and as the shape in
which the phalanx encountered the military skill of the west, is deserving of description.
The line was 16 deep; a grand-phalanx comprising 16,384 hoplites, or heavy-armed sol-
diers, subdivided as follows: the grand-phalanx was composed of four phalanxes or
divisions, each under a general officer, called a pltalangarcli ; his command was divided
into two brigades or merarchies (sometimes called telarchies), each of these comprising
two regiments, or cJnUarchies. of four battalions or syntagmata each. A syn!tif!»i<i
answered accurately to a modern battalion, except that it was smaller. It was a perfect
Phalarls.
Pharaoh.
square, with 16 men each way, was commanded by a tyntaqmatarch or xenagos; and had
an adjutant, with one ortwo other staff officers \vho stood behind. Eight files uuited were
uuder a tuxuti'ch, four under a tctrarch, corresponding probably to a modern capt., two
files were under a diloehite or subaltern. A single file of 16 men was called u loc/tos, and
the best man was placed at its head; a picked man, the ourmjon. al>o marching in the
rear. The arms of all these phalanx-men were pikes or spears, 24 ft. lung, <>l' which 6
ft., were behind and 18 ft. held in front of the combatant. As each man occupied with
his shield o ft., the phalanx, when it advanced, had six tiers of spear-points in Iront, a
wall of steel which no troops could withstand, especially as the bearers of the spears
were pressed on by the ten ranks in their rear. By rapid movements the phalanx could
change front, form in close column of syntagmata, and execute other criticaJ maneuvers.
— Tlu: heavy-armed phalanx was ordinarily flankcVl by peltaxtes or light infantry, simi-
larly formed, but only eight deep, while the cavalry were but four deep. The phalanx,
ns representative of the heavy formation, came in contact with the lighter legion of
Rome during the wars of Pyrrhus in Itaiy. — At the great battle of Ileraclea (vii'J i;.c.),
the phalanx won the day; but the victory was attributable to other causes as much a- to
any superiority of formation.
PHAL'ARIS, a tyrant of Agrigentum in Sicily, who flourished about the middle of
the 6th c. B.C. According to the prevalent tradition, he was infamous for his cruelty.
He maintained his power for 16 years by the aid of foreign hirelings, and, it is said, by
putting to death all persons of emiuerfce in his dominions; but at last he fell a victim to
popular indignation. He gratified, we are told, his love of cruelty by causing persons
to be roasted alive in a brazen bull, which was made for that purpose — the first victim
being the maker, Perillus. Cicero cal's him the "most cruel of all tyrants" (crn>-
mus omnium tyrannorum). But some doubt attaches to this view of his character, partly
because many of the crimes laid to his charge are intrinsically improbable, and partly
because later traditions represent him as fond of literature and philosophy, and a patron
of learned men. Lucian affirms that he was naturally a man of a mild and humane dis-
position. How far the later view should be allowed to modify the earlier, it is— in the
absence of all reliable knowledge— impossible to say. It is under the later aspect that
he is shown to us in the famous bat spurious Episuet of Phalaris. See BENTLEY.
PHA'LAROPE, Phalaropus, a genus of birds of the family lobt'pedidte (q.v.); having a
rather long, slender, weak, straight bill, resembling that of the sandpipers, which, indeed,
they otherwise much resemble, although differing in their aquatic habits; the im-
part of their time being passed in swimming on the sea, where they seek mollusks and
other small marine animals for their food. The GRAY PHALAROPE (P. lobal'tx), silt hough
formerly so rare a bird in Britain that Pennant says he only knew of two instai'.
its occurrence in his time, is now not unfrequently seen in its autumn migration from
its northern abode to its southern winter-quarters. It breeds in the arctic regions both
of the old and new world, migrating southward in both on the approach of winter. Its
entire length is rather, more than 8 inches. The tail is short. It is a beautiful bird, and
remarkable for the great difference of its summer and winter plumage, the prevailing
tint in winter being a delicate gray, whilst in summer the upper parts exhibit a One mix-
ture of black, white, and yellow, and the breast and under parts are reddish chestnut. —
The RED-NECKED PIIALAROPE (P. hyperborens, or lobipes hype.rboreits, a generic distinc-
tion being made by Cuvier and others, on account of the sharper and more slender bill),
breads in some of the northern Scottish islands, although it is more common in more
northern regions, and, like the former, is found in all the northern parts of the world.
It is rather smaller than the gray phalarope, and is. like it, very graceful in form and
movements, and finely colored. The phalaropes are very fearless of man, and very easily
tamed. Their flesh is oily find unpalatable.
PHAL'LUS, a representation of the male generative organs, used at certain Diony.-ian
festivals in ancient Greece, as a symbol of the powers of procreation. It was an object
of common worship throughout the nature-religion of the east, and was called by mani-
fold names, such as linga (q.v.), joni, pollear, etc. Originally it had no other n.eaning
than the allegorical one of that mysterious union between the male and female, which
throughout nature seems to be the sole condition of the continuation of the existence of
animated beings; but at a later period, more particularly when ancient Rome had
become the hot-bed of all natural and unnatural vices, its worship became an intoler-
able nuisance, and was put down by the senate on account of the more than u-ual
immorality to which it gave rise. Its origin has given rise to much speculation, but no
certainty has been arrived at by investigators. The Phenicians traced its introduction
into their worship to Adonis, the Egyptians to Osiris, the Phrygians to Atiys. the
Greeks to Dionysus. The common myth concerning ft was the story of some god deprived
of his powers of generation — an allusion to the sun, which in autumn loses its fructify-
ing influence. The procession in which it was carried about was called phallagogia, or
periphallia, and a certain hymn was sung on that occasion, called the Phallikon Melo&
The bearers of the phallus, which generally consisted of red leather, and was attached
to an enormous pole, were the Phallophoroi. Phalli were on those occasions worn as
Phalaris.
Pharaoh.
ornaments round the neck, or attached to the body. Aristotle traces the origin of comedy
1o the ribaldry and the improvised jokes customary on those festivals. Phalli were often
attached to statues, and of a prodigious size; sometimes they -were even movable. At a
procession of Ptolemy Philadelphia, a phallus was carried about made of gold, and 120
yds. long. Before the temple of Venus at Hierapolis there stood two phalli, 180 ft.
high, upon which a priest mounted annually, and remained there in prayer for seven
days. Thy phallus was au attribute of Pan, Priapus, and to a certain! extent also of
Hermes.
PHALLUS, a genus of fungi of the division ga&teromycetes, egg-shaped, the outer cov-
ering at length bursting to permit the growth of a stem, the receptacle which produces
the spores, and which is surmounted by a rudimentary pilevs. The most common Brit-
ish species, P. impudicus or f (etui us, popularly called stink/torn, is as large as a hen's eirg,
growing underground in thickets, and finally sending up a stem 4 to 6 in. high, the fetid
{•mell of which is felt for many yards around. The egg is lull of a jelly-like substance.
The growth of the stem is very rapid, and it soon decays.
PHANAKIOTES. See FANARIOTS.
PHANEROGAMOUS PLANTS (Gr. phaneros, manifest; game, marriage), or Pn^sroo-
AJIOUS (Gr. phaino, to show) PLANTS, are those plants which have true flowers, and in
which the sexual organs (stamens and pistils) are distinctly notable. They are also called
FLOWKKINO PLANTS, being by all these names contradistinguished to cryptogamous
plants (q.v.). The seeds of phanerogamous plants originate from ovules (q.v.). and
already contain the young plant, more or less perfectly formed, Avhich is called the
embryo. Phanerogamous plants are about three-fourths of all known plants. Among
them are included all the larger plants, and all plants of great importance in an economic
point of view. They arc generally divided into monocotyledonous or endogenous plants,
and dicotyledonous or exogenous plants.
PHA'EAOH. The name given by the Hebrews to the monarch ruling in Egypt at the
time, in the same manner as Ctesar was applied to the Roman emperors, and as Khan is
to the Tartar and Shah to the Persian rulers. The word is of uncertain etymology,
being capable of two derivations — viz., either para, "the sun," which is the leading
or first title of all Egyptian monarchs, or the popular expression, piouro, or pJiouro,
"the king." It is even possible to derive it from pa har, "the horus," another title of
Egyptian monarchs. The greatest difficulties have been encountered in attempting to
determine the particular mon-.nchs who pass under this name in the Scriptures. The
first-mentioned pharaoh is the one in whose reign Abraham visited Egypt, who is sup-
posed by some chronologists to have been one of the shepherd monarchs, but nothing
can be offered beyond mere conjecture in support of this theory. Another phnraoh is
the one in whose reign Joseph was brought to Egypt, and who was supposed by Eusebius
to be Apophis. one of the later shepherd kings of the 17th dynasty, who are known from
the monuments to have immediately preceded the 18th. Bunsen, indeed, places the
arrival of Joseph in the reign of Usertesen, or, as he reads his name, Sesertesen I.
of the 12th dynasty, in which indeed a famine is stated in the hieroglyphical
texts to have happened, and in which it appears numerous officers were established
lo take chunre of the grain. Arguments, however, may be adduced for Joseph
having arrived in the time of the 12th dynasty, from the fact of the establishment
of the family of Jacob in the land of Goshen, the importance to which Joseph had
risen, and the omission of the name of any of the principal Egyptian cities in tho
narrative, and the fact of Joseph having married Asenath, the daughter of Potipherah.
priest of Heliopolis, a city evidently the seat of the court under the 12th dynasty, as
Ouar or Avaris was under the shepherds. Equal difficulty is experienced in determin-
ing the pharaoh who reduced the Israelites to bondage, employed them in the labors
of the brick-field, and compelled them to build the treasure-cities of Pithom and
Ramesos. He appeal's to have meditated the total aosorption of the Hebrews into the
Egyptian race. All that is clear from the narrative is that the city of Rameses was
railed after his name, in the same manner as modern forts have been by contemporary
rulers. ISTow frequent mention occurs in the papyri and other texts of the ifafyataht en
Ramcsm, or Tower of Rameses II., which is represented on the walls of Medinnt-Abu;
and this has induced Lepsius and Bunsen to depress the date of the exodus from 1491
B.C. to the close of the 19th dynasty, or after Raineses II., a point controverted by other
chronologists, who wish to elevate it to the middle of the 18th dynasty, or 1732 B.C. To
synchronize the former date, Lepsius takes the rabbinical date of 1314 B.C. for the
exodus, or 1340 B.C. for the birth of Moses. The pharaoh of the Exodus is supposed to
b" Merienptnh or Mencphthes, the son and successor of Rameses II. Philologically.
this explanation is preferable, as the fixed point in the inquiry is the name of the Migdol
of Rameses, found both in the Scriptures and on the monuments of Egypt. Other
pharaohs are mentioned; as the father of Tahpenes, wife of Hadad and mother of Genu-
both; the phnraoh whose daughter Solomon married: pharaoh Nechao, or Is echo II.,
who gave battle to Josiah, king of Judah. whom he slew at Megiddo, and who made
war against the Syrians, defeated them at Magdolus, and took Cadytus or Kat»h. on the
Pharmacopoeia.
Arnnnitt or Oroutes. He was subsequently defeated by Nebuchadnezzar at Curchemish,
607 u.c. Pharaoh llophra, was the L'aphris or A pries of Hie (Wrecks, whose destruction
was prophesied by Jeremiah, and who was strangled 570 n.c. — Hunsen. A
iii. p. 109; L"p-ius, KntUit. p. 317: Nash, The Pint molt of the /v>'W.</.* (.Svo. l,ond. \f\Vl\
PHARISEES (i'<ri*liiii or Per»x}i//n. Separatists), n so-called "Jewish sect," more
correctly, however, a certain Jewish .school, which probably dates as a distinct body or
party from the time of the Syrian troubles, and whose chief tendency it was to n-.-ist all
foreign, chiefly Greek, influences that threatened to undermine the sacred religion of ,
their fathers. They most emphatically took their stand upon the law. toy-ether with
those inferences drawn from its written letter which had. partly from time immemorial,
been eiirrent as a sacred tradition among the people. Out of the small hand of the
Chasidim (q.v.), the Pharisees had taken their rise originally as Clmh, mn, friends, col-
leagues, scholars — in contradistinction to the Ain-l]<n< ,•< •-. or common people — and their
chief object in life was the divine law. its study and further development. Pmicipdly
distinguished by their most scrupulous observance of certain ordinances relaiing to things
clean and unclean, 'they further adopted among themselves various dcinv cs of purily,
the highest of which, however, was scarcely ever reached by any member of their
niunity. For every degree, a special course of instruction, a solemn initiation, and a
novitiate was necessary; all of which, together with a certain distinction in dre--. -• in-
to have been imitated from them by the Esseues (q.v.). The name of Pi.
Pe rush! m was probably at first bestowed upon them in derision by the Sadducti or
Zadokites, the priestly aristocracy and their party, the Patricians, who dilTtr--!
tliem politically, and to some extent also in religious matters. The Pi-. • d no
special "confession of faith," or articles of creed different from the wh< li
Jews. The Bible, as interpreted by the traditional law, was their only cede.
to this law, strictest, observance of all religious and moral duties, submis-ion to the
divine will, full confidence in the wisdom and justice of Providence, firm belief in future
reward and punishment, chastity, meekness, and forl>earancc — these were tl:;
inculcated in their schools. They were, in fact, nothing more or less than 11"
part of the people, who saw in the rigid adherence to the ancient religion, such as it had
developed itself in the course of centuries, the only means of saving and prcscrviri: the
commonwealth, notwithstanding all its intern;;! and external troubles. Hence, they
wished the public affairs, the state and all its political doings, to be directed and
measured by the standard of this same divine law; without any ngard for those aristo-
cratic families who ruled, or at all events greatly influenced the commonwealth. 1
consisted of the priestly families, the Zadokites (Baddvcecs, q.v.), and of the valiant
heroes and sagacious statesmen, who had brought the Syrian wars to a sneer
and had, by prudent negotiations with other courts, restored the nation to
greatness, and, on their own part, had acquired wealth and fame, and freer r.nd witfer
views of life and religion. The latter held the modern doctrine, that religion and stale
were two totally different things; that God had given man the power of taking his
matters into his own hands; and that it was foolish to wait for a supernatural inter-
ference, where energy and will were all that were required. Naturally enough, the
political difference between the two parlies by degrees grew into a religions one, since
the Jewish state was one still completely pervaded by the religious element-
it had begun as a theocracy, and could still, to a certain extent, be called by that <
And the more the Sadducees lost their influence — the people siding with the Phai i
the more the religious gulf must have widened between them; although the dive-.
between them, as far as our authorities — Josephus, the New Testament, and the Talmud
— go, does not seem to have been of a very grave nature. Thus, the Pharisees assumed
the dosrma of immortality, chiefly with a view to a future reward of good and cvi!
in this world; while the "Sadducees, without rejecting— as we are erroneously informed
by Josephus — this dogma in the least, yet held that there was nothing in the Scripture to
warrant it, and, above all. that there was no need of any future reward; at any :aic. that
a pious life with a view to this was not meritorious. While the Pharisees held all the
traditional ordinances in equal reverence with the Mosaic ones, tracing, in fact, n
the former to Sinai itself, the Sadducees rejected, or rather varied M>mc of these accord-
ing to the traditions of their own families: these ordinances chiefly relating to p:
and sacrificial observances, certain laws of purity, and pome parts of the civil law. It
may perhaps even be assumed, with the most recent investigators (chiefly Geigcr). that
the' Pharisees were the representatives of a newer Halacha, dictated by an opposi
and religious and national zeal which carried them far beyond the original i
Certain other legal differences between the two parties, such as the application of the
laws of inheritance to daughters, or of the responsibility of the master for h
are nothing more than political party-views in a religious mask, which were DM ant to
meet certain special isolated cases only. In general, the Pharisees handled justice in a
much milder manner than their antagonists, who took their stand upon the rigid letter,
and would hear of no mercy where a violation of the code was clearly made out. Out
of the midst of the Pharisees rose the great doctors and masters of the law (#j
scribes; nomodidntkaloi, teachers of the law), and to them were intrusted by the later
rulers the most important offices.
K Q q Phari sees.
Pharmacopoeia-
Until recently the greatest misconception has prevailed, even among scholars, respect-
ing tliis self-sacrificing, patriotic, pious, learned, and national party of progress. That
there were among them those who were a disgrace to any party, and, still more, to their
strict one, no one knew better than the Pharisees themselves, and in bitterer words than
were ever used by Christ and the apostles, the Talmud castigates certain hyperpious mem-
ber.-; of their own community as the "plague of Pharisaism." These hypocrites wero
characteristically styled Zebuim [dyed, painted ones], " who do evil deedsjike Zimri, and
require a godly reward like Phmehas." Seven kinds of Pharisees are enumerated in tiie
Talmud, six of whom were not to be counted as real Pharisees — viz., (1) they who did
the will of God for earthly motives; (2) those who made very small steps, or said: Wail
for me — I have still some good deed to do; (3) those who knocked their heads against
walls, lest they mfght look at a woman; (4) tx offitio saints; (5) those who say : tell i^e
of another duty: (6) those who are pious because they fear God. The only genuine
PhKrisee was he "who did the will of his Father in heaven because he loved him.''
Josephus's accounts, distortions in themselves, have, to add to the confusion, been mis-
understood (thus, for example, the word which he uses to designate the three parties,
never meant " sect." as it has invariably been interpreted); and the position of Christ in
relation to the Pharisees can never be understood properly without a full acquaintance
with the circumstances of the time, to which there is no other way than a knowledge of
that literature (the Talmud and Midrash) which has so long been neglected. Christ
found the influence of the Pharisees predominant among the people, although the
Sadilucees (and the Boetlmsians) were in reality the ruling classes and allies of the reign-
ing dynasty. He naturally sided with the democratic party of the Pharisees against that
of the proud opposite camp. As for the religious tendencies of the latter, the Sadducees
(q.v.) — the people had decided that point already practically, by siding with the Phari-
sees. Once only an allusion is made also to the leaven of Herod = the Sadducees
(Mark viii. 15, cf. Matt. xvi. 6). But it was. above all things, necessary to combat the
ever-growing tendency to choke up, as it were, all real piety and genuine virtue of heart
under external ceremonies and observances, which, unless guarded against, v/ill appear,
instead of a mere symbol and memento, the essence of religion itself, and thus become
in time a delusion and bondage, and end in that vile hypocrisy against which the Talmud
fights with all its powers of derision, and Christ inveighs in much more vehement term*
than is his wont. It was not in themselves that these "oral laws" were held up to scorn.
They were a necessary and natural growth, and acted, in the main, beneficially; as is
now fully recognized by scholars of eminence. (For. some further remarks on the sub-
ject, see TALMUD.)
Pharisaism — from which gradually branched off the wild democratical party of zeaMs
(Kannaim), and which for the last time represented political opinions in the revolution
of Bar Cochba — has, from the downfall of the sanctuary, and the final destruction of the
commonwealth, to this day remained the principle representative of Judaism as a creed
only, Sadduceeism dying out, or, at all events, producing only one such sterile plant as
Karaism. See JEWISH SECTS, SADDUCEES.
PHABMACOPCE LA. This term has been applied to various works, consisting for the
niaferia medica, obtained by chemical operations. Almost every civilized countrv of
importance has its national pharmacopoeia, amongst which those of the United States.
France, and Prussia deserve specially honorable notice. The first pharmacopoeia pub-
lished under authority appears to have been that of Nuremberg in the year 1542.
A stuilent named Valerius Cordus, who was staying for a short time at Nuremberg,
showed a collection of medical receipts, which lie had selected from the works of the
most eminent writers, to the physicians of that city, who were so struck with its value
that they urged him to print it for the benefit of the apothecaries, and obtained for his
work the sanction o'f the senatus. Before this time, the books chiefly in use amongst
apothecaries were the treatises : On Simples by Avieenna and Serapion ; the Liber ServiUn-is
of Balchasim ben Aberazerim; the Antidotarium of Johannes Damascenus or Mezuej
arranged in classes; and the Antidotarium of Nicolnus de Salerno, which was arranged
alphabetically. This work was commonly called Nicolaus Magnus; to distinguish it from
an abridgment known as Nicfilaite Pamts.
Confining our remarks to the British pharmacopoeias, we may notice that the first
edition of the London pharmacopoeia (or, more correctly speaking, of the pharmacopoeia
of the London college of physicians) appeared in 1618, and was chiefly founded on the
works of Mezue and Nicolaus de Salerno. Successive editions appeared in 1627, 1635,
1650. 1097, 1721, 1746, 1787, 1809, 1824, 1836, and 1851; and form an important contri-
bution^to the history of the progress of pharmacy and therapeutics during the last two
centuries and a half. The nature and I lie 'number of the ingredients that entered into the
composition of many of the pharmaceutical preparations of the 17th and 18th centuries
would equally astonish most of the practil loners and patients of the present day. In the ear-
lier editions we find enumerated earth-worms, snails, wood-lice, frogs, toads,*puppy dogs,
U. K. XL— 33
Pharmacopoeia. f\CM
Pharynx.
foxes (" a f:it fox of middle age, if you can get such a one"), the skull of a man who had
been liangc'd, the blood of a cat, tin: urine and excrements of various animals, etc. ; and
electuaries were ordeivd, containing 50, C>'2. and in one instance — .Mathiolus, his great
antidote atrainsi poi.-on and pestilence — 1~4 dill'erent ingredienis.
The Edinburgh pharmacopoeia is more modern tlian the London, the first edition
having appeared in 1G'J9; while the Dublin pharmacopoeia docs not daic farther back
than 1807. TJje latest editions of these works appeared in the years 18-11 and
respectively.
Until the medical act passed in 1858, the right of publishing the pharmacopoeias for
England, Scotland, and Ireland was vested in the colleges of physician.-, of London,
Edinburgh, and Dublin respectively ; and as these three piiurmucopuiias contained many
important preparations, similar in name but totally different in siren^ltii (as, for example,
dilute hydrocyanic acid, solution of hydrochiorale of morphia, etc.), dar "inpii
cations arose from a London prescription being made up in Edinburgh, or Dublin^ or
vice versa,. By that act it is ordained that "the general [medical] conned shall cau»e t'j
be published, under their direction, a book containing a list of medicines and compounds,
and the manner of preparing them, together with the true weights and measure*
by which they are to be prepared, and mixed; and containing such oilier m.Jter
and things relating thereto as the general council shall think lit to hecaiied Hritixh J'/uir-
rnacvjheia, which shall for all purposes be d-rmcd to be substituted through"'-;; Gtrcat
Britain and Ireland, for the several above-mentioned pharmacopoeias." The L'ril^k
Pharinacopaui, which appeared in the beginning of the year IN; ise to such
a general feeling of disappointment throughout the whole ranks of the prol'>
(including even the chemists and druggists), that the general council brought out
and amended edition in 1867. This work was a very great improvement on its prede-
cessor, and has been favorably received by the profession.
PHARMACOPOEIA [From Supplement] The Brit-Mi Phfmnaropd'in. published in
1864. had the merit of amalgamating the London, Edinburgh, and Dublin pharma-
copoeias; but it unfortunately contained so many defects, that, in accordance with the
universal wishes both of the medical professon and of the chemists, the medical council
ordered a new edition to be as speedily as possible prepared. This new edition has met
with general favor from the profession; and it is to be hoped that as we have nov.
ceedcd in incorporating three distinct works into one, we may, in the course of a
few years, hope to have a universal pharmacopoeia, or. at all events, one of so general
a nature that the most important medicines of the American, Briti.-h, and chief conii-
nental pharmacopoeias* shall all be of the same strength. The mosi important addiiiona
to the new edition are benzoated lard (used for making suppositories ami ointm.
bromide of ammonium (useful for sleeplessness, and in hysteria and epilepsy), carbonate
of bismuth and solution of citrate of bismuth and ammonia (useful in \\\<- --ai::" cases
ns white bi.-muth), iodide of cadmium (which may be used in the form of ointment
when the yellow color of the skin that follows the application of iodide of lead ointment
is objected to), oxalate of cerium (which, in doses of one or two grains, three times daily,
acts as a sedative and tonic, and is of great value in chronic intestinal irritation, dyspcp-
cia, pyrosis, in chronic vomiting, and especially in the vomiting durir.:.': pregnancy).
flexile collodion (consisting of a mixture of 48 parts of collodion. 2 of Can. da balsam.
and of castor oil, and useful as a protecting coating for burns, ulcers, and in en-sip
glycerines of borax, carbolic acid, gallic acid, tannic acid, and starch (which are u
local applications); various mercurial preparations, as compound ointment of mercury
(which is an imitation of Scott's celebrated ointment for diseased joints), mercury sup-
positories (for thread worms in the rectum), and the black and yellow wa-hes which are
now for the li.-st time made officinal, lozenges of chlorate of potash, tincture of pcllitory or
pyrcfhrum (used locally for relieving toothache), quinine pills and wine, tincture of sumbl
(valuable in 20 minim 'doses as a nervous stimulant in typhoid fever, delirium trcmcns,
etc.). and tincture of green hellebore., or Vnralnun >•!:•!<]> (which, in doses of from 5 to
20 minims, is useful in gout, rheumatism, and neuralgic affections.) -
PHARMACOPOEIA (ante). It may be proper here to make the distinction
between a pharmacopnca and a dispensatory. These terms have been used indis-
criminately, but there is a distinction amonar pharmacists, which is this- the word
pharmacopcpa is derived from the Greek and signiM(>s, ''I make medicine." It in
strictly a collection of recipes or instructions for making various medicinal com-
pounds, or simple preparations, which are also made under the nutho-i'y of a col-
lege or body of medical men, and are termed nfficinnl. A dispensatory is a book which
also treats of the preparation of medicines; but it moreover contains the n iMiral as well
as the medical history of the various medicinal substances. A dispensatorv in addition
to officinal preparations may contain many others, and be published without ofti. ial
authority. A dispensatorv is also to a more or less extent a t resit i-
(q.v.), a branch of medical science which treats of the knowledge and action of mcdi-
*Th<» chief continental phnrmnoopoeias arc the French, which is also used in SwitzorHml; thePru*-
gfan, -which is mostly used iu Germany and Russia; and that of Orosi, which is used in Italy.
. Pharmacopoeia.
Fhiii>uA.
cines, and may either treat of the action of individual medicines or embrace the whole
range of the pharmacopoeia, and occupy itself with the action of every article, simple, or
compound, either upon a healthy or a diseased subject; that i.s to s:iy, it may consider the
physiological as well as the therapeutical action of medicines, therapeutics (q.v.) being
that branch of the science which treats of the action of drugs as iiicd-cincs strictly speak-
ing, or their action in disease, for this is often much different from their action on the
healthy body, or their physiological action. A dispensatory is often, nay it is generally,
a combination of a pharmacopoeia, a materia medica, and a treati.-e on therapeutics, as
far as the latter is not included in materia medica. Tliis depends upon the signification
placed upon the word therapeutics. Its original meaning, as derived from the Greek is
" I wait upon," or "I attend upon the sick," and includes not only the action of medi-
cines but their mode of administration in every respe ct, as regards time, frequency, or
quantity, and the condition in which the patient is to be kept. This, the strict significa-
tion of the word therapeutics, is adopted by many, and of course embraces much of the
practice of medicine. Others regard therapeutics as the science of the action of remedies
only, and this is the way in which the word is generally employed. We have thus, for
the sake of conciseness, briefly discussed this question under one nead. The New York
county and New York state medical societies in 1818 took measures for holding a con-
vention of delegates from various state medical societies and medical colleges, which met
at. Washington Jan. 1, 1820. The action taken then resulted in the appearance i he same
year of the tirst Pharmacupwia in the United States of America, a volume of 272 pages.
The convention made provision for the holding of other conventions for revision every
ten years, and such conventions were held in 1830, 1840, and 1850. The convention of
1860 received delegates from the army and navy, and from various colleges of pharmacy
and pharmaceutical societies. The first edition of the United Mates Dfaftiitatffry was
issued in 1831. It has since that time passed through many revisions, and has become
double its original size, tiil at the present lime it is really an encyclopaedia of therapeu-
tics, pharmacy, and materia medica. Several other excellent pharmacopoeias and dis-
pensatories have been published.
PHARMACY (from the Gr. pliarmacon, a medicine), is that department of malcria
dtC'i (q.v.) which treats of the collection, preparation, preservation, and dispensing of
medicines. It is synonymous with pharmaceutical chemistry.
PHARXABAZUS. b. Greece 5th c. B.C. ; succeeded his father Pharnaccs as satrap of
the l-'eislan provinces about the Hellespont. He assisted the Spartans in 411 in the cap-
ture of A];ydos and Lampsacus, protected them after their defeat at Cyzicus in 409, but
finally became hostile. In 896 he defeated an invading Spartan force under Agesilaus
II., b'nt the next year was defeated by him. Coron came to his assistance from Athens,
find thi'v sailed along the ^Egtean sea, driving oat the Lacedaemonians from the sea-port
towns. His last known action was his unsuccessful expedition to Egypt with the Athe-
ni ,n Iphicratcs in 377 EC.
PHA EOS, n rocky islet off the coast of Egypt, which Alexander the great connected
with Alexandria by 'the Heptastadiurn, or Seven Furlong Mole. The light-house, at its
n.e. point, commenced by Ptolemy I. find finished about 280 B.C.. was looked upon as
one of the wonders of the" world, 'it seems to have been 400 ft. high, and lasted for 1600
years. The fire, constantly kept lighted on its summit, was said to be visible for 40
miles. The island of Pharos became ultimately a suburb of Alexandria by means of a
etreet extending along the me>le. After the time of Julius Ca-sar it relapsed into its
original condition of a mere fishing station.
PHARSA LUS. now FERSALA, anciently a t. of Thessaly, to the s. of Larissa, on the
river Enipcus. a branch of the Peneus (now the Salambria). and historically notable mainly
for the great battle fought here between Caesar and Pompey, Aug. 9. 48 B.C. Pompcy
Iiad about. 45,000 legionaries, 7,000 cavalry, and a great number of light-armed auxili-
aries. Oiosar had 22.000 icgionarie-s, and 1000 German and Gallic cavalry. The battle.
whifh commenced with an attack on Pompcy 's left wing, ended in a complete victory
for Cu:-s:'r. and determined the fate; of the Roman world.
PHAPvYNGOBRAN CHII, a sub-order of dermopterous (q.v.) fishes, characterized by
respiratory processes projecting fre>m above- the pharynx into the large cavity of the
mouth. The pharyngobranchii have no heart, and are the lowest in organization of all
fishes. The species arc very few. See LAXCKLET.
PHARYNGOGNA THI, an order of fishes in the system of Mnllcr and Owen: partly
aw>tf?ni::t,-j-t>i/>i and partly malacopteroui in the system of Cuvicr; some of thern also
ty^oifl, and some ctenoid. Their common characteristic is the union of the lower phar-
yngeals into one bone.
PHAR'YNX (Gr.) is the name of that part of the alimentary canal which lies behind
the nose, mouth, and larynx. It is a musculo-mcmbranous sac, situated upon the cer-
vical portion of the vcrtrebral column, and extending from the base of the skull to th«
level of the fifth cervical vertebra, where it becomes continuous with the o?se>phagu»
(q.v.) Its length is about four inches and a half, it is broader in its transverse than in ite
Pheasant.
596
anteroposterior diameter, and its narrowest point is at its termination in the oesophagus.
oramina or openings communicate with it, vix,. : the two y«w< /•<>//• /.•///v.-.-or nostrils,
:il the upper and front part of the pharynx; the two
F.imliichittu tubes, opening on the outer surface of the pre-
ceding orifices; the mouth; the larynx; and the #*>-
phaeut,
The pluirynx is composed of au external muscular
coat; a middle fibrous coat called the ji/xtrynycal uponcu-
7vwX thick ahove where the muscular coat is absent, and
gradually thinning as il descends; and a wMcvxm-oat, con-
tinuous with the mucous membrane of the mouth and
nostrils. The muscular coat requires special notice. It
18 Composed of S MtfMTtSpr, nu'd<ile. and i/.f( r<'»r cmtxtrirfur
muscle on either side, together with two Ic.v- important
muscles, termed the ttylo-pharyngeal and palato-pharyH*
genl muscles. Whin the food, after being suliicienUy
masticated and mixed with saliva, is thrown, by the action
of the tongue, into the pharynx, the latter is drawn
upwards and dilated in different directions; the elevator
muscles (the stylo-phary ngeal and palato-pharyngeal) then
relax, and the "pharynx' descends; and as soon as the mor-
sel is fairly within the sphere of action of the constrictor
muscles, they successively contract upon it, and gradually
pass it onwards to the oesophagus. Independently of its
importance in the act of swallowing, the pharynx exerts
an influence on the modulation of the voice, especially in
the production of the higher notes.
The pharynx is not so frequently a seat of disease as many
other parts of the intestinal tube. In cases of diphtheria
(q.v.) it is usually the chief seat of the disease. It i* l\:\b'.".
to ordinary inflammation or pharyngitis — an affection
characterized by pain, especially in swallowing, without
redness in the fauces or change of voice. Little in the
way of treatment, except low diet and attention to the
bowels, is required; and the inflammation usually ter-
minates in resolution. Sometimes, however, i-
to suppuration, and abcesses — dangerous partly from
inanition consequent on inability to take food, but. chiefly
from suffocation due to pressure on the larynx — an:
formed. These abscesses are more dangerous in the lower than in the upper part of the
pharynx, and are more common in young children than in adults. The treatment con-
sists in opening the abscess, which gives immediate relief; bnt the operation must bo
conducted with great care, and the incision made as nearly as possible to the mesial line,
inconsequence of the large adjacent blood-vessels.
FHASCO GALE, a genus of marsupial quadrupeds, of whhh one species, P.
cfflata,, about the size of a rat, gray, with long soft hair, and a long tufted tad, is
common in most parts of Australia, lives chiefly in the hollows of decayed trees, and
preys on small animals of every kind. It is much disliked by thn colonists, to whom it
is known as the trtpoa tafa, on account of its depredations in pouJtT -yards and larders.
It is very agile and audacious.
PHASCOLOMY'ID^. See WOMBATS, ante.
PHASE OLUS. See KIDNEY-BEAN.
PHASES (Gr. phasis, appeprancc), the different luminous appearances presented by
the moon and several of the planets, sometimes the whole, a part, or' none, of 'he lumi-
nous surface being seen from the earth. The various phases of the moot-, and the rea-
sons for them, are mentioned under the article MOON Mercury and Venus, being infe-
rior planets, present to an observer on the earth exactly similar phases -f the
moon, but the former require, instead of a month, periods of 116 and 584 days respec-
tively to pass through a complete series of phases. The superior planets, to a certain
extent, exhibit phases, but the luminous surface, as seen from the earth, c.rly varies
from the full illumination seen when they are in conjunction with the earth to n slightly
gibbous appearance, when they attain their greatest elongation; and their distance from
the sun is so great in comparison with that of the earth, as to lender the variation in the.
form of their luminous surface not observable, except in the case of Mars and oc<r>ion-
ally of Jupiter. Galileo was the first to observe the phases of Venus, and he considered
them as one of the most satisfactory proofs of the truth of the Copcrnican system. The
great brilliancy of Mercury, and its nearness to the sun, prevented its phases from be:ng
so easily noticed, but they were at last observed by Masius, and since by many other
astronomers. The term phases is frequently applied to designate the successive sfageo
of an eclipse, lunar or solar.
Fas. I.— The pharynx laid open
from behind:
1, a section of the base of the
skull; 2, 2, the walls of the
pharynx drawn to either side;
3, 8, the posterior nares, sepa-
rated by the vomer; 4, 4, the
extremities of the Eustaehian
tubes; 5, the soft palate; 6, 0. 7,
7, its posterior and anterior pil-
lars; 8, the root of the tongue;
9, the epiglottis overhanging;
10, the opening of the larynx;
11, the posterior part of the
larynx; 12, the opening into the
oesophagus, whose external
surface is seen at 13; 14, the
trachea. — (From Wilson.)
Phascogale.
Pheasant.
PHASIAN ID.2E, a family of gallinaceous birds, including pheasants, argus, Macartney
cock, fowls, impeyans, tragopuns, etc. ; its limits, however, being extended by some
ornithologists. to include peacocks and turkeys (pavonidw), which differ from it by no
very considerable character. The hind toe is placed higher on the tarsus than the trout
toes, so that only the tip touches the ground. The wings are short.
PHA'SIS, a river in Colchis, now called the Riox. It rises in the mountains of Cau-
casus, flows in a generally western direction, and enters the Euxiue near the ancient
city of Phasis.
PHAS MID-Sl (Gr. plia-sma, a specter), a family of orthopterous insects, allied to man-
tidce, but differing iu having the fore-legs similar to the other legs, and used like them
for locomotion, not for combat and prehension, in the want of stemmatic eyes, and iu
the similarity of the first joint of the thorax to the other joints. They are insects of
very extraordinary appearance, inhabiting topical countries, and spending their lives
upon trees and shrubs, the tender shoots of which they devour. Some of them resemble
green leaves; some resemble brown and withered leaves; whilst others, wingless, or
nearly so, and with much elongated bodies — one species nine inches in length — rest-nib!,;
dried twigs. To these peculiarities they owe their safety from enemies, eluding obser-
vation, for their motions are sluggish. Some are known as leaf insects, specter insects,
walking-sticks, etc. The larvae of the phasmidae much resemble the perfect insert.
PHEAS ANT, Phasirinus, a genus of gallinaceous birds of the family pha-siau-idce; hav-
ing a rather short strong bill, a little curved; the cheeks and skin surrounding the eyes
destitute of feathers, and warty; the wings short; the tail long, its feathers so placed as
to slope down, roof -like, on either side, the middle feathers longest; the tarsus of the
male furnished with a spur. The males of all the species are birds of splendid plumage;
the females have shorter tails and dull or somber colors. There are numerous species,
natives of the warm and temperate parts of Asia. The COMMON PHEASANT (P. Col-
chicus) is said to have been brought from the banks of the Phasis, in Colchis, to the
south of Europe, at a very remote period, its introduction being ascribed in classic legend
to the Argonauts. From the Phasis it derived its Greek name phasianos, the origin of
its name in English and other modern languages. It was soon naturalized in Europe,
and is now diffused over almost all the temperate parts of it. The date of its introduc-
tion into Britain is not known, but was certainly before the end of the 13th c. : it has
long been plentiful in plantations and game-preserves, and has been introduced into
almost every part of the country suitable to its habits. The abundance of pheasants iu
Britain, however, is to be ascribed chiefly to careful game-preservation, without which,
the race would in all probability soon be extirpated. No kind of game falls so easy a
prey to the poacher.
A minute description of the common pheasant is unnecessary. The head and neck
of the male are steel-blue, reflecting brown, green, and purple in different lights; the
back and wings exhibit a fine mixture of orange-red, black, brown, and light yellow; the
breast and belty are golden-red, each feather margined with black, and reflecting tints of
gold and purple. The whole Icnsrth of a male pheasant is about tS ft., of which the tail
often measures 2 feet. The entire length of the female is about 2 feet. The general
color of the female is pale yellowish-brown, varied with darker brown, the sides of the
neck tinged with red and green. The ordinary weight of a pheasant is about 2 pounds
and a half; but when pheasants are abundantly supplied with food, and kept undis-
turbed, they are sometimes 4 pounds or 4 pounds and a half in weight. The pheasant,
unlike the partridge, is polygamous.
The nest of the pheasant is on the ground, and is a rude heap of leaves and grasses, in
which eleven or twelve olive-brown eggs are laid. But in the half-domesticated state in
which it exists in many English preserves, the pheasant does not pay that attention to its
eggs and young which it does when more wild, and not unfrequently continues to lay
eggs for a Considerable time, like the domestic fowl, the eggs being removed by the
gamekeeper, and hatched by hens, along with eggs from nests found among clover and
hay in the season of mowing. Very young pheasants must be carefully supplied with
ants, eggs, maggots, etc., and the whole difficulty of rearing them is in their earliest
stage. Pheasants feed very indiscriminately on berries, seeds, roots, young shoots of
plants, worms, insects, etc. Beans, pease, corn, and buckwheat are frequently thrown
for them in open places in woods; and they scrape up bulbous and tuberous roots in
winter. They roost in trees at no great height from the ground, and poachers sometimes
capture them by burning sulphur below them. During the moiling season, they do not
ascend trees to roost, but spend the night on the ground, when they fall a ready prey to
foxes. They are fond of woods with a thick undergrowth, in which, when disturbed,
they naturally seek shelter, running whilst it is possible, rather than taking flight. The
male pheasant takes flight much more readily than the female, which, apparently trusting
to her brown color to escape observation, often remains still until the sportsman is almost
upon her. The males and females do not associate together except during the breeding
season, but small numbers of one sex are often found in company. The "short crow"
of the male* begins to be heard in March. In England and Scotland pheasant-shooting
legally begins on Oct. 1, and ends on Feb. 3. The pheasants turned out from the game-
keeper's breeding yard into a preserve, are in general supplied with abundance of food
Pheasant-shell.
Pfedpk.
during winter, and come to the accustomed call as readily as any kind of poultry, so
that the sportsmanship of ;: buitue, in which they arc killed 'by scores or hundreds, "is of
the lowest kind. It is scarcely necessary to mention that thfe flesh of the pheasant is in
very high esteem for the table.
The female pheasant, in old age, or when from any cau.--e incapable of the function*
of reproduction, sometimes assumes the plumage of the male. The pheasant exhibits a
remarkable readiness to hybridize with oilier gallinaceous birds. A hybrid between it
and the common fowl is not unfrequent. and is called a pt.ro. Hybrids betv. (en the
pheasant and black grouse have also occurred; and hybrids are supposed to have bten
produced between the pheasant and guinea-fowl, and the pheasant and turke\. None
of these hybrids, however, have ever been known to be fertile, except with one oi' the
original species. On the contrary, the offspring of the common pheasant and the HI.NC.-
NKCKKD PHEASANT (P. torquatit*) is perfectly fertile, a circumstance which is urged in
argument by those who regard them as mere varieties of one species. The ring-necked
pheasant is now almost as plentiful in Britain as the common pheasant, it is a native of
the forests of India and China, and is said not to breed with the common phe: san! in a
truly wide state, but in Britain they readily intermix. It is distinguish* d by a while
ring almost surrounding the neck, and is of smaller size than the common pheasant,
somewhat different in markings, and has a shorter tail. — The I'-ciu MIAN PHKASANT is
another variety of a silvery-gray color. — White pheasants are of not very untrcquent
occurrence. — Of other species of pheasant may be mentioned DIAKD'S PHKASANT (/'. ft Tri-
color), a native of Java, in which the prevailing color is green; and KKKVKS'S PHKASANT
(P. Reevexii), a native of then, of China, in which white is the prevailing color, and the
tail is of extraordinary length, so that a bird not larger than the common phc:isMit meas-
ures 8 ft. in entire length. Of somewhat different type, and more nearly approaching to
the common fowl, are the GOLDEN PHEASANT ( P. ptetus, or thaitmaliti p'rin) ! mi Hi; MI.-
VER PHEASANT (P. or gaUophanis nycf/inn<r>n>\ both natives of China, and both hardy
birds, the introduction of which into British preserves has been attempted wilb g«< d
prospect of success. Both have long been kept in a state of domestication by the
Chinese. The golden pheasant is one" of the most splendid of the tribe. It has a tine
crest, and a ruff of orange and black, capable of being erected at pleasure. The tail is
very long. The crest and ruff are held in great estimation by anglers for making arti-
ficial flies. — LADY AMIIERST'S PHEASANT (P. or thaumalia Amfier&tio-) is a native of China,
resembling the golden pheasant, and with an extremely long tail. — The silver pheasant is
one of the largest and most powerful of the tribe, and very combative, driving the common
pheasant from preserves into which it is introduced. The prevailing color of the upper
parts and tail of the mail is white, finely penciled with black, the breast and belly pur-
plish-black.— The name pheasant is sometimes extended to gallinaceous birds of allied
genera.
PHEASANT-SHELL, PJtasianelln, a genus of gasteropodous mollusks of the family
turbinidoe, of which the shells are much valued for their beauty, and when they were
rare in collections, were sometimes sold for extraordinary prices. They are now com-
paratively cheap and plentiful, being found in great numbers on some parts of the Aus-
tralian coast.
PHEIDIAS. See PHIDIAS, ante.
PHELPS, a co. in s.e. central Missouri, watered by Maramee and Gasconade r:
and Bourbeuse creek, crossed by the Atlantic and Pacific railroad, about 650sq.ni. ; pop.
'80, 12,565 — 11,729 of American birth. The surface is hilly with many low valleys, and
heavily wooded. The soil is fertile. The principal productions are corn, wheat, tobacco,
oats, and hay. Iron and lead are found. There are flour, saw, iron, and woolen mills.
Co. seat, Rolla.
PHELPS. a co. in s. Nebraska, bounded on then, by the Platle river; 560 sqm.;
pop. '80, 2,447 — 1516 of American birth Co. seat, Phelps.
PHELPS. ALMIRA (HART LINCOLN); b. Berlin. Conn., 1793: daughter of Samuel
Hart, a descendant of the rev. Thomas Hooker; educated under the direction of h< r -i-
ter Mrs. Emma Willard: became principal of the Sandyhih (X. Y.) seminary for girls.
In 1817 she married Simeon Lincoln, editor of the Connecticut Mirror. After her hus-
band's death in 1823 she conducted the seminary in Troy, N. Y.. jointly with her
In 1831 she married the lion. John Phelps of Vermont. In 1830 she nturr.id to her
favorite vocation, and took charge of a seminary at West Chester, Penn., and subse-
quently taught in Rah way, N. J. In 1841-56 she' conducted the Pa taps'.-) institute, fof
7 years associated with her husband, who died in 1848. She has edited the P«"
Magazine and published books on chemistry, geology, and botany for the use of young
students, and lectures on the sciences, translations, etc.
PHF-LPR. ANSON GRRF.NE. 1781-18r>3; b. Conn ; removed to Hartford at the age of
18: estab'ished himself in the saddlery business, which he bad learned. In 1
removed to New York, and engaged as a merchant in tin plate and heavy metals. He
accumulated a large fortune, partly by investments in real estate, and devoted a large
part of his property to benevolent objects, lie was president of the blind asylum, the
American bourd of commissioners for foreign missions, and the New York brunch of
KQQ Pheasant-shell.
Pnelps.
the colonization society. He bequeathed to religious and charitable institutions £371,000,
and entrusted to his son a fund of $100,000, the interest of which he was to dispose of
iu charity.
PHELPS, AUSTIN, D.D., b. Mass.. 1820; graduated at the university of Pennsylvania
in 1837; studied theology at Andover and New Haven; was pastor of Pine street Congre-
gational church, Boston" 1842-48; became Burtlett professor of sacred rhetoric in Andover
theological seminary in 1849, which position he has retained till recently — having retired
from i'ull discharge of its duties because of impaired health. He is the author of T/M
Still Hoar; The New Birth; and was one of the compilers of the Sabbath Hymn Book.
He is an exceedingly careful writer, a clear thinker, an impressive preacher. His fault-
less taste iu English style, and the deeply devotional spirit of his writings, with his
evangelical liberty in theology, have given great value to his training of successive
classes of students for the ministry.
PHELPS, BENJAMIN KINSMAN; 1833-80; b. Mass.; son of the rev. Dudley Phelps,
a Congregational minister; graduated at Yale college in 1853; admitted to the bar at
Poughkeepsie, N. Y., in 1855. and in 1856 commenced practice in New York, forming
a partnership with Sherman W. Knevals which continued till his death. In 1866 he
was appoinied assistant to the United States district attorney, Samuel G. Courtney. He
held the .same office under Edwards Pierrepout, and for a short tune under Noah Davis.
In 1870 he returned to private practice, and became prominent in politics. In 1872 ho
received the republican nomination for the office of district attorney, and was elected by
a largo majority. He rapidly gained a reputation for ability and sound judgment. In
1875 he was re-elected by a majority of 27,000 over the democratic candidate, and in
1878 elected for the third 'time by a very large majority over recorder Smyth. In court
Mr. Phelps was always fair and courteous to opposing counsel, had perfect command of
his teinp;-r, was a convincing speaker before a jury, always presenting his facts with a
quiet manner and in plain language. He accomplished avast amount of work, and
during his term of office conducted many of the most celebrated cases in the criminal
annals of the city. He was a member of the union league and university clubs, vice-
president of the New England society. His religious connection was with the Broad-
way Tabernacle church.
PHELPS, ELIZABETH STUART, 1815-52; b. Mass. ; daughter of prof. Moses Stuart, of
Andover theological seminary, and wife of prof. Austin Phelps of the same institution.
She published T/te Sunny Side ; Peep at Number Five ; Tell- Tale ; Angel over tlie Right
Shoiilde-r; and The Last Leaf from Svnuy-Side. Her literary work, published and unpub-
lished, showed some inheritance of her father's genius.
PHELPS, ELIZABETH STUART; b. Mass.. 1844; daughter of prof. Austin Phelps of
Andover. Sh;.- has published Ellens LM; Up Hill ; Tiny; Mercy Gliddon's Woi'/c ; The
Gypsy Seriex, 4 vols. ; Tiny's Sunday Night; I Don't Know How ; Gates Ajar; Hedged
In; Men, Women, and Ghazts ; ihe Silent Partner; and Stor-y of Avis. She lias also
contributed rna'iy articles to periodicals. Her books have gained great popularity —
Gi'ifra Ajai' reached 20 editions in a year. They show original thought — which does
not need to seek the peculiarity of expression which occasionally appears; a sympathy
with the perplexed and baffled; keen and quick perceptions with rapid framing of con-
clusions; moral earnestness which leads to a certain unusual daring; and a deep longing
to solve some intellectual problems and redress some social wrongs which the world has
failed to deal with aright.
PHELPS, JOIIN WOLCOTT, b. Vt., 1813; graduated at West Point, 1886; received
his 21 lieut's. commission in the 4th artillery and served in Florida, and in Mexico where
he distinguished himself in the battles of Contreras and Churubusco. He was made a
member of a board for instruction in heavy artillery practice, and in 1850 was made
capt. and placed in command at fort Brown, Texas, where he was instrumental in
breaking up the filibustering expedition against Mexico. In 1859 he resigned and became
u resident of .Brattleboro, Vt. At the outbreak of the rebellion he became col. of the
1st Vermont volunteers, was made a brig.gen. of volunteers, and attached to Butler's
New Orleans expedition. He resigned in 1862 on account of gen. Butler's dissatisfac-
tion with his conduct in drilling and enlisting negro soldiers — a policy afterward
adopted. He has since resided "in Brattleboro, has been an officer of the Vermont
historical society, and has written Secret Societies, Ancient and Modern.
PHELPS, OLIVER, 1749-1809; b. Conn. ; engaged in business at Suffield, Conn., and
Granville, Mass., and acquired a considerable fortune. In the revolution he held the
position of commissary general. In 1788 he and Nathaniel Gorham bought from the state
of Massachusetts over 2,000,000 acres of land now comprised in Ontario and Steuben
counties, N. Y. : and in 1795 with several associates he bought the tract in Ohio afterward
known as the western reserve, including about 3,300,000 acres. His system of land sur-
veys and sales was very complete, and has largely been followed in laying out the public
lands. He settled in Canandaigua, was member of congress, 1803-5, and for some years
judge of the U. S. circuit court.
PHELPS, WILLIAM FRANKLIN, b. N. Y., 1822: educated at the state normal school,
and graduated at Union college in 1851. He was connected with the normal schools at
Phclps. ftAA
J'heuicia.
Bcverley, N. Y., and "Winnnn, Minn. : find in 1875 was fleeted president of the national
teachers* association. Ho has published manuals and handbooks for the use ot teacheis.
PHELPS, WILLIAM WALTER, b. N. Y., 1839; educated ;it Yale, where lie graduated
in 1860. lie studied law at the Columbia law school; began practice in .New York eiiy.
nnd afterward occupied positions of responsibility in several hanks and oilier corpora-
lions. In 1K73 he was elected a member of the Yale corporation. He was sent to con-
gress from New Jersey in ]S7:i, but failed to receive a re-election in 1875. lu April,
1881, pres. Garfield sent in his name to the senate as minister to Austria.
PHENI CIA (Gr. Phoinike, derived either from pftoiiion, purple, or pliot'iiis. palm-tree —
both designations descriptive of the chief produce of the country; the Hebrew term
kf.naan, lowland. referring to its physical condition) is the name given by the Greeks aud
Komans to a certain territory situated about :543— 86° n. lal., bounded by tlie Medilerra-
nean on the w., by Syria to the n. and e., and Jud;ea to the south. Except where the
Mediterranean set a natural boundary, the frontiers differed widely at different periods,
n , s., and e., according to the gradual rise and decline of the country. Its length may
be said to have been about 200 in., while its breadth never exceeded ','() in., making a
total of about 3,000 sq. miles. We may here mention some of the products of the -.oil.
the exportation of which, toa certain extent, laid the foundation of her greatness. Pine,
fir, cypress, cedars, terebinths, palm and rig-trees, sycamores, olive-trees, and acacias,
crown the heights; while wheat, rye, and barley are found in the lower regions, together
not only with ordinary fruit, but also with apricots, peaches, pomegranates, almond-!.
citrons, sugar-cane, grapes, bananas — all growing luxuriantly, and forming a forest of
finely -tinted foliage. The land further yields silk and cotton, indigo and tobacco; and
the modern inhabitants of Shur, like their forefathers of old, drive a profitable tralli-:
with the produce of Mount Lebanon, its timber, wood, and charcoal Flocks of sheep
and goats, and innumerable swarms of bees, supply meat, milk, and honey. The sea
furnished shoals of fish, and moilusks for the purple of Tyre. There are no precious
metals found anywhere in Phenicia; but it is rich in iron, and the stone-quarries of
Lebanon were already worked in Solomon's time.
The question of the origin of the Phenicians is one which has hitherto not been
solved satisfactorily. Their own account, as preserved by Herodotus, speaks of their
having immigrated from the "sea called Erythra;" a report further confirmed by
another passnge in his history, and by Justin. Strabo speaks of two islands in the Per-
sian gulf, called Tyros or Tylos and Aradus, in which temples were found similar to
those of the Phenicians; and the inhabitants of these cities stated that the Phenicians
had left them in order to found new colonies. The Erythrcan sea, in its widest tense.
extends from the eastern shores of Egypt to the western shores of India; an i si nee Gen-
esis calls Canaan, the founder of the race, a descendant of Ham. not of Shem. some
investigators have come to the conclusion that the Persian or Arabian gulf is the original
home of the Phenicians. Against this notion, however, weighty arguments have be, a
brought forward, both from the genuine traditions of the people itself, as pres -rved.
not in a corrupted Greek shape, but in their myths, in the biblical accounts, in their
language, which even in its very oldest remnants (Canaan = lowland; Sidon = fishing
place; Giblites = mountain-people) is purely Semitic. It would be vague to speculate
QII the time at which the first Pheuician settlers entered the country : as vague as to
conjecture — the Erythrean sea being put out of the question — whence they came. So
much seems certain, that they did not enter it from one region, but from several *!<!• s,
and at various periods; and that only very gradually, in the course of long pre-hisioric
centuries, they grew into one nationality, embracing the tribes that inhabited the sea-
coast, or Phenicia proper, from Sidon to G:i7.a, and the cities n. of Sidonia. The latter
term included the many separate states originally formed by the various (]<-n<tx who
again, originally, had their own political existence, laws, and even worship. Gradually,
however, the larger communities extended their rules over the smaller ones, or rather
combined with them for the formation of a more imposing and important state, into
which the different states were merged, without, however, giving up their own individual
existence or cultus entirely. The most important of these special tribes or states were
the inhabitants of Sidonia — a term, however, expressive both of the inhabitants of the
city and of the whole country — the Tyrians, whose settlement, according to their own
traditions, was prior to any other Phenician settlement (about 2.750 B.C.): and Arndus,
founded, according to the native traditions, by Arvadi, "the brother of Sidon." From
these three tribes — of the Sidonians collectively — are to be distinguished the Giblites
with their two sovereignties of Byblus and Berytus, who differed in many respects from
the former, and who. it may be presumed, formed at first the ruling state of Phenicia.
until they were brought under Sidonian dependency. Several smaller tribes or state*
are mentioned in scripture — Arke, Sin. Hamath, etc.— but little is known about them.
Of the government and internal constitution of these states or cities, we know next
to nothing. There were hereditary monarchs riding over Sidon, Tyrus, Byblus. Berytus.
and Aradus, for whose confirmation, however, the assent of the people was ncces-ary in
all cases. By the side of the king stood a powerful assembly, composed of representa-
tives of the old aristocratic families of the land, whose numbers differed at various per
jods. When Tripolis was founded by Tyrus, Sidon, and Aradus, as a place of joint
A01 Phelps.
Phenicia
meeting for their hegemony, every one of these cities sent 100 senators to •vvatch her spc
cial interests at the common meeting; and the senate of Sidon seems, iu the 4th c r».c.,
&t least, to have consisted of 500 — tiOO elders, some of whom were probably selected
more for their wealth than for their noble lineage. The king sometimes combined in
his person the office of high-priest. The turbulent seething mass of the people, consisting
of the poorer families of Phenician descent, the immigrants of neighboring tribes, the
strangers, and the whole incongruous mass of workmen, tradespeople, sailors, that must
have abounded in a commercial and maritime nation like the Phenicians, and out of
whose midst must have arisen at times influential men enough— was governed, as far as
we can learn, as " constitutionally" as possible. The unruly spirits were got rid of in
Roman fashion somehow in the colonies, or were made silent by important places being
intrusted to their care, under strict supervision from home. Only once or twice do we
hear of violent popular outbreaks, in consequence of one of which it was mockingly said
that Phenicia had lost all her aristocracy, and what existed of Phenicians Avas of the
lowest birth, the offspring of slaves. As the wealth of all the world accumulated more
and more iu the Phenician ports, luxury, and too great a desire to rest and enjoy their
\veallh iu peace, induced the dauntless old pirates to intrust the gnaid of their cities to
the mariners and mercenary soldiers, to Libyans and Lydians— "they of Persia and of
Lud and of Phut," as Ezekiel has it; although the wild "resistance winch this small ter-
ritory offered in her single towns to the enormous armies of Assyria, Babylonia, and
Greece, shows that the old spirit had not died out.
The sources for the early Phenician history are of the scantiest description. Of the
annals and state documents which filled the archives of every large city, nothing has sur-
vived except a very doubtful record, which Sanchuniatho (q.v.) is said to have complied,
about 1250 B.C., in Phenician from official documents, and which was translated into
Greek by Philo of Byblus, and a fragment of which is preserved by Eusebius. The
Bible, principally Ezekiel, Menander of Ephesus, and Dins, a Phenician. who wrote the
history of Tyre from Tyrian annals, fragments of which are extant in Josephus and
Syncellus, Herodotus, Diodorus, Justinus, and others, together with a very few notes
scattered throughout the church fathers, contain the sum of all our information. Four
great periods, however, are clearly distinguishable in the histoiy of ancient Phenicia
The first would comprise the earliest beginnings and the gradual development of the
single stales and tribes, from their immigration to the historical time when Sidon began
to take the lead, or about 1500 B.C. The second period dates from the conquest of Pales-
tine by the Hebrews. Sidon had then become already the "first-born of Kanaan." as
Genesis lias it, or "Sidon Kabbah." the great Sidon. The flourishing state of its com-
merce and manufactures appears likewise from several passages in Homer. The silver
vare proposed by Achilles as a prize in the funeral games in honor of Patroclus, was a
work of the "skillful Sidoninns;" the garment Hecuba offers as a propitiatory gift to
Minerva was the work of Sidonian women. The gold-edged silver bowl given to
Telemachus by Menelaos. Hephaistos had received from the king of the Sidonians
Ulysses is left on the island of Ithaca by the Phenicians, who sail away to "well-peopled
Sidonia." The gradual ascendency of 'the rival city of Tyre marks the beginning of the
third period, in which Phenicia reaches the height of its power, in which her ships
covered all the seas, her cdrnmerce embraced the whole earth, and her innumerable
colonies flourished .far and near. The first historically-recorded item of Tyre's activity
is her foundation of Gades, a few years before that cf Utica, iu 1100 B.C. The reason
of the sudden greatness of Tyre is to be found in the defeat of the Sidoninns by the king
of "Askalon" — a term proba'bly meant to represent the whole pentapolis of Philistia —
about the year 1209; in consequence of which, the principal families of Sidon "emi-
grated in their ships to Tyre, which (vis., the Island-city) they founded." In the llth
c., in the time of Samuel,' " the princes of the Tyrians" are already spoken of instead of
the Sidonians, as the representatives of Phenicia. During the reigns of David and
Solomon— under Hiram (980-917)— the friendliest relations existed between the two
nations, both in the full bloom of their power. Each country needed what the other
could supply. H-ence their close alliance, which led even to common commercial enter-
prises in shfps built by Solomon, the supercargoes of which belonged to him, while the
mariners and pilots were Hiram's.
By this time, Phenician colonization had reached its utmost extent. In the space of
three centuries (1300-1000), the Phenicians had covered all the islands and coasts of
the Mediterranean with their forts, their faptories, and their cities; and their ships,
•which plowed the main in all directions, everywhere found their own ports. They had
colonized Cyprus, thus commanding the waters of the Levant and the coasts of Syria
and Cilicia. " Kithion, Amathus (Hamath), Karpasia. Paphos, with its magnificent tern
pie of Ashera, Keryueia, and Lapothos, were some of their principal settlements in those
regions. Northward, on the coast of Cilicia, they founded the cities of Myriandros,
Tarsos, and Soloi. Migrating to the west, they took possession of Rhodes. Crete (cf. the
myth of Zeus and Europe), Melos, Thera, Oliafos (near Paros), and Cythera, on the coast
of the Peloponnesus. To the east of the ^Egean, we find them at Erythrae, and further, as
masters of the islands of Samothrace, Lemnos, and Thasos with its wealth of gold mines.
The yEgean sea, with all its islands, being in their hands, they sailed thence further
west, to Sicily, where they settled at Motye, on the extreme w. point; founded Rus
Phenicia. 602
»
Mulkurt.li. in the s. (Heraclea Minoa); in the n., Maehanath (Panormos, Palermo), and
further, Melite (Malta) and Gaul.js. They owned CaruIIfi (Cagjiari) in Sardinia. Minorca,
Ivi/a (El)iiso.-). Elba; on the opposite, or African coast, Hippo, Utica, UadrumctiMn,
Lepiis, and sonic minor island states. From Sardinia and Minoiva, ihc indefatigable
mariners went still further w. — through ihe strair of Gibraltar to Taishish (tiic Cali-
fornia of those days) or Sp;Xn, wnere they founded Gacleir or Cadiz, and in the s.,
Kartcja, Malaka, and Alnlarach. From here, having coioni/.cd well-nigh ihr whole of
the Spanish coast, they went northward to the tin islands (Scilly i-ie.-.), and to Britain
herself. And while thev thus explored the regions of the Atlantic, their alliance with
the Hebrews had permitted them to Jind the way to the Indies by the lied sea.
The impulse given to industry ami the arl;: by this almosi unparalleled extension of
their commercial sphere, \vas enormous. Origfnally, exporters or traders only for tlm
wares of Egypt and Aseyria, they soon began lo mauufacuire these wares themselves,
and drew tlie whole world into their circle of commerce. As 10 the early and must
extensive comnMivial intercourse between Phenicia and Greece and her colours, nothing
can be more striking than the circumstance of nearly all the Greek names for the princi-
pal objects of oriental commerce being Pheuician, or rather Semitic— identical almosi
with the terms found in the Old Testament. Thus, of spices — myrrh, cassia, cinnamon,
gal!), mum, narde, aloe, CIXK us. nitron, balsam, etc.; of jewels and precious stones — sap-
phire, j.isp,'r, smaragdos; of tine materials, and garments, byssus, karpasos, sindon. etc. ;
musie.al instruments — nabla, tympanon. sambyke, etc.; oriental plants, vessels, and even
writing implements. The wealth of silver, iron, tin, and lead was elderly got from Tar-
tessns. The descriptions of the abundance of precious metals there verge on the fabulous.
Thus the Phenicians are supposed to have mad'.' even their anchors of silver, when they
first discovered the country, not knowing how to stow away all the silver in their 768861.
What must have been the state of these mines i.s clear from the fact that, even in the
Roman time, 40,009 men were constantly employed as miners, and the state received a
clear revenue of 20,500 drachmas daily. The " Fortunate islands," which, according to
Diodorus, they discovered after many days' .sailing along the coast of Africa, beyond tho
strait of Hercules, and which to judge from the name Purpurarife given to snme islands
off the coast of Mauritania, would seem to have been the Canaries, yielded them tho
shell-fish purpura, so useful for their dyeing manufactories. Besides their whole-aie com-
"meree carried on by fleets and caravans, they also appear to have gone about the inteiior
of Syria and Palestine retailing their home or foreign produce.
Although the Phenicians were erroneously believed, by the w; stern tribes, to manu-
facture all the wares in which they dealt themselves, yet ho inconsiderable number of
them was really their own work. None of their manufactures, however, stood in so hiirh
repute throughout antiquity as the purple dye prepared from the muricida-. a shell fish
of its coast; and none excelled more in it than the Tyrians. Purple was an almost
indispensable luxury of antiquity, particularly in Asia. In temples and palaces for gods
and men, purple garments, hangings, curtains, and vails were needed; and Alexander
the great found in Susa alone a store of purple worth 5.000 talents. Sidon's principal
production was glass— invented there, it was said, by accident; but probably the inven-
tion was derived from Egypt, where it was in use long before; the Phenician glass,
however, was always supposed to be the best. The Sidonians knew the u-e of most of
our own contrivances — the blowpipe, the lathe, and the graver. Hardly less great waa
the fame of Pheuician metallurgy. Their mining operations in the Lebanon and Cyprus
whereUhey dug for copper; in Thasos, where, according to Herodotus, they overturned
a whole mountain in searching for gold; but more particularly in Iberia, where at first
silver was so abundant that hardly any labor was required to obtain it — were stupendous;
and the minute description of. the mining process contained in Job (chap, xxviii. 1-11)
has probably been derived from a sight of Pheniciaii mining- works. That they well
understood how to work the metals thus gained, has been observed already. The* art of
founding brass must, indeed, have reached a high perfection to enable Hiram Abif
to execute such works for Solomon's temple as they are described in the Bible. No less
were they familiar with the art of imitating precious stones, and coloring glass by means
of metallic oxides. To Sidou is further attributed the pre-eminence in the glyptic and
plastic arts; and the artists sent by Hiram to Solomon were skillful workers in gold and
silver, in brass, in iron, in purple and in blue, in stone and in timber, in fine linen, and
the engraving of precious stones. Their architecture seems to have been of a Cyclopean
nature. Their vessels, originally simple rafts, gradually developed — with the aid of the
Lebanon, which afforded inexhaustible supplies of timber, and Cyprus, which possessed
all the materials necessary for fitting up a ship, from the keel to the sails — into a first-
rate fleet, consisting of round ships, or gauli, for short or coasting voyages; war-ualleys,
or triremes; and fifty-oared craft, long in build, and adapted for rapid sailing or rowing.
The internal arrangement of these vessels was perfect, and excited the wonder and admi-
ration of the Greeks, by their being so splendidly adapted at, once for navigation, freight,
and defense. Their extraordinary three years' voyage of discovery, undertaken in the
service of Necho. round Africa, going out of the Kcd sen. and returning by the way cf
the strait's mouth, is as well known as their voyages in the service of Solomon.
The golden age of Phenicia, during which her colonies, her manufactures, and her
commerce were in tj)is most brilliant pha.se, seems to have waned simultaneously almost
603
Phenicia.
with that of Judea. As Solomon in the latter, so does'Hiratn in the former, mark the end
of that peace and happiness which had made their countries rich -and glorious, as no other
country of their day. According to a fragment preserved in Menander, Hiram was fol-
lowed by his son Baleastartus, who died after a short reign of seven years, in 940 B.C., and
a long series of political calamities and civil wars ensued. The last of Hiram's sous,
Phelctus, fell, in 898, by the hands of Ithobaal, the priest of Astarie. into wliose family
now passed the kingdom of Tyie. He is the Ethbaal mentioned in Scripture ;is the
father of Je/,ebcl, and father-in-law of Ahab; and a peculiar coincidence is the .simultane-
ous mention ol tiie three years' drought in Judea (to which an end was put by Elijah's
prayer) and in 1'iuriiicia, where relief was obtained by Ithobaal. who seems to have stood
in the odor of sanctity. It was during this unhappy period that the celebrated Elissa,
better known as queen Dido (q.v.), fled, together with some of the most aristocratic
families of Sidou, to Libya, where they founded a new city (Kartachadata = Carthage),
near the spot of an ancient Sidouian settlement, about 8i3 B.C. The fourth and last
period of Phenieian history may be dated from the middle of the 8th c.. when Shal-
maneser, the liing of Assyria, invaded Phenicia, and besieged Tyre for live years, but
without result; and there is every reason to believe that the peace concluded at the end
of this period was very favorable to Tyre. But soon afterwards, Pheuicia was drawn
into the struggle for the supremacy then raging between Gh&ldea and Egypt, and
was conquered by the former power. A further calamity befell Phenicia at the hand of
Pharaoh-Apries, who anticipated Nebuchadnezzar's intended attack on Egypt by destroy-
ing the Phenician- fleet, conquering the country, and pillaging it. These calamities pro-
duced a series of internal troubles, in consequence of which the constitution was con-
stantly changed ; and we hear now of a series of kings, and now of provisional xuffetex —
all their respective reigns, however, being of very brief duration. From that time for-
ward, and even before the special histories of Sidon and Tyre, which alternately pos-
sessed themselves of the hegemony of Phenicia, constitute also the history of the country
itself, and to these two cities we refer for what momentous events took place in the
latter days of the once mighty empire. The battle on the Issus terminated even the
shadow of Pheuicia's independent existence, and it shared the fate of Alexander's vast
empire. In 65 B.C. it became, under Roman dominion, part of Syria, and has since
shared her fate for good or evil. See SYKIA, SIDON, TYKE, CAHTHAGE.
Religion. — With regard to ; e religion of the Phcnicians, its real character lias yet
been imperfectly expiscated. Deprived of all original and direct information on the
subject, we have to cull what scanty notices we may from the works of Greek and Latin
writers, or to gather knowledge from some vague allusions contained in the Bible. Not
a scrap of native literature has been allowed to survive; and tie supposed extracts from
a Greek version by Philo of Sanchuniatho's Phenician works, which we find in Euse-
bjus — hitherto our chief source of information — must be used with more than an ordi-
nary degree of caution. See SANCIIUNIATHO. We shall, therefore, without entering into
futile speculations, confine ourselves to a few general'aud well-ascertained facts; premis-
ing, however, that Phenician theology is far from being a hopeless province, whatever it
may appear now. Excavations are on foot in all directions, both in the mother-country
and in the colonies, and new discoveries are being brought to light constantly.
The religion of the Phcnicians was, like all ancient Semitic religions — except that of
the Hebrews— a kind of pantheistic worship of nature. While monotheism, with the
descendants of Abraham, assumed a supreme power within nature, which, according to
its OWTD freewill, creates and destroys, the rest of the east assumed a dualism: two
elements, a male and female: or two highest deities, one of whom begets, and has the
power to destroy, and the other conceives and bears. These two supreme beings were
sometimes merged in one deity, with male and female .attributes, which spread out into
immense ramifications: representatives now of the general powers of nature, now of tho
particular phenomena in nature, or the life of men. They had deities who ruled over
the stars, the elements, the seasons; over special localities, or over certain phases of life.
No nation of antiquity perhaps possessed a more endless pantheon than the Phenicians:
a circumstance easily explained by their peculiar position and relations. Consisting
originally of a variety of tribes, each of whom had had their own special deities —
although the supreme innnen. or the principle of their chief deity, was probably the same
with all — those Phenicians who dwelt in'the n. differed in some respects, such as the
names and attributes of certain gods, from those of the south. Besides this, it must
not be forgotten that the period of Phenician history ranges over 2,000 years, and their
political career, as well as their commerce, brought them in close and constant contact
with nearly all the civilized nations of the then known world; and being both superstitious
(as sailors and traders are prone to be), and possessed of an adapt ibility to which partly
they owed their success in other respects, they easily, if not greedily, received into their
wide pantheon those who, albeit the special national gods of others, or because of this very
reason, could either harm or benefit them. It may be also that a certain easy nonchal-
ance about these things, such as the wealthy and aristocratic classes displayed in ancient
Rome and elsewhere, and the interests of the priests, who received very considerable
tithes of every sacrifice (oddly enough our information on that point leave.-, nothing to be
desired), went hand in hand to favor the gradual introduction of as many gods and god-
desses as pleased the herd. Their proper divisions, however, their real names and
Phenicia.
604
derivations, and the history and time of their nationalization, arc things which will for-
ever contimie to puzzle iwestigators.
Suiting aside such more or less vague and nude-lined names of deities as we re ( i m-
mon to the whole Semitic stock, ami as they are found in tin- Hebrew records — like Kl
(mighty one), or (in plural) tiliiu; Olltmiiit \tiii;nit} (the most high); Aduu (loid); Mdech
[Moioch] (king); etc. — we rind in the tirst rank of gods (of Tyre and Sidon) Baal (q.v.)
and Astarte (q.v.). Haul again occurs in two different characters, as 'it were— as Hiuthninin
(lord of heavens), the highest god ruling over the universe, 'lie Zeus Olympics, mid. Jupiter
Optimus Maximus; ami as Hnnl MtlLnrlh, the special national iu.mni. l!;:a>; min is
originally identical with the Babylonian Bel or Baal. Tin- third supreme Tyrian goddess
was Astarte, worshiped as the very counterpart of the Sieie-nian Atiarie, While the
latter was considered a pure virgin, whose emblem was the moon, the former (the biblical
Ashera) was propitiated (as Venus, goddess and planet) by prostitution. rl he Tyrian
Astarte was principally known under the name of Tanis (qiv.'). the Assyro Persian TH Dai*,
and was married to Baalsamin, and also to Adonis, and bore altogether the character of a
goddess who delighted in chastity.
The principal deities of northern Phenicia — the uon Sidonian tribes-— consisted of •
different Idas — El, BaaUis, and Adoniis. The first was the supposed i'oundcr of the two
oidest Phcuician cities of Byblus and Beryl us, and corresponded to (being 01 igina.iy.
perhaps, identical with) both Baalsamiu, as the highest deity, and Me-Jkaith. as the
special god of Tyre. Baaltis. Beltis (my lady — Aphrodite), wort-nipt d at B\IMIS.
Berytus, Aphaka, Arke (Archills), etc., was joined to.Adonis (q.v.), -\\ho.-e culius Lad
been imported from Assyria, and is therefore unknown in the more an< ient Phenii 'an
colonies, in Africa and Spain. Byblus called him Adonis Ganas, or Gamm (pcihaps
Gaavan. the exalted); near Byblus, Ave find him worshiped as Ely on (the highest); as
Esniun in Bertyus, and perha])s also under the name of Memnon, at A] an:ea, when an
annual morning-festival was celebrated in his honor; further, near the liver B; nd; > at
Paltos; and at the river Beltis. As Serach (the brilliant) in Pheuician, ;u.d Kharush
(the sun) in Persian, he appears to have had some relation to the star-ami plain t \\oiship
which became, under Assyrian influence, a prominent feature of the Phenician religion.
Besides these more or less localized gods and goddcs.-cs (dii majore»). a certain num-
ber of deities — states and country deities — were worshiped in c< mmon by all Piienician
• states. They were called the children of Sadik (the just), or the I hildien. or the 1'ala'ki
(descendants of Phtha), or the eight Kabiri (strong ones). They are the maritime g< ds,
and their images were placed on the prows of Phenician ships. As protectors of naviga-
tion they are identiiied with the Dioscuri; and again «s representatives of heat, breath,
and life, they received the names of Lares and Penates. Their individual names are
not generally mentioned; they seem (cf Emun = eight lr) to have been merely counted.
Their mode oi worship was most mysterious — as. indeed some of the earliest mysteries
were closely connected with it.
Besides these they also worshiped certain phenomena, personified attributes, and
qualities. Their planetary divinities were the Sun and his four horses — to whe.se worship
belongs, among others, to" a certain extent the annual festival of the resurrection e>t the
(Tyrian) Herakles, under the emblem of a column in the form of a rising flame (ChfiDiAn);
the Moon with her charie>t drawn by white bulls; the planet Mars (Aziz orKergal).
Jupiter (Kochab Baal); Venus (Astoret Naamah = lovely Astarte), with her voluptuous
cultus; and Saturnus (Moloch, Kronos), the evil principle. The elements were revered
either in conjunction with certain deities or on their own account. The water, to which
sacrifices were offered, both in the shape of human beings and animals e>r fruits.
was hallowed in all its shapes — as the sea, as rivers, fountains, lake's — by which pe oplc
took their most solemn oaths; the fire, in connectiem with the oldest deity of Phenicia;
the light (Moloch); the air and the winds; the earth and all its plants, its forests. ai:el
glens, and trees, and more especially its mountains, as the " symbols of the high ones."
or as "faces of God," such as mount Carinel, Lebanon, Antilibanus, and others. Of
animal-worship we have only small traces.
Abstract notions and ideas were not forgotten. The year and the months, day ai el
night. Aurora (Lilith), age and youth, art and love, had their altars Nor were eer
tain professions and trades without their visible patrons. Thus, there are gods of
agriculture and horticulture, like Dagon, the- god of grain; d Dionysos, whose Pheni-
cian name is lost, as the god of wine-growers; a god who is the numcti of fruit-growing,
of pisciculture, of mines, etc. Chthonian gods are not wanting. The god of death —
the king of the lower regions— is Muth = Death (Pluto), who is represented as a small
child. His name was shared by a goddess whose name is vaguely known as Eloti (my
fxldess), and who is occasionally identified with Astarte, Dido, Anna, Persephone,
urn pa. and a great many other deities.
We have already touched upon the mode of worship of the Phenicians, and the
places chiefly selected for their riles. Mountains, heights, rivers, lakes, fountains,
meadows, glens, were, as we said, the favorite habitations of the goels. But the I'he-
nicians were also amongst the first who erected temples. These were generally divjdeei
in two parts, containing the sacred arks (the mystic cists of the Greeks); and the chariots
upon which the sacred objects were at times carried about. Not being intended to be
prayer-houses, but as d \\elling-places for special goels, they were rather small, and did
605
Phenicia.
not even contain the altar upon which the sacrifices were offered. This generally stood
at the entrance of the temple, and around it the priests and hierodouloi danced in their
service. Pure wells and an everlasting fire were the indispensable conditions of a sanc-
tuary. The sacrifices themselves, as far as they consisted of animals, offer great
analogies to those of the Jews; but the Phenicians also offered up human sacrifices — chiefly
first-born male children, as that which the suppliant held dearest — chiefly to Baalsamin,
Btial Hamon, and Astarte. Such human sacrifices, or burnt-offerings took place annu-
ally at the great festivals of expiation, and further on extraordinary occasions, at the
beginning of important enterprises, such as a campaign and in great casualties: in order
to expiate by one sacrifice the sin of all. The same fanaticism which fancied the gods
best pleased by the offering up of what was most precious, led the Pheniciau women,
like the Babjrlonian, to sacrifice their honor in honor of Astarte, on certain occasions so
that certain sanctuaries became hot-beds of prostitution. Circumcision — another kind of
sacrifice — was not common among all the Pheuician tribes, it being a rite principally
sacred to El, the god of Berytus and Byblus.
Of festivals and pilgrimages in general, we have spoken under FESTIVALS, GREEK
RELIGION, etc.; and what has been observed there respecting their character in Poly-
theism (their being to a great extent connected with the births, deaths, resurrections,
and other personal phases of special deities), holds good here. No doubt, these festivals,
like those of the Hebrews, and all other ancient nations, had, beside their religious, also
their political and commercial significance; and Phenicia was more particularly, by the
eminent position she held in the world's trade, a place towards which flocked, on solemn
occasions, pilgrims from all parts of Asia and Africa. " Festival embassies," as they
were called, were dispatched thither from Syria, Arabia, Babylonia, Cappadocia, Cilicia,
Egypt. Armenia; nay, from India, Ethiopia," Persia, and Scythia; and not until the 5th c.
A.D. did these pilgrimages to Phenicia cease entirely. One festival is entirely peculiar
to Tsrre, and strangely enough it is still celebrated by the present inhabitants of Sur —
viz., the "wedding of the land-water with the sea-water." On these occasions, the
people walk in procession to the well near the town-gate, and pour some pails of sea-
water into it, in order to render it clear and sweet again for a long time.
It would be vain to try, with our scanty and adulterated sources, to gain a deeper
insight into the ideas attached to the names, attributes, and modes of worship of the
deities mentioned, or to speculate upon their moral influence upon the people of Phenicia.
That these were pre-eminently practical; that arts and manufactures flourished among
them, more than among any other ancient nation; that they knew how to turn science
into money; that they were, in fact, shrewd men of business;— all this we know, but little
more. Atheists'or pantheists, whichever they must be culled in the modern sense of these
words, it is extremely doubtful whether they, any more than the bulk of the Hebrews
before the exile, believed, as a body, in immortality. . What was their influence upon
Greece, Rome, the whole ancient and modern world, in the province of religious thought,
we shall never have any means fully to ascertain. Comparative mythology has a vast
field to explore in this direction.
Phenician Language and Literature. — With the exception of Greek and Latin, no lan-
guage was so widely known and spoken throughout antiquity as the Phenician; and
monuments of it have been found, and continue to be found, almost all over the ancient
world. We can only vaguely speculate on its early history and its various phases, so
long as our materials yield so little information on that point Its decline seems to date
from the 8th c. B.C.. when Aramaisms crept in in overwhelming numbers. Finally, the
close contact with, and the everywhere preponderating influence of the Greeks, super-
seded— chiefly after Alexander's time — the ancient language almost completely; and even
coin? with Phenician legends occur not later than the~2d c. B.C. — An important Pheni-
cian literature seems to have been extant as late as the 1st c. A.D., but it has disappeared
from the face of the earth. After the second half of the 3d c. , the language had vanished
entirely in the country itself, and Jerome, who lived in Palestine, mentions the Punic,
but never the Pheniciau. In the west, it survived to a much later period In Mauritania
and Numidia, it remained, in a corrupted form, the reigning tongue as late as the 4th c.
A.D. ; and Augustine draws his explanations of Scripture from the Punic current in the
5th century. There was a translation of the whole Bible into Punic made for tne use of
the Punic churches; and in and near Trinolis and Bizanium, it was the language of the
common people up to a late period. From the 6th c., however. U rapidly died out, chiefly
in consequence of the Vandals, Goths, Moors, and other foreign tribes' overrunning the
country, and ingrafting their own idioms upon it.
As a branch of the so-called Semitic family of the Hebrews, Syrians, Arabs, etc., the
Phoenicians naturally are closely related to these also with respect to language. The
affinity of the ''speech of Canaan," as the Hebrew is called sometimes, with the Pheni-
cian was indeed remarked at an early oeriod. Augustine, Jerome, and Priscian pointed
out already — and sometimes in order to back some very peculiar notions — how closely
these two languages and their dialects were allied. Yet it must be obvious at first sight,
that however near the two idioms may originally have stood to each other, the peculiar
relations and fortunes of the two races who spoke them must have produced substantial
changes in thoir structures 'in the course of time. While the ancient scriptural monu-
ments of the Hebrews— outwardly and inwardly — exhibit a rare unity of idiom and form.
Phenlclan.
the ancient hallowed utterance becoming a type and model for the later generations: th«
Phem cians, on llic other hand, not confined within the narrow limits of their home-
country, but mixing freely with all the miHionsof the earth, spreading their own colonies
far and near among them, opened a wide tick! for the " development " of their language,
or rut her for its corruption, by its entering into alliance with Libyan in Africa, Sardinia,
and Spain, aud with Aramaic in northern Phenicia, Cilicia, and perhaps even in Cyprus.
Thus it came to pass that the two languages which originally may have h"cn identical
in old Canaan became more and more widely divergent. To enter into a more detailed
disquisition on this or other cognate points, we deem more ha/ardou.-> now than wo
should have thought it ouly a very lew years ago; for the more ample our discoveries in
Pheuician literature have become of late, the more it becomes evident that we are oulj
at the commencement, as it, were, of Phenician philology.
What we said of the structure of the Hebrew language (q.v.), also holds good for
Pheniciau to a certain extent ; and we shall therefore simply point out the most palpable
differences between them. In the first instance, we observe the very strange circum*
stance, that what is considered an archaism or an isolated dictum in Hebrew, appears as
a common expression in Phenician. Certain grammatical terminations, obsolete in
Hebrew, are in use in Phenician — so that it would appear as if the Phenician had retained
more of the ancient Canaanite speech than the Hebrew, which gradually transformed
and refined it by grammatical niceties. Another feature is the preponderance of tho
Chaldee, or rather Aramaic words and forms — although here again we are on very
dubious ground. It might further be questioned whether our Phenician inscriptions —
all belonging to a very late period — are not rather a faithful reflection of the Hebrew of
their period, which, since the 8th c. u.c., had more and more changed in!o Aramaic.
80 much is certain, that the original language of Canaan was perfectly free from ( hal-
daisms, and that these are but a late corruption — such as we also Mud in the later books
of the Old Testament. Yet there are other features quite peculiar to the Plicnician,
which — although not of sufficient importance to warrant our separating the dialecr i ntirely
from the Hebrews — are of a nature not to be explained by any Semitic analogy; such as
certain differences in the pronunciation of vowels, in the treatment of consonants, the
formation of pronouns, some verbal forms, and certain words entirely foreign to the
Semitic. Again, a distinction is to be made between the Phenician of Pheni( i:
that corrupted form of it spoken in the western colonies, culled runic, and further, that
idiom peculiar to the inhabitants of Leptis, called Libyo Phenician — a mixture of Pheni-
cian and Libyan, with a vast preponderance, however, of the former clement.
The difference in the pronunciation may be briefly characterized as a tendency
towards an obscuring or lowering, as it were, of the vowels': thus, the Hebrew « is changed
into o, the c into i or y, i into y, sometimes into u, and o into u. Peculiar is al^o the u.-e of
the Hebrew Ayin as a vowel (mater lectioni*). with the pronunciation of o or •?/. On some
occasions, however, it is entirely omitted. The gutturals are changed at times. a< in the
corrupted orthography of Samaritan and Sabian, so that L and R are sometimes assimi-
lated with the next consonant in the middle of the word, or entirely omitted, etc. As
to grammar, our knowledge is extremely limited. A few undoubted facts an; the ter-
mination of the nominative form in at instead of the Hebrew ah, the greater variety of
genitive f< rnn in Phenician, the difference in the formation of the pronoun, and the
identity of th^ article with that in Hebrew (ha). For the Phenician alphabet, the model
of all European alphabets, see ALPHABET.
The literature of Phenicia, in its original form, has, as we said, perished entirely.
What traces and fragments we have of it, have survived in Greek translations. But
from even these small remnants, we can easily imagine the extreme antiquity, and the
high importance and vast extent of these productions, which, at lirst. ser-m to have been
chiefly of a theological or theogonical nature. Their authors are the gods themselves,
and the Writings are only accessible to the priests, and to those initiated in the myst"ries.
From the allegorical explanations of these exalted personages sprang a new branch of
flacred literature, of which those fragments of cosmogony mentioned above are deiivcd.
To the literary age of Taaut, Kadinus, Ophion, Esmun, etc., succeeded Thabion, Isiris,
Sanchuniatho, and Mochus, who founded the schools of priests and prophets. "<
cultivated the sciences, chiefly the occult ones, magic, and the like. Nearest to the
sacred litcr.iturc stands didactic poetry, somewhat related to the Orphic, whose chief
representatives are Sido, Jopas, etc. The erotic poetry is characterized as of a very
sensuous nature, both in Phenicia and the colonies. Of historians arc mentioned .Mochus,
Hypsikrates (Sanchuniatho ?), Theodotus, Philostratus, Menander, and others; but these
are mere Greek versions of their Phenician names, and absolutely noihiim- has been pre-
served of their writings. Punic literature is also frequently mentioned by GneU and
Roman writers. Geography, history, agriculture, were the fields chielly cultivated bj
the colonists of Carthage and the west generally.
The monuments that have come down to us, and which not only have enabled us to
Judge for ourselves of the religion, the language, and the manners of the Phcnicians,
are of twofold kind — they are either legends on coins and lapidary inscriptions, or I'he-
nician proper nouns aud texts imbedded in the works of ancient classical, or sacred
writers. The principal and ever-growing source for our information, however, are tha
monumental inscriptions, of whose existence, till the middle of the 18th c., nothing wiu
607
Plienician.
known. The most numerous Plienician remnants have been discovered in the colonies.
Richard Pococke tirst found, on the site of ancient Citium (Laruaka of to-day). 31 (not
83, as generally stated) Plienician inscriptions, which he deposited at Oxford (published
by Swinton, 1730). Malta, Sardinia, Carthage, Algiers, Tripolis, Athens, Marseilles, have
eacli yielded a considerable number, so that altogether we are now in the possession of
about" 120 monuments, either votive tablets or tomb inscriptions. The latest and most
remarkable are those now in the British museum, discovered at Carthage a i'ew years ago
by N. Davis, consisting of votive tablets, a (doubtful) tombstone, and a sacrificial tariff,
which completes another stone found some years ago at Marseilles of the same nature;
botli setting forth the amount of taxes, or rather the proportionate share the priest was
entitled to receive for each sacrifice. Another exceedingly valuable (trilingual) inscrip-
tion, referring to the gift of an altar vowed to Eshmun-Asklepios, has been discovered
quite recently in Sardinia. See below. One of the most important historical monu-
ments is the sarcophagus of Ashmanasar II., king of Sidon (son of Tennes?), found at
Tyre in l£5o, the age of which has variously been conjectured between the llth c. B.C.
(Ewakl) — a most incongruous guess indeed — the 7th (Hil/ig), the Gth (Due de Luynes),
and the 4th (Levy), of which \ve shall add the com-
mencement, literally translated: "In the month of
Bui, in the 14th year that I reigned, king Ashman-
asar, king of the Sidonians, son of king Tebnith,
king of the Sidonians— spfike king Ashmanasar, king
of the Sidonians, saying: Carried away before my
time, in the flood of days — in dumbness ceases the
eon of gods. Dead do I lie in this tomb, in the grave,
on the place which I have built. I myself ordain
that all the nobles and all the people shall not open
this place of rest; they shall not seek for treasures
and not carry away the sarcophagus of my resting-
place, and not disturb me by mounting the couch of
my plumbers. If people should speak to thee [and
persuade thee to the contrary], do not listen to them.
For all the nobles and all the people who shall open
this sarcophagus of the place of rest, or carry away
the sarcophagus of my couch, or disturb me upon
this resting place, may they find no rest with the
departed; may they not be buried in a tomb, and may
no son and successor live after them in their place;"
etc.
The votive tablets bear the same character through-
out, differing only with respect to the name of the
man or woman who placed it in a certain sanctuary
in accordance with his or her vow. Their material
is mostly lin.estone or fine sandstone, rarely marble,
and they vary from 5 to ^5 in. in height, from 4 to 7
in width, and from H to 4 in thickness. Beginning
in most cr.ses with the dedication to the gcd or god-
dess, or boih, thus: " [Sacred] To the god ....
fthis tablet] which vowed N. son (daughter) of N.
When he (she) heard my voice and blessed, "or "hear
my voice and bless;" etc. The sepulchral tablets
generally run somewhat in this manner: " Stone
erected to . . . . , who lived .... years." — Much
yet remains to be done. Even the paleographical
side has, notwithstanding all the ready material, not been settled satisfactorily yet. One
point, however, is indisputable even now. There are at least two kinds of Phenician
writing to be distinguished most clearly. The older, purer, more orthographical, and
more neatly executed is found in the inscriptions of Phenicia herself, of Malta, Athens,
Citium, and Carthage; the younger, corrupted not only with respect to the grammar and
language, but also with respect to the form of the letters, -which are less carefully
executed, and even exhibit some strange, probably degenerate, characters, is found
chiefly on the monuments of Cyprus, Cilicia, Sardinia, Africa, Spain, Numidia, and the
adjacent parts.
Besides these monumental sources for the language, there arc a few remnants of it
imbedded, as we said, in ancient non-Phenician writings. The Old Testament alone,
however, has preserved its words — proper nouns chiefly — unmutilated. Later eastern
writers even, not to mention the Greeks and Romans, have corrupted the spelling to
•uch a degree that it is often most puzzling to trace the original Semitic words. Pheni-
cian names occur in Suiclas, Dioscorides, Apuleius, in martyrologies. calendariivms, acts
of councils, in church fathers (Augustine, Priscianus, Servus), etc. The onhr really im-
portant remnant, however, is found preserved — albeit fearfully mutilated and Latinized
— in Plautus's Papin/f.-ns, act v. s. 1 of which contains, in 16 lines, the Phenician transla-
tion of the Latin text, with more than 100 Phenician words. Several other phrases and
FIG. 1.
i.e., Lerabbath Letanith Pen-Baal
Uleaddan Lebaal Ch[ammon A]
[Shi Nadar Chanbaul [Ben Abd]
Ashmun .... [fehema]
[KolHa Barcha
"To the Lady Tanith. the Face of
Baal, and to the Lord Baal Cham-
mon [is dedicated this foil] which
has vowed Hanbaul [the son of
A
Abd] Ashmun .... [When he
(or she) hears his voice, may he (or
Ehe) bless."]
Phenlcine. P.flQ
1'heuyl.
words are embodied in act v. ss. 2 and 3 of the same play. Yet, although there is very
little doubt among scholars about the greater portion of thes" texts, the corruption and
mutilation which they had to undergo, first at the hands of Plautus, who probably only
wrote them by the ear, then at the hands of generations of ignorant scribes, have made
more than one word or pa.-sage an insoluble puzzle.
The specimen of Phenician [Punic| writing subjoined is taken from one of those
Carthaginian votive tablets with which the British museum (now the wealthiest in
Phenician monuments) lias lately been enriched, as mentioned before.
The emblems on it are symbolical, and refer to the deities invoked. The !
part is mutilated, but easily supplied. The date is uncertain, perhaps the 2d orJld c. r..c.
A trilingual inscription from a base of an altar, found at Pauli Gerrei, in Sardinia,
was first fully explained bv Deutsch. (See Transactiomtof the roval society of literature,
1864.)
Its contents are briefly this: A certain Cleon, Phenician by religion, Greek by name,
Roman by nationality, a salt-farmer, vows an altar — material and weight of which are
only given in Phenician; viz., copper, 100 Ibs. — to Eshmun-^Esculapius " the h
(the Phenician me-arraeh, clumsily transcribed merre in Latin, and i/tirro in Greek), in
consideration for a cure to be performed. The date, given in Phenician, viz., the year
of two, apparently annual, entirely unknown judges, gives no clue to the time. Paleo-
graphical reasons, however, would place it in about the 1st c. B.C.
Among those who have more or less successfully occupied themselves with Pheni-
cian antiquities, language, and literature, and who have also, in some instances, deci-
phered inscriptions, we mention Scaligcr, Bochart, Pococke, Barthelemy, Swinton. Haver,
Dutens, llama ker, Gcseiiius, Movers, Munck, Judas, Barges, De Saulcy, Ewald, Levy,
Vaux, Renan, De Luynes, De Vogue, Deutsch, and others; to whose writings, contained
either in special works or scattered in transactions of learned societies, \\<- refer for
further information on the subject of our article. The principal work in German is
Movers's Phenisier, unfortunately left unfinished at the author's death. A u.-eful Eng-
lish compilation is Kenrick's Plienicia, (Lond. 183.)).
PHENICINE, or PHENYL BROWN, a rich dye, first prepared by "Roth in 1805 by
the action of uitro-sulphuric acid on carbolic acid Or phenol. It is a brown, amorphous
powder, very soluble in alcohol, ether, and acetic acid, slightly soluble in water. It
consists of two coloring matters, one yellow, the other a black, humus-like body. It
dyes silks and woolens without the aid of mordants. Silk which has been dyed with it,
if treated with chromate of copper to which a small amount of sulphuric acid has been
added, turns to a garnet red, and nitrate of copper produces a similar though not so
intense an effect. Cotton may be dyed a deep purple by first immersing it in a solution
of tannin, or of stannate of soda, as a mordant, and then in a solution of phenicine.
and subsequently in a hot solution of chromate of potash. The color, however, it>
unstable.
PHE'NIX, the name of a mythical Egyptian bird, supposed by some to ba a kind of
plover, like the kibitz, often depicted with human arms, and called in hieroglyphs n'kh.
Others consider to bo the bennu, or nycticorax, a bird sacred to Osiris, and represented
watching the tamarisks over his coffin.' The first of these representations has sometimes
a star upon the head, supposed to indicate the astronomical period of its appearance. It
visited Egypt after the death of its father, and entered the shrine particularly dedi-
cated to it at Heliopolis, and there buried its parent, putting the body into an eg';' or case
made of myrrh, and then closing up the egg. Another account is, that the phenix when
about to die, made a nest for itself in Arabia, from which anew phenix sprung of itself.
This bird proceeded to Heliopolis, and there burned and buried its father." But the
more popularly known version is, that the phenix burned itself, and a new and \
phenix sprung from the ashes. A less received version is, that a worm crawled out of
the body of the dead phenix, and became the future one. The phenix was, according
4,o the most authenic accounts, supposed to visit Egypt every 500 years; the preci<o
period, however, was not known at Heliopolis, and was a subject of contention till its
appearance. The connection of the phenix period with that of the Sothiac cycle.
appears to be generally received by chronologists, as well as the statement of Henvpollo.
.that it designated the so-il and the inundation of the Nile. A great difference of opinion
has prevailed about the Phenix period: according to ./Elian, it was a cycle of 500 years;
Tactitus seems to make it one of 250 years; Lepsius a cycle of 1,500 years. The phenix
was fabled to have four times appeared in Egypt: 1, under Sesostris; 2, under A
509-525 B.C.; 3, under Ptolemy Philadelphia. 284-246 B.C.; and lastly, 34 or 36 A.D.,
just prior to the death of Tiberius. The phenix also appears upon the coins of Con-
stautine, 334 A.D. viz., 300 years after the death of Christ, who was considered the
plieuix by the monastic writers. It is supposed by the rabbins to be mentioned in Job
and the Psalms. — Job. xxxix. 18; Psalms ciii. 5; Herodotus, ii. 73; Achilles Tatius, IP.
25; Tacitus. An. vi. 28; Tselzes, Chi'., v, 397; Lepsius, Eirdeit, p. 183; Arc?iasolo</i<t, vol
xxx. p. 256.
PHENOL, PHEXIC ACID. See CARBOLIC ACID, ante.
PHENOMENON (Gr. appearance), the name given in philosophy to an object or faci
as it is perceived by us, as distinguished from what it is in itself. In the philosophy ol
Pheniciiie.
Phenyl.
Kant, that, whatever it may be, which is behind the phenomenon, and causes it, is called
the iioiriHcnon, as being merely assumed or thought of in the mind. Sec METAPHYSICS,
PERCEPTION.
PHENYL, AND THE PHENYL'TO GROUP. Phenyl (Ci2H5) is an organic radical, which
has not yet been isolated. Its most important compounds are: (I.) carbolic or phonic
acid (IlO,Ci2H5O), known also as pheuyl, hydro-led oxide of phenyl, and plicnyl-
alcohol. See CARBOLIC ACID. (2.) Hydride of phenyl (Ci2H0), known also as ben-
zole, benzine, and pheue. See BENZOLE. (3.) Phenylamine or phenylia (Ci2H5,il2N,
or Ci2H7N), better known under the name of aniline, one of the most important of
the artificially formed bases.
Aniline derives its name from anil, an obsolete name for indigo, which is one of the
sources from which it is most readily procured. It exists amongst the products of the
distillation of coal, and probably other organic compounds, but is always obtained by the
manufacturing cheinist either from indigo or from nitro-benzole. Dr. Hofmann, to
whom \ve are mainly indebted for our knowledge of the chemistry of this substance,
gives the following directions for obtaining it from indigo: "Powdered indigo boiled
with a highly concentrated solution of hydrate of potassa, dissolves with evolution of
h , drogen gas to a brownish-red liquid, containing a peculiar acid, called the anthranilic
acid. If this matter be transferred to a retort, and still further heated, it swells up, and
disengages aniline, which condenses in the form of oily drops in the neck of the retort
and in the receiver. Separated -from the ammoniacal water by which it is accompanied
and re-distilled, it is obtained nearly colorless. The formation of aniline froui indigo
is represented by the following equation:
Indigo. Hydratecl Potassa. Aniline. CBp3fes» °f
CioH.XOa + 4(KO,IIO) + 2HO = C12H,X -f 4(KO,CO2) + 4H."
By this process, the indigo is made to yield about one-fifth of its weight of pure ani-
line. Is itro benzole is converted into aniline by the action of various reducing agents,
such as hydrosulphate of ammonia, or acetate of protoxide of iron; and the distillation
of one part of nitro benzole, one part of acetic acid, and one and a half parts of iron
tilings, is regarded by Hofmanu as the best means of preparing aniline, which is now
required in large quantities for the dyers.
'• When pure," says Dr. Hofmanu. "aniline forms a thin, oily, colorless liquid, of
faint vinous odor, and aromatic burning taste. It is very volatile, but has nevertheless
a high boiling-point, 839.6°. In the air it gradually becomes yellow or brown, and
acquires n, resinous consistency. Its density is 1.028. It is destitute of alkaline reaction
on test paper, but is remarkable for the number and beauty of the crystallizablc com-
pounds it forms with acids. Two extraordinary reactions characterize this body,* and
distinguish it from all others — viz., that with chromic acid, and that with solution of
hypochlorite of lime. The former gives with aniline a deep greenish or bluish black
precipitate; and the latter, an extremely beautiful violet-colored compound, the fine tint
of which is, however, very soon destroyed." In the manufacture of aniline on a largo
scale several bases having higher boiling points than aniline are formed. To one of
thf.'sc— a beautiful crystalline compound, represented by the formula C24H14N2 — the
name of paraniline has been given, from its being isomeric with aniline. Aniline is a
substance of the greatest importance in. theoretical organic chemistry, from the large
number of derivatives and substitution products which it yields, and for the knowledge
of which we are almost entirely indebted to Hofmann, whose investigations originally
appeared in a series of papers in the Transactions of the Philosophical Society. These
compounds are, however, for the most part of too complicated a nature to be noticed in
these pages. But. independently of its theoretical importance, this substance has
recently been extensively employed in the arts, a series of pigments of unequaled beauty
having been obtained from it by the action of oxidizing agents. It is to Mr. W. Perkin
that we are indebted for the idea of applying practically the property possessed by ani-
line of forming violet and blue solutions with chromic acid and with hypochloride of
lime, to which we have already referred; and he succeeded in fixing these colors, and
adapting them to the use of the dyer. The most important of these coloring matters are
described in the article DYE-STUFFS (q.v.).
(4.) Trinitrophenic acid [HO,Ci»H2(XO4)sO], in which three of the equivalents of the
hydrogen of phenic acid 'are replaced by three equivalents of the group, NO4_; known as
carbazotic acid (q.v.), and picric acid.* In addition to the remarks contained in the
article on CARBAZOTIC ACID, it may be noticed that while a solution of this acid com-
municates a bright yellow tint to animal textures, as the skin, wool, and silk, it has no
such effect on tissues composed of vegetable fibers, such as cotton and linen, and hence
it may be employed to ascertain whether the materials of any tissue belong to the animal
or to the vegetable kingdom. A solution of a salt of this acid, when treated with
indigo, yields a beautiful green color, which is employed in the manufacture of artificial
flowers, and for various other purposes. In doses of 1 to 10 grains, it acts on rabbits as
a strong poison, occasioning convulsions and speed}' death. It has been prescribed in
small doses, with moderate success, iu cases of intermittent fever; but patients to whom.
CJ. K. XI.— 39
P1.0011. i> f A
Philadelphia.
it is given should he previously informed that it possesses the property of giving to the
eye !i \'ellow, and. as it were, a jaundiced appearance. All the sails 01' this acid arc; of a
beautiful red or yellow lint, and most of them form brilliant crystals. "\Vlicii heated, or
in some cases when only struck, they explode with considerable violence.
PHE ON, in heraldry, the barbed head of a dart. It is represented as engrailed on the
inner side, and its position is willi the point downward, unless otherwise bla/oned.
PHE RJE, a powerful city of Thessaly. near mount Pelion : iiccnrdiiig to legend, the
ancient royal seat of Admetus and Alcestis; and afterward of political COI-.M quenco
under "tyrants" of its own, who long made their influence felt in the affairs of Gr< ece,
and repeatedly attempted to make themselves masters of Thessaly. One of :ln->e
tyrants named Alexander, is particularly celebrated for his cruelties. It was one of his
practices to bury innocent persons alive, and another to sew them up in the skins of
wild beasts and set his hounds upon them. After a bloody reign of thirteen years he
was slain by his wife and her brother. ;j57 B.C. Five vein's later, Phene, with the rest
of Thessaly, became subject to Philip of Macedon.— At Phene there was a mineral
spring, named Hyperia, famous for its healing virtues. A few ruins at Velestino si ill
mark the site of the city.
PHERECYDES, an ancient Greek writer, b. in the island of Syros, one of tl.e
Cyclades in the 6th c. B.C. He is said by Diogenes Laertius to have been a rhal -.f
Tholes, and to have learned his wisdom from the Egyptians and Chaldeans, lie wrote
a cosmogony in a kind of prose much resembling poetry, under the title 7A///^//.//nW. the
meaning of which is doubtful. In a manner rather poetic than philosophic, he endeav:
ored in this work to show the origin of all things from three eternal principles, 'J'iim or
Kronoft; Earth, as the formless and passive mass; and jKiher or '/.• »». as t'ne formative
principle. He taught the doctrine of the existence of the human soul after death: but it
is uncertain if he held the doctrine of the transmigration of i-ouls, afterward promul-
gated by his disciple, Pythagoras. Of his work, onlv fragments are extant. v.hie!i have
been collected and elucidated by Sturtz (Gera, 1798; 2d ed., Leip. 1S-U). —Another
Pherecydes who lived in the 5th c. B.C., compiled the mythical histories of Athens and
other states, but, except a few fragments, the work is lost. See Hurt/., I'l- 1
fi-ci r/menta (Leip. 1824).
PHIDIAS, or PHEIDIAS (Lat. Pfiirf/'as), son of Charmides, the greatest sculptor of
nncient Greece, b. at Athens probably between 500-490 B.C. II is first instructor in art
was Hegias of Athens; he afterward' studied under a more famous masier. Ageladas of
Argos. He appears to have; first acquired distinction in his profession soon after the
battle of Salamis, find indeed his great works were all executed during a period most
favorable for the development and encouragement of genius, when Greece was triumph-
ant over external enemies, and her people enjoyed a more perfect liberty than almost at,
any Other period of their history. "\Yi1h the character of the age correspond the works t.f
its poets, particularly of the tragedians yKschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, and of its
sculptors, particularly of Phidias. Under Cimon's administration the Athenians]
the work of restoring their city, which the Persians had destroyed, in more th.
former magnificence, and ro fill* it with noble works of art.. Phidias was • econlingly
employed in making the colossal brazen statue of 3!inerva, Ailenn I'li'inn,-!,/,*, which
was placed upon the citadel, and was executed probably about 4GO B.€. To the govern-
ment of Cimon succeeded that of Pericles, still more brilliant, and signali/.ed by an
extraordinary development of art. Pericles not only gave to Phidias a cmr
execute all the more' splendid statues that were to be erected, but made him g< n< ral
superintendent of all works of art going on in the city. Plutarch tells us thai Phidias
had unf.^r him architects, statuaries, workers in copper and bron/.e. stonc-cuttei>. gold
and ivory beaters, etc. To Phidias, as director-general of all the skilled artists and aiti-
ficers of 'Athens, we owe, among other glorious edifices, the Propyla-a and the Parthe-
non, the sculptured ornaments of which 'were executed under his direct superintendence,
while the statue of the goddess Athene, the materials for which wcr<- ivory and gold,
was the work of Phidias himself (circa 438 B.C.). This statue was dollied with a golden
robe, which alone was worth 44 talents of gold. The statue is gone for ever, ;,nd the
. Parthenon is now only a magnificent wreck, but we still ].<).- ess ••< me splendid < A i
of (he genius of Phidias, in flie sculptures of the metopes, and frie/c s of the temple of
Athene. Sec ELGIN MARBLES. Next year Phidias went to Elis, where he executed a
colossal statue of Zeus for the Olympeium at Olympia (q.v.), also of ivory and gold
(about 488 B.C.). This was reckoned his masterpiece. On his return 10 Athens, politi-
cal passions were running high. There was a strong — at least a violent — party inimical
to Pericles, but as they did not dare to attack the great statesman, they assailed him
through his friends Phidias, Anaxagoras, A^pasia, etc. Phidias was act-used of having
appropriated to himself some portion of the gold destined for the robe of Athene. This
accusation he repelled by taking off the robe and weighing it. lie was then accused of
impiety, for having introduced his own likeness and that of Pericles on the shield of the
goddess. On this most frivolous and contemptible pretext he was thrown into prison,
and died there, but whether of sickness or poison is uncertain. His death took place
about 432 B.C. The works executed by or ascribed to Phidias were numerous, but wehave
mentioned the most celebrated. Their prevailing characteristic appears to have been an
(\ ] 1 Pheon
Philadelphia.
ideal sublimity, and even the imperfect relics that we possess are the most noble speci-
mens of sculpture in the world.
PHIGALIAN MARBLES, the name now given to the sculptured frieze taken from the
c< Ila or the temple of Apollo at Phigalia in Arcadia in 1814, and transferred to the
British museum; It represents the contests between the Centaurs and Lapithae. The
Phigalian temple of Apollo is, next to the Theseium at Athens, the most perfect archi-
teciural ruin in all Greece; but owing to its sequestered position at the head of a lonely
and rocky glen among the Arcadian hills, it long remained unknown in modern times,
except to the shepherds of the district; -and to the same circumstance it probably owes,
in part, its preservation. Chandler first visited and described it in 1765; lie was followed
by Gcll, Dodwell, and others; and in 1813 it was very carefully examined by a body of
artists and scholars, the results of whose investigations are given in Stackelberg's I)jr
ApoUo-tempel zu Bnxsa in Arkndicn (Rome, 1826). The temple is built of a hard yellow-
ish-brown limestone, stands n. and s., was originally about 125 ft. long and 48 broad,
and had 15 columns on either side, and 6 on either front, in all 42, of which 36 still
remain.
PHILADELPHIA, in Lydia. See ALA-SHEHK, ante.
PHILADELPHIA, in Palestine. See AMMAN, ante.
PHILADEL PHIA, the chief city and sea-port of Pennsylvania, and the second city
in population and importance in America, is situated on the w. bank of the Delaware
river, at the mouth of the Sclmylkill, on a plain 2 to 4 m. wide between the two rivers;
lat. 393 56 59" n., long. 75° 9' 54" w. ; 125 m. n.e. of Washington, 87m. s.w. of New
York. Its greatest length is 22 m., its breadth is from 5 to 10 m., and its area 129
miles. The city is neatly but plainly built of red bricks and marble, with fine squares
laid out as parks. The picturesque eminence of Fairmount, with its reservoirs of
water raised from the Schuykill, and the Laurel hill and other ornamental cemeteries,
are favorite public resorts. Among the finest edifices are the Girard (formerly United
States) bank, custom-house, mint, the Public Ledger building, the city hall, and the
buildings of the Girard college, most of them built of white marble, the last, in the
Corinthian style, having cost $2;000,000. The most noted building is Independence hall,
o.v;;pied in the revolution of 1776 by the continental congress, in which was voted and
>i :i-! the declaration of independence. The Philadelphia library, founded by Benjamin
':lin. contains 100,000 vols., and the mercantile library has 112,000. Philadelphia,
in fact, possesses some of the most valuable libraries in tbeUnited States. The academy
of fin',- arts has, in connection with it, a gallery exhibiting upwards of 1000 pictures.
For the centennial exhibition, heid here in 1876, a main building 1876 ft. long, with
numerous and extensive supplementary halls and galleries, was erected in Fairmount
park at a cost of about $4,500,000.
The medical schools of Philadelphia have long been held in high esteem, and attract
every y»-ar a largo body of students. There are 6 medical colleges; 15 other colleges
(one entitled a university); more than 40 hospitals — 3 for the insane, 1 for deaf-mutes,
and one for the blind; 91 charitable and benevolent institutions; besides numerous lite-
rary, scientific, and art associations; Bible, tract, and missionary offices and agencies.
The Girard college, a free school for orphans, founded by Stephen Girard, a Philadel-
phia merchant, supports and educates 550 boys, on a foundation of $8,000.000. Next to
New York, Philadelphia is the largest publishing center in the United States, issuing, as
it docs, 17 daily, 2 tri-weekly, 1 semi-weekly newspapers; 40 weekly, 6 semi- monthly,
37 iiionthly, and 2 quarterly publications. It contains 63 halls and theaters, this Quaker
city; anil 4:24 churches, of which, in 1870, 90 were Presbyterian, 86 Episcopal, 72 Metho-
dist, 4-t Baptist, 38 Roman .Catholic, 25 Lutheran, 16 Gorman Reformed, 14 Friends.
and 38 belonging to minor sects. In 1874, the public school? numbered 424 (two of
which were high schools), with an average attendance of 79,585 pupils; there were 41
night-schools for adults, with 16,681 pupils. There are 47 banks— 29 of which arc
national. 12 state banks, and 6 savings-banks — and, according to the census of 1870, 961
foundries and factories, 73 mills, and 1435 workshops of various kinds. In the yeai
L,r-5une30, 1874, the foreign imports were valued at $33,121,337; and the exports
ut $£6,447,037. The city is divided into 31 wards, and is governed by a mayor and
coun< >!s. Its assessed value of real and personal property, for 187r', was 594,988.897,
and its debt $60,781,984. The climate is milder than other parts of Pennsylvania. Pop.
18,448.
Pennsylvania was founded in 1682 by William Penn, on "a spot that seemed to have
been appointed for a town," and of which he wrote, "Of all places in the world, I
remember not one better seated. " Its early settlers were mostly of the society of Friends.
In 1684 it had 2,500 inhabitants. It grew'rapidly by large immigrations from Germany
and the north of Ireland. In 1719 was here printed the" first American newspaper, the
Weekly Mercury. In 1728 was established the Gazette, afterward edited by Franklin.
Tiie lirst colonial congress met here in 1774; in 1777 the town was occupied by the
British forces under gen. lord Howe, when the city contained 21,767 inhabitants. It
was the seat of the United States bank, the capital till 1800, r.nd the first city ia America,
until surpassed by New York.
Philadelphia.
612
PHILADELPHIA (ante), the principal city of Pennsylvania, and the second as to
population in the United Slates; on two large rivers, ;he Delaware, which separates it
from New Jersey, and the Schuylkill, which, since the time of the extension of the
boundaries of the city to those of the county (.Ian. 1, 1854), flows through the city and
joins the Delaware near League island. The city lie* in hit. n. 39 57' and long. w. 7-V
10' at Independence hall; covers I'J'.M sq.m. or S-,',700 acres, has an extreme length n. and
s. of about L'3 in., and an average width e. and w. of ,">A miles. It has about ~~>n n. of
paved streets, of which 650 in. are lighted with gas, and 658 in. supplied with water.
The streets intersect at riirht angles; those running e. and w. succeed each oilier in
numerical order from the Delaware river, and are called Front, First. Second, Third,
Fourth, etc. ; those crossing them running n. and south. This contrivance gives a num-
ber of paralellograms or squares, as they are popularly called, and greatly facilitates the
system of numbering houses. The houses are numbered by hundred*, a JUO being
allotted to the square between any two of the numbered streets (e. and w.), and any t\vo
of the main named streets (n. and south). Going e., house-, on the. s. side of a street have
even numbers, those on the u side odd numbers. In the direction n. and s. .Market
street is always the starting-point of enumeration. The numerical streets intersecting it
have even numbers on the w. side, and odd ones on the cast. Above and below denote
n. and south. In computing distances 10 squares are r/( nentHy allowed to the mile,
although squares funning n. and s. average 9, and those running e. and w. about 11 to
tae mile.
The original city, as planned under William Penn in 1682, was bounded by the two
rivers, and Vine and Cedar streets; the vast extent of the modern city preserves in the
main the characteristic features of the first plan, as far as compatible with the local char-
acteristics of the many townships, boroughs, villages, and settlements now included
within the city limits. The surface between the rivers is level in the central parts, with
a descent toward the s., and a considerable rise toward the north. The gravel bluff, 50
ft. high, on the Delaware, has entirely disappeared. The lower parts of the city re.-t on
gravel, the upper 0:1 gneiss and granite. Tide water ascends on the w. to Fairmount
dam on the Schuylkill, and beyond the city in the Delaware on the east. That part of
the city which lies w. of the Schuylkijl on rising ground is called West Philadelphia.
Some of the larger (former) suburbs, such as Germantown, Frankford, and Mauayunk,
retain their old names.
The two great streets which intersect at the new city hall are Market and Broad
streets. The section e. of Broad street, to the Delaware river, near the center of the city,
i.e., a few squares n. and s, of Market, includes the centers of business; a few squares n.
and s. of the same street, w. of Broad, the centers of fashion, with a tendency westward.
The river banks are given to commerce, and manufacturing establishments abound in
all directions.
The general healthfr.lness of the locality, abundance of water,- and good drainage
mark the death-rate of Philadelphia at 19.06," as against 22.7 of London, 24.4 of Paris,
and 34.4 of Vienna. The srrowth of the city is extraordinary. In 1683 its pop. was 500;
in 1684, 2,500; in 1700, 4,500; in 1777, 23,734; in 1790, city, 44,996, county. 54,391; in
1800, city, 70,287. county, 81,009; 1850. city, 300,365, county, 408,762; I860, 508,034;
1870, 674,022; 1876, 817,448; 1880, 846,980. The seeming disproportion of the last three
returns may perhaps be explained by the circumstance that the census of 1870 and 1880
was federal, and that of 1876 municipal. By the census of 1880. the pop. of the citv
numbers, mates, 405,899, females, 441,081; classified: native, 642,648; foreign, 204.:!:1/,5;
white, 815,182; colored, 81.798. including 80 Chinese, 3 Japanese, and 25 Indians. The
dwelling-houses numbered in 1876, 143,936. The vast extent of the city has preserved
it from the evil of tenement houses, and although the general style of architecture is
plain and monotonous, the number of buildings of all kinds, which in 1876 were esti
mated at 155,000 (by municipal census), including 143,930 dwelling houses, all built of
solid material, make it pre-eminently a city of homes, as on the average only ~> ])• ism-
occupy a single house. The large a'nd ever-growing supply of houses is mainly due to
the many building societies, greatly composed of trades people, for which the city is
noted. The markets of Philadelphia nre exceptionally fine and commodious, and among
the more than 30 corporation markets, the Farmers' market at Twelfth and Market
streets may be mentioned as the finest; all the markets are well inspected, and furnish
good food in great abundance and variety. The butter is famous for its richness."
The city controls the water supply; the water-works arc divided into the following
sections: Fairmont, Schuylkill, Delaware, Bchnont, Roxborough. and Chestnut hill.
The works at Fairmount are picturesquely located on the Schuylkill, at the lower end of
the east park. With the exception of the third section, which is supplied from the Dela-
ware, the water of the Schuylkill is served by the other sections in prodigious quantities.
In 1874 it aggregated a total of 14,533,425,097 gallons, furnished to 118,414 houses, of
which 48.610 Imd bath rooms; and 61 public fountains erected by the Philadelphia foun-
tain society, and 7 mostly built at the charge of individuals. The drainage is good, and
in 1876 the city had 136^ m. of sewers. The fire department, under a chief and five
assistants, is very efficient ; in 1875 thirty -two companies, numbering 389 men and 123
horses, and equi'pped with 32 steam engines, 4 hand engines, and hose carriages, etc.,
were distributed over 13 stations; the number of fire plugs was 5,119, and of the signal
Philadelphia.
boxes 200. The police force, under the control of the mayor, numbering a chief, 4 cap-
tains, 27 lieutenants, 50 sergeants, 8 detectives, 25 turnkeys, and 1209 patrolmen, is wdl
managed. There is also an additional force, the river anil harbor poli'-e, consisting of a
lieutenant and 24 men, equipped with two steam-tugs. The city is divided into 24 police
districts, served by the same number of police magistrates; criminal cases belong to the
venue of the courts of quarter sessions and over 'and tenniner, under the presidency of
the judges of the four courts of common pleas, who serve in rotation. The gas works,
under city management, in 1874, made 1,706,268.000 cubic feet of iras: the Northern
Liberties' gas. works, 79,019,800 cubic ft. for 1,124.205 private and 9,905 public lights.
The commerce of Philadelphia is of great importance, and of comparatively recent
growth. In 1870 the value of imports amounted to £14,500.797; of exports to $16,934,610;
in 1880 the custom-house returns place the value of imports at $38,933,832, and that of
exports at $50,685,838. In 1880 the exports included provisions, $6,896,856; breadstuffs,
$26,984,476; tallows, $554,298; leaf tobacco, $8-37,070; manufactured tobacco, $70,182;
crude petroleum, $316,330; refined petroleum, $4,640,4)9; naphtha and benzine, $88,936
The total amount of duties received was $12,726,376.80. Commodities to the value of
$1,704,892 were received from other ports, without appraisement, and to the value
of si, 728,957 forwarded for immediate transportation to other ports. The number of
vessels from foreign ports arriving in Philadelphia in 1880 was 1583, with a tonnage
of 1,334,150 tons; of these, 476 vessels, with a tonnage of 285,760 tons, were of American
register; the number of vessels cleared for foreign ports from Philadelphia in 1880
aggregated 1450, with a tonnage of 1,140,797 tons; of these, 305 vessels, with a tonnage
of 222,104 tons, were of American register. The coastwise entrances for 1880 were 1019
vessels, with a tonnage of 555,723 tons; and the coastwise clearances numbered 1443
vessels, with a tonnage of 779.083 tons. The immigrants numbered 29,964 persons, viz.,
16,886 males, and 13,078 females. To these official figures should be added the large
number of American vessels engaged in the domestic trade not under custom-house
control. The number of enrolled coasting vessels belonging to the port of Philadelphia
in 1874 was 3,040, and 120 w ere built that year; their aggregate tonnage was 394,760
tons. In the same year the coal delivered at port Richmond by the Philadelphia and
Reading railroad amounted to 2,076,259 tons.
Iron ship-building is carried on at the Delaware in tbe yards of the Philadelphia and
Reading railroad, Cramp A: Sons, and John Roach at Chester, besides others. The
foreign steamship service at Philadelphia embraces that of the American line to Liver-
pool, and that of the Red Star line to Antwerp, the former under American, the latter
under Belgian colors.
By the census of 1870, as revised by the Philadelphia beard of trade, it led every
other city in the xinion in the number of its manufacturing establishments, and of per-
sons employed, as well as in the variety of the articles manufactured, the value of the
material used, and the amount of capital invested; being second to New York only in
the value of the products. It contained in that year 8,579 manufacturing establishments
with 2,177 steam-engines of 57,304 horse-power, and 59 water-wheels of 2,696 horse-
power, giving employment to 152,550 hands, who received 068,647,874 in wages.
Invested capital. $204,340,637; value of materials used, $193,861, £07; value of products,
£302.484,698. With a clear increase of 16 per cent on the population, and of almost
300 per cent on its imports and exports, the census returns for 1880 will doubtless exhibit
a corresponding enlargement of the figures given. The capital invested in banks aggre-
gated, Jan. 1, 1875, '$19,235,950; of "these. 30 were national banks with a capital of
$17,135,000, and 10 state banks with a capital of $2.100,950. The Merchants' national
bank, with a capital of $600,000, opened Mar. 23, 1880. Some of the bank buildings
have c-reat architectural merits, notably the Philadelphia, Farmers' and Mechanics', and
Girard banks. The Bank of North America is the oldest in the country. The People's
state bank is a very fine structure. There are 5 saving 'unds. a large number of tire,
marine, and life-insurance companies, and some 600 building and loan associations. A
lanre part of the city is still used for farminsr purposes, and farming products raised
within the city limits in 1870 were valued at $2.231.366. In the neighborhood of the
banks is Third street, the Wall street of Philadelphia, and all the financial and great
commercial centers, head-quarters of traffic, the press, the courts, the custom-house, and
post-office, are thrown into a comparatively small compass. The lower part of the city
represents the wholesale business, while the finest retail stores are on Chestnut street
from Seventh to Fifteenth streets. On the same street are also some of the best hotels,
several handsome churches, Independence hall, the Times Ledger building, the mint, and
other imposing structures.
The municipal government consists of the mayor and the recorder, a select and com-
mon council. The mayor, elected by the people for a term of three years, has supervisory
power over the various departments named below, the control of the police, and the
riffht to approve or veto«the ordinances of the city councils. The select council consists
of 31 members, representing the 31 wards into which the city is divided, chosen by the
people for a term of 3 years; the common council for 1881 contains 83 members, each
representing 2,000 taxabl'es, elected for two years. The management of the city is carried
on under the control of councils, and the different departments, trusts, and commissions.
The controller, treasurer, solicitor, collector of taxes fcnd commissioners are elected by the
Philadelphia.
people for 2 or 3 years. There are departments of police, fire, highways, markets, and
city property, water, and surveys; trustees of gas works, board of health, guardian* of
tlie poor, board of public education, inspectors of the county prison, manager* of t he-
house of correction, directors of city trusts, board of port wardens, commissioners of
public buildings, of Fairmount park, of the sinking fund, of the harbor, the Girard
estates, superintendent of city railroads, and trustees of city ice-boats.
The latest published exhibit of the city linances. Sc-pt. '2, lb'80, places estimated
expenses for 1881 at $12,392,682.73; value of taxable property, real and personal,
$543,069,129; funded debt, $69,862,030.33; assets in sinking funds, $20,296,887.64;
amount nece>-ary to be raised by taxation. $8,267,761.70; number of taxable voters,
211,233. Philadelphia is represented in. the state legislature by 8 senators and '.'>X a-scm-
blymen, and in congress by 5 members. The aggregate vote of Philadelphia for pre-i-
dential electors, Nov. 2, 1880, numbered 178,889: Garfield, 97,239; Hancock, 7(5,336.
The principal county officers, elected by the people for 3 years, are the sheriir, recorder
of deeds, register of wills, district attorney, 4 city commissioners, and 4 appraiser-;.
The U.S. circuit and district courts for e. Pennsylvania and terms of the supreme court of
Pennsylvania are held in Philadelphia. There are 4 common pleas' courts, each consist-
ing of 3 judges; the same judges hold courts of oyer and lenniuer, aud of quarter sessions,
in criminal matters; and an orphans' court of 3 judges.
The public schools in the city are supported by taxation, and governed by a board of
education, composed of controllers, one for each section, appointed by the common p!.-as
courts, and school directors, in the different sections, elected by the citizens annually;
and are charged with the supervision of the schools in their respective districts, the
appointment of teachers, the finances, etc. The board has the general supervision of the
whole system. The schools are graded and classified, as primary, secondary, consoli-
dated, and grammar schools, distributed over the city; and a high school for boys, of a
collegiate character, and a normal school for girls. Dec. 31, 1879, the city was divided
into 31 sections, with school buildings in each section; there were 2,070 schools, counting
as a school the body of pupils under one permanent teacher, 77 male, and 1993 female
teachers, with an average monthly salary of $157.25 for the former, and of $44.31 for
the latter. The number of pupils registered was 166,961, of which number 104,197
belonged to the schools at the beginning of the year; 62,764 were admitted during the
year; 46,037 left during the year; and 103,567 remained at the end of the year: the aver-
age attendance was 92,381, equal to 89 per cent of the number remaining at the cl<
the year. The monthly cost «f each pupil on the average attendance was $1.40; tin re
were paid for teachers' salaries, $1,004.185.05; for lots, houses, and betterments, $143,-
193.57; for books, stationery, fuel, and contingencies, $322,423.94; for school purposes,
$1,469,807.56. The school property was valued at $5,933,300. Evening schools are
conducted during the autumn and winter mouths. The Girard college (q.v.) is one of
the finest architectural works in the country. The university of Pennsylvania (q.v. \ is
the outgrowth aud successor of the college of Philadelphia, founded chiefly through the
influence of Dr. Benjamin Franklin and Dr. William Smith. Besides the medical
department of the university of Pennsylvania, there are in Philadelphia the Jefferson
medical college, the woman's medical college, the Hahucmann medical college, the col-
lege of physicians, the college of pharmacy, and two dental colleges. As intermediate,
the Polytechnic college may be mentioned, and as strictly scientific, the academy of nat-
ural sciences, with a library of 30,000 vols., and fine collections; the Wagner institute
(free lectures) and the Franklin institute. The American philosophical society was
founded in 1763 by the union of two societies, one of which was the Junto. The zoolog-
ical society originated the zoological gardens; the horticultural society, founded JH ls-,,'9,
which has a large hall on Broad street, and the Philadelphia society for promoting agri-
culture, founded in 1785, deserve mention as being the oldest institutions of the kind in
the United States." Collegiate and academical institutions under religious control are
numerous: the Haverford college, and Swarthmore college belong respectively to
the orthodox and Ilicksite Friends, the theological seminary of St. Charles Borromeo
(Roman Catholic) at Overbrook, the Protestant Episcopal divinity school, and the Luthe-
ran theologx: 1 seminary are the most important. Art has a noble temple in the superb,
.structure of t :e Byzantine order, which graces the west side of Broad street. The intci i r j
is very rich i.i ornamentation; a copious collection of sculptures, and paintings, is for.nd
in its spacious galleries, many of which are called after the pioneers of American art ; it
is the oldest academy of art in the country, having been organized in 1803. The school
of design for women, founded in 1850, accomplishes much good. The libraries of Phil-
adelphia are the apprentices', which is the only free library in the city, although the
Philadelphia is substantially so, the athcneum, mercantile, Friends' (two), law, Smth-
wark, Ridgway, and that of the historical society of Pennsylvania. The second and
last are very valuable and number 170,000 volumes. The Ridgway library is a splendid
structure on s. Broad street. The various collections of books in the city, besides the
libraries named, are 3.700, and said to aggregate 2,!>85,770 volumes. Philadelphia is
singularly rich in charitable institutions of every kind; their enumeration here is impo-<-
sible, but they embrace 24 hospitals, 12 dispensaries, 20 asylums and homes of a in:- <•!
laneous character, 18 home* for the aired, several for the young, 4 for the blind, and 8
reformatory establishments; 10 associations furnish the poor in winter with soup, and 2
Philadelphia.
with fuel; 11 societies contemplate the promotion of industry by the supply of work,
and 11 the alleviation of distress by friendly aid. Charitable orders are very numerous
in Philadelphia. Among them the masons count 72 lodges, the odd fellows 135 lodges
and 32 encampments, the American mechanics, 44 councils.
The number of religious congregations in Philadelphia is about 600. of which about*
500 have places of worship. The Baptists have 66, the Lutherans 30, the Methodists 97,
the Presbyterians 101, the Protestant Episcopal church 95, tiie Roman Catholics 43, ::IH;
the Hebrews 10. As conspicuous for architectural merits may be instanced the Roman
Catholic cathedral of St. Peler and St. Paul, Logan square; Bt. Mark's Protestant Epis-
copal church, Locust street; the West Arch street Presbyterian church; the Beth-Eden
Baptist church, Broad, above Spruce street; the Arch street Methodist church, Arch and
Broad streets; and the Rodef-Sholern sj nagogue, in the Saracenic style. Broad and Mount
Yernon streets. The oldest churches in the city awe the Gloria Dei, begun 1698 and
dedicated in 1700; originally connected with the Lutheran church in Sweden, but for .^0
years past, with the Protestant Episcopal church; Trinity church. Oxford, built in 1714;
St. James's, Kingsessing, 1762-63; but the most interesting church is Christ church, 2d
street, above Market street, occupying the site of a frame braiding, erected in 1695, and
twice enlarged until it gave place to the present structure, the western portion of which
was finished in 1731, the eastern in 1745, tower and steeple in 1754. The bells were cast
in London, and are the first chime of bells used in the United States. Queen Anne pre-
sented some of the communion plate, still in use, in 1708. The lieutenant-governor and
officers worshiped here; Benjamin Franklin had a pew, and John Penn was buried here
in 1795. Washington and Adams worshiped there. The remains of bishop While and
Robert Morris, of revolutionary fame, lie in the crypt of the school-house. In the bury-
iug-ground belonging to that church, 5th and Arch streets, are buried Peyton Randolph,
president of the first continental congress, nmj.gen. Charles Lee, Benjamin Franklin, and
Deborah, his wife. St. Peter's church-yard is the resting-place of commodore Stephen
Decatur, while David Rittenhouse, astronomer, and one of the signers of the declaration
of independence, sleeps in the church-yard of the old Pine street Presbyterian church.
The whole number of cemeteries and burying grounds iu Philadelphia is 45. The first is
Laurel hill, picturesquely beautiful.
The Schuylkill is spanned by 13 bridges, 7 of which are built in solid material, and 6
of wood. The South street bridge, 2,419 ft. long, is of stone and iron; the same materi-
als arc used in the Chestnut street bridge. The Callowhill street, 2,730 ft. long, includ-
ing approaches, is a feat of engineering skill, and has an upper and a lower passage-way:
it crosses the river at an elevation of 50 ft. above tide-water, and throws a span of 140
ft. over the track of the Pennsylvania railroad. The river span is 348 ft., and the upper
bridge is 32 ft. higher llrui the lower; but the Girard bridge is the handsomest in the
citv. It has 5 spans, measures 1000 ft. in length by 100 ft. in width; its carriage-wav is
67-| ft,, and the sidewalks 161- ft. wide. It > cost $1,404,445. There are 19 lines of
horse-cars, with an invested capital of about $13,000,000, and about 250 m. of road;
small steamboats run on the Schuylkill, and 7 ferries connect the city with points in New
Jersey. The railroads connecting the city e. and w. are the Pennsylvania and the Bound
Brook roads, the eastern termini' of both being Xew York; the first-named road, the
Philadelphia and Erie, the Reading and North Pennsylvania railroads connect it with
the central and northern portions of the state: the southern connection is by means of
the Philadelphia, Wilmington, and Baltimore; suburban connections arc had by the Ger-
mantown and Norristown, and the Westchester and Philadelphia railroads; communica-
tion with the seaboard is had by the Camdcn and Atlantic, to Atlantic city, by the Cam-
deu, Mount Holly, and Pembcrton, to Long Branch, and by the West Jersey to Cape May.
There are other branches of the Pennsylvania railroad for Long Branch and Amboy.
For military purposes Philadelphia constitutes one division of two brigades of the 20 divi-
sions of Hie national guard of Pennsylvania, and contains 5 armories. Clubs of various
descriptions, sociaj and sporting, are numerous. Among the social clubs the Philadel-
phia, union league, and reform clubs are conspicuous; the union league house has
the finest building; it is in the French renaissance style. Amusement and recreation
have a superb temple in the American academy of music, Broad and Locust streets, a
building in brick and brown stone, plain without, but elegantly fitted within, with a
seating capacity for 2,900. The leading theaters are the Walnut, Arch, and Chestnut;
the latter ha's been recently rebuilt and refurnished. The Young Men's Christian associ-
ation has a building of imposing architecture at loth and Chestnut streets.
Points of historical interest ate: the legendary treaty ground at Shackamaxon, with
a monument marking the site of the elm tree, erected in 1827; the Germanlown battle
ground; and fort MifHin, on the site of Mud fort, on the w. side of the Delaware. The
Letitia house, degraded into a tavern; Carpenter's hall, between 3d and 4th streets, on
Chestnut street, in which was held the first continental congress, Sept. 5, 1774; the house
in which Jefferson wrote the declaration of independence, at the s.w. corner of 7th and
Market streets; the old London coffee-house, s.w. corner of Front and Market streets
The most interesting of all is Independence hall, or the old state house, between 5th and
6th streets, on the s. side of Chestnut street, built in 1732-35, in which the second con-
tinental congress adopted the declaration of independence, and where the liberty bell,
July 8, 1776, fulfilled the proud mission inscribed on it in the sacred words, "Proclaim
Philatldpliu*. (\1 (i
Philanthropy.
Liberty throughout all the land, to all the inhabitants thereof." Lev. xxv. 1.0. In tin1
western room on the lirs: ll or is the national museum, rilled with relics of the colonial
and revolutionary history of the country. In the old congress hall adjoining, con-Te—
met from 1790 to 1800, Washington \vas inaugurated in 1793 for the second term, and
'Adams and Jefferson in 17U7. Among I'm- many public buildings no< yet noticed, the
first place belongs to the new city hall, at the intersection of Broad and Market streets,
a magnificent structure, one of the largest in the country; its dimensions being 470 ft.
by 480.1 ft. ; height to the roof, 100 ft, ; to the apex of the dome surmounting the tow< r,
450 feet. It covers, exclusive of the court-yard, an area of nearly 4J acres. The I. S.
custom-house, mint, and post-oil ice are noble specimens of architect urc. e.-pecially the
first, of .the Doric order, and the last, in the style of the French renaiv-:.nce. The
United States has arsenals at Bridesburg and Gray's ferry road, a navy yard, a naval
asylum and naval hospital. The masonic temple, Broad and Filbert streets, of the
ISorman style, is claimed to be the finest masonic structure extant. It cost xl.:!(lO,OuO.
Philadelphia contains a number of public squares. 5 of which date from the foundation
of the city. The great park of Philadelphia, Fairmount park (see PAKI;). is perhaps
her crowning attraction; extreme length, 10.89 in.; extreme \vidlli. 2 miles. It is
divided into sections, called old Fairmount and Lemon hill. Kast I 'ark. West Park,
and Wissahickon Park. In it \vas held the Centennial exhibition in 1870 (q.v.i; -nine of
the buildings remain as standing memorials. There are published in Philadelphia 12
daily newspapers, with an aggregate circulation of 269,000; 12 leading weeklies, cin-ula-
tiou, 312,200; and 10 religious papers, circulation, 167,000.
History. — Philadelphia was founded by William Petm in 16SO. planned by him. and
surveyed by Thomas Holme. His object in founding it he announced thus: "1 took
charge of the province of Pennsylvania for the Lord's sake. 1 wanted to ali'ord an -i-.y-
lum for the good and oppressed of every nation, and to frame a government \\hieh might
be an example. I desired to show men as free and happy as they could be; and 1 had
kind views to the Indians." Fer similar reasons he selected its name: the original site
of the city was called by the Indians Coaquenaku. said to mean the grove of tall i
Avhich is somewhat doubtful, as the Indians called the river Delaware by the s.-.nie n.-.ine.
The colony was vigorous from the start, for in 1682 not less than 23 ships arrived with
settlers, almost all of whom were Friends. Legislation began in 168:5. and iu 1084 the
city numbered upward of 800 houses, and a population of 2,500. Penn returned to
England, and did not revisit the colony until 1699, when the city numbered 700 houses,
and a 'population of 4,500. Before his final departure he incorporated the city, in 1701.
Its history for three-quarters of a century exhibits the most glaring contradiction of its
name, for it is simply a record of discords, arising from the conflicting views of the
Friends and the governors of the province on military and financial matters. During
the war of England with France and Spain, the governor, alive to the danger threatening
the colony, created a militia in 1704, a nua-ure peculiarly obnoxious to the (}u
whom he' sought to enlist in its favor by stratagem. On the fair day, 170!). a im-senger
arrived from Newcastle with the news that the enemy's ships wire in i he river and
approaching the city. The governor, on horseback with drawn swoid. urged the j eople
to arm for the public defense-. A psmic prevailed; the .ships were placed out o! 'reach
of danger; the people hid their valuables and fled; but the Quakers remained calm,
and could neither be frightened nor coaxed into the movement, The fraud was di
cred, and the governor displaced. When Lewes, on the Delaware. \\ as plundered by
French privateers in 1709, governor Gookin's demand for a grant of £4,000, to aid the
queen in the invasion of Canada, was refused by the assembly, which voted instead a
present of £500. In 1732 Thomas Penn arrived, and in 1739 governor Thomas, in ( he quar-
rel between England and Spain, issued letters of marque and reprisal. In 1747 Benjamin
Franklin, by t lie timely publication of his "Plain Truth," roused e spirit of military
enthusiasm among the people, which eventuated in an armed force of 10,000. He also
promoted the erection of a battery below the city, which, in 1750, mounted 50 piei es of
cannon, and occupied the site of the present tJ. S. navy yard. In 1744 Whiteticld's
preaching was very successful. In 1755 a militia bill was passed, and Benjamin Frank-
lin was col. of the city regiment. In 1763 the approach of the Paxton boys lilied the
tity with consternation. In 1767 the increase of pauperism led to the establishment of
an almshouse. From 1765 to 1774, Philadelphia was prominent in resisting British
aggression. The first continental congress met at Carpenter's hall, Sept. '5, 1774: the
second, May 10, 1775, in the state house. Here, June 15, 1775. col. George Washington,
of Virginia, was appointed gen. and commauder-in-chief of the United States. The
declaration of independence was adopted in the State house, July 4, and proclaimed,
July 8, 1776. The British held the city from Sept.. 1777, to June, 1778. The baMle <>f
Germantown was fought Oct. 4, 1777. "The city was the capital of Pennsylvania (except
during the British occupation) until 1799. and the seat of the federal government from
1790 to 1800. In the war with Great Britain 1812-14, Philadelphia exhibited much mar-
tial spirit. In 1812 the steam water-works at Fairmount were commenced, in that year
yellow fever prevailed. In 1832 the Philadelphia, Germantown and Norristown ra
was completed. From July 5 to Oct. 4 the Asiatic cholera caused 93.) deaths. I io s
disturbed the city in 1834. '35, '38, '40. 'and '44. Specie payment was suspended in 1837.
The failure of the bank of the United States, in 1839 for a lime prostrated the commerce
m Philadelphia.
Philanthropy.
of the city. The introduction of gas dates from 1836, and the establishment of the first
telegraph' lines from April 27, 1846. The charter of the city, Mar. 11, 1789, being merely
an adaptation of the original act of incorporation to the political changes of the period,
the suburbs, in course of time, were created districts, with independent organizations;
the inconveniences of the system led ultimately to the consolidation act, 1854, which
abolished the suburban municipalities, and made the' city co-extensive with the county
of Philadelphia. The city lavished its treasure in men and money in the cause of the
union. The great sanitary fair, in 1864, in Logan square, netted more than $1,000,000;
and the first regiment of national guards stands eminent for services throughout the war.
For particulars relating to the centenary of American independence, see CENTENNIAL.
PHILADELPHUS, a genus of shrubs, containing the mock orange or syringa,
bel ingiug to the order saxifragacea or saxifrage family, and tribe hydrangiese, which
also includes the genus hydrangea. In philadelphus the calyx tube is top-shaped and
coherent with the ovary. Petals rounded or obovate, large, convolute in the bud.
Stamens 20 to 40; styles 3 to 5, united below or nearly to the top; stigmas oblong or linear:
po:l 3 to 5 celled, when opening, splitting into as many pieces. Seeds very numerous,
attached to thick placenta? projecting from the axis. Leaves opposite, often toothed;
no stipules; solitary, cyrnose; clustered, showy white, or cream-colored flowers. There
are several species, natives of the southern Atlantic and Pacific states and Japan, and
several varieties have been produced by cultivation. P. inodorus, growing in the moun-
tains of Virginia and southward, has ovate leaves, pointed, entire, or with some spread-
ing teeth; flowers single or few at the ends of the branches; pure white, and inodorous.
P. grandiflorus has larger flowers, and is a tall shrub with long recurved branches; grows
in Virginia and southward, near the mountains. It is often cultivated in gardens. P.
Mrsutus grows in Tennessee and North Carolina. It has small, pointed, hairy leaves,
and solitary flowers, or only two or three together. A species growing in Oregon, called
P. (jordomatius, is probably a variety of Mrsutus. On the Pacific coast are also found
P. CaUfornicu* and P. Lewiaii. The most common and best repi-sentativeof the genus,
however, is P. coronarius, or the common mock orange or syriuga much cultivated in
gardens for a long time. Its native country is not known; it has been referred to Japan
and also to southern Europe. It has erect branches, oblong ovate leaves, which when
crushed have very much the odor and taste of cucumbers. Its cream-colored flowers,
borne in large clusters, are well known for their exceeding fragrance.
PHI L2E, the name of a celebrated island lying in the midst of the Nile, s. of Syene,
beyond the frontier of Egypt, in 24° 1' 28" n. lat. It was called by the Egyptians Men-
Ink, the place of the cataract; or Menuab, the abaton or sanctuary; and by the Copts,
pilak or "cataracts." It is a small granite rock, about 1000 ft. long, and 200 ft. broad,
on which is placed a suite of buildings, not of the most remote antiquity, but distinguished
for groat architectural beauty. The oldest of these, consisting of a hypcethral or roofless
hall, was built in the reign of Nectanebus I., 377-357 B.C. A second mention of the
same monarch occurs on the first propylon, where a door, constructed in his reign, has
been incorporated into the constructions by a later Ptolemy. Both these are dedicated
to the goddess Isis, who in Phike was venerated as Athor or the Egyptian Venus. The
principal remains consist of the great temple of Isisi erected by Ptolemy II. or Philadel-
phus, and continued by his successors, especially by Ptolemy III., Euergetes, 247-222 B.C.
The temple consists of a shrine or sekos. a pronaos, an open portico, and two pylons
or gateways. Both of the propylons were constructed by Ptolemy VII., or Philometcr,
and Lathyrus; but the first was added to it by Ptolemy IX., or EuergetesII., 145-141 B.C.
On the second pylon, the. monarch is represented slaying the hostile nations. The colon-
nade was principally erected by Tiberius. The charming little temple, the Mastabat el
Pharaouu, or Pharaoh's bed of the Arabs, was made in the reign of Trajan, 100 A.D.
The temples are particularly important as containing the principal representations of the
story of Osiris, his birth, bringing-up, deathj and embalmment by Isis. Commenced in I he
reign of Nectanebus I., and continued by the. Ptolemies and Romans, the worship of
Isis lingered here till 453 A.D., or sixty years later than the edict of Theodosius. After
the subjection of the Blcmniyesto the Nubian Christians, the temple was converted into
a church, and the paintings 'daubed with mud; and, in 577 A.D., the bishop Theodorus
changed the pronaos of the temple of Isis into the church of St. Stephen; and a Coptic
church, at a later period, was built out of the ruins. The whole area of the ancient
temple was about 435 ft. long by 135 broad, in the center of the dromos. At the present
day the island is deserted. It is a favorite resort of travelers ascending to Nubia, and is
one of the best of the remaining ruined sites of ancient Egypt.
Pliny, N. H., v., c. 29. Servius, ^EJneid, v. 154; Jones and Goury, Vieirs o-n (he Nile;
Wilkinson, Modern Egypt, ii. 295-303; Brugsch, Beiscbericlite aus JEgypteit,, p. 256; Lep-
sius, Reise, p. 262.
PHILANTHEOPY, a word formed from the Greek, and signifying the "love of man-
kind." In the- history of German school education it has acquired a special meaning.
The influence exercised by Rousseau was not less great on education than on politics,
and was as visible in the pedagogues of Germany and Switzerland as in the men of the
French revolution. It is to the brilliant and one-sided advocacy by the author of EmiU,
of a return to nature in social life and in the training of the young, that Basedow owed
I'iiilaret. f»1 Q
Philip.
his novel and enthusiastic educational ism. A brief notice of the institution, which was
opened under his auspices at Dessau in 1774, and which was called Philnnthmfun, is
given in the article on Basedow. Oilier establishments of the same kind were founded
in different parts of G'-nnany, hut. the only one which still survives is Sal/mann's in.-ii-
tute ut Schuepl'enthal, in Gotha, opened in 1784,
PHILARET (BASIL DHOZDOKK), 1782-1867; b. at Kolouma; received his education
in the theological seminary of Moscow; was tutor of Greek and Latin; a]>pointed in 1806
preacher at the Serbian monastery of Troi/.ka; transferred in 1810 to the academy of
Alexander Newskj: in 1811 was made archimandrite; in 1812 became rector of the St.
Petersburg theological academy; in 1817 was made: bishop; and occupied successively
the see of Twer, laroslaw, and Moscow. He remained in the see of Moscow, to which
he was appointed in 1821, until his death. He was renowned for his eloquence, learning,
statesmanship, and liberality of mind. The Russian rulers made him confidential
adviser in all important questions. To him is ascribed Hie manifesto which led to the
abolition of serfdom. In 1813 he received from Alexander I. a decoration for his oratory.
Many of his Sermons and lectures have been printed, and translated into foreign lan-
guages. His greatest work, the History of the J{iixxi<m (.'/m /•<•//. published isr)i)-.r>9, was
introduced by order of the holy synod into the ecclesiastical seminaries. Besides this
history and various commentaries, he published A S>/xt< /,•/ <>f Christian Dut-trim*, 2 vols.
The Lituryy of the Russian Church before the Invasion of th>- M<>H<J<>!«I n*; A Work on the
Church Fathers, 3 vols. ; An Outline of the Theological Literature of lius> in.
PHILBRICK, JOHN DUDLEY, LL.D., b. N. H.( 1818; educated at Dartmouth, and after
graduating in 1842, taught school for many years. In 1853 he became principal of the
Connecticut normal school; in 1855 superintendent of schools in that state, and in 18.17
superintendent of the Boston public schools. He was sent to the Vienna exposition of
1873 as educational commissioner from Massachusetts, and acted as a member of tin;
international jury. Since his return lie has been president of the national teachers'
association, officer of many educational societies, has written many papers on the .-nb-
ject, and has edited the Connecticut Common ScJuwl Journal and the M<txsm-ii
Tpaeher.
PHILEMON, B.C. about 360-262, b. Soli, Cilicia; settled at Athens in early youth;
became the rival of Menander in dramatic writing. His comedies found in all the best
editions of Menander, are distinguished for lively wit, which gained them much popu-
lar favor, aud for ingenuity, and skill in delineating character. They numbered 1)7
titles; 53 of which have been preserved in the BibUotheca Grceca, of Frabricius. lie is
said to have retained a peculiarly sunny temper throughout his long life, and the popu-
lar belief is that he died laughing at a ludicrous incident. He began to place his plays
on. the stage before the 113th Olympiad. He died in the reign of the 2d Antigonus s:>:i
of Demetrius. The best edition of his works is that of Meincke, Berd. , 1823, Thniti r uf
the Greeks. His sou Philemon the younger, was a comic poet and wiote 54 comedies.
PHILE MON AND BATJ'CIS, according to a classic myth, finely poetized by Ovid in
his Metamorphose^, were a married pair, remarkable for their mutual love. Jupiter and
Mercury, wandering through Phrygia in human form, were refused hospitality by every
one, till this aged pair took them in, washed their feet, and gave them such humble fare
as they could provide. On going Yiway, the gods took them with them to a neighboring
mountain, on looking from which they saw their village covered with a flood, but their
own cottage changed into a splendid" temple. Jupiter permitted them to make any
request they chose, but they only asked to be servants of his temple, and that they
might die at the same time. When, accordingly, they were seated at the door of the
temple, being now of great age, they were changed, Philemon into an oak, and Baucis
into a linden. They felt the change taking place, and so long as the power remained
with them, looked most tenderly upon one another.
PHILEMON, EPISTLE OF PAUL TO, is the shortest of the four extant letters winch
the apostle wrote from Rome during his captivity. We either directly learn, or legiti-
mately infer from its contents, that Philemon, who probably lived at Colos>:e, was a
man of considerable wealth, the head of a numerous household, and liberal to the poor.
He had possessed a slave called Onesimus, who had run away from him, after — it has
been thought (verse 18) — robbing or defrauding him. Onesimus, however, coining to
Rome, had been brought into contact with Paul, and converted to Christianity. At lirst
the apostle thought to retain him as his personal attendant, for he was now, as he tells
us (verse 9), " Paul the aged ;" but on further consideration, he resolved to send him
back to his former master. The epistle is simply a brief letter, begging Philemon to
pardon Onesimus, and to receive him "not now as a servant, but above a servant, a
brother beloved." It exhibits an exquisite tenderness and delicacy of feeling, with all
that tact and subtlety of address by which Paul was wont to find his way into the
innermost heart of men. The historical evidence of its authenticity is complete. Even
Baur has remarked that modern criticism in assailing this particular book runs a greater
risk of exposing itself to the imputation of an excessive distrust — a morbid scn-ibility to
doubt and denial — than in questioning the claims of any other epistle ascribed to Paul.
ft 1 Q Philaret.
Pliilip.
PHILIDOR, the assumed name of a French family, which has produced many dis-
tinguished musicians, and one celebrated composer. The real name of the family was.
DANIGAN, and the additional appellation Philidor was assumed by Michel Danigan, the
hautboist to Louis XIII. , on account of his having equaled a celebrated player on the
same instrunu-nt, named Filidori. The name was transmitted to his descendants, the
most famous of whom was his'graudson, FUANCOIS ANDUE DANIGAN, who was born at
Dreux, in the department of Eure et Loir, 1726, studied music, and produced a great
many comic operas, all long forgotten. It may be noticed that, while residing in Lon-
don— whither he had fled on the outbreak of the revolution — (1779), he set to music the
"Carmen Saeculare" of Horace, a work which is considered by many as a masterpiece
of musical art. He died in London. Aug. 81, 1795. Philidor's modern reputation rests
exclusively on his skill in the gam^3 of chess, the principles of which he has laid down
with exceeding clearness. It was in great measure his passion for this game which
prompted him to visit Germany and Holland, where, at that time, the most distinguished
players were to be found, in order to measure his strength with theirs. He was one of
the' founders of the London chess club. Here it was that in 1777 he published his
A/i-'ifyxe de Jcu dcs ticJu-c* (Analysis of the Game of Chess). One principle, then unique,
seems to lie at the root of all Philidor's games — i.e., to maintain and support carefully
the pieces in the center of the board — and rather than deviate from this principle, he
rejects the opportunity of making an effective and advantageous move. He practiced
with success the playing of games blindfold; but in this particular he has been far sur-
pas>cd in recent times by Harrwitz, and more recently by Morphy.
PHILIP, the Apostle, of Bethsaida, one of the earliest disciples of Christ; was dis-
tinguished by his confident testimony to .Nathanacl, and his successful plea with him,
notwithstanding his prejudice against Nazareth, to come and see Jesus and judge for
himself; was chosen one of "the twelve;" was questioned by the Lord, prior to the
feeding of the 5,000, to test his faith; and again, before the crucifixion, to increase his
knowledge; was joined with Andrew in bringing Greek inquirers to Jesus; and was one
of " tlie eleven" in their assemblage after the resurrection and at pentecost. The tra-
ditionary notices of him are numerous; but some of them confound him with Philip the
evangelist, and the rest are uncertain or false.
PHILIP THE MAGNANIMOUS, Landgrave of Hesse, 1504-67, b. Marburg; succeeded
Iiis father, William II., in 1509, his mother being made regent. He was one of the first
to adopt the cause of the reformation, and was a member of the Smalcald league defeated
by Charles V. 1546, in the battle of MuhllKTg. Philip was retained as a prisoner, but
released on the demand of his son-in-law, Maurice of Saxony. He was manicd in 1523
to a daughter of George the bearded, duke of Saxony, and by her had four sons between
whom, he divided his landgravinte. But a secret marriage to Margaret von der Saale, a
Protestant, in 1540, was assented to by Luther and Melanchthon on the ground that the
former marriage was adulterous.
PHILIP II., King of Macedonia, and father of Alexander the great, was b. at Peila
i:i 3*2 B.C. He was the youngest son of Amynt;;s II. and Eurydice. At Thebes, whither
he was, taken as a hostage by Pelopidas, he' spent part of his early life, employing his
exile in studying the art of war, and the constitution and laws of the Greek states, as
well as the literature and the character of the people — pursuits which were of the great-
est service to him afterward, when called on to administer the government of the
Macedonian kingdom. The assassination of his eldest brother, Alexander II., by
Ptolemy Alorites, after a short reign of two years (869-867 B.C.), and the death oi his
second brother, Perdiccas III., in battie (3GO B.C.), placed him at the head of affairs m
Macedonia, as guardian to his nephew Amyntas, still an infant. In a few months
Philip made himself king, the rights of Amyntas being set aside. Dangers soon beset
him from without and from within. The Illyrians and other neighboring tribes
assailed his kingdom on different sides; while two pretenders to tbe throne, urged on by
the Athenians and Thracians,' stirred up civil commotion. But foreign and domestic
enemies soon disappeared before the decision, the energy, and the wise policy of the
young king. In the brief space of a year he had secured tlie safety of his kingdom, and
had gained for himself a dreaded name. At this time he was only 24 years of age.
Henceforward his policy was one of aggression, and his every thought was directed to
the extension of his empire and the spread of Macedonian influence. The Greek towns
on the coast of Macedonia were the first objects of attack. After possessing himself of
Amplupolis and Pydna, by means little consistent with the faith of treaties, lie handed
j^ver to the Olynthians the city of Potidrea, which he had taken from the Athenians. In
Thrace he captured the small town Crenides. which, under its new name, PHILIPPI,
soon acquired great wealth and fame, and ultimately became celebrated in profane as
well as in sacred history. The surrounding district was rich in gold-mines, which
proved a source of great revenue to Philip (about, say, £250.000 annually), and supplied
him plentifully with the means of paying his armies* of bribing traitorous Greeks, and
of opening the gates of many cities, the sieges of which might otherwise have cost the
blood of thousands. After a few years of comparative leisure, he turned his ambitious
views southward; and capturing Methone (at the siege of which he lost an eye), he
advanced into Thessaly, and ultimately to the strait oi' Thermopylae, W7hich, however,
Philip.
he did not attempt to force, as it -was strongly guarded by the Athenian";. Tie therefore
returned into Macedonia, and directed his arms against the Tliracians, waiting 1'or a
more titling occasion to carry out his darling project. Such an opportunity was not
long wanting. After capturing all the towns of Chalcidice — the last of which was the
important city of Olynthu* — he made peace with the Tliracians, and next year with the
Athenians, who had been at war with him in defense of their allies the Ol'yntliian-. It
was this siege of Olynthus by Philip which called forth these Olynlhiac oral ions of
Demosthenes, which are still admjred as efforts of oratorical gen ins hitherto uneqaaled
in any country. Philip was now requested by the Thcbans to interfere ir. the war
("the sacred war") which was raging between them and the Phocians. lie marched into
Phocis, (lest roved its cities, and sent as colonists to Thrace many of the inhabitants G!4<>
B.C.). The place which the Phocians had occupied Jn the amphictyonic council was
transferred to Philip, and he was appointed, jointly with the Thebans and The-salians,
as president of the Pythian games. His next. step was to secure a footing in the 1'clo-
Eonnese, hy espousing the cause of tiie Argivcs, Moseuians, and other-, against the
partans. In 339 B.C. the amphictyonic council declared war against the l.ocrians of
Amphissa; and, in the following year appointed Philip commauder-in-duef of their
forces. The Athenians were alarmed at his approach into Greece in thi- capacity, .-ml
formed a league with the Thebans against him; but their united army was utterly
defeated at the battle of Chseronea (338 K.C.), and all Greece was at the feet of the con-
queror. He was now in a position to enter on the great dream of his later years — viz.,
to invade the Persian empire, and revenge the injuries of Greece. Deputies from tho
different states of Greece assembled in congress at Corinth; and after resolving to mak«
war on the Persian king, chose Philip as leader of their armies. Preparations \\
progress for this great expedition when he was suddenly cut off by the hand of the
in Pausanias, at a festival celebrating tho marriage of his daughter with Alexander
of Epirus (336 B.C.). A private grudge at Philip, for neglect to punish an insult offered
'to Pausanias by Attains, was siid to be the motive which inspired the murderer, though
suspicion is not wanting that the deed was done at the instigation of Alexander and his
mother Olympian, who had retired from the court in disgust at Philip's m-iniav
year previous, with Cleopatra, daughter of Attalus, one of his general-;. Philip was a
man given to self-indulgence and sensuality; he was faithless in the observance of treaty
obligations, and unscrupulous as to the means by which he gained his ends; hut he had
to deal with factious and faithless opponents, which may help to explain if it does not
justify his policy; while his clemency as a victor has won the admiration even of the
virtuous Cicero, who pronounces him "always great." Of hi-* force and energy of
character, his acuteness, fertility of invention, and eloquence, it is impossible lo -
too highly. He was at the same time a lover of learning and a liberal patron of learned
men. He reigned from 359 to 336 B.C.
PHILIP III., King of Macedon. On the death of Alexander the great at Babylon in
323n.c., the army elected as king, under the name of Philip III., Arrhid.eus. son of Philip
and Philinna of Lnrissa, one of his many wives. He was a youth of weak understand-
ing, and was totally unfit for the duties of government. His wife Eurvdiee (dan
of Amyntas, son of Perdiccas III.), whom he married in 322 B.C., endeavored, o« their
return to Macedonia, to oppose the measures of Polysperchou and Olympias in support
of the young Alexander, posthumous son of Alexander the great and Roxana. 15ui her
army was defeated ; she herself was taken prisoner; and, along with her husband, was
put to death in 317 B.C.
PHILIP V., King of Macedon, B.C. 237-179: b. Macedonia; grandson of Anti-ronus
Gonnatas; ascended the throne 220 B.C., on the death of his uncle Antigonus Doson.
His reign began with the disturbances between the ^Etolian and Achaean leagues, in
which he aided the latter, and he was distinguished for activity and military skill. He
carried on a successful war with Rome, called the firs't Macedonian war (n.c. 210-205),
unassisted by Hannibal, whose offers of alliance he slighted. In 200 the second Mac.--
donian war began; ending in 197, during the reign of his s-on Perseus, in the «conii 1-te
discomfiture of the Macedonian army by Titus Quintius J^laminius at ( 'ynoscephalas.
The country sank into subjection to Rome, surrendering all its possessions in Europe
and Asia; their fleet being seized by their conquerors, and tribute exacted. His death
took place just before the last qrisis.
PHILIP II., King of Spain, the only son of the emperor Charles V. (q.v.) and
Isabella of Portugal, was b. at Valladolid, May 21, 1527. He was brought up in Spain,
and carefully educated under the superintendence of able tutors, by whose instruct ions
he greatly profited, becoming an accomplished linguist and mathematician, and a con-"
noisseur in architecture and the fine arts. But all attempts to indoctrinate him with
the chivalric ideas of the time were utterly futile. From his very childhood he was dis-
trustful and reserved ; he invariably '.poke wiia slowness and an air of deep reflection
which was too marked to be wholly real, and exhibited in his manners a .*.//«/-/'/•«/</
which even in his early years was rarely disturbed by ebullitions of passion. While still
very young he was intrusted, under the direction of a council, with the government of
Spain, and in 1543 he espoused Mary of Portugal, who died three years after. In r>|s
he went to join his father at Brussels, and there adopted the multitudinous equipage
621 Phil5l>.
and minute and pompous etiquette of the late Burgundian court, which from this time
he retained. While at Brussels, Philip was presented to his future subjects, and was at
the same time fully initiated into his father's policy, (he two chief items of which were
the maintenance and extension of absolute rule throughout his dominions, and the sup-
port and propagation of the Catholic religion. In 1554 he married Mary Tudor, queen
of England, and to gain the support, of that country to his political projects, and at the
same time restore it to the Roman Catholic pale, he laid aside his ordinarily cold and
haughty demeanor, and labored to ingratiate himself with his wife's subjects, taking
the utmost care to avoid exciting the national jealousy of foreign influence. But his
plans were discovered and frustrated, and this disappointment, combined with the
annoyance to which he was subjected by the jealousy of his wife, prompted him to
leave England (which he did forever), and return to Brussels (Sept., 1555). In the fol-
lowing month he became, by the abdication of his father, the most powerful poteutafe
of Europe, having under his sway, Spain, the two Sicilies, the Milanese, the Low Coun-
tries. Franche Comte, Mexico, ami Peru; his European territories beingjuore fertile, and
their inhabitants more wealthy and prosperous than any others on the continent, while
his army was the best disciplined, and headed by the greatest generals of the age. The
treasury alone was deficient, having been drained by the enormous expenditure of his
father's wars. Philip was eager to begin the crusade in favor of Catholicism, but he
was compelled to postpone it, owing to a league which had been formed between France,
the pope, and the sultan, to deprive him of his Italian dominions. He soon got over his
religious scruples at engaging in warfare with the pope, and intrusted the defense of the
Sicilies to Alya (q.v.), who speedily drove out the pope and the French, and conquered
the papal territories, while Philip himself vigorously prosecuted the war against France
in the n., and defeated the French at St. Quentin (q.v.) Aug. 10, 1557) and Gravelines
(July 18, 1558). These reverses forced the French (the pope having already made a
separate treaty) to agree to terms of peace at Chateau-Cambresis (April 2, 1559.) Philip's
wife was now dead, and after an unsuccessful attempt to obtain the hand of her succes-
sor, queen Elizabeth, he espoused Isabella of France, and returned to Spain, where from
this time he always resided. Before leaving the Low Countries, he solemnly promised
to withdraw almost the whole of his Spanish troops who preyed upon the peaceful
Flemings, but he firmly refused to annul or modify the rigorous edicts of his father
against heretics. His realm being now at peace, he resolved, as a necessary preliminary
to the carrying out of his great proselytizing scheme, to replenish his treasury, a thing
impossible without forced contributions, which, at that time, could only be obtained in
those countries over which he held absolute rule — viz., Spain and America. He there-
fore set about establishing absolute government in those of his states that were in pos-
session of something like free institutions, and with this view sought to introduce the
inquisition into the Low Countries and Italy. But the introduction of this instrument of
tyranny was successfully resisted in Naples and the Milanese; in Sicily its powers were
so shackled as to render it quite a harmless institution ; but these failures only stimulated
him the more to establish it in. all its pride and power in the Low Countries. For a num-
ber of years it continued in vigorous action in that country; but the natural result of
such a course of conduct was a formidable rebellion of all classes, Catholic and Protest-
ant, which was partially successful — the northern portion (the "seven united prov-
inces") establishing its independence jn 1579. In this conflict the resources of Spain
were largely expended, and to replenish his treasury in the speediest manner possible,
Philip exacted enormous contributions from Spain, abolishing all special communal or
provincial privileges and rights which might interfere with his actions, and suppressing
all insurrection and discontent by force of arms 01 the inquisition. During the first,
half of- his reign he engaged in a desultory warfare with the Barbary corsairs, who were
supported by the Turks — the only memorable incident of which was the famous naval
victory of Lepanto (q.v.), won Sept. 16, 1571. In 1580 the direct male line of Portugal
having become extinct, Philip laid claim to the throne, and after the duke of Alva had
occupied the kingdom with ah army, ihe Spanish monarch's title was recognized by the
Portuguese estates. His enmity to" England on account of the anti-Spanish policy of
queen Elizabeth incited him to attempt the conquest of that country, but his most form id-
able attempt failed signally. See ARMADA. After the accession of Catharine de Medicis
to power, France and Spain drew closer the bonds of amity which had previouly sub-
sisted between the two countries; but the refusal of Catharine to adopt Philip's plans
for the wholesale slaughter of heretics produced a coolness in their relations. However,
when Henry, king of Navarre, a Huguenot, became heir-presumptive to the throne,
Philip allied himself with the Guises and the other chiefs of the Catholic party who
were in rebellion, and his obstinate persistence in these intrigues after the cause of the
Guises was shown to be hopeless, prompted Henry to declare wTar against him. The
Spaniards had the worst of it, and Philip was glad to conclude the treaty of Vervins
May 2, 1598. He died in the Escurial at Madrid, on Sept. 13 of the same year. It can-
not be denied that Philip was gifted with great abilities, but he was also a visionary,
especially in politics, and engaged in so many grand enterprises at once as to overtask
his resources without leading to any good or profitable result. No single kingdom in
Europe could have stood against him, but he was always at war with at least two at
a time; and even, the splendid opportunity "which the extinction of the direct Capetian
rh ili p.
Philippe.
line in 1589 gave him for uniting Franco, Spain, nncl Portugal in one great monarchy,
could not restrain this unfortunate peculiarity. His fanatical enthasiasm for Catholicism,
in which he was surpassed by no man who ever lived, and the zeal with which he per-e.
i uted all heretics through the inquisition, combined with the odious tyranny of his secu-
lar government to degrade Spain, by breaking the proud and chivalrous spirit which had
been the source of its pre-eminence among European nations, while his virulent perse-
cutions of the industrious Moriscoes, and his oppressive exactions, put a stop to the
commerce of the country. By his fourth wife, Anne of Austria, he had a son. Philip III
PHILIP V., King of Spain, and the founder of the Bourbon d}'nasty in that country,
was the second sou of the Dauphin Louis (sou of Louis XIV.) of France, and was born
at Versailles, Dec. 19, 168.'}. The lust king of Spain of ihe Uapsburg dynasty. Charles
II., had successively promised the succession to the throne to ( harlcs. archduke of
Austria, the great grandson of Philip III. of Spain, and to Philip, then duke of Anjou,
the son of his own eldest sister; but becoming eogni/.ant of a secret treaty which had
been agreed to between England, France, and Holland for the pariition of >pain. lie, to
prevent the dismemberment of his kingdom, left by will the siu-ci-sion to Philip of
Anjou. France immediately seceded iiom the partition treaty, and. on the death of
Charles II. in 1700, Philip, who was the favorite candidate anionu' the Spaniards, with
the exception of those iu the eastern provinces, took po>-<^sion of the kingdom (April
21, 1701); and, to gain over Savoy to his side, and thus create a diversion in Italy against
Austria, he married Maria Louisa, daughter of Victor Amadeus. AVar almost immedi-
ately broke out between the rival claimants, Charles being supported by the " grand
alliance," which included England, Austria and Holland, and subsequently (.January,
1702) Prussia, Denmark, and Hanover (May, 1703), Portugal, and (October, 1 ('(»:!) Savoy.
See SUCCESSION, WAR OF SPANISH. The fortune of war was mostly on the side of the
allies; but France and Spain carried on the contest heroically, and, though at grei
lifioes, the throne was secured to Philip by the peace of Utrecht (April 11, 1713).
In the following year the queen died, and Philip espoused Kli/abeth Earnest of
Parma, who immediately induced her husband to commit the reins of government to
Alheroni (q.v.); in fact, so much was the weak-minded king under the influence of his
tnlcntcd young wife, that he granted everything she asked. "He was." .-ays Sismondi,
" remarkable for good nature, he had few faults and as fewr virtues, his sentiment:-, were
ju>t and honorable, but lie was wholly deficient in energy: he had no taste lor anything
I eyond devotional exercises and the chase: he was made to be governed, and he was so
: if his life " Alberoni's adventurous foreign policy, which at first succeeded in restor-
ing the Spanish rule in Sicily and Sardinia, brought down upon Spain the wrath of the
quadruple alliance (France, England, Holland, and Austria), and war wa.- only averted ! y
his being dismissed; but his dismissal was really produced by his neglecting to further
the queen's pet scheme of providing sovereignties in Italy for her sons, who seemed to
have little chance of obtaining the throne of Spain. The strong bond of union which
had hitherto subsisted between Spain and France was broken, in 1725. by the refusal of
the regent of the latter country to fulfill certain matrimonial agreements; but four years
afterward the two countries joined with England and Holland against the ;-nip'*ror. and
in 1731 Philip took measures* to recover the old Spanish possessions in Italy. The war
which followed at last satisfied the queen by giving the kingdom of the two Sicilies to
her son Charles (1736), but Philip, in attempting to obtain still greater advantages over
Austria, was led into a war of which he was not destined to see the result. lie died at
Madrid, July 9, 174(5.
PHILIP, KIXG, Sachem of Pokanoket; d. 1676; named by the English Philip, though
his Indian name was Pometacom. He became sachem in 1662, and the same year he
went to Plymouth, and promised to continue friendly to the colony, and not to cede any
territory without their knowledge. About 1670 his friendly intentions began to IK
p.'Ctcd, frequent meetings of the tribes were held, murders of whites became frequent,
and in 1671 it was attempted to disarm the Indians. But the war did not break out
till 1675. An Indian convert named Snssamon, divulged to the colonists the preparations
made by Philip, and was murdered. In revenge for the execution of his murderers, the
Indians killed 8 or 9 men, and open hostilities were begun. The Indians did not venture
to meet the colonists in battle,' but burned settlements, laid ambuscades for tin
tiers, and killed the stragglers. In Dec., 1675. Josiah AVinslow led a force of HldO
men against the Narragansetts, with whom Philip had formed an alliance, took by
storm a fort said to have contained 4,000 Indians, and destroyed their village. The
war went on for the first 6 months of 1676, but Philip's power w'as soon broken, he was
tracked to Mount Hope, where a force under capt. Church attacked him, and he \\as
killed by an Indian in attempting to escape. His body was quartered, and \ri* head sent
to Plymouth, where it was kept on a gibbet for 20 years. During this war 600 colonists
were killed, 600 buildings burned, and 13 towns destroyed. Its cost was estimated at
$1.000,000. Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay suffered heavily, the loss of Connecticut
being much less.
PHILIPPE II,, better known as PHILIPPE AUGUSTE, King of France, was the son of
Louis VII. and Alix of Champagne, and was b. in Aug., 1165. He was crowned, in
1179, during the life of his father, succeeded him in 1180, and proved one of the, great-
• Philip.
Philippe.
est monarehs of the Capetian dynasty. His marriage with Isabella of Hainault, a
descendant of the Carlovingians, established more completely the right of his family to
the throne of France. He first made war upon the count of Flanders to obtain the "dis-
tricts of Vermandois, Valois, Amienois, and Artois, which belonged to his wife, and,
after various fortunes, obtained Amienois and part, of Vermandois at once, and tiie rest
aftbr the count's death in 1185. By the advice of St. Bernard (q.v.) he rigorously pun-
ished heretics, despoiled the Jews, absolving their debtors of all obligations, excepting
one-fifth, which he transferred to himself; put down with vigor the numerous bands of
brigands and priest-haters who devastated the country and burned the churches ami
monasteries, compelling their chief leader, the duke of Burgundy, to submit (1186) to his
authority — acts which gave him great popularity among his subjects. He sustained the
sons of Henry II, of England in their rebellions against their father, and conquered, in
conjunction with Richard Coeur-de-Lion, many of the English possessions in France.
After the accession (1283) of Richard to the throne, Philippe and he set out together on
the third crusade; but quarreled while wintering in Sicily, and this dissension continu-
ing, Philippe, after a sojourn of 8£ months in Syria, set out (July 31, 1190) on his return
to France, after taking a solemn oath to respect the integrity of Richard's dominions;
but no sooner had he returned than he entered into an f.rrangement for the partition ot
Richard's territories in France with his unworthy brother John. Some acquisitions were
made, but Richard's sudden retufn overset the calculations of the conspirators, and a war
immediately commenced between the two mouarchs, in which Philippe had at one and
the same time to defend his territories from the English, and the counts of Champagne,
Boulogne, Bretagne, and Hainault, who attacked them on all sides. In order to obtain
money, he was obliged to rescind his edicts against the Jews; but the mediation of Pope
Innocent put an end (Jan. 13, 1199) to a war which was productive of no other result
than the exhaustion of the strength of the combatants. Richard of England died within
two mouths after; but war almost immediately recommenced with England, regarding
the respective claims of king John of England and his nephew Arthur of Brctague to I he
French heritage of Richard Ctuur-de-Lion, which consisted chiefly of Anjou, Maine, and
Touraine. Arthur had applied for aid to Philippe, and the French king immediately
responded by causing the young duke to be recognized in the above-mentioned prov-
inces; but a quarrel in which he became involved with the pope on account of his hav-
ing divorced his second wife, Ingelburga of Denmark, to marry Anges of Meran, a Tyro-
lese princess, compelled him to leave the English in possession for a little time longer.
The defeat, capture, and subsequent murder of Arthur, however, again brought him
into the field. The English provinces in France were attacked by the combined French
and Bretons: Normandy and Poitou, with the three disputed provinces, were annexed to
France; and the English dynasty in Bretagne dispossessed by a French one (Oct. 28,
120(5).- During 1211 -14 Philippe was engaged in a war with king John of England and
the emperor Otho of Germany, who had leagued themselves against him, in which he
was on the whole successful. During the rest of his reign, Philippe was occupied in
consolidating his new possessions, and took no part either in the war with the Albigenscs
or that in England, though his son Louis (q.v.) went to the latter with an army. Philippe
succeeded in establishing the unity of his dominions, and in emancipating the royal
authority from the trammels of the papacy and clergy, and vindicated his sovereign
authority over the latter as his subjects, irrespective of the pope. His measures, without
alienating the great feudal lords, tended firmly to establish his authority over them, and
to emancipate the larger towns from their sway. To increase the unity of the kingdom,
and strengthen the central power, he established at Paris a chamber of 12 peers, 6 lay
and 6 ecclesiastical, who almost always supported his plans, even against the court of
Rome. Finally, he largely improved and embellished Paris, built many churches and
ot'icr institutions, and encouraged commercial associations; he also fortified many of the
chief towns, including the capital. He died at Mantes, July 14, 1223.
PHILIPPE IV., surnamed Lc Ed or "Fair," King of France, the son of Philippe III.,
kinir of France, and Isabella of Aragon. was b. at Fontaincbleau in 1268, and succeeded
his father in 1285. By his marriage with queen Joanna of Navarre, he obtained Navarre,
( hnnpagne, and Brie. For several years he carried on a struggle with the count of
Fia:ic-(-rs to obtain possession of that country, and also seized Guienne from the English:
'b;:tw.is, in the end, obliged to restore Guienne and Flanders beyond the Lys. "The
;-;• at. ev< nts of Philippe's reign were his war with the papacy and the extermination of
the knights templars; the former had its origin in the attempts of the king to tax the
as well as the laity for the heavy expenses of his numerous wars. Boniface for-
b.ulc the clergy to submit, to taxation, while Philippe, on bis side, ordered that neither
money nor valuables were to bo exported, thus cutting off a main supply of papal rev-
enue; and on the pope's legate insolently reprimanding him, he threw him into prison.
Philippe now called an assembly of states, in which deputies of towns appeared — though
not for the first time — and obtained assurance of their support, even in case of excom-
munication and interdict. Boniface, in turn, assembled a council at Rome (1302). which
supported his view, and the celebrated bull, Unam Sanctam (q.v.) was issued. Philippe
caused the bull to be publicly burned, and with the consent of the states-general confis-
cated the property of those prelates who had sided with the pope. Boniface now excom-
municatcd him, but the king, nothing daunted, sent to Rome his general, William do
Noga:vt, who sei/ed aud imprisoned tlie pope; and though lie- was released a Her a few
days by a popular rising, ho soon alterwards died. In 1304 Philippe obtained the (leva-
lion of one of his own ere. it urc.~ to the papal eiiair as C]( nicnt V.. on condition <>!' his
residing at Aviirnon, and giving up the knights templars (.q.v.). In accordance with ihis
agreement, the templars were seized (1306-14;, and burned by hundreds, ami th^ir
v. ealtli appropriated by Philij)j)e. The grandmaster, Jacques Molny, was burned Mar. 18,
1314. and when dying he summoned Pliilippe to compcar \vitldn a year and :i day, ami
the pope within 40 days, before the judgment-seat of God; strange to say, botli tin1 p. p •
and king died within the time mentioned, the latter at Fontainebleau, Nov. 29, 1314.
Philippe during his whole reign steadily strove for the suppression of feudalism and the
introduction of the Roman law; but while thus increasing the power of the crown, and
also that of the third estate, be converted royalty, which was formerly protecting, kind,
and popular to the mass of the people, into a hard, avaricious, and pitiless task-master.
Under him the taxes were greatly increased, tlie,Ie\\s persecuted, and their pr>
Confiscated; aud when the~< means were insufficient to satisfy Philippe's avarice, he
caused the coinage to be greatly debased; yet he was an able monarch, and under him
France was extended almost to its present limits on the u. and east,
PHILIPPE VI., OF VALOIS, King of France, was. the son of Charles of Y
younger brother of Philippe IV., and succeeded to the regency of France on the
of Charles IV., the proclamation of a king being deferred on account of the pregnancy
of Charles IV. 's widow; but on her giving birth to a daughter, Philippe caused himself
to be crowned king at Reims, May 29, 1828, and assumed royal authority. His right to
the throne was denied by Edward III. of England, the grandson of Philippe IV., who
declared that females, though excluded by the Salic, law, could transmit their rights to
their children, and therefore insisted upon the superiority of his own claims. Philippe,
however, was not only already crowned king, but lie bad the support of the people. His
reign commenced gloriously, for marching into Flanders to support the count against
his rebellious subjects, he wiped out the disgrace of Court rai by vanquishing the ]•'. em-
ings at Cassel, Aug. 23, 1328. He was obliged to give up Navarre (q.v.). as the Salic
law of succession did not apply to it, but he retained Champagne and Brie, paying for
the'ii a considerable annual stipend. Philippe seems to have had no settled plan o
ernment, and no systematic political action; his acts were regulated by the whim of the
hour, and were mostly calculated to gratify his own vanity and love of show. From 1330
to 1336 constant encroachments had been made upon the English possessions in France,
till at last Edward III.'s patience was exhausted; and, on Aug. 21, 1337. he formally
declared war, and a commencement of this terrible hundred years' contest was made
both in Guienne and Flanders; it was carried on languidly for several years, the only
prominent incident being the destruction of the French fleet off Sluys. June • 1. 1 :'.}<).
In Mar., 1343, Philippe established the "gabellc," or monopoly of salt, a heavy percent-
age tax on all mercantile transactions. The constant round of fetes and tournaments at
court was never interrupted, even when the war had well nigh exhausted the wealth of
the country, for the money to carry them on was immediately provided by some new tax
or fresh confiscation. In 1346 E'dward III. landed in Normandy, ravaged the whole
country to the environs of Paris, and totally defeated Philippe at Crecy (q.v.). A truce
was then concluded, but the devoted kingdom had no sooner been released from war,
than destruction in another and more terrible form, that of the "black death" (q.v.),
threatened it. The wild extravagance of the court was nothing lessen; d by this visita-
tion; but the financial embarrassments in which Philippe found himself compelled him
to agree to the passing of a law (1338) -which gave to the assembly of the states the sole
power of imposing taxes. He received Dauphine in gift in 1340. purchased Majorca from
its unfortunate king, and died Aug. 22, 1350, neither loved nor respected. He was a
despiser of learning and a bigot.
PHILIPPE LE BON, i.e., "the good, "Duke of Burgundy, the son of Jean "sans peur"
by Margaret of Bavaria, and grandson of Philippe the bold, was born at Dijon, the
capital of the duchy, June 13, 1396, and on the assassination of his father on the bridge
of Montereau at the instigation of the dauphin, afterwards Charles VII., succeeded to
the duchy of Burgundy. Bent on avenging the murder of his father, he entered into an
offensive and defensive alliance with Henry V. of England at Arras in 1419, at the same
time recognizing him as the rightful regent of France, and heir to the throne after
Charles VI. 's death. This agreement, which disregarded the Salic law, was sanctioned
by the king, parliament, university, and states-general of France by the treaty of Troves,
but the dauphin, declined to resign his rights, and took to arms; lie was, however,
defeated at Crevant (1423) and Verneuil (J424), and driven beyond the Loire. Some dis-
putes with the English prompted Philippe to conclude a treaty with the king of France
in 1429. However, the English, by ceding to Philippe the province of Champagne, and
paying him a large sum of money, restored him to their side. At this time, by becoming
heir to Brabant, Holland, Zealand, and the rest of the Low Countries, he was at the head
of the most flourishing and powerful realm in western Europe; but, though much more
powerful than his superior, the king of France, he preferred to continue in nominal sub
jection. Smarting under some fresh insults of the English viceroy, and being strongly
Philippe.
Philippians.
torged by the pope, he made a final peace (1435) with Charles, who gladly accepted it,
(even on the hard conditions which Philippe prescribed, The English, in revenge, com-
mitted great havoc among the merchant navies of Flanders, which irritated Philippe to
•«uch an extent that lie declared war against them, and, in conjunction with the king of
France, gradually expelled them from their French possessions. The imposition of
taxes, -which were necessarily heavy, excited a rebellion, headed, as usual, by the citizens
of Ghent, but the duke inflicted upon them a terrible defeat, July, 1454, though he wept
over a victory bought with the blood of 20,000 of his subjects. The latter part of his
reign was filled with trouble caused by the quarrels between Charles VII. and his son,
the dauphin Louis, afterwards Louis XL, who had fled from his father's cou.t. and
sought shelter from Philippe, although, after ascending the throne, far from showing
gratitude, he tried, in the most dishonorable manner, to injure his benefactor. Philippe
died at Bruges, July 15, 1467, deeply lamented by his subjects. Under him Burgundy
was the most, wealthy, prosperous, and tranquil state in Europe; its ruler was the most
feared and admired sovereign of his time, and his court far surpassed in brilliancy those
of his contemporaries. Knights and nobles from all parts of Europe flocked to his jousts
and tournaments.
PHILIPPE IE HAEDI (Philippe the told), the founder of the second and last ducal
house of Burgundy, was the third son of Jean, king of France, and his wife, Bonne of
Luxemburg, and was born Jan. 15, 1342. He was present at the battle of Poitiers, 1856,
and displayed such heroic courage, venturing his own life to save that of his father, as
gained for him the sobriquet of ,fc hardi, or "the bold." He shared his father's captivity
in England, and, on returning to France in 13CO, received in reward of his bravery the
duchy of Touraine, and subsequently (13Go) also that of Burgundy, being created at the
earne time (he first peer of France. On the accession of his brother, Charles V., to the
throne of France, Philippe had to resign Touraine, but, as a compensation, obtained in
marriage Margaret, the heiress of Flanders. In 1372 lie commanded the French army
opposed to the English, and took from them many of their possessions. In 1380 he
exerted himself to suppress the sedition of the Flemish towns against their count, and
succeeded with some of the malcontents; but the citizensof some of the populous places,
especially Ghent, were possessed with such a fever of independence, that after many
fruitless attempts to induce them to return to their allegiance, Philippe raised an army,
and inflicted upon them the bloody defeat of Bosbeck, Nov. 27, 1382, leaving 26, COO of
them on the field. Flanders, the county of Burgundy, Artois, Rethel, and Ncvers fell
to him by the death of the count in 1384, and the influence of his power, combined with
prudence and good management on his part, soon won the affection and esteem of his
new subjects. Energy and wisdom characterized his government; arts, manufactures,
and commerce were much and judiciously encouraged, and his territory (a kingdom in
extent) was one of the best governed in Europe. During the minority and subsequent
imbecility of his nephew, Charles VI. of France, he was obliged to take the helm of
affairs, and preserve the state from insurrection and sedition within, and the attacks of
the English without. He was on his way to repel an attack of the ]attcr on Flanders
when he died at the chateau of Hail in Brabant, a little to the s.w. of Brussels, Apr. 27,
1404.
PHILIPPEVILLE, a thriving town and sea-port of Algeria, in the province of Con-
stantine, and 40 m. n.n.c. of the city of that name, on tho gulf of Stora, between cape
Boujaro'in and cape de Fer. It was laid out in 1838 by mai-shal Valee, on the ruins of
the ancient Russicada, and is one of the prettiest towns in Algeria, and thoroughly French
in its character. It is an important entiepot of the commerce of the e. of Algeria, and
the country in the vicinity is picturesque and fertile, producing grain, tobacco, cotton,
flax, and fruits. It contains numerous public offices, a large hospital and dsspensary,
Catholic and Protestant churches, public library and museum, theater, etc. In the
vicinity are quarries of the famous Filfila marble. A harbor has been constructed,
including a pier and dock, which afford shelter to small merchant ships in bad weather,
There are here several establishments for curing fish, and trade is carried on in gram
and in fabrics of native manufacture. Philippeville is the chief station of the railway
for the province of Constantino, and is connected by steamer with Marseilles and Algiers.
Pop. '72, 13,022.
PHILIP PI, a city of Macedonia. It was named after Philip II. of Macedon, who
conquered it from Thrace, up to which time it had been called Crenides, or the "place
of fountains," and enlarged it because of the gold mines in its neighborhood. Philip
worked the mines so well that he got| from them 1000 talents a year. It is famous on
account of the two battles fought in 42 B.C. between Antony and Octavianus on the one
side, and the republicans under Brutus and Cassius on the other. The first engagement
was undecided; in the second, twenty days after, the republic finally perished. The
apostle Paul founded a Christian church here in 53 A.D. * to which one of his epistles is
addressed. The ruins of the city still bear the name of Philippi, or Fehba.
PHILIP'PIANS, EPISTLE TO THE, one of the latest of the Pauline epistles. It was
transmitted from Rome probably about the year 63 A.D. , through Epaphroditus, appar-
ently a pastor of the Philippian church, who had been sent to minister to the necessities
of the apostle. The Philippian church was looked upon with peculiar tenderness and
U. K. XL— 40
Plilllppians.
Vhilippiue.
affection by Paul. It was the first fruits of his evangelization in Europe; its members
were singularly kind towards him: again and again, when IK: was laboring in olhcr
cities, such as Thessalonica and Corinth, they sent him contribution- that he might not
be burdensome to his new converts, and now they had sent one of the brethren all the
way to Home with presents for him. knowing that he was in bonds, and suspecting —
what was in fact the case — that he might be in sore strai's for his daily bread. Jit.-, let-
ter to them is deeply affecting. It contains not so much of doctrinal matter as of a warm
outpouring of his personal feelings towards his friends at Philippi. The historical evidence
in favor of the authenticity of the epistle is so strong that it could hardly give way to any
iaternal criticism; and the objections of this kind, urged by Bauer, Sehwegler, and
others of the Tubingen school, who regard it as a Gnostic composition oi' the Xid c., are
regarded as preposterous, even by many Biblical scholars who do not profess to be
orthodox.
PHILIPPIAlSrS, EPISTLE TO THE (anle) was referred to by Polycarp (107 A.D.), in
his letter to the church at Philippi, as the well-known work of Paul i : Acknowl-
edged by the heretical MarcioD, 140, in common witli orthodox Christians; quoted by
Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian. and in the epistle of the church"-- of Lyons
and Vienna, 177; contained in the Peshito (Syriae) version; and included in the canonical
lists of the Muratorian Fragment, Eusebius, the council of Laodicea, and the synod of
Hippo. It is only in recent times that its genuineness, notwithstanding tui- abundant
and unanimous testimony, has been assailed by criticism and vague conjecture. The
general consent of early tradition, and the internal evidence of tiie epistle itself, show
that it was written at Rome, near the end of Paul's first imprisonment there; s > that as
a strain of triumph in his bonds at Rome, it is like bis hymn of praise in the i-locks at
Philippi. The epistle may be divided into three parts. The first pan civitidns the salu-
tation, expressing the apostle's ardent and grateful attachment to the Philippian Chris-
tians; his assurance that his sufferings at Rome had resulted in great advantage to the
gospel, and joy to himself, seeing that whether he lived to preach Christ, or died while
prosecuting the work, Christ would be honored and his own salvation secured; also,
his affectionate exhortations to the Philippians to honor their profession by ;: holy life;
to he united, zealous, courageous, consecrated, conformed to Christ's humility, diligent
in working out their own salvation through the help of God, and consistent in their con-
duct as the children of God, and the lights of the world, with his commendation of
Timothy, whom he hoped to send soon to them, and of Epaphroditus whom !.
about, to send. The second part contains an earnest warning against Judaizing teachers,
whom the apostle condemned because of their evil character, bad influence, and vain
reliance on Jewish privileges which had become worthless, and which he, although as a
native Jew he had possessed them all, utterly renounced; as, indeed, he renounce 1 for
Christ all things that could be accounted gain. Pressing on to attain these for himself,
he exhorted the Philippians against worldliness and sensuality; adducing as the highest
motive that their citizenship was in heaven from which Christ would come again. The
third part contains special entreaties to individuals at Philippi; general exhortations to
perpetual joy in the Lord, grateful and confiding prayer — with the promise of peace from
God which would be like a strong fortress for their souls — and the enthusiastic pursuit
of all good things; with grateful acknowledgment of the kindness which the Philippians
had shown him, from his first preaching the gospel among them to their last overflowing
bounty sent by their special messenger.
PHILIP PICS, originally the three orations of Demosthenes against Philip of Maocdon.
The name was afterwards applied to Cicero's orations against the ambitious and danger-
ous designs of Mark Antony. It is now commonly employed to designate any seven*
and violent invective, whether oral or written.
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS, lie to the n. of Borneo and Celebes, in 5° 30' to 19° 42' n.
lat., and 117° 14' to 126° 4' e. long. They are more than 1200 in number, -with an area
of about 150,000 sq. miles. Pop. '76, 6,173,632, three-fourths of whom arc subject to
Spain, the remainder governed, according to their own laws and customs, by independ-
f lit native princes.
Luzon, in the n. has an area of 51,300 sq. m., and Mindanao, or Magindanao, in the
s . fully 25,000. The islands lying between Luzon and Mindanao are called th" L5i- sayas,
tiie largest which are — Samar, area 13,020 sq.m.; Mindoro. 12.600; Panay. 11,340;
Leyte, 10,080; Kegros, 6,300; Masbate, 4,200; and Zebu, 2.352. There are upwards of
a thousand lesser islands of which little is known. To the s.w. of the Bissayas lies the
1 >ng, narrow island of Paragoa or Palawan, formcdiof a mountain-chain with" low coast-
lines, cut with numerous streams, and exceedingly fertile. The forests abound in ebony,
log-wood, gum-trees, and bamboos. Area, 8,320 sq. miles. To the n. of Luzon lie the
Batancn, Bashee, and Babuyan islands, the two first groups having about 8,000 inhabi-
tants, the last unpeopled.
The Sooloo islands form a long chain from Mindanao to Borneo, having the same
mountainous and volcanic structure as the Philippine islands, and all are probrb'y frag-
ments of a submerged continent. Many active volcanoes are scattered through the
Hands; Mayon, in Luzon, and Buhayan, in Mindanao, often causing great devastation.
The mountain-chains run n. and s., and never attain a greater elevation than 7,000 feet.
A 07 Philippians.
u - • Philippine.
The islands have many rivers, the coasts are indented with deep bays, and there are
many lakes in the interior. Earthquakes are frequent and destructive, Manila, the
capital, having- he-en nearly destroyed by one in 1803. On Feb. 3, 1864 another terrific
earthquake visited the province of Zamboango, in Mindanao, leveling all the houses to
the ground, and causing some of the smaller islands to disappear. The soil is extremely
fertile, except where extensive marshes occur. In Mindanao are numerous lakes, which
expand during- the rainy seasons into inland seas. Rain may be expected from May to
December, and from June to November the laud is flooded. Violent hurricanes are
experienced in the n. of Luzon and w. coast of Mindanao. Especially during the
changes of the monsoons, storms of wind, rain, thunder and lightning prevail. The
weather is very line, and heat moderate, from December to May, when the temperature
rapidly rises and becomes oppressive, except for a short time after a fall of rain. The
fertility of the soil and humid atmosphere produce a richness of vegetation which is
nowhere surpassed. Blossoms and fruit hang together on the trees, and the cultivated
fields vield a constant succession of crops.
Immense forests spread over the Philippine islands, clothing the mountains to their
summits; ebony, iron-wood, cedar, sapau-wood, gum-trees, etc., being laced together
and garlanded by the bu^h-rope or palasan, which attains a length of several hundred
feet. The variety of fruit-trees is great, including the orange, citron, bread fruit, mango,
cocoa-nut, guava' tamarind, rose-apple, etc.; other important products of the vegetable
kingdom being the banana, planUiiu, pine-apple, sugar-cane, cotton, tobacco, indigo,
coffee, cocoa, cinnamon, vanilla, cassia, the areca-nut, ginger, pepper, etc., with rice,
wheat, maize, and various other cereals.
Gold is found in river-beds and cletrital deposits, being used, in form of dust, as the
medium of exchange in Mindanao. Iron is plentiful, and line coal-beds, from one to
four feet thick, have been found. Copper has long been worked in Luzon. There are
also limestone, a tine variegated marble, sulphur in unlimited quanity, quicksilver, ver-
milion, and saltpeter — the sulphur being found both native and in combination Avith
copper, arsenic, and iron.
Except the wild cat, beasts of prey are unknown, There are oxen, buffaloes, sheep,
coats, swine, harts, squirrels, and a great variety of monkeys. The jungles swarm with
lizards, snakes, and other reptilia; the rivers and lakes with crocodiles. Huge spiders,
tarantulas, white ants, mosquitoes, and locusts are plague^ which form a set-off to the
beautiful lire-flies, the brilliant queen-beetle (elater noctilucus), the melody of myriads of
birds, the turtle-doves, pheasants, birds of paradise, and many lovely species of paro-
quets, with which the fore-ts are alive. "Hives of wild bees hang from the branches,
and alongside of them are the nests of humming-birds dangling in the wind."
The caverns along the shores arc frequented by the swallow, whose edible nest is
esteemed by the Chinese a rich delicacy. Some of them are also tenanted by multitudes
of bats of immense size. Buffaloes arc used for tillage and draught; a small horse for
riding. Fowls are plentiful, and-incredible numbers of ducks are artificially hatched.
1'ish is in great abundance and variety. Mother-of-pearl, coral, amber, and tortoise-
shell are important articles of commerce.
The Tagals and Bisayers arc the most numerous native races. They dwell in the
cities and cultivated lowlands;. 2,500,000 being converts to Roman Catholicism, and a
considerable number, especially of the Bisayers, Mohammedan. The mountain dis-
ttk-ts are inhabited by a negro race, who, in features, stature, and savage mode of living,
closely resemble the Alfoors of the .interior of Papua, and are probably the aborigines
driven back before the inroads of the Malays. A few of the negroes are Christian, but
they are chiefly idolaters, or without any manifest form of religion, and roaming about
in families, without fixed dwelling. The Mestizos form an influential part of the popu-
lation; by their activity engrossing the greatest share of the trade. These are mostly
of Chinese fathers and native mothers. Few Spaniards reside in the Philippine islands,
and the leading mercantile houses are English and American. The Chire&e exercise
various trades and callings, remaining only for a time, and never bringing their wives
with them. The principal languages are the Tagalese and Bisayan. Rice, sweet-pota-
toes, fish, flesh, and fruits form the food of the Tagals and Bisayers, who usually drink
only water, though sometimes indulging in cocoa-wine. Tobacco is used by all. They
are gentle, hospitable, fond of dancing and cock-fighting.
With the exception of twTo Spanish brigades of artillery and a corps of engineers, the
army is composed of natives, and consists of seven regiments of infantry and one of cav-
alry. There is also a body of Spanish militia in Manila, whom the governor, as com-
mander of the naval and land forces, may call out in an emergency. The navy has four
steamships, one brig, six gun-boats, and a great number of feluccas for coast service.
Education is far behind, and similar to what it was in Europe during the middle ages.
There is an archbishop of Manila, and bishops of New Segovia, Nueva Caceres, and
Zebu. Religious processions are the pride of the people, and arc formed with great
parade, thousands of persons carrying wax-candles, etc. The natives not only build
canoes, but ships of considerable tonnage. They weave various textile fabrics of silk,
cotton, abaca, and very fine shawls and handkerchiefs from the fiber of pine-apple
leaves. These are called pinas, and often sell for one or two ounces of gold apiece.
The piuilian is the finest sort, and is only made to order — one for the queen of Spain
Philippins.
Plulistiueg.
costing $500. They work in Lorn, make silver and gold chains, fine hats and c-iirar-
cases of fibers, and beautiful mats of different colors, ornamented with gold and silver.
The governor-general is appointed direct from Spain, and resides at .Manila. There ;ur
also a lieutenant-governor, governors of provinces, and chiefs of pueblos or townships.
who are elected yearly. Acting governors reside also at Zamboangc in Mindanao, and
Iloilo in Panay. They are appointed for six years by the governor-genera].
It is to be remembered that all the ports of tiiis archipelago, "except Sual, Iloilo,
Zebu, and Manila, are still closed against foreign vessels. In 18(58, there seemed a i; Irani
of hope that a more liberal commercial policy would be adopted by Spain for their pos-
sessions among the Philippine islands. In that year it was dee'reed that differential
duties should be abolished in April, 1871. They were abolished accordingly, but only
for three months. In July, an order was issued" granting importers, under fhe Spanish
flag, of foreign goods, an advantage of of 2.5 per cent. The value of the pro' line
exported from the Philippine islands, in 1871, to Great Britain and her colonies, was
$6.432, 779. The total exports from the Philippine islands in 1877 weie valued at
£3,592,900, of which Great Britain got £1,289,000; Australia, £32.800; Sini^pt.re,
Straits, and India, £80,000; Hong-Kong, £40,000. The imports for 1876 were <J-,).:'.!)7.-
432, the duties on which amounted to 7J per cent, on their value. The principal exports
are sugar, tobacco, cigars, indigo, Manila hemp of Abaca (a. v.), cofiee, rice, dye-woods,
hides, gold-dust, and bees-wax. Cotton, wcolen. and silk goods, agricultural imple-
ments, watches, jewelry, etc., are imported. British and American merchants do the
largest business, the imports from Great Britain being about £1,000,000 per annum.
The Sooloo islands have <i population of 150,000; are governed by a sultan, whose
capital is Sung, in 66° 1' n. lat., and 120° 55' 51" c. long., who also rules over the great-
est part of Paragoa, the northern corner only being subject to Spain.
Luzon has a-populat ion of 2,500.000, one-fifth part being independent; the Bissayas
islands, 2.000,000, of whom three-fourths arc under Spanish rule. The population of
Piinay amounts to 750,000. and that of Zebu to 150,000. Of the numbers in Mindanao
nothing is known; the districts of Zamboanga, Ivlisamis, and Caragan, with 100,000
inhabitants, being all that is subject to Spain. The greater part of the island is under
the sultan of Mindanao, resident at Selanga, in 7= 9' n. lat. and 124° 88' e. long., who,
with his feudatory chiefs, can bring together an army of 100,000 men. He is on friendly
terms with the Spaniards. Besides Manila, there are very many large and important
cities, especially in Luzon, Panay, and Zebu. The great centers of trade arc Manila in
Luzon, and Iloilo in Panay.
The Philippine islands were discovered in 1521 by Magellan, who, after visiting
Mindanao, sailed to Zebu, where, taking part with the king in a war, he was wounded,
and died at Mactan, April 26, 1521. Some years later the Spanish court sent an expedi-
tion under Villabos, who named the islands in honor of the prince of Asturias, atter-
•wards Phillip II. For some time the chief Spanish settlement was on Zebu; but in 1581
Manila was built, and has since continued to be the seat of government.
PHIL IPPINS, a Russian sect, so called from the founder, Philip Pustoswiat, under
•whose leadership they emigrated from Russia in the end of the 17th c., are a branch of
the RASKOLNIKS (q.v.). They call themselves Starowerski, or "Old Faith Men.' because
they cling with the utmost tenacity to the old service-books, the old version of the Bible,
and the old hymn and prayer-books of the Russo-Greck church, in the exact form in
which these books stood before the revision which they underwent at the hands of the
patriarch Nikon, in the middle of the 17th century. There arc two classes of the Ra.-kol-
niks — one which recognizes popes (or priests); the other, which admits no priest or yther
clerical functionary. The Philippins arc of the latter class; and they not only them-
selves refuse all priestly ministrations, but they regard all such ministrations — baptism,
marriage, sacraments — as invalid; nnd they re-baptize all who join their sect from other
Russian communities. All their ministerial offices are discharged by the Starik, or
parish elder, who for the time lakes the title of pope, and is required to observe celibacy.
Among the Philippins the spirit of fanaticism as times has run to the wildest excesses.
They refuse oaths, and decline to enter military service; and having, on account of this,
and many other incompatibilities of the system with the Russian practice, encountered
much persecution,, they resolved to emigrate. Accordingly, in 1700, under the leader-
ship of Philip Pustoswiat, they settled partly in Polish Lithuania, partly afterwards in
east Prussia, where they still have several small settlements with churches of their own
jrite. They are reported to be a peaceable and orderly race. Their principal pursuit is
agriculture; and their thrifty and industrious habits have secured for them the good-will
Of the proprietors
PHILIPPOTEAUX, FELIX EMMANTTEL HENRI, b. Paris, 1815; student with the
painter, Cogniet, whose battle pieces became the models for the pupil's prolific after
work. One of his first notable paintings was the " Rock of Ice," which appeared in
1833, and represented a scene in the American war of the revolution. One of his latent
|s the bombardment of Paris by the Germans in 1871, painted in 1872. His works are
mostly on a grand scale, with many figures, and enliven the walls of palaces and public
galleries in France.
Philippine
Philisliiies-
PHILIPPOP'OLIS, cliief t. of the recently organized province of eastern Roumelia,
Turkey, 91 in. w.n.w from Adrianople. It stands on a small island formed by the
Maritza, which here becomes navigable. This island rises ?:s a hill in the midst of a
vast plain, which extends beyond Adrianopie on the e., and from the base of the Rhodope
mountains on the s. , to the Balkan chain on the north. The plain is extremely fertile,
and is celebrated for the excellence of the rice which it produces. Phiioppopolis carries
on a verv extensive commerce both with Austria and with the East. Phiioppopolis is an
ancient town, and in the time of the Romans bore the name of Trimomium. Three-
tifths of the inhabitants are Christians, one-filth Jews and gipsies, the remainder
Mohammedans. Philippopolis is the seat of a Greek archbishop. The North American
board of missions has a station at Philippopolis. Pop. about 60,000.
PHILIPPS3TJKG, a t. of the grand duchy of Baden, 17 m. n. from Carlsruhc, on
the right bank of the Rhine, at the mouth of the Salzbaeh. In former times it was one
of the most important fortresses on the Rhine, and belonged to the bishop of Spires.
During the thirty years' war, Philippsburg fell successively into the hands of the
Swedes, the French, the Imperialists, and again of the French, who were confirmed in
possession of it by the poace of Westphalia. In the war between Louis XIV. and Ger-
many, it was taken by the Germans under duke Charles of Lorraine, and assigned to
Germany by the peace of Nimeguen in 1679; but was again taken in 1688 by the French
under Vauban, and once more restored to Germany by the peace of Hyswick in 1697.
The French captured it again in 1734, and this time with little difficulty, the strength
of the fortress being now much diminished, although the capture cost the life of the
duke of Berwick, their commander; and they again relinquished it in 1735. During
the wars of the French revolution, Philippsburg was bombarded in 1799, taken, and its
fortifications completely destroyed in 1800. Pop. 2,317.
PHILIPS, AMBROSE, was b. in Shropshire in 1675. He studied at St. John's col-
lege, Cambridge, and took his degree of M.A. ia 1700. In 1709 his pastorals appeared,
along with those of Pope, in Ttmsin's Miscellany; and the same year, having gone on
a diplomatic mission to Copenhagen, he addressed from thence a "poetical letter" to
the carl of Dorset, which was published, with a warm eulogium from Steelc, in the
Tatler. In 1712, he brought on the stage Tlie Digressed Mother, a tragedy adapted
from Racine's Aiidromaque, which had great success. He subsequently wrote two
other tragedies, but they proved failures. Some translations from Sappho, which
appeared in ths Spectator, added greatly to Philips's reputation, but Addison is
believed to have assisted ia these classic fragments. Some exaggerated praise of
Philips having appeared in the Guardiitn, Pope ridiculed his pastorals in a piece of
exquisite irony, which led to a bitter feud between the poets. Philips even threatened
personal chastisement, and hung up a rod in Button's coffee-house, but no encounter
took place. One of the names fastened upon Philips was that of "Namby Parnby,"
arising from a peculiar style of verse adopted by him in complimentary effusions con-
yi-ting of short lines and a s >rt of infantine simplicity of diction, yet not destitute of
grace or melody. The accession of the house of Hanover proved favorable to tho
poet; he was appointed pay-muster, and afterwards a commissioner of the lottery; and
going to Ireland as secretary to archbishop Boulter, he became secretary to the lord
chancellor, si. p. for Armagh, and registrar of the prerogative court. He died in 1749.
Philips is somewhat conspicuous in literary history from the friendship of Addison and
the enmity of Pope; but his poetry, wanting energy aad passion, has fallen out of
view. .
PHILIPS, or PHILLIPS, JOHN, 1676-4708; b. Bampton, England; educated at
Winchester .school and at Christ-church, Oxford. He published in 1703 The Splendid
S/tilliiiff, written while in college; 1705, Blenheim, in honor of Marlborough's victory;
1706, Cyder, in two books, in the manner of the Gcoryics, of Virgil.
PHIL IP3T OWN, a market and post t. (formerly the assize t.) of King's co., province
of Leinster, Ireland, 47 m. s.w. from Dublin. Its charter dates from 1567; and in the
reign of James II. it obtained the privilege of sending two members to parliament.
This privilege was withdrawn at the Union. It is at present, and has long been a place
of hardly any trade and entirely without manufacture, and the t. has fallen still more
into decay since the withdrawal of the assizes (1838) to the neighboring and more flourish-
ing town' of Tullamore. Pop. '71. 820, principally Catholics.
PHILISTINES (LXX., allopJiuloi, strangers), a word either derived from a root
1>k,t'<ix<i (/Eih.), to emigrate, wander about, or identified with Pelasgi (q.v.), or com-
pared by others with sliefdn (Heb.), lowlauders; designates a certain" population men-
tioned in the Bible as being in frequent contact with the Jews, and who lived on the
co:;s! of the Mediterranean, to the s.w. of Juda>a, from Ekron toward the Egyptian
f rou liar, bordering principally on the tribes of Dan, Simeon, and Judah. Our informa-
tion about the origin of the Philistines is extremely obscure and contradictory. The
genealogical table in Genesis x. 14 counts them among the Egyptian colonies (the
" Calushim, out of whom came Philistim "); according to Amos ixT?, Jeremiah xlvii/4,
and Deuteronomy ii. 23, they came from Caphtor. But supposing that the Casluhim
were some separate tribe, and yet Caphtorian colonists, the question still remains, whether
•lillliuiore.
AQlJ
Caphtor can be identified with Cappadocia in Asia Minor, ns tlic early versions (LXX.,
Tat'fj., Path., Vitlg.) have it; or whether it be IVlusium, Cyprus, or tiie isle of Crete. The
latter opinion seems not the least probable among them. At what time they first immi-
grated, and drove out the Canaanitish inhabitants, the Avvim, is dillicult to conjecture.
They would appear to have been in the country as early as the time of Abraham; and in
the history ot Isaac, Abimelech, king of (Jcrar, is distinctly called king of the Philis-
tines. Yet, even supposing that in Genesis the country is designated by the name which
it bore at u later period, there can yet be no doubt of the people being iirmly established
at the time of Moses (Exodus xv., 14. etc.). Thus the date of their immigration would
have to be placed at about 1800 B.C. At the Exodus Moses, evidently fearing an
encounter with the warlike colony for his undisciplined band, did not choose the shorter
way to Canaan through their territory, but preferred the well-known circuitous route.
At'a later period, however, Joshua, having triumphed over ;5l Canaanite prine. s, also
conceived the plan of making himself master of the possessions of the Philistines; but his
intended disposal of their country for the benefit of the tribe of Judah was never carried
out. At this time, they were subject to live princes (Seranim = axles, pivots), who
ruled over the provinces of Gaza, Ashdod, Askalon, Gall), and Ekrou. Is'ot before the
period of the Judges did they come into open collision with the Israelites; and the
strength and importance in which they suddenly appear then, contrast so strangely with
their insignificance at the time of the patriarchs, that many theories— a doubl:- immigra-
tion principally — have been propounded to explain the circumstance. We find them
daring powerful nations like the Sidouians, whom, about 1209 B.C., they forced to
transfer their capital to a more secure position on the island of Tyre; or the Eg\ p'ians,
with whom they engaged in naval warfare at the same time, under Kamesas 111. With
the Israelites their war assumed the air of guerrilla raids, sometimes into the very heart
of the country. Under bhauagar (about 1370 B.C.), they were repulsed, \\ith a loss of
600 men; however, about 200 years later, the Israelites were tributary to them, and con-
tinued to groan under their yoke, with occasional pauses only, until Samson tiist com-
menced to humiliate them. "But they were so still so powerful at the time of K!i, that
they carried away the ark itself. Under Samuel, their rule was terminated by the battle
of Mizpak. Saul was constantly engaged in warding off their new encroacliiiienK and
at Gil boa, he and his sons fell in a disastrous battle against them. At this time, they
seem to have returned to their primitive form of a, monarchy, limited, however, by a
powerful aristocracy, the king's formal title again being " Abimelech" = " father-king,"
ns we find it in Genesis. David succeeded in routing thorn repeatedly; p.nd ui.der Solo-
mon their whole country seems to have been incorporated in the Jewish empire. The
internal troubles of Judaea emboldened tho Philistines once more to open resistance.
Under Joram, in union with the Arabians, they invaded Juda-a, aiul not only carried
away the royal property, but also the scrail and the royal children. l"//iah. however,
recovered the lost ground; he overthrew them, and dismantled some of their most rower-
ful fortresses— Gath, Yabne, and Ashdod, and erected forts in different parts of their
country. Under Ahaz, liiey rose again, and attacked the border-cities of the "plain"
on the s. of Judah; and a few years later, renewed their attacks, in league with the
Syrians and Assyrians, Hczekiah, in the first years of his reign, subjected their whole
country again, by the aid of the Egyptians, whom we find in the possession of five
cities. The Assyrians, however, took Ashdod, under Tartan, which was retaken nirain
by Psammetich, after 29 years' siege. About this time, Philist.Ta was traversed by a
Scythian horde on their way to Egypt, who pillaged the temple of Venus at Askalon.
In the terrible struggles for supremacy which raged between the Chaldreaus and Kgyp-
tians, Philistea was the constant battle-gnound of both— her fortresses being taken and
retaken by each of them in turn; so that the country soon sank into ruin and insignifi-
cance. Yet a shadow of independence seems to have been left it, to judge from the
threats which Zechariah (ix. 5), after the exile, utters against Gaza and Askalon, and
their pride. In the time of the Maccabees, the Philistines were Syrian subjects, and
had to suffer occasionally from the Jews, although intermarriages between the two
nations were of no rare occurrence. Alexander Balas transferred part of the country to
Juda?a; another part was taken by Alexander Jnmnmcus: Pompey incorporated some of
the cities with Roman Syria; Augustus transferred another portion to Herod; and finally,
Salome, his sister, received a small principality of it, consisting of Jamnia. Ashdod.
and Askalon. But by this time the name of the country had long been lost in that of
Palestine, which designated all the territory between Lebanon nnd Egypt.
Of their state of culture, institutions, etc., we know very little indeed. They appear
us a civilized, agricultural, commercial, and warlike nation. They traded largely, and
their wares seem to have been much sought after. Their worship was much akin to
that of the Phenicians — a nature-religion, of which Dagon, Ashtaroth, Beelzebub, ami
Derceto were the chief deiiics. Priests and soothsayers abounded: their oracles were
consulted even by people from afar. They carried their charms about their persons,
and their deities had to accompany them to the wars. They do not seem to have prac-
ticed circumcision. As to their language, so little is known about it. that conjectures
peem more than usually vain. Those who take them to have been Semites, conclude
that their language, too, was Semitic; others, who would identify thorn with the Pelas-
gians, differ also respecting their language. Tims much is certain, that their proper
f>01
Pliilliiwore.
names, as they arc recorded in the Bible, arc mostly Semitic, and that there always
remained a difference of dialect between the Hebrew and Hie Philistcan idiom.
The name of Puilisiines is given by German students to all non-students iu general
and the citizens of the special university place in particular.
PIIILLIMORE, JOHN GEOUGE, LL.D., 1809-65; b. England; educated at Westmin-
ster and Oxford, and called to the bar. He rose to a high rank in his profession, was
made queen's counsel in 1851-, and was appointed professor iu the middle temple, lie
was returned to parliament in 1852. Among his works are an Introduction to the Stiu<y
of Roman Law, 1848; UMory of the Law of Evidence, 1850; Private Law among lite
Ifoman*. 186o; and the first volume of a History of England daring the lieiyn of (Jcoi^e
ILL, 1863.
PHILLIMORE, Sir ROBERT JOSEPH; b. London, 1810; educated at Westminster and
Oxford. In lfc-Jl he became a clerk of the board of control, and soon afterward was called
to I he bar, where he acquired a large practice, and \vas made a queen's counsel. In
18-10 he was Appointed official 1o the archdeaconries of Middlesex and London, and in
1844 chancellor of the duchy of Chichester. He was a member of parliament in the
liberal-conservative interest, and made some notable speeches on church rates, ar.d
tithe commutations, and brought in the bill called "Dr. Phillimore's act," authorizing
ecclesiastical eoi.rts to take v>.xa toce testimony. He was made judge of the Cinqi.o
Ports in 18«:>5, r.dvocate general in admiralty, 1803, when he was knighted, and in 1807,
judge of the high court of admiralty and of the arches court of Canterbury. He was
judge advocate general, 1871-73, anef made master of the faculties in the latter year. Jn
1875 l.e mil m d his other offices, and was appointed judge of the admiralty and probate
division, of ihe high court of justice. As judge of the arches court, the chief ecclesias-
iKal court, he rendered many important judgments, some of which have been repub-
li.-hcel. The: most valuable of his numerous legal works is his Commentaries upon Inter-
national Law, 4 voK , 1854-61. Among his other writings are Memoirs arid Correspon-
dence of L&rd Lyttleton, 1845; Clergy Discipline, 1872; and The Ecclesiastical Law of tha
Chinch of England, 187u. He published in 1874, a translation of Lessing's Laocoon.
PHIIIIP, JCIIN, R.A., was b. May 22, 1817, at Aberdeen. At a very early nge he
pave indication of the talent which afterwards so distinguished him: and before he had
attained his 15th year had painted various pictures showing his feeling for color. He
thus procured an 'introduction to the late lord Panmure, by whom he was enabled to go
to London to pursue his studies. He began by copying fiom the Elgin marbles at the
British museum, and after a few months was admitted as a student at the royal
academy.
All his early subjects were of Scotch character, such as a "Scotch Fair." "Baptism
in Scotland," a "Scotch Washing," "The Offering." etc. In the year 1851 he went '<o
Spain in search of health, which he found, and with it a change iu the character of his
subjects. On his return home he established himself at the head of the painters of iho
habits and customs of the Spanish people. In 1853 he exhibited at the royal academy
"Life among the Gipsies at Seville." His pictures for 1854-55, " A Letter Writer of
Seville," and " Ell Paseo," were both purchased by her majesty the queen. In 1857 he
attained the rank of associate of the royal academy, and the following year exhibited a.
most powerful picture of "Spanish Contrabandist as," which was purchased by the late
prince consort, of whom he also painted a portrait the same year for the town-hi.ll of his
native city. In 1859 ho received the full, honor of royal academician. His work for
exhibition in I860 was certainly the most difficult he had yet tried, and his success was
proportinnab'y great. "The Marriage of the Princess Royal" was pronounced by both
hie fellow-artists and the public, as a decided success. His next portrait subject (exhib-
heart was more in his Spanish subjects, of which he _was understood to have in progress
more works (the fruits of his last two visits to Spain) than he could have finished in
several years.
The characteristics of Mr. Phillip's style are rich, powerful color, broad light and shade,
strong, bold outline, and great variety and truthfulness of texture; there was no artist in
his day who had more power over his brush, or whose example produced a greater effect
on the'colorists of the present British school. He dieel Feb. 27, 1867.
PHILLIPS, a co in e. Arkansas, bounded on the s.e. by the Mississippi, drr.ined by
the St. Francis river; on the Arkansas Central railroad; 725 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 21.262 —
15,820 colored. The surface is level, well wooded, swampy in parts, and" exposed to
inundation. The soil is fertile. The principal productions arc corn, wheat, and cotton.
Co. seat, Helena.
PHILLIES, a co. in n. Kansas, adjoining Nebraska, drained by Prairie POL;- creek
and the North Fork of Solomon river; about 900 sq.m.; pop. '80, 12,017—11,210 of
American birth. The surface is rolling, with little timber. The soil is fertile, and well
adapted to pasturage.
Phillips. poq
Pbilo.
PHILLIPS, ADELAIDE, b. England, 1833; adopted the profession of the stage, and
first appeared at the Boston museum, in 1843, as "Little Pickle." She played wiubretta
parts iu that theater and at the Walnut Street theater in Philadelphia unlil-1853, when,
having revealed her possession of a contralto voice of remarkable sweet ness and compass,
she was sent to Italy for study. She remained abroad two years, and made a successful
debut in Milan, in 1854, iu the Barber of Seville. The following year she returned to the
United Slates, and appeared in concert in the Music hall, Boston, making her Ameri-
can debut in opera at the Academy of music, New York; Mar. 17, 1S.")C, in the part of
" Azucena" in Verdi* II 2rovntore,"la which she was entirely paccessful. In 18(51 she
appeared in this part in the Italian opera-house iu Paris. She at once assumed the posi-
tion of the leading contralto singer of America, which she held for many years. In
1869 she sang in the peace jubilee in Boston, and has since traveled through the country,
appearing in opera and concert.
PHILLIPS, GEORG, 1804-72; b. Konigsberg; of English descent; studied law at
Munich and Berlin; converted from Protestantism to the Koman Catholic faith. Asso-
, elated withGorres, they established the Hutoritdt-P&litiedie Blatter in 1838, conducting it
iu the interest of the church of his adoption, its principles tending towards the re-estab-
lishment of the power of the Romish hierarchy, reducing the stale to a HICK; administra-
tive organ to execute the will of the church. In 1833 he was appointed professor of
civil law at Munich, of canon law and legal history at Iimspruck, 18i9; of legal history,
Vienna, 1851. Besides able works in defense of the church he has published JJas
Kirclwnrecht, 7 vols., 1845-69; Lehrbnch dot Kirdtenrcchts, 2 vols., 1871, etc.
PHILLIPS, JOHN, LL.D., 1719-95; b. Boston; graduated at Harvard college. 17:}.");
was licensed to preach, but afterwards engaged in mercantile pursuits at Exeter, N. II.;
for several years was a member of the council of New Hampshire. In 17TS, in connec-
tion with his brothor, Samuel Phillips, he founded and endowed Phillips academy at
Andover, Mass.; and a few years later established alone Phillips academy at Exeter,
N. H., the endowment of which he ultimately increased to $134.000 by bequeathing to
it two-thirds of his estate. He also endowed a professorship in Dartmouth college, con-
tributed liberally to the college of New Jersey, and left one-third of his estate to Audover
theological seminary iu aid of students for the ministry.
PHILLIPS, JOHN, 1770-1823; b. Boston; graduated at Harvard. 17TS; studk-d law
and was made a judge of common pleas, 1809; state senator, is •) '- '2 •>, and president of
the senate, 1813-23; first mayor of Boston — which became a city iu 1832 — :-.;ul father of
the distinguished writer and lecturer, Wendell Phillips.
PHILLIPS, JOHN, 1800-74; b. Wiltshire, England; nephew of William Smith, often
called the "father of English geology." From the age of 15 he accompanied his uncle
in surveys and geological explorations in various parts of England. In 1827 he was
•made curator of the Yorkshire philosophical society, and delivered lectures on many
scientific topics. He was a professor successively in Kings college, the university of
Dublin, and of Oxford; and has published a treatise on geology and several special
treatises.
PHILLIPS, SAMUEL, JR., LL.D., 1751-1802; b. Mass.; graduated at Harvard college,
1771 ; was a member of the provincial congress in 1775, and of the house of representatives
until 1780, when, having assisted in forming the constitution of Massachusetts. IK: was
elected to the senate, of which he was president. 1785-1802; was judge of the court of
common pleas for Essex co., 1781-97; elected lieutenant-governor 1801. He was one of the
projectors and a distinguished benefactor of the academies at Andover and Ex:-ter, and
one of the founders of the Boston academy of arts and sciences. At his death he left
$5,000 to the cause of education, and afterward his widow carried out his wishes by join-
ing in the endowment of Andover theological seminary.
PHILLIPS. STEPFEN CLARENDON, 1801-57; b. Boston; graduated at Harvard, nnd
went into business. He served in both branches of (he Massachusetts legislature, was a
member of congress 1834-38, and mayor of Salem 1838-42. lie was the free-soil candidate
for governor iu 1848 and 1849, and for several years a member of the state board of edu-
cation.
PHILLIPS, WATTS, 1828-74; b. England; studied drawing under George Crnikshank,
and at Paris. He was an artist of some reputation, but better known by his plays, of
which the most successful was The Dead Heart. Among his other plays are Joseph
Chavir/ny; The Poor Strollers; and The Huguenot Captain.
PHILLIPS, WENDELL, b. Boston, Nov.' 29, 1811 ; son of Boston's first mayor. He
graduated from Harvard in 1831, and from the Cambridge law-school in 1833; was
admitted to the state bar, and practiced until 1839. when he retired from professional
work on account of his unwillingness to be bound by an oath of fidelity to the U. S.
constitution, as then construed by the supreme court. His first p'ublic appearance in tho
light of a reformer was in an impromptu speech of great eloquence at the Fanruil hall
meeting of Dec., 1837, held to denounce the murder in Alton, 111., of the rev. E. P. Love-
joy (q.v.). lie was a warm supporter of Garrison and that party of abolitionists who
believed the constitution to be void as upholding slavery against the "higher law."
Since the settlement of the slavery question by the war, Mr. Phillips has been an eager advo-
Phillips.
Philo.
cate of the woman's rights, temperance, and " labor-reform" movements, and in 1870 was
the candidate of the labor-reform party for governor of Massachusetts. For many ye.irs
Wendell Phillips has been recognized as the first of public lecturers. Perhaps the best
known of his lectures are those on The Last Arts and on Daniel O'Conndl. As an orator
lie is unsurpassed in vigorous elegance and grace of delivery. He has published many
pamphlets on the questions in which he was so warmly interested, such as The Constitu-
tion a Pro-slavery Contract (1844); lievieio of Webster's Itli-of-March Speech (1850). A col-
lection of his speeches, letters, and lectures was published in 1863 in Boston. Perhaps
no speaker in the country elicits more admiration for finished and impressive address;
while probably none elicits more adverse criticism for his views. The criticism, how-
ever, is aimed not at his moral principle, but at his intellectual method. »
PHILLIPS, WILLIAM, 1750-1817; b. Boston; having been prevented by poor health
from acquiring a thorough education, entered early on mercantile lii'e in connection with
his father, from whom he inherited a large fortune. From 17i)4 until his death he was
a deacon of the Oid South church; was highly respected in the community, eminent
both in church and in state, active in pliilanihropic labors; at one time lieutenant-gov-
ernor of the siate. His charitable contributions during many years averaged about $10,000
ayear,aml his legacies to various religious aiid benevolent institutions amounted to more
than $GO,UOO.
PHILLIPS, WILLIAM WIRT, D.D., 1796-1865; b. Montgomery co., N. Y. ; graduated
at Union college, 1812; studied theology four years in the seminaries at New York and
New Brunswick; became pastor of the Pearl Street Presbyterian chuivh, N. Y., 1818; and
afterward for nearly 40 years of the First Presbyterian church, whose house of worship in
Wall street was sold in 1844, after which a new edifice was erected on Fifth avenue near
12th street. He was moderator of the general assembly, 1885; for many years president
of the board of foreign missions; a trustee of the College of New Jersey; a director of
Princeton theological seminary, of the Sailors' Snug Harbor, and of other benevolent
institution:.;.
PHILLIPS ACADEMY, Anclover, Mass., founded in 1780 by two brothers, John
and Samuel Phillip-;, sons of a clergyman of that place, and graduates of Harvard col-
lege. The former was prominent in political affairs in New Hampshire, and the latter was
6t one 1 ime lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts. Its endowment is large, it has a library
of 2.500 volumes, and a complete philosophical and chemical apparatus. Its principals
have been men eminent for learning, and the roll of its alumni embraces many highly dis-
tinguished names. It has always stood in the highest rank of academies in this country.
The education gained here by students in preparation for the great colleges is noted for
thoroughness. It has a good endowment and fine buildings.
PHILLIPS EXETER ACADEMY, at Exeter, N. H., was founded in 1781 by John
Phillips, LL.D., and is one of the most celebrated schools in this country for preparing
boys for college. It admits pupils of both sexes. Its endowment amounts to §140.000,
Many men of distinction received their preparatory training here. Like the corre-
sponding institution in Andover, Mass., it is not surpassed for thoroughness.
PHILO JUDS US, Ihe Philosopher (there being another Jewish Greek writer of this
name), was born at Alexandria, about the time of the birth of Christ, Belonging to one
of the most wealthy and aristocratic families — his brother was the Alabarch Alexander
— he received the most liberal education; and, impelled by a rare zeal for learning, he,
at a very early age, had passed the ordinary course of Greek studies which were deemed
necessary for one of his station. Although every one of the different free sciences and
arts included in the Encyclika, he says, attracted him like so many beautiful slaves, he
yet aimcl higher, to embrace the unstress of all — philosophy. Metaphysical investiga-
tion was the only thing which, according to his own confession, could give him anything
like satisfaction or pleasure. The extraordinary brilliancy of his style, which, by Ins
contemporaries, was likened to that of Flato — his rare power of thought and imagination,
and an erudition which displayed the most astonishing familiarity with all the works of
the classical Greek poets and philosophers, .while at the same time it made him an adept
in the fields of history, geography, mathematics, astronomy, physiology, natural history,
music, etc. — could not but be of vast influence both upon his co-religionists and those
beyond the pale of his ancestral creed. He had completely mastered the literature of his
nation; but, strange to say, he chiefly knew it, as far as it was Hebrew, from transla-
tions. Thus, the Bible was only familiar to him through the Septuagint version, with
all its shortcomings. When about, 40 years of age, he went to Rome as the advocate of
his Alexandrian brethren, who had refused to worship Caligula in obedience to the
imperial edict. He has left an account of this embassy, into the result of which we need
not enter here. Of his life we know little except what is recorded above, and that he
once went to Jerusalem. His second mission to Rome, to the emperor Claudius, on
which occasion he is said to have made the acquaintance of the Apostle Peter, as
reported by Ensebius. is doubtful.
The religious and philosophical system of Philo Judaws, however, which is really
the thing of most consequence, is most minutely-known, and is deserving of the pro-
foundest study, on account of the vast influence which it has exercised both ou thB
Philology.
Jewish and Christian world. To understand his system aright, it will be necessary to
remember the sirungc mental atmosphere of his days, which we have endeavored brleliv
to sketch in our introduction to Gnostics (q.v.). The Alexandrines had endeavored fo
make Judaism palatable to the refined Greeks by proving it to be identical \\ilh the
grandest conceptions of their ])iiilosophers and poets and had quite allegori/.ed away its
distinctive characteristics. Philo Juda-us was the first man who, although himself lo
a great extent imbued with allegorizing tendencies, made. a bold and successful stand
against a like evaporization of the revealed religion of his fathers; which, indeed, in
many cases had led people to throw off its yoke also outwardly. A ir.c; •-! zealous
champion of Judaism, his bitterness in rebuking those co-religionists who tried to
defend their secret or overt apostacy by scoffing at the law itself, who were " impatient
of their religious institutions, ever on the look-out for matter of censure and complaint
against the laws of religion, who, in excuse of their ungodliness, thoughtli- ly, :.n.'iie
all manner of objection " — knows no bounds. He cannot understand how .Jews," destined
by divine authority to be the priests and prophets for all mankind," could be found so
utterly blind to the fV.ct, that- that which is the position only of a few disciples of a
truly genuine philosophy — viz., the knowledge of the Highest" had by law ;:nd custom
become the inheritance of every individual of their own people; whose real calling, in
fact, it was to invoke the blessing of God on mankind, and who, wlien they ofi< red up
sacrifices " for the people." offered them up in reality for all men.
To Philo Judreus, the divinity of Jewish law is the basis and test of all true philo-.o-
pliy. Although, like his contemporaries, he holds that the greater p::rt of the Penta-
teuch, both in its historical and legal portions may be explained allegoric-ally. na\
fo far even as to call only the Ten Commandments, the fundamental rules of' the Jewish
theocracy, direct and immedate revelations, while the other parts of the book MC owing
to Moses: he yet holds the latter to be the interpreter specially selected by God, to whose
dicta in so far also divine veneration and strict obedience are due; and 'again, although
many explanations of a metaphysical nature could be given to single pass'.::, s, yet their
literal meaning must not be tampered with. This literal meaning, according to him,
is the essential part, the other explanations are mere speculation — ex.-.etiy ; s the mid-
rash and some church lathers hold Only that allegorical method differed i:i so far from
that of his contemporaries, that to him these interpretations — for which he did not dis-
dain sometimes even to use the numbers symbolically, or to derive Hebrew voids from
Greek roots, and the like — were not a mere play of fancy, in which he could e. ercir-e I/is
powers of imagination, but, to a certain extent, a reality, an inner necessity, lie clung
to philosophy, as combined with the law. If the former could be shown, somehow or
other, to be hinted at in the latter, then only he could be that which all his soul yearned
to be — viz., the disciple of both: a Greek, with all the refinement of Greek culture; and
a Jew — a faithful, pious, religious Jew. Tsay, he even urged the necessity of allegory
from the twofold reason of the anthropomorphisms current in scripture and tK :
tain apparent superfluities, repetitions, and the like, which, in a record that en., :
from the deity, must needs have a special meaning of their own, which required investi-
gation and a peculiar interpretation. See MIDHASH, HAGGADA. Yet this fanciful method
never for one moment interfered with his real object of pointing out how Judaism most
plainly and umnis'aka-bly was based upon the highest ethical principles.
His writings develop his ideas and his system in the two directions indicated. In
that division of his writings principally, which treats of the creation '</), he
allows allegory to take the reins out of his hands; in that on the laws (Xomoi), on the
other hand, he remains remarkably sober and clear, extolling the Mosaic legislation
throughout, at the expense of every other known to him. In a very few instances only
he is induced to find fault, or to alter slightly, by way of allegory, the exi: ting ordi-
nances.
His idea of God is a pre-eminently religious, not a philosophical one. He alone is the
real good, the perfect; the world has only an apparent existence, and is the source of
nil evil. God is only to be imagined as the primeval light, which cannot lie ;cen by
itself, but which m.iy be kuown~from its rays, that fill the whole world. Being infinite
and uncreated, he is not to be compared with any created thing. He has therefore no
name, and reveals himself only in designations expressive of this " inexvm s-ihihty."
lie is also named the place (the'talmudical Mnkom), because he comprises all sp-icc, and
there is nothing anywhere besides him. He is better than virtue and knowledge, bet-
ter than the beautiful and the good (Kalokngaflieia), simpler than the one, more blissful
than bliss. Thus, he has, properly speaking, no quality, or only negative o:ies. lie is
the existing unity or existence 'itself (on, on), comprised in the unpronounceable
tetragrammaton. As creator, God manifests himself to mat), and he is then called
"The beginning, the name, the word, the primeval angel." In this phase of active
revelation of God, which is as natural to him as burning is to the heat, and cold to
the snow, we nclice two distinct sides, the power and the grace, to which corre-
spond the two names of Elohim and Adonai. used in the Bible. The pf>m r : l-o gives
the laws, and punishes the offender; while the grace is the beneficent, forgiving, mer-
ciful quality. Yet, since there is not to be assumed an immediate influemv of God upon
the world, their respective natures being so different, that a point of contact (annot be
found, an intermediate class of beings had to be created to stand between both
Philology.
through whom he could act in and upon creation, viz. : the spiritual vrorld of ideas,
which arc not only "ideals," or types, in the Platonic sense, but real, active powers,
surrounding God like a number of attendant brings. They are his mes. : enge.rs, who
work his will, and by the Greeks are called good demons; by Moses, angels. There are
very many different degrees of perfection among them. Some are immediate "serv-
ing angels;" others are the souls of the pious, of the prophets, and die people of
Israel, who rise higher up to the deity; others, again, are the heads and chioi' rep-
resentatives of the different nations, such as Israel does not need, since they conceive
and acknowledge the everlasting head of all beings, himself. Thu logos con: prices all
these intermediate spiritual powers in his own essence. See article LOGOS for Philo's
view.-, on this part of his system. Man is a microcosm, a little world in himself, a creation
of Logos, through whom' he participates in the deity, or, as Scripture has it, "he is cre-
n'ed in the i:n:ige of God." lie stands between the higher and lower beings — in the mid-
dle of creation. The ethical principles of Stoicism, Philo identified with the Mosaic
ethics, in which the ideal is most exalted moral perfectibility or s.mctity, and man's duties
consist in veneration of God, and love ami righteousness towards 1'cllow-mcn. Philo
holds firmly the belief in immortality. Man is immortal by his heavenly nature; "but as
thei'!', are degrees in his divine nature, so there arc degrees in his immortality, which
only then deserves this name whc'u it has been acquired by an eminence of virtue. There
is a vast difference between the mere living after death, which is common to all man-
kind, and the future existence of the perfect ones. Future recompense and punishment
are not taken by him in the ordinary sense of the word. Virtue and sin both have all
their rewards within themselves; but the soul, which is " pre-existing," having finished
its course in the sublunar world, carries this consciousness with it in a more intense and
exalted manner. Paradise is oneness with God; there is no hell with bodily punish-
ment,? for souls without a body, and no devil in the Philonic system. — Philc's Messianic
notions are vague in the extreme, and he 'partly even interprets certain scriptural pas-
sages alluding to some future redeemer as referring to the soul. Yet he indicates hU
belief in a (Distant time when some hero will arise out of the midst of the nation, Avho
will gather all the dispersed together; and these, purified by long punishments, will
henceforth form a happy, sinless, most prosperous community, to which all the other
nations will be eager to belong.
We have only been able to indicate, in the slightest of outlines, the principal features of
Philo's theology and philosophy, without endeavoring to follow any one of the manifold
systematic schemes into which his scattered half-obscure dicta have been pressed. The
influence Philo has exercised upon Christianity and Judaism (in the later writings of
which his name occurs us "Ye'Jidyah the Alexandrine") is enormous, and the various
articles in the course of this work (GNOSTICISM, JEWS, Locos, etc.) dwell more or less
upon this point. What he has done for the development of philosophy, is discussed
under tint head, and in the articles PLATO, NEOPLATONISM, etc. Of the many works
left tin icr his name, several have been declared spurious, but in some cases, without much
show of reason. His writings are generally brought under three chief divisions, the first
of which comprises those of a more general and metaphysical nature, such as De Mundi
Incorruptibilitate, Quad Omnis Probui Liber, D,i Vita Contcmplatim. The .second con-
tains those written in defense of his compatriots, Advcrsus Flaccum, Lccjuiio ad Odium,
De No'nUtiie. The third and most important is devoted to the interpretation and expla-
nation of Scripture in the philosophical manner indicated, De. Mundi Opifcio, Leyis Alle-
f/orittrnnt. Lib.'i III.; containing also a number of special treatises, Do Ciii'cumdxione, Ds
MmnircJiin, Do Prceinils Sacerdotum, De Posterilate Caini, De Cherubim, etc. ; five books
On the Ilix'tiri/ <>f Abraham, De Jotepho, Vita Mods, DC Caritate, De Pwnitcntia, etc. ; to
which also belong De Pitrentibua Col-cndi*, Ds Virlutc dusgtie Partibus, first published by
A. .Mai; and certain very doubtful fragments, first discovered in an Armenian transla-
tion, such as De Protideniia and De Aniinalibus, etc. Many of his works, however,
seem irredeemably lost. The editio princeps by Turnebus, dates Paris, 155'2; reprinted
Geneva, 1013; Paris, 1G40; etc. Mangey published a more critical edition (Lond. 1742,
2 vols. fol.), and Richter a slightly improved one (Leip. 1828-CO, 8 vols.). An edition of
Pfeiffer (1783, etc ) remained incomplete. Another edition was published by Tau< hnitz
(1851, etc.). As yet, there are several codd. in the Escurial, in Rome, in St. Peters-
burg, which have never been collated, and which promise, to judge from the few read-
ings known, to furnish an immense help for that really critical edition, which as yet is
a desideratum. — Of the scholars who have written on Philo, \ve mention principally
Dahl, Bryant, Gfrorer, Creuzer, Grosmann, Wolff. Hitter. Boer, etc. The English
translation of Philo in 4 vols. forms part of Bolm's Ecclesiastical Library.
PHILOL'OGY. This word, as a technical name for a branch of knowledge, has gone
through various phases of meaning. Originally signifying the love of talk or discourse,
and then, in a more restricted s^nse, the love of philosophical conversation such as is
exhibited in the dialogues of Plato, it came, in the later period of Greek literature, to
mean the study and knowledge of books, and of the history and other science contained
in them. In this sense it passed over to the Romans, under whom the name of philolo-
gists was applied to men distinguished for universal learning, more especially to tho
grcimmatici, whose chief occupation of editing and illustrating the classic pocto, natu-
Philology.
rally led Ihcra to this multifarious knowledge; and when Martianns Capclla (q.v.) in fho
5th c. composed his cne-ye 1 >padia (q.v.) or curriculuin of education, embracing tiie
"seven liberal arts" (grammar, dialectic, rhetoric, music, aritnmetic, geometry, and
astronomy), he designates tlie collective whole hy the name of philology. What is
known as tlie revival of literature after the dark ages, is nothing else than tiie revival of
the ancient philology. But when men, instead of look-Jig only at what had been
•written, began to examine the world for themselves, and enlarge the bounds of sci-
ence, it became impossible for one man to cultivate the whole round of knowledge,
and the term philology was by degrees restricted to a knowledge of the languages, his-
tory, laws, etc., of tiie ancient world (by which the Greek and Roman world was chiefly
thought ol), or, more narrowly still, to tlie study merely of the languages— of grammar,
criticism, and interpretation. A more complete conception of philology, as an indc-
Eendent branch of knowledge, was that of F. A. Wolf, who assigned as its field all that
elongs to the life of the ancient peoples; and the conception is still further extended by
Bockh, who makes it almost synonymous with history — its problem being the reproduc-
tion of the past ; in this sense, the word is applicable to all peoples at ail periods of their
history, so thai we arc beginning to have an Indian philology, a German philology, a
Slavic philology, no less than a classic philology. The fullest and most systematic
exposition of what philology in this sense ought to embrace, lias been given by G. llaa.-e
in Ersch and Gruber's Eucy., 3d sect., vol. xxiii.
Of philology, even in its widest sense, the study of language was always, a:id ; <
snrily, a fundamental part; and, in the usual sense of the word, it has been the chief
part — often nearly the whole. For a long time after the revival of learning, the classic
writers were studied chiefly for their language and style, and those of them that did not
come up to an imaginary standard of purity were despised and neglected, however val-
uable they might be for their matter. But although great and even undue attention was
thus given to language, it was only a:"- an instrument, as means to nn end. The philol-
ogist studied a language in order to be able to understand it and use it — to get at the
thoughts conveyed in it, or to convey his own thoughts with force and elegance to others.
This is t!io object of the grammars, dictionaries, annotated editions, and criticisms,
which constitute tho chief part of philological literature. But within recent years, philol-
ogy has entered upon a new phase, or rather a new study has sprung up alongside of
the old. As Ihc naturalist investigates a class of objects not with a view to turn them to
use, lr.it to understand their nature, and classify them; so the new school of philologi-ts
examir.e and compare the structures of the various languages, and arrange them in
classes and families, with the ultimate view of arriving at some theory of language in
general — Us mode of origin and growth. The comparison of the structure of t\
more languages is called comparative grammar, and the whole of this new branch of
study is sometimes designated as comparative philology; but it seems better to leave tho
old field in possession of the old name, and in contradistinction to philology as the prac-
tical knowledge of languages, to speak of the study of language r.s a phenomcm •
se, as 1 he science of language. The Gorman term spracJicnknnde. and the Fre::c!i lin-
gutetiqiic, have more especial reference to the naturalist, or classificatory aspect of the
study.
So long as the view prevailed that language was a humnn invention, anything like a
science of it was impossible. According to that view, which was rally Marled, ar.d was
especially elaborated. and discussed by Locke, Adam Smith, and Dugr.ld Stewart, ii was
only after men found that their rapidly increasing ideas could be no longer conveyed by
gestures of (he body and changes of the countenance, that they set about inventing a set
of artificial vocal signs, the meaning of which was fixed by mutual agreement. On this
theory, there miirht be a history of "the subsequent course of the different languages, but
inquiries- in to ilia nature and laws of language after the manner of the physical sciences
would be absurd. In opposition to the philosophers who attributed the origin ef lan-
guage to human invention, some theologians claimed a divine origin for it, representing
the deity HS having created the names~of things, and directly taught them to Adam.
Both these theories may now be considered as given up by all who are entitled to speak
on the subject. Everything, in fact, tends to show that language is a spontaneous prod-
uct of Iranian nature — a necessary result of man's physical and mental constitution
(including his so:-i;il instincts), as natural to him as to walk, eat, or sleep, and as inde-
pendent of his will as his stature or the color of his hair.
Language was an object of speculation among the Greek philosophers; hut as was
the case with their inquiries into the outward world generally, ihcy began at the wrong
end; they speculated on the origin of things before tlie;,' had examined the things them-
selves. 'They knew no language but their own, and all others were indiscriminately
classed as " barbarous" or foreign: they had no test of affinity among tongues except
mutual intelligibility. Th6 thee>ries of the modern philosophers e>f the 18!h e-. were
nearly a? Ivsclfss; they were mere a priori speculations, akin to Burne-t's (q.v.) " the>ory
of the carih." which was constructed before the strata of the earth's crust had been
explored. The great obstruction to the true course of inquiry was the assumption, first
made by the church fathers, and fe>r a long time unquestioned, that Hebrew was the
primitive language of man. and that therefore all languages must be derivcel from
Hebrew. A prodigious amount of learning and labor was waslcd during the 17th and
"37 Philology.
18th centuries, in trying to trace this imaginary connection. Leibnitz was the first to
Bet aside this notion, and to establish the principle that the study of languages must be
conducted in the same way as that of the exact sciences, by flrBfcollectiug as many facts
as possible, and then proceeding by inductive reasoning. It was owing to his appeal!
and exertions that missionaries, travelers, and others, now began making those collec-
tions of vocabularies and specimens of languages and dialects which form the Ifcfairiioh,
as it were, of human speech. A valuable catalogue of languages in six volumes was
published in Spanish in 1800 by Hervas, n Jesuit missionary. It contains specimens and
notices of more than COO languages, and many of the true affinities r.re happily traced.
A similar work was Adelung's Mitliridntes (4 vols. Berlin, 1800-17), based on the cata-
logue of Ilcrvns, and also on the collections which the Hussiau government had caused
to be made. In none of these efforts, however, although much truth was struck out, were
there anything like fixed principles of scientific classification. The light that brought
order into the chaos rose with the study of Sanscrit (q.v.), first nu.de accessible to
European scholars by sir William Jones, Colebrooke, and other members of the Asiatic
society, founded in Calcutta in 1784. The s-imilarity of Sanskrit to Greek and Latin,
especially in the grammatical forms, struck every one with surprise. Sir William
Jones declared that "no philologcr could examine the Sanscrit, Greek, and Latin with-
out believing them to have sprung from the same source, which perhaps no longer
exists. There is a similar reason, though not quite so forcible, for supposing that both
the Gothic and the Celtic had the same origin with the Sanskrit. The oldPersir.n may be
added to the same family." Rather than admit this relation, which it was seen would
involve aiso ethnological affinities, some, as Dugald Stewart, denied that Sanscrit had
ever been the language of a people, r.nd held that it was an invention of the Brahmans, who
had constructed it on the model of the Greek and Latin. Fr. Schle gel's work. On the
Language and Wisdom of the Indians (1808), although defective and enoneous in point of
scholarship, liars the merit of boldly embracing the languages of India, Persia, and
Europe in one family group, by the comprehensive, name of Indo-Germanic. It was
this work that called the attention of German scholars to a field of labor which they have
since made specially their own.
The successive publications of Bopp (q.v.), beginning in 1816, and culminating in his
great work on the grammar of the Aryan languages, Vcrgkichc-nde Graminatik (Berl.
1883-52; a 2el eel. recast and enlarged, 8 vols., Berl. 1857; an English translation of 1st
eel. was published in 3 vols., 1845-50, nnd revise-el in 1854), created the new science of
comparative grammar, and laiel a sure and broad foundation for the science of language
generally. Concurrent with the labors of Bopp were those of Pott in his etymological
researches (Ktymologinchc Forpchvnacn, 2 vols., 1833-86; 2d cd. 1850) and other works.
Not less important, though confined to one stock of the Aryan family, the Teutonic, was
the great German grammar (Deiitscfie Grammalik, 4 vols. 1818-87) of J. Grimm (q.v.).
William von Humboldt (Q.V.) did much to establish a philosophy of language — the rela-
tions and interactions of mind and speech; a department of the subject which has been
further cultivated in recent years by Steinthal. The method of investigation, thus
invented and perfected in the lielel of the Aryan tongues, has been applied to other lan-
guages, anel considerable progress has been made in grouping the principal varieties of
human speech into families, which again fall into subelivisions or branches, according to
the different degrees of nearness in the relationship. In establishing these relationships,
although a comparison of the vocabularies — the numerals, prop'mns, and more essential
nouns 'and verbs — may establish a general affinity, and render a common origin proba-
ble; yet the surevr test'lies in the grammatical forms. For when those elements of a lan-
guage which express the relations of things — case, number, tense — have once become
mere terminations, and lost their original form and independent meaning, they can only
be transmitted by tradition; anel when the same grammatical forms are found possessed
in common by two or more tongues, they must be an inheritance from a common ances-
tor. It follows from this that the "genealogical" classification, as it is called, cannot be
carried out with great surety or rigor except in the case of languages in which grammati-
cal forms had become in some degree fixed before their divergence — in other words, of
the inflectional languages. Accordingly, the only two well defined genealogical fami-
lies are the Aryan and the Semitic, winch embrace the whole of the languages of the
inflectional type.
Besides the division of languages into families bearing traces of a common origin, there
is a division into three orders, as they may be called, depending upon a radical differ-
ence of structure. Speech, as the expression of thought, contains two elements; ideas or
conceptions, which constitute the substance or material part; and the relations of these
ideas to one another, which constitute the formal part, and the nature of a language
depends upon the particular way in which the vocal expression of these two elements is
combined. At the foundation of all words he roots (q.v.), or simple sounds expressive
of meaning. Now, some languages, as the Chinese (q.v.), use these roots in their naked
form as words, the same syllable, according to its position, serving as noun, adjective,
verb, etc. — e. g., to, mean , great, greatness, to be or to make great, great! y or very. The
relational part of the thought, for the most part, gets no vocal expression, it is only
indicated by position, as when min, people, and li, power, are simply put together
(min h) to signify the people's power. Relations not readily indicated by position aie
Philology.
expressed in a round-about way by using additional significant word*: thus, t*c7mng
(muss or multitude) jm (man) = men; ///'/(woman) <w (child) = daughter; y //tin It
(employ people power) == w'ith the people's power. Even in such ea-es each root pre-
serves its independence, and i> felt \<i express its own radical meaning. Languages like;
the Chiaesc, whose development has been arrested at lliis rudimenlary stage, arc called
monoayl'abic or isolating.
The next stage of development is that of the <tf/fftitfinftfi -languages, which are by far the
most numerous, including the Turanian and American families. In these the relational
parf of thought obtains prominent vocal expression by separate mots joined or <//
to the significant roots as terminations. These terminations were originally thein-
signifi /ant roots, and many of them are still used as separate significant words, although,
the greater part have sunk down to mere signs of cases and other relations. The com-
pound expression thus formed never, however, attains perfect unity; the significant r<<ot
always remains rigid, unobscurcd in its sense and unchanged inform, and the termina-
tion is f'.-lt as somthing distinct from the body of the word.
Tims, the Finnish declension exhibits a structure of the most mechanical and trans-
parent kind— e. g., Jcarhn, bear; karlut-n, of the bear; kni'lmf-tn, without . b:;ar; k<ir!ni-
sta, out of the bear; and so on through fifteen cases. The insertion of the plur.d suilix,
t, gives kurlu.i-z-n, of the bears; karh>i-i-tn, without bears; knrlm-/-x!<t, out of the bears;
etc. But this composite mcch u-'cal structure reaches its climax —remaining all the
while perfectly transparent — in the Tirkish verb. Thus, the root x< >• has the, indefinite .
meaning of loving, and the inf. is scv-mek, to love; which then, by the in erlion o
tain susses, can take on as many as forty forms or voices — c. g.. ••••< r -////-/;/ <k, not to
love; sev-c-me-Hicte, not to be able to love; sco-dir-mrk, to cause to love; .--< /• dir-fohri)
cause one another to love; ssv-il-mek, to be loved; tet-il-c-me-nwk, not to be abK'to beloved;
etc. Erich of these forms, then, runs through a large round of tenses and moods, with
their persons and numbers.
The languages of the American Indians are all of this agglutinating type, although
they have also got the name incorporative, or intercalativc, because they run a whole
phrase or sentence into one word — c. g., Jiojwni, to wash; Jiopocuni, to wash hands;
hopoa-liifd, to wash feet; ninaeaqua, I (iti) cat (qua) flesh (naca}. The Basque language
partakes of this character.
it is only in the third or inflsetional stage that perfect unity of the two elements is
attained. In the Aryan and Semitic tongues, which alone have reached this liighot
state of development, the significant root and the termination have become blended into
one both in effect and form, and phonetic changes have for the most part obliterated the
traces of composition. Yet no doubt is felt by philologists that the most biuldy organ-
ized of the inflecting or amalgamating languages began with the radical stage, and
passed through the agglutinate. The analytic "powers of comparative grammar have
succeeding in tracing back the formal elements of the Aryan tongues to original inde-
pendent word*, agglutinated to other words to modify them. Se :!NFI F.rriov'. A
this theory it lias been urged, that there is no historical instance of a language so chang-
ing its type, and passing from one stage to another. But a sufficient account of this
phenomenon may be found in the different mental habits and political positions of the
peoples (see Max Midler, Lectures on the Fticncv of Lonc/uage, first series, page '3!(i).
Besides, the languages of the lower types do show a tendency, under favorable circum-
stances, to produce grammatical forms of the higher kind. Even in Chinese, in some of
its modern dialects, something like cases is to be seen; and Finnish and Turkish,
in contact with the inflected languages of Europe, are making approaclies to the inflec-
tional type.
On the the other hand the inflectional languages had, before the earlier-.t times of which
we have any written monuments, entered on the reverse phase — {\\u(tnriljitii'. By the
p-ocess of phonetic change and decay, the grammatical forms have been gradually
becoming obliterated and losing their power, end their place has been supplied by sepa-
rate words, in the shape of prepositions and auxiliary verbs. Sec INKT.KCTIO.V.
Connected with these radical differences of type, is one of the higher and more specu-
lative problems of the science — the question as to the common origin of all languages.
The inherent and apparently ineffaceable difference of structure in the three orders above
described, as well as the absence of all sure marks of genealogical affinity even between
the two families of the inflectional type, the A»yan and the Semitic, are considered bv
some as insuperable objections to the theory of a common origin. But although it may
be fruitless to lock for extensive identifications of the roots and grammatical forms of
the Aryan tcngues, even in the oldest forms to which we can trace them, with those of
the Semitic, still more with Chinese- or Turkish elements; it seems rnsh and unscientific
to affirm that, going back to the radical stage, the development of all could not have
begun from a common stock of monosyllabic roots. The wonderful transformations
exhibited by language in the course of its known history, seem sufficient ground for
maintaining the pomoility of a common origin. On the other hand the nature of the case
forbids all hope of ever being able to pn>rc it; for the co icidences that occur (e. g..
C'.iir-ese fu, Tibetan phn, Lat. and Gr. prr-ter, Eng. /a-ther; Ohin. mu, Egyp. m'i, T.at.
and Gr. 7»a-ter, Eng. mo-tker), even though they were much more numerous than they
Philology.
are, might well arise from the mind and vocal organs of man being everywhere essen-
tially the same.
Languages, like living organisms, are in a state of continual flux or change, and an
essential part of tlie science consists in investigating the laws according to which those
changes lake place. It is because there are such laws that a science of language is
possible. In tracing words to their origin and identifying them with words in other lan-
guages, we are no longer guided by mere similarity of sound; on the contrary, identity
of sound is often a proof that a proposed etymology is wrong. It has been established,
1 .»• in.-tance, by induction (see GUIMM'S LAW), that c in Latin is regularly represented by
/, in Gothic and English; while for Gothic or English c, the corresponding letter in Latin
isy. Accordingly, we r< ndily recognize Latin corn- it and. English horn as cognale words;
While a suggestion to e< nnest fhe English corn with cornu is immediately rejected. If
corn lias a representative iu j-atin it must begin with g, which points out gran inn as the
word. (Ji'd-in is not the English representative of gmnum; it is granum, borrowed from
the Latin through the French. The expert etymologist can of ten identify with certainty
two words, although not a letter remains the same. In simple cases this is done by
every one. Who, for instance, doubts that Abcrdeenshirc/«, filk, are merely dialectic
varieties of English who, which. Yet the same persons who readily admit such cases are
skeptical when it is proposed, for instance, to identify Fr. Icinue with Eug. tear. The
grounds of identification, however, are similar in both instances; the only difference
being that with regard to larrnc and tear they require to be traced historically. No one
will dispute tiiat lanne is a corruption of Lat. lacrima; in fact, it can be followed through
the successive stages of change. Now we know that the Komans had a peculiarity of
letting d in some positions degenerate into I. Nor is this unaccountable when we con-
sider that the contact of organs which produces d differs from that which produces?,
chiefly in being more energetic; a slovenly (/ slides into I. Thus the Greek name, Odys-
seus, became, in the mouth of the Komans, Ulysses; they said odor (a smell), but oleo (I
smell); and instead of iiupcdimcntum, dedicarc, we sometimes iind impeliinentum, ddicare.
Th •:•:;>.• and oilier instances would warrant us to conclude that lacri-ma was a corruption
of rfom'-mrt (corresponding to Gr. cikni), even if we had not the express, statement of
Festus that dacrinm was the older form. After this there is no difficulty in recognizing
dacri or d«kni- as identical with Gothic tagr, Eng. tear.
In o'.'ik'i- to give a rational account of the phonetic changes row exemplified, the
nature of articulate sounds, and of the organs that produce them, must be carefully
investigated. The most valuable contributions in English to this important preliminary
branch of (ho study (called plioncticx), are those of Mr. Alex. J. Ellis and of Mr. Melvillo
Bell, in his book entitled Visible Speech. Sec PHONETIC WRITING raid VISIBLE SPEECH.
A refill: e of Ihc subjecc, with diagrams of the organs of voice in the posiiion of pronoun-
cing the different articulations, is given in the second series of Max Midler's Lectures on
t.'to friencc. of Ltingvage.
Tlu' transformations that words exhibit as they are traced down the stream of history,
are of the natuiv of phonetic decay, and an; due to a natural tendency to economize mus-
cular energy by pronouncing two syllables in one. The dropping of inflections, the
shortening of words by internal elision and otherwise (Fr. pere, from Lat. paler; Eng.
fftir, from A. S. fwr/rr; tfmnr/cr, from old Fr. crfranr/ier, Lat. c.rtraneu*). are all. owing
to the action of this force, and the uniformities observable among such changes, can be
explained on physiological principles. Dialectic diversification is not so easily accounted
for; it is difficult to say why sister nations — as in the case of the Ayran family, or of the
i;at ions speaking I'omanic tongues — should have given such different forms to the same
stock of primitive roots; why, e.g., Gr. pente (^Eol. pempe), pepo, should be in Lat.
qvinque, coqtto. Max Muller thinks it necessary 1o go back to a time when many ef Hie
articulations were not yet sharply defined; and he appeals, in illustration, to the confu-
sion children make between such sounds as tat and cat; and, what is still more in point,
to the analogy presented by languages like the Polynesian. In the language of the Sand-
wich Hands the two consonants /,: and t run into one another, " and it seems impossible
for a foreigner to say whether what he hears is a guttural or a dental. The same word
is written by Protestant missionaries with k, by French with t. It takes months of
patient labor to teach a Hawaian youth the difference between k and t, g and d, I and v.
... If colonies started to-morrow for the Hawaian islands the same which took place
thousands of years ago, when the Hindus, the Greeks, and the Romans left their common
home (see AKYAX), would take place again. One colony would elaborate 1he indistinct,
half-guttural, half-dental contact into a pure guttural; another into a pure dental; a third
i'lto a labial." Much light is thrown on this question by those phonetic peculiarities —
tl»O«e deficiencies find predilections of articulation which characterize whole tribes and
nations, as they often do individuals. They may have originated, perhaps, in the idio-
syncrasies of individual ancestors (a lisping patriarch might produce a tribe of lispers
without their inheriting the physical defect which caused the lisp in him), or in a com-
mon habit of the organs of speech produced by external circumstances; but once estab-
lished they are very persistent and influential. The Mohawks and several other Ameri-
can tribes have no p, b, m,f, v, or w; they never articulate with their lips. In China
there is no d; r is also wanting; and as the habit of the language requires a vowel after
Philology.
every consonant, the nearest approach they can make to the sound of Christ is Ki-li-se-tu.
An analogous habit of articulation transforms the English word fjoldi n the mouth of a
Kafir into i-yo-li-de. On this principle can he explained the Fr. c^.ercr, from Lat, spe-
rare; cstablir or ttabtir, from n1«bilin; ecolc (cxcoitr). from wholtt, etc. lu the Celtic tongue
an initial * with a consonant after it was an unwonted combination; when it would have
occurred a vowel was always prefixed; and. on adopting the Latin language, the Celtic
peoples carried their old habit of pronunciation with them. The effects upon a larguage
of tlius coming in contact with another are Important elements in its history, bee K.\<;-
T>ISH LAMJUAGE AND LiTEKATrui-:.
The positive part of the science of language having pushed inquiry h>ek until it
arrives tit monosyllabic roots that admit of no further analysis, there steps. ;.s at the legi'i-
mate boundary of its province. It assumes the existence of a certain st<,ye of crude or
primary matter, and merely concerns itself witli how out of this matte.;-, as we know i!,
has been built or has grown up But a question yet remains, which, although it can
never receive but a conjectural answer, has a wonderful fascination for the speculative
mind, and was, in fact, the question with which all inquiries into langvago began: the
question, namely: How did language take a beginning at all? how came this primitive
material of language, these significant roots, into existence? The answer may be thus
conceived: To speak is a necessity of man's rational and emotional nature; ):e speaks
because he thinks and feels. When the mind receives an impression or intuition, by an
instinctive impulse of the nature of reflex action, some outward expression — a gesture or
vocal sound — breaks forth, which by association becomes a sign or symbol, to the indi-
vidual and to his associates, of the impression or idea that gave it birth. Associated at
first with individual impressions and objects, these sounds, by the process of abstraction,
•which is pre-eminently a human faculty, would gradually come to represent more gener-
alized impressions — would become words, ns distinguished from mere animal sounds.
The necessity of words to think in is much insisted on by speculators on this subject as
being the motive-power in the generation of language; and no doubt it is true that, with-
out language, thought could advance but little, if at all, beyond what is manifested l>\-
the brutes. But when they argue as if this necessity of having his ideas objectively
depicted in order to exercise his own reason, would impel an individual man to construct
a language for his own use, they make the unwarranted assumption that, under any cir-
cumstances, even though he grew up from infancy in solitude, the thinking powers of a
human being must necessarily develop themselves. The necessarily few facts that bear
on the case look the other way. Kaspar Hauser (q.v.), instead of elaborating a system
of symbols of thought for himself, had forgotten what he had once posses>ed: his facul-
ties of thought and of speech seem to have been simultaneously arrested. Ol servation
seems to favor the opinion, that man in solitude — if he could exist in solitude — would
he as mute as the lower animals. The social nature of man helped to give birth to the
germs of speech, no less than his rational nature; an instinctive desire to give a sensible
sign of his impressions to his fellows, was perhaps the primary impulse; the aid thus
given to his own thinking powers, a secondary result. Be this as it may it seems reaa n
able to assume, as it has been well put by Steinthal, that "at the origin of humanity.
the soul and the body were in such mutual dependence that all the emotions of the soul
had their echo in the body, principally in the organs of respiration and the voice. This
sympathy of soul and body, still found in the infant and the savage, was intimate and
fruitful in the primitive man; each intuition woke in him an accent or a sound." — Far
rar, Origin of Lnn(j.
Were these sounds, then, guided by chance or caprice? or if not, what determined
particular articulations to be associated with particular objects or ideas? Any mystic
innate correspondence between sounds and things is out of the question; but what more
reasonable than to suppose that the natural sounds emitted by so many things, animate
and inanimate, should suggest the character of the articulations which the ideas of the
things called forth— not so as to produce exact imitations, which it is not of the nature
of articulate sounds to be, but such resemblances as would suffice for association. See
ONOMATOPOEIA. In the case of ideas unconnected with any natural sound names would
readily be suggested in many cases by analogies, real or fancied, with things that, wcic
attended by sounds. We can see, again, a physiological fitness in the articulation i-ta,
to stand, with the idea of stability; with the attitude, the organs involuntarily assume
the position with which this syllable is emitted. Similar instances might be multiplied.
We arc not to suppose that the same thing would suggest the same sound to all or even
to the same individual at all times. The language making faculty in the flush of its
spring would throw out a multitude of names for the same thing (synonyms), as well as
apply the same name to many different things (homonyms); hut by a process of natural
elimination, those ouly would survive that were felt best to answer the purposes of
speech. The abstracting faculty would also soon dissociate them from the concrete indi-
vidual objects that first suggested them, and convert them into symbols of the prominent
attributes of whole classes. It is these generalized names, syllables significant of such
general simple notions as seeing, moving, running, shining, striking, cutting, or being
sharp, that, by a kind of inverse process, became the roots of language as it now exists.
A syllabic expressive of a single prominent attribute forms the foundation of the names
Philology,
of a whole class of objects, the specific differences being marked by other significant
syllables joined on to it. See ROOTS. In some such way, by the unconscious Working of
man's int<-llectual nature, we may conceive language to have grown out of the exclama-
torv or iaterjeclional stage into tiie rational structure that we now admire. This theory
of the origin of roots, together with the constant operation of phonetic change, accounts
for the absence of all traces of onomatopoeia in the great bulk of the words of a language,
and steins to meet the objections of Max M Oiler and other philologists to the omimatopojic
theory.
With regard to these primary or radical words it is only necessary to observe here
that thov are ail significant of sensible or physical ideas and expressions for immaterial
c<-!i;:c!i'.ions are derived from them by metaphor. How, from a, comparatively lew roots
of this kind, the vocabulary of the richest language may grow, is further illustrated in.
the article ROOT.
Another speculative question regards the length of time that language must have
taken to advance from tin- rndinieuSury stage to the state in which it is found in the earli-
est records. Bunsen assigns 20,000 years as the lowest limit; but it is evident that the
same uncertainty must always rest on this question as on the corresponding one in
geology.
Separate points of philology will be found treated under a variety of heads. See
— besides the articles already "referred to — ALPHABET; the several letters, A, B, etc.;
GENITIVE; NOUN; ADVEKIJ;" PJIONOUN; DIALECT; PERSIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERA-
TURE; SEMITIC LANGUAGES; etc. ,
The literature of the new science of language is already rich; but much of it is scat-
tered through the transactions of societies and periodicals. Of separate works of a com-
Erehensive kind, in addition to those already named, we may mention, in German.
chleicher, Die Spraclieii Enro-m* (Bonn, 1850), and Vergleiehende Gramma-fife der Indo-
Gcr. Sprue/ten (2 vols., Weimar, 18(51); J. Grimm, Ueber den Urxpntng der Kprache (Ber.
185^): Diez, Etymol. Wdrterbuch der Romanuchen Sprachen (3d ed. Bonn, 18ol), and Ver-
gleiclicnde Grammatik der Romanischen Sprach.cn (3 vols. Bonn, 1836-42); translations of
both works into English have been published by Williams and Norgate (18G4). Heyse,
System dev Sprachwifisentiehaft ftter. 1856); Steinthal, Die Classification der Spraclicn (Ber.
1856); and Der Ui'xprung der SpracJia (Ber. 1851). In French, P.enan, Histoire Generals
et Syxtime compare des Langues Semitiques (3d ed. Paris, 1863); and De UOrigine du La,n-
/;! (3d ed. Paris, 1833); Pictet, Les Origines Indo-Eitropecnnes (Paris, 1859).
English scholars were late in entering this field of research. Home Tooke's (q.v.)
s of Parley, though a work of genius, and though it has been the means of first
awakening in many an interest in the nature of language, was written without sufficient
acquaintance with the kindred tongues, and before the true key to the inquiry had been,
obtained, and therefore few of the results can now be accepted. Among the first impor-
tant contributions were Prichavd's Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations (Oxf. 1801), and the
contributions of the rev. Richard Garnett to the Quarterly Review in 1835-48. Mr. Gar-
nett's essays in the (Quarterly, and his subsequent papers printed in the proceedings of
the London philological society (in the formation of which, in 1842, he took an active
part), have been reprinted under the title of Philological Essays (Williams and Norgate,
1859), and are models of linguistic research. The philological articles of the Penny Cyclo-
pcKdiu also contributed to popularize the study in England. Of substantive works the
most important, though bearing more directly on the Greek and Latin tongues, are The
atylus (1839, 3,1 ed. 1859), arid the Varronianus (1844) of J. W. Donaldson (q.v.).
Winning's Manual of Comparative Philology (1838) had previously given a popular sketch
of the affinities of the Aryan languages. Latham's Elements of Comparative Philology
(1862) gives an elaborate classification of the languages of the world, with specimens;
only a small part of the work is given to the general principles of the science. Farrar,
On the Origin of Language (1860), chiefly deals with the speculative part of the subject;
in his ijiapter* on Language (new ed. 1873), he defends his original positions; his Families
of Spci'f'lt. (now ed. 1873) deals with classification. The writings of Max Miiller (Compar a
live Mythology i& the Oxford Estayx, 1856; Lectures on the Science of Language, 1861; second
scries, 1864: new ed. of both, 1871) went far to make the study of this science take root
in Britain. The principles of linguistic science are set forth in Whitney's Language and
the Study of Language (1868), &n& The Life and Groicth of Language (1875). Other recent
works are: Key's Origin and Development of Language (1874); and Sayce's Principles of
Comparative
On the principles of classification above sketched, the chief languages of the earth
may be thus arranged:
I. yr'iiiv:yVabic or Isolating. — 1. Chinese, the typical language of this order. 2. Thibe-
tan, which shows some beginnings of grammatical forms. 3. The languages of the east-
ern peninsula — Siamese, Anamese, Burman. Japanese and the language of Corea are
doubtful.
II. Agglutinate. — 1. The most important division of this order is the Turanian family,
comprising "all languages spoken in Asia and Europe (including Oceania), and not
included under the Aryan and Semitic families, with the exception of Chinese and its
cognate dialects." For the subdivisions of this family, see TURANIAN LANGUAGES. 2.
U. K. XL— 41
Philomela.
Philosophical.
642
African Languages.— Some of the languages of Africa arc allied to the Semitic family,
nnd were introduced by immigration, such as the dialect of Tigre in Abyssinia (see
KTIMOPJA). and the Arabic dialects spoken by the Mohammedan population of the
coasts, iind which have even penetrated deep into the interior. How lar the Berber dia-
lects are of SSeiiutic chnracter is a disputed question; and the same is the case \\itli the
language of the Gallas in Abyssinia. Little has as yet been done in investigating and
classifying the native agglutinate languages of Africa, which have been designated by
the common name of Hamitic. The ancient Kgyptian. from which the modern Coptic
is derived, would seem never to have got beyond the isolating stage (see HfKi<o(;i.Yi'iu< s).
Some of the languages adjoining Egypt are thought to be allied to the Coptic. The
negro languages, properly so-called, of the Sudan, and of the w. coast from the Senegal
to the Niger, are exceedingly numerous and widely diverse. The languages to the
the equator are markedly different from those to the north. They fall, according to
some, into two great families, the Congo family on the w., and the Kaffer family on the
east. The Hottentot language is distinct from both. A valuable contribution has rec.-ntly
been made to the study of part of the field by Bleek's t'i»iij/<ir<i!<'r< drain nun- of thf ^mttk
African J^inguages (1^62). 53. The Lang uagei of the Aim / "'<•<' n Indians. — The native lan-
guages of the new world are numbered by many hundreds, all differing totally in their
vocabulary, but still agreeing in the peculiar grammatical structure winch has given the
name of incorporative(see above). Their area is fast contracting, and lhe\ seem d.-Mined
to disappear.
III. InjkcUonal. — This order consists of two families, so distinct in their grammati-
cal framework that it is impossible to imagine a language of the one family derived
from one of the other. It is the peoples speaking these languages that have been the
leaders of civilization within the historic period. The subdivisions of these fa;
\vill be best understood from the accompanying tables, taken from Max Mailer's lec-
tures, first series.
No I. — GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE ARYAN FAMILY OF
LIVING LANGUAGES.
Dialects of
India —
the Gipsies..
Persia
Afghanistan.
Kurdistan . . .
Bokhara
Armenia
Ossethi
Wales
Brittany
Scotland
Ireland
Man
Portugal
Spain
Provence —
France ..'....
Italy
Wallaehia . . .
the Grisons..
Albania
Greece .
Lithuania
Kurland and Livonia, |
(Lettish) I
Bulgaria
Russia (Great, Little, I
White Russian >. . . (
Illvria (Slovenian, i
Croatian, Servian). . j
Poland ,
Bohemian (Slovakian). .
Lusatia
Germany — -j
England
Holland .
Friesland
North of Germany I
(Platt-Deutsch) f
Denmark
Sweden
Norway
Iceland
DEAD LANGUAGES.
Prakrit and Pali— Modern Sanskrit
— Vedic Sanscrit
Parsi — Pehlevi — Cuneiform Inscrip-
tions— Zend
Old Armenian
Cornish
BLANCHES.
( Doric—
Koivrj<
( Attic— Ionic
Old Prussian
Ecclesiastical Slavonic
Old Bohemian
Polabiau
Middle
Gothic
Anglo-Saxon
Old Dutch
Old Frisian
Old Saxon
Old Norse
Oscan
Latin
Umbrian
i-Lettic
CLASSES.
Indie
I Indi
South East
Slavonic
V West-Slavenic
HiSn' iTTurh-f
Low-G "•'man
Scandinavian
Iranic
Celtic
Italic
Ulyric
Hellenic
*Vindic
Teutonic
£ J.Q Philomela.
Philosophical.
No. II — GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE SEMITIC FAMILY OF LANGUAGES.
LIVING LANGUAGES.
Dialects of
Arabic.
Amharic .
DEAD LANGUAGES. CLASSES.
Ethiopic
Arabic
4- j Himyuritic Inscriptions | Southern
I
the Jews I Biblical Hebrew " Hebraic
-f- I Samaritan Pentateuch (3d c. A.D.) V
-j- I Carthaginian, Phenician Inscriptions )
Neo-Syriac.
Middle
ChaIdee(M"asora, Talmud, Targum, Biblical Chaldee) ) Aramaic
Syriac (Peshito, 2d c. A.D.) or
Cuneiform Inscriptions of Babylon and Nineveh ) Northern J
PHILOME LA, the name of a personage in Greek legend, who was changed according
to one account into a swallow, to another into a nightingale. Modern" poets are (or
rather were, for it was chiefly an 18th c. fashion) fond of calling the nightingale by its
classical name.
PHILOP(E MEN. the most illustrious patriot and general who figures in the later his-
tory of Greece, belonged to one of the best families of Arcadia, and was b. at Megalopo-
lis about 252 B.C. At an early age he lost his father, and was brought up by a wealthy
citizen, earned Oleander, who took care that he should receive an excellent education.
His earliest experiences of war were confined to the border raids of the Arcadians into
Laconia; but in 222 B.C., he was one of the defenders of Megalopolis against Cleomenes,
king of Sparta. Nexi year, when the Macedonian king Antigonus marched to the assis-
tance of the Achneans, Philopoemen joined him at the head of 1000 horse, and contrib-
uted materially to the terrible defeat which the Spartan king received at Sellasia. As
tranquility was now for a short time restored to Greece, Philopoemen went abroad to
perfect himself in the art of war, and served in Crete with such distinction, that on his
return to the Peloponnesus, in 210, he was appointed general of the Achaean horse, and
at once proceeded to discipline his men in a vigorous and masterly style. In the expe-
dition against Elis (209) he slew the Elean lender. Demophautus, with his own hand. la
208 he was raised to the highest military dignity then possible in Greece, being elected
gfi-alegns or commander-in-chief of the Archaean league, and in this capacity signalized
himself by the great improvements which he effected in the drill, discipline, and armor of
the Aclnran soldiery. It seemed as if the ancient heroism of the laud were reviving. Thd
battle of Manteneia, which took place in the course of the same year, and in which the
Spartans were again utterly routed — their general and king, Machanidas, falling by the
sword of Philopcpmen himself — raised him to the pinnacle of fame, and at, the Nemean
festival which followed he was proclaimed liberator of Greece. His exalted honors did
not in the slightest degree disturb the integrity of his character. So great was his
influence over his quarrelsome countrymen, that the Macedonian monarch, Philip, began
to fear that Greece would regain its independence, and tried to have him secretly assas-
sinated; but the infamous treachery was discovered in time, and its only effect was to
endear Philopcerr.en still more to the Achaeans. Another of his determined enemies was
Nabis, successor of . Machanidas in the "tyranny" of Sparta, but in 201 he inflicted on
the lalter a severe defeat at Skotetas on the borders of Lacouia. During the next few
years he was absent in Crete, partly, it would seem, for political reasons, but returned
to f'ne Peloponnesus in 194 to find matters in a serious condition. A new and dreaded
power — the Romans — had appeared, and overthrown both Philip and Nabis, and Philo-
popmeii foreboded future mischief to all Greece from these ambitious warriors. On the
departure of the consul Flamininus, Nabis recommenced hostilities against the Achaeans;
Philopcemep was once more appointed strntegus (192); and in a pitched battle nearly
annihilated the troops of Nabis, who himself was shortly afterward killed by the ^Eto-
lians. He now exerted all his power to head the divisions among the Achseans, and to
prevent them from affording the Romans a pretext for taking away their independence.
In 188. he took a fierce revenge on Sparta for having put a number of his friends to
death, and was in consequence strongly censured by the Roman senate, and by Q. Ceeci-
lius Metellus, who was sent out as a, commissioner tp Greece in 185. Two years later
Philopoemen (now an old man of 70) was elected strategus for the eighth time. When
lying ill of a fever at Argos, news was brought to him that the Messenians had broken
tlu-.ii1 connection with the league; Philopcemen instantly rose from his sick-bed, hastened
at the head of some cavalry to quell the revolt, but was overpowered by numbers, and
fell into the hands of Deinocrptes, the leader of the Messenians, who two nights after,-
sent him a cup of poison, which Philopoemen drank off and died. The remains of the
hero were brought in solemn procession to his native city — the historian Polybius carry-
ing the urn — and statues were ejected to his memory by his grateful and repentant coun-
trymen.
PHILOSOPHICAL ANATOMY, an arrangement of anatomical science by wl-ich it
is sought to exhibit the developmental connections between the various parts of one ani- »
Philosophy.
mal as well as correspondences between the organs of different animals. It therefore
includes, or at least makes use of, comparative anatomy, but it aims to go a step far! her,
in establi liing an archetype fur all forms, belonging to each Bab-kingdom of animated
nature. This is the broadest definition, probably, that can be given, consistent with the
very vaiied views which have been taken of the subject by different naturalists.
^. This word in eir.it originally the "love of knowledge," and indicated,
therefore, a ^.^.ial U^ie, appetite, or desire, of which the subject matter was knowl-
edge. At first, man's pursuit of knowledges was subservient to the immediate uses of
life; but, in the course of time, an interest was taken in kncwing the order of the world,
independent in its application to the common utilities. \Ye tind that this stage had been
reached in Greece especially, about live or six centuries before Christ; at which time
the name "philosophy" took its rise, being attributed to Pythagoras.
The word has a variety of acceptations, although all pervaded by the or.e idea of
employing the luniian understanding in the search for increasing knowledge and certainty.
It always implies this effort in a distinguished degree, such as only a few persons in
any age have ever been able to sustain. The pursuit of knowledge had to become a.n end
in itself, for the mere improvement or practice would not at first have been a Mitlieinit
motive for rnen to undergo the labors of scientific inquiry. Indeed, this improvement
was not at all apparent as a consequence of the earlier efforts of speculation. As one
celebrated example, the investigation of the properties of the sections of the cone— the
ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola — was Without any practical use for nearly two thousand
years.
As may be readily supposed, the precise aim of philosophy, the statement of what
constitutes its end, has varied with the advancement of its study. In modern times, the
pursuit of truth has taken a well-defined tone, expressed by the name science (q.v ).
But, in the ancient world, this operation was a mixture of speculation, practice, and s«-n-
timent — of legitimate inquiry with aspirations after the unattainable; and hence the
word " philosophy," in its modern employment, often refers to the subjects that have-
not as yet adopted the strict scientific form. On this view, science is the goal and grave
of philosophy. (See Lewes's Biographical History of Philosophy.) It is chieily with refer-
ence to morals, metaphysics, and the human mind generally, that the term is still
retained.
The characters that distinguish the highest form of truth are generality and certainty
or precision; and in proportion as a subject has advanced in these respects, it might be
said to have become philosophical, but we now prefer to use the word scientific. The
theoretical foundations of a practical subject, as grammar, are sometimes pretentiously
called the philosophy of it. So any department of nature or humanity, where explana-
tions by general laws are are furnished, is styled " philosophical ;" thus, we have the
philosophy of zoology or of history, and a "philosophical " naturalist or historian.
Again,- after definite branches of knowledge have taken a scientific shape, and have
been reckoned as distinct " sciences" (mathematics, etc.) the general principles and views
that are supposed to run through the whole, are sometimes called " philosophy." This
was one of the meanings of the word in Plato. The great work of Auguste Comte bases
its title (Cours de Philosophie Positive) upon this consideration.
Prof. Ferrier remarks that philosophy is not truth, but "reasoned truth;" that is, it
must be truth presented under the forms and processes that evolve and establish the
highest or scientific knowledge. This is merely another mode of stating that philosophy
implies a special procedure for attaining truth, the ordinary unregulated operations of
the understanding being insufficient.
Among the oldest problems of philosophy, AVC are to reckon the attempt to generalize
the universe, or to resolve all nature into some great unity, or common sub-iaiiee
or principle. Thales considered water the primordial and fundamental principle.
Anaximander adopted as the foundation of the universe something called by him the
infinite or indeterminate, out of which the various definite substances, air, fire, water,
etc. , were generated, and to which they were again resolved. Anaximenes assumed air as
the primordial substance, which, by rarefaction, produced fire and ether, and by conden-
sation, water, earih, and stone. These three philosophers all belonged to the Ionic colony
of Miletus. Pythagoras was an. emigrant from Ionia to Italy; he gave number as the
essence and foundation of all existing things; the different numbers bt-ing representative
of dilferent natural properties and powers; thus,.. -fine stood for color, si,r for life, etc.
Xenophanes of Kolophon attacked the popular polytheism, and propounded one great
indivisible agency comprehending and identified with the universe, which he would not.
designate as finite or infinite, in motion or at rest. Parmenides of Elea distinguished
between self-existent being, Ens, or the absolute, characterized by extension and dura-
tion, and phenomenal nature, the region of inferior certainty, or mere opinion. This
was the first sketch of what has since been called ontology, or the science of the r>f»tt/if-
non, or absolute being. Herakleitus of Ephesus maintained an absolute of a totally
different diameter— a principle of incessant change, the negation of all substance and
stability, a power of perpetual destruction and renovation. Empedocles took his stand
upon the four elements, out of which all things were constituted by the action of the
opposing-principles of love, and enmity or discord — a poetical representation of attrac-
Philosophy.
tion and repulsion. Anaxagoras also treated the world as made up of elements, but
indefinite in number. By the attraction of each for its own kind, the primitive chaoa
was separated, but excepting "mind," no element ever was perfectly pure, the charac-
ter of each substance being determined by the predominance of the proper element.
These elements were called the "homoeomeries.* Diogenes of Apollonia, the last of the
series culled Ionic philosophers, adopted in a modified form the tenet of Anaximenes,
that air was the primordial element. The celebrated atomic theory originated with
Leukippus, but is commonly identified with his pupil Democritus of Abdera. The ele-
ments of Anaxagoras were acted on by mind, but with Democritus their activity was
inherent in themselves from the beginning.
The grand problem of external perception (see PERCEPTION) was agitated at an early
period, and has been always reckoned a leading question of philosophy. The first attempt
at a solution was an application by Democritus of his atomic hypothesis. He supposed
that all things were constantly throwing off images of themselves, which enter the soul
through the pores of the organs of sense. He was aware that this left us in a state of
uncertainty, as to whether the images corresponded to the otherwise unknown originals.
The many difficulties and uncertainties incident tc the search for knowledge, could
not but be felt by inquirers generally. There was one sect in particular, more especially
impressed by this circumstance, and hence called skeptics, or doubters. They were repre-
sented in antiquity by Pyrrho. They dwelt on the absence of any sure criterion of
truth, and pointed out that what was considered most certain was not free from objec-
tions, or counter-arguments.
Philosophical speculation began to take definite shape in the age of Plato and Aris-
totle, the age of the beginnings of many of the sciences. More especially at this time do
AVC find the distinct enunciation of the philosophy of human life, otherwise called
moral and ethical philosophy. The questions Governing the end of life, the pursuit of
happiness, and men's duties in various relationships, had been answered by a sort of rule-
of-thumb experience, rather than by deep reflection or far -seeing combinations. The dis-
tinctions of virtue and vice were determined by political society, and connected more or
less with religion. There were tests and maxims of conduct, for the most part merely
prudential. The first approach to a moralizing strain is found in the poems of Hesiod.
He combines a gloomy view of life with much practical wisdom, enjoining justice,
enenry, temperance and simplicity of living The " seven wise men," who belonged to
the 6th c. B.C., followed in the same course, and uttered a variety of sayings or short
maxims, of which the most ordinary subjects were "the uncertainty of human things,
the brevity of life, the unhappiness of the poor, the blessing of friendship, the sanctity
of an oath, the force of necessity," etc., together with the simple rule's of prudence. The
most celebrated saying of this age was the Delphian inscription (of uncertain authorship),
"Know thyself." The teaching of the Sophists made another stage in the history of
moral philosophy. They opened up discussions on virtue, on justice, on the laws, and
on happiness; and framed hortatory addresses with a view to moral culture. Socrates
then came forward, and instituted a severe logical analysis of the meaning of ethical
terms, asking "What is piety? What is impiety? What is the noble? What the base?
What is just? What is temperance? What is madness? What is a state? What con-
stitutes the character of a citizen? What is rule over man? What makes one able to
rule?" The rigid search after strict definitions of these terms maybe said to constitute
a philosophical method in ethics, and hence Socrates is called the first moral philosopher.
He gave the impulse to Plato, his successor, -who in his turn acted upon Aristotle, and
also to the opposing sects of the Cynics and the Cyrenaics — the one affecting a hard and
ascetic life, and a proud superiority of the individual will to all outward conventions
and customs; the other avowing pleasure as the chief good, sitting loose to the irksome
duties of the citizen, and in despair of attaining happiness, sliding in apathy. The
Stoics and the Epicureans afforded a similar contrast, although differently expressed.
The Stoic ideal was a being in whom the natural impulses and desires should be ab-
solutely subjected to highly abstract views of the universe; the Epicurean ideal was a being
moving harmoniously according to natural impulses — in short, following nature up to
the limits of prudence.
The last phase of ancient philosophy is represented by Neoplatonism (q.v.), or the
Alexandrian school. In the middle ages, speculative philosophy took the form called
Scholasticism (q.v.). At the revival of learning, Descartes and Bacon led in opposite
directions, the one representing what is called cl priori philosophizing; the other, induc-
tion (q.v.). From this time, " philosophy" comes to mean more exclusively the inquiries
connected with the mind, as exemplified in the writings of Hobbes, Locke, Leibnitz,
Berkeley, Hume, Reid. Kant, etc. The qualified phrase, natural philosophy (in the
English sense), was applied to a special department of the outer world, as moral philoso-
phy was used in connection with mind and the discussion of moral duties. The chief
points in the history of modern philosophy will be found under the heads of GERMAN
PHILOSOPHY, ECLECTICISM, COMMOX SENSE, PERCEPTION, METAPHYSICS, ETHICS; and
in the notices of BERKELEY, LOCKE, HUME, REID, KANT, HEGEL, FICHTE, COUSIN,
HAMILTON, etc.
PHILOSOPHY, MORAL. See ETHICS, ante.
Philostratus. ft 4 A
Phlegtimsia.
PHILOS TEATUS, THE ELDER, of Lemnos, a famous Greek Sophist and rhetorician,
was born probably about 170-80 A.D., studied under Produs at Athens, and finally
established himself' at Rome, where he became a member of the brilliant and learned
circle that gathered round the "philosophic" Julia Domna, wife of Severus. He was
alive, according to Suidas, in the time of the emperor Philip (244-49). He is the author
of a number of works still extant, and not without value on account of their matter,
although the style and arrangement are faulty. Among them are a life of Apollonius
(q.v.) of Tyana, a description of a collection of paintings at Naples under tlie title of
Imagine*, biographies of a number of sophists, lit rtfica, Letters, etc. There are complete
editions of his works by .Morel (Paris, 1008); Olearius (Lcip. 1709); and Kayser (Zur.
1844, ct seq.), of which the last is by far the most correct and critical. — PIIILOSTRATUB
the Younger, called Philostratus the Lemnian, also a teacher of elocution, was an int:
mate friend, perhaps a relative of the former, but nothing is known with certainty
regarding him. *
PHIL TEE, PHILTRE (Gr. philtron, love-charm, love-potion). A superstitious belief
in the eth'cacy of certain artificial means of inspiring and securing love, seems to have
been generally prevalent from very early times; and among the Greeks and Romans
(among the latter in the later days of the republic, and under the emperors), hue-charms,
and especially love-potions, were in continual use. It is not certainly known of what
these love-potions were composed — nor can we rely entirely on the details given us on
this subject by classic writers, and their commentators in later time — but then; is no
doubt that certain poisonous or deleterious herbs and drugs were among their chief
ingredients, to which other substances, animal as well as vegetable, are said to have been
added, coupled with the employment of magic rites. Thcs^aly had the credit of pro-
ducing the most potent herbs, and her people were notorious as the most skillful prac-
ticers of magic arts, whence the Well-known "Thessaly philtra" of Juvenal (vi. 610).
These potions were violent and dangerous in operation, and their use resulted often in
the weakening of the mental powers, madness, and death, instead of the purpose for
which they were intended. Lucretius is said to have been driven mad by a love potion,
and to have died by his own hand in consequence — though the story does not perhaps
rest on sufficient authority; and 'the madness of the emperor Caligula was attributed by
some persons to love-potions given him by his wife Caesonia — by which also she is said to
have preserved his attachment till the end of his life. In the corrupt and licentious days
of the Roman empire, the manufacture of love-charms of all kinds seems to havi
carried on as a regular trade; the purchasers, if not the makers of them, being chiefly
\vomeu. The use of philters seems to have been not unknown during the middl<
and in the east, the nurse of superstition of all kinds', belief in the power of love-potions
lingers probably down to the present day.
PHIPS, or PHIPPS, Sir WILLIAM, 1651-95. b. Maine, removed to Boston in 1673.
He was one of 21 sons, and 26 children by the same parents; was at first a shepherd, and
then a ship-carpenter's apprentice, and di'd not learn tc read and write till after he came
to Boston. In 1684 he visited England, and secured from the British admiralty a ship.
•with which he attempted to recover the treasure of a Spanish vessel sunk near the IJaha-
naas. His first attempt was unsuccessful; but on a second voyage at the expense of the
duke of Albermarle, he recovered £300,000. He received £16,000 himself, was knighted,
and appointed high sheriff of New England. In 1690 he commanded the expedition
which captured Port Royal, and the unsuccessful expedition against Quebec. Through
the influence of the Massachusetts agent in England, Increase Mather, to whose father's
church he belonged, he was made capt.gen. and governor of the colony in 1692. He was
a zealous Puritan, and assisted his pastor, Cotton Mather, in the witchcraft persecutions,
but his last official act was to pardon all persons accused or convicted of witdicraft . I !e
died in England, where he had been summoned on account of some accusations against
him.
PHLEBENTERISM is a term invented by De Quatrefages to designate an anatomical
arrangement, existing, as he supposed, in certain of the nudibrancbiate mollusks. and
characterized by ramified prolongations of the digestive tube, in virtue of which the
digestive apparatus, to a certain extent, supplies the place of a complete circulatory
apparatus, find aids in the process of respiration. The researches of Alder and Han
cock, and other zoologists, seem, however, to show that in these animals the circulation
is as complete as in the gasteropodous mollusks generally, and that these ramified pro-
longations are of the nature of a rudimentary liver. For further information or. this
subject, the reader is referred to De Quatrefages's Rambles of a Naturalist, vol. i. pp.
848-353.
PHLEBITIS, or INFLAMMATION OF THE VEINS (Gr. phleb», a vein), although seldom
an original or idiopathic disease, is a frequent sequence of wounds, in which case it is
termed traumatic phlebitis (from the Greek trauma, a wound), and is not uncommon
after delivery. The disease is indicated by great tenderness and pain along the course
of the affected vessel, which feels like a hard knotted cord, and rolls under the fi:
The hardness is, however, sometimes obscured by the swelling of the limb beyond and
about the seat of the disorder, partly in consequence of the effusion of serum caused by
tiie obstruction to the return to the venous blood (which thus gives rise to a local dropsy),
Pliilostraftns.
Phlegmasia.
and partly in consequence of the propagation of the inflammation to the surrounding
tissues. The inner surface of the inflamed vessel is supposed to throw out tibriuous
fluid, which coagulates in layers, and finally closes the tube. If the vessel is small, the
consequences of its obstruction may be of little importance, but when a large vein is
affected, the consequences are always dangerous, and may 'be fatal.
There are two modes of recovery: solution of the coagulated fibrine may take place,
and the vessel may again become pervious; or, as is more commonly the case, the
obstruction may continue, but a collateral venus circulation may be established, and the
circulation thus carried on through a circuitous route. With the return of the circula-
tion— in whichever of these two ways it is accomplished — the swelling subsides, and the
patient gradually recovers. If, however, the disease advances, suppuration takes place
within the coagulum, and one of two things happens; either abscesses are formed along
the vein, or the pus gets into the current of blood and contaminates the circulation,
giving rise to the perilous disease known as py(eriia(q.v.). Either condition is dangerous;
the latter pre-eminently so.
Phlebitis generally originates in some local injury of a vein, and the inflammation,
when once established, is readily propagated along the course of tLe vessel. Sometimes
very slight injuries give rise to it. It occasionally occurs after venesection, especially
with a dull lancat, or one soiled by contact with diseased matter. "Women, are peculiarly
liable to this disease after delivery, as the veins of the womb are apt to become
inflamed, and to communicate the inflammation to the venous trunks connected with
them. See PiiLEGMAsr.-v.
There is considerable difference of opinion as to the treatment to be pursued; some
high authorities (Dr. Wood, for example) recommending " the very free use of leeches
along the affected vein," and that they " should be repeated over and over again if the
symptoms of inflammation should persevere," the subsequent application of cold lotions,
and the internal use of mercury " pushed to a moderate salivation;" wrhile others question
the utility of such treatment, and recommend "rest, warm fomentations, and poultices,
early incision of abscesses, evacution of bile and feces by one or two doses of calomel,
opium to relieve pain and insure quiet of mind and body, and wine, especially if there
has been great loss of blood." — Druitt's Surgeon's Vade Mecum, 8th ed. p. 326. The
latter is in most cases the preferable mode of treatment. During convalescense, the
patient must be satisfied if the swelling goes down slowly. Time is required for the
enlargement of the vein-; by which the collateral circulation is to ba carried on, and active
counter-irritation, such as the application of ointments of iodine or mercury, if employed
incautiously, frequently does harm by increasing the inflammation, With care, how-
ever, they are useful appliances; and if, after giving them a fair trial, much swelling
should remain, the practitioner must have recourse to carefully regulated bandaging, anil
the use of diuretics.
PHLEB'OLITES (Gr. phlebs, a vein, and litlios, a stone) are calcareous concretions
formed by the degeneration of coagulations in veins, or occasionally originating in the
coats of the vessel. They are seldom detected till after death, although cases are on record
in which, occurring in subcutaneous^ veins, they have given rise to external tumors of
considerable size.
PHLEBOT OMY. ' See BLEEDING.
PHLE GETHQJT, i.e., the Flaming, a river of the infernal regions, whose waves rolled
torrents of fire. Nothing would grow on its scorched and desolate shores. After a course
contrary to the Cocytus (q.v.), it discharged itself, like the latter stream, into the lake of
Acheron.
PHLEGMA'SIA, AL'BA DO'LENS, or MILK-LEG, is a disease which is most common in
women after parturition, especially if they have lost much blood, but sometimes occurrs
in unmarried women, and occasionally in males. It usually commences about a week or
ten days after delivery with a feeling of pain in the loins or lo\yer part of the abdomen,
Whence it extends to the groin and down the thigh and leg. The pain soon becomes
very severe; and principally follows the course'of the internal cutaneous and crural
nerve of the thigh and of the posterior tibial in the leg. The limb soon begins to swell,
and in the course of a couple of days is sometimes twice its ordinary size, and as the
welling develops itself, the acuteness of the pain considerably diminishes. The limb is
partly flexed, and lies motionless; any movement aggravates the pain. The swelling
extends uniformly over the liinb, which is pale and shining, and hot and firm to the
touch, seldom pitting on pressure. The femoral vein may usully be felt like a hard cord,
and this symptom, taken with the swelling, clearly indicates that this affection is essen-
tially crural phle.biti.i. The uniformity of the cord is interrupted by nodules, arising
cither from inflamed cellular tissue, or from clots within the vein. 'Both legs are
seldom attacked at the same time, and the left thigh is the most common seat of the
disease.
This affection usually terminates favorably, the acute symptoms disappearing in about
ten days or a fortnight. The swelling, however, often continues for a long time, and
sometimes lasts for life. Very differenc opinions have been held regarding the nature of
this disease. At one time it was considered as the result of metastatic secretion of milk
(or, in other words, as due to the milk leaving the breast, and settling in the thigh, and
Fhlenra.
Phoenix.
hence the term milk leg. There Is now no doubt that the disease is inflammation origin-
ating in the veins of the womb, and extending to thoso of the lower extremity. The
treatment is the same as for phlebitis (q.v.) generally. Warm poppy fomentations, or
bran poultices sprinkled \villi laudanum, may be applied externally at the beginning of
the attack, after which flannel saturated with a liniment, composed of one part of laudanum
to two parts of soap liniment, may be applied round the limb in the form of a bandage,
applied not so lightly as to occasion pain. If neces.-ary, ihc bowels must be gently
opened with castor oil, and opium giv.en to allay pain and induce sleep.
PHLE'UM. See TIMOTHY GRASS.
PHLOGISTON (Gr. comlutilbk) was the term employed by Stahl, professor at Halle, in
his SSymotedinia Fundamentalis, 1697, to designate a hypothetical element which by com-
bining with a body rendered it combustible, and wnich occasioned combustion by iis (its-
engagement, there being left after its evolution either an acid or an earth. " In the
above-named work he maintains that the processes of obtaining sulphur from sulphuric
acid, and of procuring the metals from their earths or calccn, are analogous, and c
alike in the addition of his phlogiston. Thus sulphur, according To the phl>.gi.-tic
theory — which held undivided sway in chemistry until the time of Lavoisier, who sub-
stituted for it the theory of oxygenation (1775-81), and was maintained by a few
chemists, especially Priestley, till the beginning of the present century — was co
of sulphuric acid and phlogiston; lead, of the adx of lead and phlogiston, etc. In con-
sequence of the general adoption of the phlogistic theory, when Priestley, in 177-1, dis-
covered oxygen, and when Scheele a little later discovered chlorine, the names these
chemists gave to their discoveries were dephlogixliaited air and ((( />/i?<>f/i:'!{<-<r(< <! .
acid. According to modern views, mainly based on Lavoisier's experiments, the mldi-
tion of oxygen takes place in the formation of acids And of earths, instead of the nub-
traction of phlogiston. The question whether the process was, in fact, one of addition
or subtraction, was finally decided by the balance, an instrument to which chemistry
owes most of its marvelous progress during the last three-quarters of a century.
PHLOX, a genus of plants of the natural order pokmonwcece, distinguished by a pris-
matic calyx, salver-shaped corolla, and unequal filaments. The species are prcity
numerous, mostly perennial plants with simple leaves, and mostly nnlives of North
America. A number of species are common in our flower-gardens. This has of late
become a favorite genus with florists, and many very fine varieties Lave been pro-
duced.
PHO'BEROS, a gemis of trees of thenatur.il order 'fittconrliacecp. or li.rnc'rr, of which
one species, P. mnndtii, the kiipjoorn of the Dutch colonists of South Africa, although
only 20 to 30 ft. high, attains a diameter of 3 ft. or more, and is very useful for the pur-
poses of wagon-makers and house-carpenters, the wood being hard and fine-grained;
another South African species, P. ecldonii, the roodp cr of the colonists, has a hard, heavy,
and fine-grained wood, used by cabinet-makers, mil'.-wrights, etc.
PHOC^EA, a t. in Asia Minor, s.w. of Cyma, founded by colonists from Phocis, nnd
afterward included in the Ionian confederacy. <It was one of the principal Asiatic
ports, but lost much of its importance under the Persians, who captured it in the time
of Cyrus. A portion of the inhabitants then sailed for Corsica, where they founded a
colony called Alalia. The Phocseans were the foundcrstof Massilia and other ports on
the Mediterranean.
PHOCJE NA. See PORPOISE.
PHO CAS, emperor of Constantinople (60.3-10), was a Cappndocian by birth, and was
for some time groom to Priscus, one of the celebrated generals of the emperor Mauricius
(q.v.) His brutal courage gained him a great reputation among the soldiers, and though
only a centurion at the time of the revolt against Mauricius. he was elevated to the
throne by the soldiers. To secure himself, he paused Mauricius to be murdered, along
with his five sons and his principal adherents; and then, by a treaty disgraceful to the
empire, got rid of the Avars. But his troubles were just commencing, for Khusru II.
(q.v.), shah of Persia, hearing of the death of his friend and benefactor, Mauricius. an
event which freed him from the obligation of amity with the eastern empire, took up
arms to revenge his friend's murder, and to recover for Persia all the territories previ-
ously under her sway. The war was fiercely carried on for 24 years, during the first 18
of which the Persian army was uniformly success! ul. and the Byzantines were almost
•completely driven out of Asia. Sec Knusiiu II. and HEHACT.IUS. Phocas remained in
the capital to overawe his turbulent subjects, conscious of his unfit ness to command the
tanny; and abandoned himself to his animal appetites, tyrannizing over the people wilh-
Vout the least regard to justice, and putting to death whomsoever he thought dangerous
'.among others Karses, the celebrated gen. in the former Persian war. Constanlina. the
•»'idow of Mauricius, excited against the tyrant two formidable insurrections, the latter
in 607, but. both were speedily quelled, and the ex-empress with her daughters were
beheaded on the same spot where her husband and sons had been slain. Her principal
adherents, some of whom were among the highest officers of state, suffered' death under
the most horrible tortures. These cruelties and the successes of the Persians had wcil
nigh ruined Phocas's power and influence. But he gave the coup de grace, to it himself
ft JO PMeum.
by insulting his favorite and son-in-law, Crispus, who had remonstrated with him on his
conduct. Crispus revenged himself by forming a conspiracy against him, j'.'.ong "with.
Heraclius, exarch of Africa, the result of which was the overthrow of the tyrant, who
was taken prisoner (Oct. 3, 610). After being insulted and tortured he was beheaded,
and his body dragged through the streets by the rnob.
PHO CID.E. See SEAL.
PHO CION (Gr. Phokiuri), an Athenian gen. of noble and unselfish character, was b.
about the end of the 5th c. B.C. Clinton, in his Fasti Hdlenici, gives the date 402 B.C.
He was of humble origin, but appears to have enjoyed a superior education, and to have
studied under Plato; Xenocrates, and perhaps Diogenes also, from the last of whom he
may have acquired his habit of indulging in caustic sarcasm. Phocion first attracted
notice in the great sea-fight at Naxos (376), where he commanded a division of the Athe-
nian fleet, and materially helped to secure the victory for his countrymen. Strange to
say, however, we scarcely hear of him again for more than 20 years; but in 851, along
with Evagoras, he undertook the conquest of Cyprus for the Persian monarch, Arta-
xerxes III. (Ochus), and was completely successful. About the same time, but the exact
date is uncertain, he led an Athenian expedition into the island of Eubcea, where Philip
of Macedon was intriguing, and inflicted a severe defeat on that powerful sovereign at
Tamynse. In 341 he was again successful in crushing the Macedonian party in Euboea,
and in restoring the ascendency of Athens. Two years before this he had achieved a
similar result at Megara; and in 340, when sent to the aid of the Byzantines against
Philip, lie acted with so much prudence and tact, and inspired the citizens with so much
zeal and courage, that Philip was forced to abandon the siege, and even to evacuate the
Chersouesus, while Phocioii captured several of his ships and coast-garrisons, besides
making havoc of a good deal of the Macedonian territory. Nevertheless, with just
appreciation of the real weakness of Greece proper, and of the strength o!' Macedon, he
advocated, even in the midst of his triumphs, pacific views and the establishment of
Letter relations with the enemy. His advice was not taken; but the fatal battle of C'hje-
ronea, only two years afterward, in which the independence of the Greek republics was
lost forever, proved its soundness. The murder of Philip, in 336, occasioned the great-
est exultation, and Demosthenes even proposed a public sacrifice of thanksgiving and
the establishment of religious honors to the memory of the assassin, but Phocion resisted
and prevented so monstrous a proposal. Henceforth his career is chiefly political. We
see him struggling at Athens to repress what appeared to him the reckless desire for war
on the part of the fanatical patriots, on account of which he was regarded as a traitor,
hut his personal honor is above suspicion. After the death of Alexander in 323, the aged
Phocion endeavored, but in vain, to hinder the Athenians from going to war with Anti-
pater: The battle cf Cranon, next year, which prostrated his countrymen, again evinced
the wisdom of his counsels; but though very unhandsomely treated by the Athenians,
he used all his influence with the conqueror (who like Alexander had a profound respect •
for him) to mitigate their hardships. After the death of Antipaler, Phocion w^s
involved in the intrigues of Cassauder, the rival of Polysperchon, and was forced to fee
to Phocis, where Polysperchon delivered him up to the Athenians. He was condemned
by "a mixed mob of disfranchised citizens, foreigners, and slaves" to drink hemlock.
His body, flung unburied over the borders of the state, was carried by some of his
friends to Lleusis and burned, there. The Athenians soon began to raise monuments to
his memory. His life has been written by Plutarch and Cornelius Nepos.
PHO'CIS (Gr. Phokis), a province of Greece proper or Hellas, bounded on the w. by
the Ozolian Lokri, on the n. by Doris, ou the e. by the Opuntian Lokri, and on the s.
by the gulf of Corinth. It was about 792 sq.m. in extent. The greater part of the
country is occupied by the famous mountain-range of Parnassus (q.v.). The principal
river is the Cephissus. According to tradition, the most ancient inhabitants were the
Leleges. Pelasgians, and Thracians, from the gradual mixture of whom the Phociana
were believed To have arisen. These were finally united into a free federal state, which
derives its chief historical importance from possessing the famous oracle of Delphi (q.v.).
During the Peloponnesian war the Phocians were close allies of the Athenians. In ;i;e
time of Philip of Macedon they were involved in a ten years' war, on account of tl.eir
opposition to a degree of the Amphictyonic council concerning the use of a piece of
land belonging to the temple of Delphi! This war, commonly known as the sacred or
Phocian war, ended disastrously for the Phociaus, the whole of whose cities (22 in
number) were destroyed, with one exception, and the inhabitants parceled out among
the hamlets.
PH CERE-BIRD. See PEWEE.
PHOS'BUS (i.e., the bright or radiant), a title, and subsequently a name of Apollo.
It had reference both to the youthful beauty of the god and to the radiance of the sun,
•when latterly Apollo became' identified with Helios, the sun-god.
PHCENTCIA. See PIIENICIA, ante.
PHffiNICOP TERUS.. See FLAMINGO.
PH(ENIX. See DATE PALM and PALMS.
Phomlxvllle.
Phonetic.
PITfKXTXYILLE. n borough of Sehuylkill township, Chester co.. Penn., at the
junction of French crook and tin- Srlmykill river, 28 m. n.\v. of Philadelphia and oO
in. s.o. of Reading; a station on the Philadelphia and Heading, and the Pickering Valley
railroads; pop. '70, 5,292; since greatly increased. The Phu-nix iron works arc said to
be the largest in the country. There arc also cotton mills. There are 2 newspapers,
3 hanks, a seminary, and many churches and schools.
PHO LAS, a genus of lamellibram hiate mollusks. of the family pholadidae.. This family,
to which the ship-worm (tcr«lo ixiculi*) also belongs has the shell gaping at both ends,
thin, white, very hard, sometimes with accessory valves; the 1\vo principal valves besot/
with calcareous inequalities, connected by line trai^vcrse parallel ridges, forming a kind
of rasp, used by the animal for boring a hole in rock, wood, or other substance, in which
it lives. The animal itself is either club-shaped (as in j/finfiiK) or worm shaped (as in
teredo), with large, long siphons, often united almost to the end, and a. >hort foot. Several
species are natives of the British coasts. They are popularly* called I'vldorl;*. They arc
used for bait, and also for food. How the pholades or pillocks excavate the holes in
which they live, sometimes in clay or mud, but often in chalk, and even in much harder
rocks, has been the subject of much dispute. An excavating instrument armed with
siliceous particles, has been ascribed to the animal, but no such instrument exisi.s. The
shell is studded with projections, in regular rows, giving it the character of a rasp or tile;
and the pholas fixing itself firmly by its foot, which acts as a sucker, and working itself
from side to side, makes use of the; rasping power of its shell to enlarge it- hole as it
has need, so that the hole is always very exactly accommodated to the size of the
occupant.
PHONETIC WRITING is the representation of speech by means of symbols for the
elementary sounds of language. All alphabetic Writing is essentially phonetic. The
invention of letters was the invention of phonetic writing, as distinguished from the
older pictorial, or Ideographic, writing. From a variety of causes, however, no language
has ever been perfectly represented by its spelling, and with the lapse of time the diver-
gence has gone on increasing, since the spoken words are constantly undergoing change,
while the spelling tends to remain fixed. In English, more especially, this dive;
has been allowed to proceed to such an extreme that it is admitted on all hands to be a
serious evil, and in recent times various schemes have been projected to remedy it. It
is to these schemes of radically reformed spelling that the name of phonetic writing is
now more especially applied ; and what follows, represents the views and arguments of
the promoters of the movement, and sketches its history.
The earliest attempts at alphabetic writing were as strictly phonetic as the limited
scheme of symbols allowed, or as the limited aim of writers required. Th" alphabets
were confined almost exclusively to consonants; and the analysis of speech on which
. they were based was of course confined to the languages fot which the alphabets wore
designed. When any old alphabet, therefore, came to be adopted for a new language
or dialect, it would be found deficient in the means of writing any sounds which were
not used in the language for which the alphabet was originally intended. Unless, then,
new symbols were added for the new sounds, these latter /mist have been represented by
conventional combinations of letters; and at this point the writing would cease to be
perfectly phonetic.
The Sanskrit language furnishes the most convincing proof of the original phonetic
character of alphabetic writing; for not only were words written exactly as they were
sounded, but every change which a word underwent in utterance was consistently in !i-
cated by a change in the writing. Notwithstanding this fact, there is no language in
which the etymological and grammatical relations of words are more clearly exhibited or
easily traced than in Sanskrit. Our own language illustrates the same principle. Xo
difficulty is experienced in discovering the relation between /^c/and !<><t >•>•*, irif, and ir.
notwithstanding the change of/into v in the plural; nor would any difficulty be created
though the s also were changed, as it is in sound, and the words written as they are
pronounced — lovz ,wlvz.
The English language embraces in its dialects almost all the elementary sounds of
all languages; and the Latin alphabet, which was adopted for its writing, was so insuffi-
cient in the number of its characters, that many new letters would have been required to
adopt it for the representation of Anglo-Saxon and other words. But, in place of being
extended, the alphabet was reverentially accepted with all its imperfections, its
I deficiencies were supplemented by Ihc use of servile or silent letters, and by various
orthographical expedients; and thus our writing came to be irregular, difficult, and
fluctuating. The great inconvenience, however, of representing by the same charact-r
the sounds of U and V led to the introduction of the former as a new letter for tha
vowel sound, and to the limitation of the latter character to the consonant sound ; and
the further ambiguity arising from the want of an appropriate sign for the sound of W
led to the invention of that symbol, which, being formed by joining together two of the
old V characters, was thence called " double V" — pronounced, according to the old
sound of V, " double U." The phonetic principle was fully recogni/.ed in these changes,
and they furnish precedent for further changes, when a necessity for them shall be sulli'
ciently felt and acknowledged.
Phoenixvtlie.
Phonetic.
There can be no doun- that phonetic writing would greatly facililatc the acquisition
of the power of reading, and consequently of the education of children and illiterate
adults, as \veli as tend to the reduction of dialects to one common standard, and
further the diffusion of our language in foreign countries. To learn to read from
perfectly phonetic characters would be merely to learn the alphabet, uiid to spell would
be merely to analyze pronunciation. A child at school might be made a fluent reader in
a few weeks. All uncertainty of pronunciation«would vanish at the sight of a word, and
dictionaries oi pronunciation would be superfluous.
Cf all the languages which employ the Latin alphabet, the English is the worst repre-
sented; in some measure because of the rich variety of its phonic elements, but chiefly
because, of all the nations which have adopted Latin letters, the English have done least
to make their writing phonetic. Every attempt to correct the anomalies of our
orthography has roused a host of prejudices, against which the efforts of private indi-
viduals have been powerless. The difference between phoneticians and their opponents
seems to be a fundamental difference as to what really constitutes a word. The former,
maintaining the sound to be the true word, would discard all associations dependent on
letters, in order to represent the exact sound in the simplest manner; the latter, clinging
to the literal associations of orthography, argue as if the verbal cluster of letters in reality
constituted the word. The dispute is thus, in effect, between letters and sounds, which
are the signs — which the thing signified?
In phonetic writing, the eye would no doubt confound such words as know and no,
see and sea, sighs and size, when written separately, as in a vocabulary; but, it cannot be
supposed that such words would present more ambiguity in contextual usage than they
now do in utterance, subject to the same confusion to the ear. At present we have, in
fact, two languages — one purely phonic, addressed to the ear; and the other, in some
degree etymological or historical, addressed to the eye. In this respect, we are in a
similar position to the Chinese, with their classical ideographic language of literature,
and their multitudinous vernacular dialects. In order to establish the assertion, that the
phonic word (the sound) written phonetically in a sentence would be less intelligible to
the eye than the written word in its present form, it is incumbent on the opponents of
phonertcism to show that the simple phonic word is now less intelligible when pro-
nounced in a sentence, than its written symbol is when read in a sentence.
The principal objection urged against phonetic writing is, that it Avould obscure the
etymological history now discoverable in the orthography of a word. The best answer
to this objection is that the traces of etymology, preserved in the present spelling, are so
imperfect and inconsistent as to be of little value compared with the embarrassments
they occasion in other respects.
The first requisite for the construction of a phonetic alphabet is an exact knowledge
of elementary sounds, that every element may be provided with its appropriate symbol,
and that no more symbol* may be introduced' than there are distinct elementary sounds.
The latter consideration would be of importance only in connection with a general alpha-
bet available for all languages. An alphabet for any individual language might contain
symbols for compound sounds, with no other disadvantage than that of adding to the
number of symbols. It would not, for instance, be oi? any consequence, so far as pho-
netic writing is concerned, whether the word sa-cks were represented \>y the letters safes,
sacs, or sax, so that the symbols used were invariably appropriated to the same sounds.
Orthoepists and phoneticians are not agreed ss to what elements compose many of our
compound sounds, such as those heard in the words chair, queen, tune, I, out, etc. Any
attempt, therefore, at representing compounds analytically would be premature, until
the analysis c; the compounds had been settled. This analysis would be absolutely
necessary for a general alphabet, but not so for an alphabet for any single language.
Phonetic writing, then, should be separately considered, as a means of representing the
elementary sounds of all languages, and as a method of symbolizing the pronunciation
of any one language only. We shall now show the nature of the attempts that have
been made for the phonetic writing of English.
Dr. Franklin, in 1768, proposed a phonetic alphabet for English, in which new sym-
bols were introduced for the vowels heard in the words on and tip, and the four conso-
nants heard in the words die, tliey, and thing. Many oth£r schemes have been from time to
time proposed , but the only alphabets which have been practically applied on a large
scale are those of Dr. Comstock in America, and Messrs. Ellis and Pitman in England.
The object of experimenters' in this department has generally been to make use of exist-
ing letters as far as possible, and only to supplement deficiencies by new forms. The com-
mon alphabet has been made to furnish almost a sufficient number of characters by the
inversion of some of its letters — thus, A, K, v, o, e, ft, q, etc , as in the "antf-absurd"
alphabet of maj. Beuiowski; but the best scheme of phonptypes that has yet been intro-
duced was the joint production of Mr. Isaac Pitman, the inventor of the first system of
phonetic shorthand writing, and Mr. A. .1. Ellis, B.A. of Cambridge, a most accom-
plished mathematician and linguist. This alphabet was completed in 1847; and the
experiment of its introduction was carried out with great diligence and perseverance by
its promoters, until an army of philanthropic assistants became enlisted in all parts of
Great Britain and America, Primers and school-books were issued, and tested on juve-
nile and adult classes; many works of standard literature, aud even the entire Bible,
Phonograph.
•were translated into the now spelling; magazines were published, and ultimately a news-
paper, printed in the phonetic character, was started by the ei.'r/rprising orthographic
reformer:?, in this scheme (if phonotypes, dipthongal and articulate compounds were
not analysed, and the letters of the ordinary alphabet were retained in their mo.-t com-
mon signification, IT new characters being introduced for unrepresented or ambiguously
written sounds. The forms of these were, in mo.-t ca.scs, happily suggestive of the dis-
placed orthography, and the general aspect of the writing bore such a n-.-cmnlar.ee to
common typography, that any good reader of the latter could decipher the i.ew printing
with case, after a very brief study of the alphabet. The ordinary vowel letters (A. E, 1,
O, U) were pronounced as ill the words ,t,/i. ill, •</. ,>/>, up; the consonants C and G were
sounded as in rui/i,- and yumc; the letters K. Q, X were rejected as superfluous, and all
the Other letters of the common alphabet were retained, with their c.-tablished sounds.
Comp.iriner 'his scheme of letters with the tabulated elementary sounds of English, we
find tiiat U represents all the vowels, except the nice varieties heard in the words nir,
on. ti-r, a*/,-; and Unit all the consonants are accurately represented except irh. The
latter element is written by letters sounding hoo, so that the words irln n and «•/«.< Y/- are
made identical to the eye; and the sentence, "I saw the man tc/ict the knife," is written,
" I saw the man who ate the knife."
Notwithstanding these imperfections, this alphabet was found to work well among
those who were disposed for a reform. The phonetic method was proved to be remark-
ably simple and easy in comparison with the culinary >ystcm; the lime occupied in
making fluent readers was greatly reduced; and readers of phonetic printing experienced
but little dhTiculty in the transition to reading from common orthography.
The advantages claimed for the system were chiefly: rapidity of learning to read,
certainty of pronunciation, and increased facility in common reading, after the power of
phonetic reading had been acquired. The chief disadvantages alleged against the
system were: accustoming the eye to a false orthography, and teaching what had to
be in great part unlearned after it was acquired. Whether the objectors were right or
•wrong, they were overpoweringly numerous, and the system failed to do more than
prove that phonetic spoiling greatly simplifies the acquisition of the power of reading.
The original phonotypic alphabet, described above, has been for s.>mr years dis-
carded in the printing issued from the "phonetic institution" (Bath), and a more analy-
tic alphabet has been adopted, in which derm, instead of seventeen, new forms are
introduced. The latest edition of this alphabet gives the ordinary vowel letli r- A. V.. I,
O for the sounds in the words am, ell. ill, on, and the letter U for the sound in j>nll; K is
restored, and C rejected; J is used as in French; and the elementary sound of irli is still
unacknowledged. The 11 new characters represent the consonants in the words the, oath,
they, and (*)inff; and the vowels in the words ale, eel, alms, old, all. pool, up.
The following are the forms of the new letters as printed and written, with a passage
exhibiting their appearance in composition :
VOWELS.
Q. c S e '!< a — O o, CT cr, UJ ta — ~8 *
alms, age, air, cot - oil, ope, , food — son, but.
cmz, edj, er, at - ol, op, ftud - ssu,b«i
DIPHTHONGS. CONSONANTS.
ci, ei, 01, ou.
w et at ou
".?• bjr, boy, noir
ei, bci, boi, nou.
C q, R 6, 3 d,
tlt'e, Mia, tten, einj.
gj, ftin, den, sir).
Tho double letter «, as in unit, unite, duty, value, a
written thus: " vomit, yuneit, diuiti, valiu." Whenn«,oi,
make a t.':s.-i-;^[&ic diphthong, tha second letter is marked
with a discresis ; thus, solfaiy, scng.
" 'Tiz do meind flat meks dc bodi ritq ;
and az <le ssn brcks ftrui lie darkest kloudz,
scr onor 'pirt^ in dc minest habit.
\ Hwot ! Ji i* de dje mar proqss dan fie lark,
bikoz his fedcrz ar mcrr biuitifal;
or "! iz de ader bcter dan do il,
bikoz hiz pcnted skin kontcnts <!e of.
O1 ner, gud Ket ; neider art dou do wyr*
for dia puir fsrnitiur and nun arc."
This phonetic alphabet consists of 34 letters, viz., the 23 useful letters of the common
alphabet (c, q, and x being rejected), and 11 new ones below, «/is used for the French^'
Phonograph.
(zli), or ff in " ed.'/c," or s in " vision ;" hence dj represents J in John, and dg in ofy.". 7f
(t sh) represents ch in chess, and to7/ in catch, /and ?e are consonants; w/i being replaced
by Aw. The vowels ft, e, <, 0, u have invariably the short sounds beard in pat, pet, pit, jmf,
put. All the other old letters have their usual signification. The italic letters in the
words in the third line denote the SOUNDS of the letters.
The reduction in the number of letters from that in the Ellis and Pitman alphabet is
obtained chiefly at the expense of the phonetic principle, in the attempt to analyze diph-
thongs in writing, before their correct phonic analysis has been ascertained and settled.
A method has been proposed by Mr. Bell, in which the advantages of phonetic-ism might
be secured, so far as simplifying- the acquisition of reading is concerned, without alpha-
betic change. Thus the orthography and sound are shown together when the words
loaf, debt, wife, wreath, straight, etc., are primed loaf, debt, wife, wre'Hh, struct, etc.
But the question recurs: Why should established orthography be unphonetic? Or, at
least, why should not some national measures be adopted to correct the anomalies of out
spelling ? A similar-work was undertaken by the Spanish {icademj'in the middle of last
century, and carried out so efficiently that, at the present day, the prouounciationof any
word in Spanish is immediately determined with certainty by every reader who merely
knows the phonetic value of the alphabetic characters. The writing of the Italian, Du-tch,
and many other languages lias also been successful!}- phoneticized. A similar result
would be attained in English, if the work of orthographic revision were submitted to a
competent tribunal, and if such changes as might be found necessary were duly sanc-
tioned by authority. New letters should be added to the alphabet frr the six unrepre-
sented simple consonant sounds, Sh, Zli, Th, Dh, Wh, Ng; or, at ali events, the writing
of these elements should be made distinctive; and, with a few rules for distinguishing
the vowel sounds, little alteration of spelling would be needed to approximate the writ-
ing of English to phonetic accuracy.
A general phonet-ic alphabet, available for the writing of all the sounds of human
speech, is still a scientific desideratum. Such an alphabet would be of great\ practical
value to travelers, colonists, missionaries, and philologists. Much attention has been
paid to this subject of late years. In 1854 a conference of philologists was held in London,
at which two rival alphabets were produced, one by professor Lepsius of Berlin, and
another by professor Max Mailer of Oxford. The former has been adopted by the church
missionary society, but so many local diversities in the value of the characters have been
found necessary in different countries, that this "universal alphabet" has been practi-
cally split up iuto several alphabets. The writing is, besides, overladen with diacritical
points. In the alphabet of professor Max Milller, the latter difficulty is obviated by a free
use of compound letters. The Lectures on the Science of Language by this author maybe
consulted with great advantage, both as to the physiology of speech and the history of
words. In the second series of these lectures, diagrams of the organic formation of many
of the elements of speech arc given, as well as a comparative table of four alphabets that
have been used in the transcription of Sanskrit, and numerous references to the works
of continental and other writers who have treated of the science of phonetics.
The most elaborate scheme of a universal alphabet hitherto published is that of Mr.
A. J. Ellis. In this alphabet 94 sounds are discriminated by means of an ingenious
system of compound letters, but the complexity of the writing forbids the possibility of
its " universal " adoption.
The chief difficulty in the construction of a universal alphabet has arisen from the
want of a complete classification of elementary sounds; another difficulty has been created
by an adherence to the inadequate letters of the Roman alphabet. The resolutions of
the alphabetic conference were decidedly in favor of Roman letters as the basis of the
proposed "standard" alphabet. But the wisdom of this decision maybe questioned.
ISIo existing alphabet exhibits the natural relations of the sounds it represents; and, con-
sequently, although an alphabet physiologically complete were framed, it could not
incorporate Roman, Greek, or any other .letters at present in use, without sacrificing the
most essential qualities of a universal alphabet — simplicity and congruity. Symbols
must be devised which would indicate to the eye all the organic relations discoverable
by the ear between the various elements, and which would be free from the associations
that would attach to adopted letters familiar to the eye.wuh other meanings. This
principle has been carried out on the system of visible speech (q.v.) by Mr. Melville Bell.
For phonetic short-hand writing, see SHORT-HAND.
PHONOGRAPH. This apparatus, invented in 1877 by Mr. Thomas A. Edison, an
American electrician of note, differs from the vibrograph and phonautograph. The
latter are constructed to record sound vibrations graphically, while Mr. Edison's inven-
tion, which is properly called the "talking phonograph," is designed to obtain such a
record that the sound vibrations resulting from articulate speech can be mechanically
reproduced at a distance of time. The invention, at the time these words are written,
is only in the experimental stage, and it has been successfully exhibited both in America
ar.d in Britain. As originally made, the instrument consisted of three parts — the sender,
the receiver or recorder, and the transcriber; but in the phonograph exhibited by pro-<
fessor Fleeming Jeukiu before the royal society of Edinburgh, the last apparatus was
dispensed with, the sender being constructed to fulfill both functions. This sender con-
Phoiioinanta.
Pho*phatic.
sists of a tube, having an open nioutli-piece at one end, and benring at the other end a
thin diaphragm of metal or other substance, with a .-harp point or style alllxed to the
(•(•liter of its outer surface. The second apparatus con>i.-ts of a cylinder, about 4 inches
in diameter, having on its periphery a V-shapcd groove out spirally from end to end.
Over this grooved cylinder a sheet of tinfoil is placed, and the sender is advanced till the
point of the style lightly touches the tinfoil, over the opening of the V-shaped cut.
\Vhile the words to be recorded are spoken or sung, the cylinder is turned rapidly, the
apparatus for moving it giving a lateral as well as a circular motion. The poiut of the
style thus traverses the tinfoil spirally from end to end, and the vibrations in the dia-
phragm caused by the sounds result iu a series of indentations in the tinfoil. To reproduce
the sounds in the " transcriber" (or in the •'sender" under profe.-.-or Jenkin's arrange-
ment), the cylinder is again presented to a style attached to a diaphragm, the style being
pressed against the tinfoil by a slight spring. The cylinder is now made to revolve, and
the motion of the style upon the inequalities in the indented tinfoil produce vibrations
in the diaphragm corresponding to the sound-caused vibrations originally created in the
instrument by the voice. The sounds are thus reproduced with mvat exactness, but with
a softening of the consonants which to some exveut alters the character of the voice. If
the. tinfoil record of sung or spoken words be sent to a distance, or kept for a length of
time, the original sounds can be reproduced on applying it to the proper instrument. It
is stated that rubbings in tinfoil can be taken from a plaster-cast of the1 original indented
slip, so that copies may be sent to different persons, all of whom can thus reproduce the
sounds so long as their tinfoil copy remains intact. In using the phonograph to repeat
sounds, the cylinder must be revolved at the same speed as at first, others i-e the pitch
will be changed. For as sound is the result of air-vibrations at known intervals, if a
speech spoken in a high key were reproduced slower at the repeating instrument, the
result would be to convert a treble voice into a bass one, or VIM cci-yd, while the lower
speed, would convert smartly spoken words into a drawl.
PHONOMA'NIA. See HOMICIDAL MANIA.
PHOS'GENE GAS, known also as OXYCHLORIDE OF CARBON or Cni.onoc.\nBoxic Acrn,
is represented by the formula COC1, or more correctly by its double (COC1)3. It is u
colorless, suffocating gas, which is formed by exposing equal measures of carbonic oxide
and chlorine to the direct action of the sun, when they combine and become condensed
into half their volume. It does not possess any acid characters, but water decomp<
into carbon:, and hydrochloric acids, as is shown by the equation (('()(:i)2-^-2HO
=2CO2-f-2H01. This' gas is of great interest in relation to the artificial production of
urea (q.v.) from inorganic matter.
PHOS'PHATES (in physiology). The following phosphates* play an active part in
the chemistry of the animal body.
Phospfmte, of soda, which may occur under any one of the three forms 3XaO,POft, oj
2XaO,HO.PO6, orXaO,2HO,P65. All these salts are soluble in water: and the first twrv
have an alkaline reaction, while the third is acid. By exposure of the second of thesft
salts (2NaO.HO,PO3) to a red heat, it is converted into what is termed pyropJw^phate »f
soda (SXaO.POs), in which the phosphoric acid is obviously no longer tribasic, but
bibasie; and by similarly treating the third of these salts (XaO,2IIO,PO5), we convert it
into the so-called metaphosphate of soda (XaO,PO5), in v.hich the phosphoric acid is
monobasic. It is in consequence of these changes under the action of heat, that tho
terms pyropliosplwric and metaphospTtoru: have been used as synonyms for ?,i'xii<>'r and
monobasic phosphoric acids. Phosphate of soda, in one or other of (he above forms,
occurs as a constituent of all the animal fluids and soft tissues of the body, but is
especially abundant in the urine and the bile. There are reasons for belk-ving that it is
the second a lid third of these salts which occur as constituents of the animal body,
although the first may possibly sometimes be found. Pyrophosphate and metaphosphate
of soda are often found in the ashes of animal fluids or tissues after the process of incin-
eration, but they merely result from the action of heat on the two other salts. The fol-
lowing remarks on the derivation, elimination, and physiological importance of the phos-
phate of soda, are equally applicable to the corresponding salts of potash, which are
always associated with them. The phosphates of the alkalies, which occur in the animal
body, obvjously owe their origin, either directly or indirectly, to the food; viz., directly,
by being ingested as phosphates of the alkalies; or indirectly (within the system, by the
action of phosphate of lime on salts of the alkalies. The elimination of these salts from
the system is necessary, because they are being constantly supplied by the food; and
this process is effected mainly by the kidneys and the intestinal canal. In the carniv-
orous animals, whose blood is much richer in phosphates than that of hcrbivora (the ash
of the blood of the dog, for example, contains from 12 to 14 per cent of phosphoric
acid, while that of the ox or sheep does not contain more than from 4 to 6). thes-e salts
are carried off by the urine; but in consequence of the formation of free acids as pro-
ducts of the disintegration of the tissues, a portion of the base is abstracted from the
originally alkaline phosphates, and corresponding portion of phosphoric acid is liberated.
jThe originally alkaline salt is thus rendered neutral or even acid; and the occurrence of
* The means of distinguishing between the -alts of tribasic, bibasie, and monobasic phosphoric
acid, are given in the article PHOSPHORUS.
f\ .-, ^ Phonomania.
Phospliatic.
tlie acid phosphate of soda, NaO,2IIO,POs, in the urine is thus explained. ID the
herbivorous animals, on the other hand, the urine contains no phosphates, the whole of
the phosphoric acid taken in their food being eliminated by the intestinal canal in the
form of the insoluble phosphates of lime and magnesia. Although the general distribu-
tion of the phosphates of the alkalies in the nutrient fluids (there is forty per cent of
them in the ash of the blood-cells; 28.4 per cent of phosphoric acid and 23.5 of potash
in the ash of cow's milk; and about 70 per cent of phosphoric acid in the ash of the
yelk of egg) is in itself an indication of their importance, the exact nature of their
functions is not completely understood. Liebig has specially drawn attention to the
peculiar grouping of the acid and alkaline fluids of the animal body. The permanence
of this grouping is chiefly maintained, especially in herbivorous animals, by the conver-
sion, within the body, of alkaline and neutral phosphates into acid phosphates by the
means already described. Moreover, all tissue-forming substances (the protein bodies)
are so closely connected with phosphates, that they remain associated during the solu-
tion and subsequent re-precipitation of these substances; and the ash of developed tissues
(such as muscle, lung, liver, etc.) always affords evidence that acid phosphates existed in
the recent tissue; and, further, no exudation frofh the blood-vessels can undergo trans-
formation into cells and fibers, or, in other words, become organized, unless, in addition
to other conditilions, phosphates are also present. Another very convincing proof of
the share taken by the phosphates in the formation and functions of the tissue, is ihe fact
that, although herbivorous animals take up a very small quantity of phosphates in their
food, and although their blood is very poor in these salts, their tissues contain as large a
proportion of phosphates as the corresponding parts of carnivora. Lastly, the fact, that
one equivalent of the alkaline phosphate of soda (2XaO,HO,PO5) possesses the property
of absorbing as much carbonic acid as two equivalents of carbonate of soda, leads us to
the belief, that the power of attracting carbonic acid, which the serum of the blood pos-
sesses, is due at least as much to the phosphate as to £he carbonate of soda, and that,
cou.-equently, phosphate of soda plays an important part in the respiratory process.
Phosphate of lime occurs in the organism in two forms, viz.. as the neutral or basic
phosphate, 3CaO,PO5, and the acid phosphate, 2CaO,HO,PO5. The neutral phos>
phate occurs in all the solids and fluids of the body, but is most abundant in the bones,
in which it amounts to about 57 per cent; and in the enamel of the teeth, in which it
ranges from 80 to 90 per cent. It may at first sight appear inexplicable how a salt so
P'-rCectly insoluble in water as neutral phosphate of lime, can be held in solution in the
animal fluids. In some fluids, as the blood, it is probably, in part at least, combined
with albumen, with which it forms a soluble compound; while in other fluids, as the
urine, it is held in solution by a free acid or by certain salts (as, for example, chloride of
sodium), whose watery solutions are more or less able to dissolve it. If any proof is
wanted of the functions of this salt in relation to the bones, it is afforded by the well-
known experiment of Chossat, who showed that when too small a quantity of it is taken
with the: food, the bones lose more or less of their hardness and firmness, and fractures
do not readily unite. Phosphate of lime, like the phosphates of the alkalies, is indis-
pensable to cell-formation; and as a good illustration of this fact, it may be mentioned
that in the mantle of the mollusks (where new cells for the formation of shell abound)
this salt is far more abundant than in any other part of the body. Although by far the
greater quantity of the phosphate of lime found in the body has doubtless pre-existed in
the food, yet it is unquestionable, that a part of it is formed within the organism by the
action of carbonate of lime on the phosphoric acid that is formed during the disintegra
tion of the phosphorus-containing tissues, such as the brain, for example. In man and
carnivorous animals, a certain portion of the phosphate of lime is eliminated by the kid-
neys, and the rest is carried off in the excrements; while in herbivorous animals thv
whole is carried off in the excrements. The acid phosphate of lime is occasionally
found in the urine of man and carnivorous animals, but is of no practical importance.
Fora notice of the amount of earthy phosphates daily eliminated by the kidneys, the
render is referred to the article URINE.
IJfif'i- PlinKitJmh' i if Miir/itcsia, 3MgO,PO6, is analogous, both in its chemical and phys,
iologieal relations, to the corresponding salt of lime, with which it is always associated.
The abundance of this salt in the seeds of the cereals, and in the other ordinary articles
of vegetable diet, sufficiently explains its presence in the system. A far less amount of
this salt than of the corresponding lime-salt seems to be required by the organism, as is
shown by the relative quantities in which they occur in bone (57 of the former to 1.3 of
the latter), and as is further indicated .by the fact that, relatively, far more of this than
of the lime-salt escapes intestinal absorption, and appears in the excrements.
The only phosphates remaining to be noticed are the phosphate of ammonia and mag-
nesia, or, as it is sometimes termed, the triple phosphate, 2MgO,NH4O,PO5 + 2Aq,
which occurs in beautiful prismatic crystals in alkaline urine, and, indeed, in any spec-
imen of urine that is beginning to putrefy, and the phosphate of soda and ammonia, which
is occasionally found as a crystalline sediment in putrid urine.
PHOSPHAT 1C DIATH'ESIS, in medicine, designates the condition in which there is a
tendency iu the urine to deposit .irJiite gravel. .As the deposit of lithates (see LITHIC ACID
DIATHESIS) depends upon an excessive acidity of the urine, so that of the phosphates is
\
Phosphor. p. "X ft
rhosphorus.
determined by the opposite condition — namely, by deficient acidity, or by positive nlka-
lescense. Alkalescence of the urine may occur from two distinct causes — viz. (1) from
tin' presence of the carbonate of a fixed alkali (potash, or soda), or of alkaline phosphate
of soda (sec Pnospir.vri:s in physiology); or (2) from the presence of the.raroonate of the
volatile alkali, ammonia, which Is due to the decomposition of urea. This decomposition
is due to the fermenting action of the mucus of the bladder on the urea, and is explained
TTrPfL Water Carbonate of
Urea. ter. Ammonia.
by the equation— C.OsNJI? -f 21IO = 2(NH,,CO,).
The white gravel which is deposited in the second of these conditions — viz., when the
urine contains carbonate of ammonia, is composed of minute shining prismatic crystals
of the triple phosphate of ammonia and magnesia, whose formula is given in the article
PHOSPHATES. This salt is formed as follows: Healihy urine contains pho>phate of mag-
nesia in a state of solution. If, however, the urine become alkaline from the decompo-
sition of the urea, a portion of the anwnonia combines with the phosphate of magnesia,
and forms the triple salt which is insoluble in the urine, which has now become alkaline.
With this triple phosphate, there is almost always an admixture of phosphate of lime
(3CaO,PO») in the form of an amorphous precipitate. The tendency to deposit the
mixed phosphates (triple phosphate and amorphous phosphate of linn-) K especially
observed incases of disease or injury of the spinal cord, and in disease of the bladder,
particularly in chronic inflammation of its mucous coat. Upon allowing urine of this
kind, which is usually pale in color, to stand for some time an iridescent film or pellicle
generally forms upon* its surface, which, when examined under the microscope, is found
to consist mainly of the salts we have described. Such urine speedily becomes putrid,
and evolves a strong ammoniacal odor.
The above is by far the most common form of the phosphatic deposits, but, ns lias
been already stated, the urine may become alkaline from the presence of the carbonate
of potash or soda; and then, no ammonia being present, in place of the triple sal!, there
is a deposition of amorphous phosphate of lime, or in rare cases, of a crystalline stellar
phosphate, whose composition, according to Dr. Bencc Jones, is represented by 2('a<). |[
O,POS (Jonrn. of Ghem. Soc. vol. 15). fn these cases the urine is alkaline, pale, copious,
slightly turbid, of low specific gravity, and of a peculiar odor. This urine make-, red-
dened litmus paper permanently blue; while ammoniacal urine causes only a temporary
change in the color of the same test-paper. As the urine cools, and sometimes even in
the bladder, the white sand is deposited, occasionally giving the last portion of the
excreted urine a milky appearance. During perfect health, the urine of ten becomes tem-
porarily alkaline during the act of digestion (when the gastric juice is especially acid) n
but as a general rule, the tendency to alkalescence from a fixed alkali, and therefore to
phosphatic deposits, is associated with general debility. These deposits occur for the
most part in sallow, languid, unhealthy-looking persons, whose vital energies have been
depressed by mental anxiety, by insufficient food, or by sexual excesses.
In both forms of alkaline urine, and therefore of phosphatic deposits, n generous diet
and tonics, such as bark, wine, and the mineral acids (given before meals), are of great
service; and opium is usually of great value, if judiciously administered. Small doses
of benzoic acid, twice or thrice a day. with the view of restoring the acidity to the urine,
and the occasional washing-out of the bladder with tepid injections, have been also found
serviceable in the ammouiacal form of the disease.
JPHOSPHOR-BROXZE, gun metal with the addition of a small proportion of phos-
phorus. Gun metal contains about 10 parts of copper to one of tin. The addition of a
little over one-half per cent of phosphorus increases the fluidity when melted of the
metal and increases its elasticity and strength on cooling. Trials at Berlin wrere made
with over 400,000 pulls on a bar of phosphor-bronze with a strain of ten tons to the sq.
in., without rupture; but an ordinary bar of bronze broke with less than 10 tons strain.
In regard to elasticity the following results have been obtained in recent Austrian exper-
imenfs. Phosphor-bronze, 54.915; Krupp's cast steel as used for guns, 14.450; ordnance
bronze, 5.563. The addition of phosphorus also confers upon copper or bronze protec-
tion against sea water.
PHOSPHORES CENCE. Strictly speaking, the term is applied to the phenomenon,
exhibited by certain bodies, of remaining luminous in the dark for some time after being
exposed to a strong light. In this sense, it is strictly analogous to, perhaps we should
say, identical with, the heating of bodies by exposure to light or radiant heat. They
absorb part of the energy of the vibrations which fall on them ; it becomes motion of
their particles; and is again radiated from them as light or heat. Certain preparations,
such as Canton's phosphorus (q.v.), indurated limestone, etc., possess this true phos-
phorescence in a very high degree. With the great majority of phosphorescent bodies,
however, the duration of the phenomenon is very short, rarely more than a small frac-
tion of a second. Becquerel, who has recently studied this phenomenon with great
care, has invented a very ingenious instrument for the purpose, called a pJiosp7tor<:-
The body to be tried is placed in a small drum, which has an opening at each end. In
this drum there revolve two disks, mounted on the same axle, and pierced symmetrically
CX 7 Phosphor.
Phosphorus.
wilh the same number of holes. They are so adjusted that when a hole in one disk is
opposite to the hole in the corresponding end of the drum, the second disk closes the
hole ;tt its end of the drum, and vice -versa. Light is admitted by one of the holes in the
drum, so as to fall on the object, and it is examined through the other hole. It is obvi-
ous that when the disks are made to revolve, the object i& alternately exposed to light,
and presented to the eye. By a train of multiplying wheels, these alternations may be
made to succeed each other as rapidly as the observer pleases, and thus the object is "pre-
sented in the dark to his eye as soon after its exposure to light as may be desired.
Almost all bodies are found to be phosphorescent; for instance, some kinds of pink
rubies, when exposed to sunshine in this apparatus, appear to glow like live coals in th'j
dark. The phenomenon is, in fact, precisely that which was observed by Brewster and
llerschel in quinine and certain crystals of fluor-spar, and thence called fluorescence.
Stokes was the first to give the true explanation of these facts, and he showed it. to
d"pend upon the change of refrangibility (i.e., color) which light suffers on being
absorbed and theu radiated by the fluorescent substance. The green coloring-matter o?
leaves, a decoction of the bark of the horse chestnut, and the common canary glass (col.
ored with, oxide of uranium), are bodies which exhibit this phenomenon very well.
Perhaps the most striking method of studying the phenomenon is to receive in a dark-
ened room the solar spectrum (q.v.) on a sheet of white paper; and to pass over the col-
ored spaces a brush dipped in a solution of sulphate of quinine with sulphuric acid. No
change is produced on the less refrangible rays, but in the blue and indigo spaces a
strange change of color is at once apparent where the liquid has been spread. This
appears more strongly in the violet, and vividly in the spaces beyond the violet, where
rays fall which excite no luminous sensation in the eye. By this experiment, the visible
length of the spectrum may easily be doubled. By using the electric light, which ir,
peculiarly rich in these highly refrangible rays, a prism of quartz, which allows them to
pass very freely, and various fluorescent substances, Stokes has obtained spectra six or
eight times as long as those otherwise visible. The characteristic of all these rays is tli;it
they are Icsn refrangible than those from which they are produced. The entire phenom-
enon is identical in principle with Leslie's photometer, in which light was measured
when changed into heat by absorption, in the colored glass of- which one of the bulbs of
his differential thermometer was formed.
Ordinary phosphorus (from which the phenomenon took its name) becomes luminous
in the dark by slight friction; whence the common trick of drawing self-luminous fig-
ures on doers and walls with a stick of phosphorus, or an ordinary lucifer-match. A
similar appearance is presented by putrescent animal matter, such as decaying fish, etc. ;
but these are effects of slow combustion, or chemical combination, and are not properly
classed among the phenomena of phosphorescence. See LUMINOSITY OP ORGANIC
BEINGS.
This substance affords an excellent example of allotropy; that is to say, it maybe
made to occur under different forms presenting different properties. See ALLOTROPY.
Ordinary phosphorus and the red variety are the only important forms. We shall
speak of them as phosphorus and red phosphorus respectively.
PHOSPHOR'OSCOPE, a philosophical apparatus invented by Becquerel for meas-
uring the duration of phosphorescence in different bodies. Se'e PHOSPHORESCENCE,
ante.
PHOSPHORUS (symb. P., equiv. 31', sp. gr. 1.826) is one of the metalloids, or non-
metallic elements, although, in its combining relation, it is more closely connected with
the metals arsenic and antimony than with any of the members of the sulphur-group, in
which it is commonly placed.
Phosphorus at ordinary temperatures is an almost colorless or faintly yellow solid
substance, having the glistening appearance and the consistence of wax, and evolving a
disagreeable alliaceous odor, which, however, is probably due, to the action of the oxygen
of the air upon it. It fuses at 111.5° into a colorless fluid; and if the air be excluded, it
boils at 553J, and is converted into a colorless vapor of sp.gr.1.826. If, however, it be
heated to about 140° in the air, it catches fire, burns with a brilliant white flame, and is
converted into phosphoric acid; and, indeed, it is so inflammable that it will catch fire
at ordinary temperatures by mere friction. As the burns which it occasions are often
severe and dangerous, great caution is required in handling it: and in consequence of
the readiness with which it catches fire, and of its tendency to oxidize when exposed to
the air at a temperature higher than 323, it is always kept in water, in which it is insolu-
ble. It is slightly soluble in ether, but dissolves freely in benzol, in the fixed and esscn-
tial oils, and in bisulphide of carbon; and by allowing its solution in one of these fluids
to fall upon filtering paper, the finely divided phosphorus absorbs oxygen so rapidly as
spontaneously to catch fire as soon as the solvent has evaporated. One of the most
characteristic properties of phosphorus is that it shines in the dark, probably from the
slow combustion which it undergoes; and hence its name from the Greek words jj/ws,
light, and pharos, bearing. Its power of forming ozone is noticed in the article on that
substance. Taken internally, phosphorus is a very powerful irritant poison; and it is
the active ingredient of some of the preparations employed for the destruction of vermin.
Its fumes give rise to a peculiar form of necrosis of the jaw, which is very common
U. K. XL— 43
Photini.
658
amongst the makers of hicifcr-matches, and is not followed, as in ordinary necrosis, by
u formation of now bone.
lic'.l phosphorus differs from the ordinary variety in several important points. It
cecurs as a deep red amorphous powder, which is perfectly devoid of odor, may be
Jieated to nearly 500° without fusing, has a specific gravity of 2.10. does not shim: in the
•lark, nor take tire whe-i rubbed, undergoes no change on e.\po.-ure to the air at ordinary
temperatures, and is all respects far less inllammable. .Moreover, it is insoluble in bisul-
phide of carbon and the other iluids in which ordinary phosphorus dissolves, and is not
poisonous. On this account. 8chrotter(to whom we are mainly indebted for our knowledge
of this modification of phosphorus) has attempted, although with imperfect success, to
apply it to the formation of lucifer-matches. When red phosphorus is heated in :m
atmosphere of carbonic acid to a temperature of 500°, it is converted, without loss of
weight, into ordinary phosphorus.
Phosphorus is never met with in nature in an uncombined state, but it occurs in
small proportion as phosphate of lime in the primitive and volcanic rocks (as was fiist
shown by Fownes iu 1S44), by the gradual decay of which it passes into the soil; it is
also found abundantly in the minerals known asapqtite&nd phosphorite, and in .the brown
rounded pebbles which abound in the Norfolk Crag, and which, under the name of
C'>prohtt>8, are much employed, when crushed, for manure. From the soil, it is extracted
by plants, which accumulate it (especially in the seeds of the cereals) in quantity suf-
ficient for the wants of the animals which they supply with food. In the animal system,
phosphate of lime forms 57 per cent of the bones; phosphates of the alkalies especially
of soda, occur freely in the animal fluids; and in fi brine, albumen, and nervous matter,
phosphorus is universally present, although we do not clearly know in what form of
combination it occurs.
Phosphorus was originally discovered in 1669 by Brandt, a Hamburg chemist, who
obtained it from urine. Gahn and Scheele were, however, the first to discover its pr<-.
ence in bone, and to employ that material for its preparation. The following are the
leading steps of the method now usually employed in obtaining it on the large scale.
Bones are burned to whiteness, and powdered: and this bone-ash is then mixed with sul-
'•'vuric acid in such quantity as partially to decompose the phosphate of lime occurring
.11 the ash (3CaO,PO6) into Insoluble sulphate of lime, and a soluble superpbosphi
lime, whose composition is represented by the forn;ula2HO,CaO,PO». The solution of
the superphosphate is evaporated to a syrup, mixed with charcoal, and submitted to dis-
4ion of the superphosphate of lime into bone-earth and hydrated phosphoric acid: while
the second consists in the deoxidation, by means of the carbon, of the liberated phos-
phoric acid into phosphorus— a process accompanied by the evolution of hydrogen and
carbonic oxide gases. After it has been prised in a fused state through wash-leather,
and further purified, it is forced into cubes, in which it is allowed to solidify, and which
give it the form of stick'*, in which it is commonly met with.
Phosphorus forrrs with oxy<ren an oxide, P2O (which is always produced in small
quantity when phosphorus is burned in air, but is of no practical importance), and three
j rids— viz., hypophosphorous acid, PO, phosphorous acid, PO3, and phosphorii
PO&. Of these compounds, phosphoric acid is by far Hie most important, and we shall
therefore consider it first in order of the three acids.
Phoimhoric odd in its anhydrous state, or phosphoric anhydride, as it is usually tcrmei
at. the present day, is represented by the formula PO6, and is^obtained^by burning phos-
phorus "
white
by
water" it combine's with it. and dissolves, evolving n, considerable amount of heat, and
e-Hiiltuv a hissing sound, as when red-hot iron and water come together. In conse-
quence'of its strong affinity for water, this anhydride is very useful in the laboratory as
a (desiccating agent.
TJicre are three hydrates of phosphoric acid, each of which possesses the proper!
.-•distinct acid— viz , a protohydrate (IIO.PO6). a deutohydrnte (2HO.PO.), and a ti
hydrate (3HO,PO6). These hydrates retain their characteristic properties when di
in vater and combine with one two, or three equivalents of bases to form salts, accord
i«<r to the hydrate employed. In the salts formed by the first hydrate, the one cqmva
tent of water is replaced by one equivalent of base; in those formed by the :
hydrate both equivalents of water may be replaced by two of base, or one equr
-c water alone may be replaced, while- the other remains in the salt as basic watei
those formed by the third hydrate, all three equivalents of water, or two, or only one,
RV be replaced bv base, so that this acid forms three sets of salts. Hence phosphor
id is what is termed a poll/basic acid vq.v.). The following scheme may elucidate
v...
remark: If M, M', M", are any three metals, whose oxides act as bases, the mono
hydrate HO.PO. forms the salt MO,POB. and is mono-basic; thedeutohydrate 2
forms the salts MO,M'O,POBandMO,HO,PO6, and is bibasic; the tritohydrate 3HO,PO,
659
JPhotius.
forms the salts MO,M'O,M"O,PO5, MO,M'O,HO,PO3, and MO.2HO, PO5, and istribasic.
The occurrence of phosphoric acid (in a state of combination) in the three kingdoms
of nature has been already noticed in our remarks on phosphorus. The discovery of the
acid was made in 1740 by Marggraf ; the discovery of its true chemical nature is, how-
ever, due to Lavoisier;- and that of its various modifications. and its polybasicity, to the
investigations of our illustrious countryman, Graham.
Phosphorous acid occurs both as an anhydride, PO3, and as a hydrate, SHO.POj.
Hypopliotpliorous acid (3HO,PO) is only known in its hydrated condition, in which it
occurs as a very acid, colorless, uncrystallizable syrup.
Phosphorus combines with hydrogen in three proportions to form phosphureted
hydrogen gas, PH3; liquid phosphide of hydrogen, PH2; and solid phosphide of
hydrogen. PJI. Of these, the first alone requires notice in these pages. There are
various processes for obtaining the gas; one of the simplest being by boiling fragments
of phosphorus in a concentrated solution of hydrated potash, in which case, hypophosphite
of potash is formed, while phosphureted hydrogen gas is extricated. The reaction is
explained by the equation, 4P + 3(HO,KO) = 3(KO,PO) + PH3. The gas thus evolved
is colorless, possesses a characteristic fetid odor, and has the remarkable property of tak-
ing fire spontaneously in atmospheric air or in oxygen gas, and of resolving itself into anhy-
drous phosphoric acid, and water — a phenomenon -of which prof. Miller, has given the
following graphic description : "If allowed to escape into the air in bubbles each bubble as
it breaks produces a beautiful white wreath of phosphoric acid, composed of a number
of ringlets revolving in vertical planes around the axis of the wreath itself as it ascends;
thus tracing before the eyes, with admirable distinctness, the rapid gyratory movements
communicated to the superincumbent air by the bursting of a bubble upon the surface of
a still sheet of water. If the bubbles be allowed to rise into a jar of oxygen, a brilliant
flash of light, attended with a slight concussion, accompanies the bursting of each bub-
ble." There is reason to believe that perfectly pure phosphureted hydrogen gas does not
possess the power of igniting spontaneously, and that the self-lighting gas always con-
tains a minute quantity of the vapor of the liquid phosphide (PH2). The luminous
phenomenon known as wttl-d '-the-wisp has been referred to the natural evolution of the
gas; there is, however, no scientific evidence in favor of 'this hypothesis.
Various compounds of phosphorus with sulphur, chlorine, iodine, bromine, etc.,
have be.ea formed and investigated; but none of them are of any practical importance.
The medicinal uses of phosphorus and phosphoric acid have still to be considered.
Phosphorus, dissolved in ether or oil, was formerly prescribed in very minute doses as a
stimulant to the nervous system in certain conditions. It is, however, now rarely
employed in medicine, at all events, in this country, in consequence of its poisonous
properties. Several cases are on record hi which children have been killed by sucking
the phosphoric ends of lucifer-malches; and Christison relates an instance in which a
grain and a half of phosphorus proved fatal.
The symptoms induced by this poison are those of acute inflammation of the stomach
and bowels, and the only treatment that can be recommended is the administration of
large quanii!i.--s of mild demulcent fluids, such as milk and thin arrowroot, so as, if
possible, to envelop the phosphorus, and exclude it from the action of the air in the intes-
tinal canal; and of magnesia, with the view of neutralizing any phosporous and phos-
phoric acids that may be formed.
Dilute phosphoric ndd is included in the British pharmacopoeia, but is not very much
employed. It may be prescribed in much the same cases as those in which sulphuric
and nitric acids are employed, and is less likely to disturb the digestive functions, if
employed for a long period, than the other mineral acids. The late Dr. Paris used to
recommend it, when properly diluted, as the best acidulated drink for assuaging the
thirst in diabetes. It may be prescribed in half-dram doses.
PHO TITTS, Patriarch of Constantinople in one of the most critical periods of the strug-
gle of that see with the great patriarchate of the west for supremacy in the entire church,
was a member of a patrician family of Constantinople, and was b. in the early part of
the 9th century. From youth he was distinguished by his abilities and learning; and
having served in various important public offices, and especially on a diplomatic mission
to Assyria (or more probably Persia), he secured the favor of the^mperor Michael, with
whom Photius's brother was connected by marriage, and of the all-powerful Ca?sar and
favorite Bardsis. The patriarch Ignatius 'having incurred the displeasure of Bardas and
.-•f the emperor, a weak and profligate man, whose vices Ignatius tried in vain to correct,
H was resolved to deprive him of the patriarchal dignity; and the attempt to induce him
to resign having failed, he was deposed with much indignity, imprisoned, and sent into
exile. Photius, although a layman, and hitherto engaged in secular pursuits, was
appointed in his stead, hurried in a few successive days through all the stages of sacred
orders, and finally installed as patriarch. A council of bishops, under the influence of
t!',2 court (8.>S). declared in favor of the deposition of Ignatius, and confirmed the election
of Photius, and the latter communicated his election to the pope, .Nicholas I., in a letter
which carefully suppressed all these irregularities, and represented that he had reluc-
tantly undertaken the office. Meanwhile" however, Ignatius had privately written to
Rome, and the pope sent two legates to inquire and report on the facts. A new council
Photo.
Photography.
was assembled (859), in which Ignatius was declared deposed, and was compelled to sign
the act of abdication, and Photius "was declared duly elected. The legates coneurrcd, it
was believed, under tlie undue inllueuce of Bnrdas, in this sentence. But in so doing
they had exceeded their power, which was merely to report to the pope; and .Nicholas
refused to acknowledge the sentence, and summoned the parlies lira new hearing. Pho-
tius, however, resisted; and a new cause of dispute* having arisen in regard to the juris-
diction claimed by the see of Constantinople in part of the province of lllyricum and
among the newly converted Bulgarians, the council, which Nicholas called at Home in
<S(L', annulled the acts of that of Constantinople and of the legates, declared Photius's
election uncanonical and invalid, deposed and excommunicated him, and reinstated
Ignatius in his see. Being supported, however, by the emperor, Photius retained pos-
session, and not only refused to yield, but retaliated on the pope by assembling a coun-
cil at Constantinople in 867, in which the question was removed from the region of a
personal dispute between the bishops to a controversy of doctrine and discipline between
the churches of the east and west themselves. In this council, Photius first brought for-
ward distinctly certain grounds of difference between the churches, which, although
considerably modified, afterward led to their linal separation. In all Ihese doctrinal dif-
ferences, the council condemned the western church, excommunicated Nicholas and his
{'bettors, and withdrew from the communion of the see of Rome. During the life of the
emperor Michael, the authority of Photius remained without further question ; but on
^Hchael being deposed and put to death by Basilius the Macedonian in £67, Photius, by
Miat capricious exerc>«e of imperial authority of which these times supply' so many
examples, was de^ ^J, and banished to Cyprus, and Ignatius reinstated; soon after
which, in 869, the council known as the eighth general council, at which pope Adrian
[I.'s legates presided, was assembled at Constantinople. The whole case was revived.
*Photius being convicted of fraud, forgery of documents, and uncanonical usurpation,
Iras condemned and excommunicated, the rights of Ignatius established, and the inter-
communion of the churches restored. From his exile at Cyprus, Photius appealing suc-
Jessfully to Baeilius, obtained his recall, and, on the death of Ignatius, was reappointcd
to the patriarchate. The pope of the time, John VIII., yielding to expediency, or
ieceived by false reports, acquiesced in the proceeding — a supposed act of womanish
weakness, which, in the opinion of some, by obtaining for John the f<
Joanna, was the origin of the fable of Pope Joan (q.v.). Photius, in 879, assembled :i
•iew council at Constantinople, renewed the charge against the western church, and
eraser! from the creed in the article on the procession of the Holy (ihost (q.v.), tin?
word filioqiie, which had been inserted by the Latin church. The sepunitioir of the
Jhurehes, however, was not completed till the time of Michael Cerularius. s
CHURCH. Photius did not dio in possession of the see ; he was de^vr-ed, and exiled to
Armenia, by Leo, surnamed the philosopher, the son and succecto • Basilius, in :-V>.
«nd died soon afterwards, probably in 891. The character of Plioii.i - is, of course, dif-
ferently represented by the easterns and by the westerns, the latter of whom ascribe to
him every excess of craft, violence, and perfidy. The Greeks, on the contrary, defend
his memory. It is hardly possible, however, to doubt the substantial justice of the
accusations made against him. The impression produced by a review of his checkered
career, and of the more than equivocal proceedings with which his name is connected,
is made more p-.inful by the evidences of rare genius, and profound and cultivated liter-
ary judgment, A'hich his works reveal. His chief remains are (1.) _!///;•/' AM>», called
also Bibliotheca a summary review of the works which Photius had read, with an epitome
of the conten'j, and a critical judgment of their merits. The number of works thus
criticised is no less than 279; and as many of these are now lost, the judgment and
remarks of such a man are of great value for ancient literary history. (•-.'.) A l.<,v:<-"n.
which was edited by Hermann, and afterwards by Porson (or rather from his manuscript
by Dobree) in 1822. (3.) The Nomocanon, which is a collection of the acts and decrees
of the councils up to the seventh ecumenical council, and the ecclesiastical laws of the
emperors for the same period. (4.) Several minor theological treatises. (5.) A collection
of letters, many of them extremely interesting and elegant. There is one in which, from
his exile, he appeals to be permitted the use of his books, which, for beauty of compo-
sition, delicacy of sentiment, and the genuine eloquence of a scholar's love of learning,
can hardly be surpassid in ancient or modern literature. A complete edition of his
works is found in Migne's Patrologia Cursus Completes, in 4 vols., royal 8vo.
PHOTO-GLY'PHIC ENGRAVING. See PHOTOGRAPHIC EXGRAVING, PHOTOUHAPIIY.
PHOTOGRAPHIC ENGRAVING. Several ingenious attempts have been made to pre-
pare engraved plates by photogenic action ; the earliest of these; dates as far back as isv'7,
which was six years previous to the introduction of the daguerreotype process, and was
the invention of M. Nicephore Niepce of Paris, who first discovered Hint thin plates of
bitumen were curiously affected by light; he therefore coated metal plates with a thin
layer of bitumen, of the kind called Jews' pitch, and placed them in a camera obscura,
so arranged that he could insure their exposure to the same image for several hours. The
plate was then submitted to the action of oil of spike, which readily dissolved those por-
tions not acted upon by the light, but exerted little action upon the remainder; the metal
exposed by the solution of the bitumen was then acted upon by acid, which produced a
Photo.
Photography.
complete etching-plate, the picture part being protected by its bituminous varnish from
the action of the acid. About ten years after, M. Fizeau "invented another process • ho
took a daguerreotype picture, and acted upon it with a mixture of nitric, nitrous, and
hydrochloric acids, which, without affecting the silver where the metal was free from
the photographic action, quickly attacked the dark portions of the picture in greater or
less degree according to their intensity, and thus etched the picture in the plate. The
action at tirst produced only a slight erosion, because a coating of chloride of silver
was formed; but upon this being removed by a solution of ammonia, it was repeated
until a greater depth was gained. This, at the utmost, was not very great, and never
sufficient to print from; but he most ingeniously met this difficulty by coating the plate
with a drying oil, which was carefully wiped from the surface, and left to dry in the
engraved parts; afterwards, he electrotyped the level surface with gold until the neces-
sary depth was obtained, after which the plate was boiled in a solution of caustic potash,
which removed the varnish. The plate in this state required a little of the engraver's
art to touch it up, and remedy some defects inherent in the process; and then, to pre-
vent injury to the soft metals — silver and gold — employed, an electrotype plate was taker,
for the printer's use. But these processes, notwithstanding their extreme ingenuity.
never thoroughly succeeded, and have been abandoned for the more satisfactory inven-
tions of Dr. W. II. Fox Talbot; these were patented in 1852 (No. 179) and 1858 (ISo. 875).
By his first plan, a steel plate, such as is prepared for engravers, is first dipped into a
solution containing acetic and sulphuric acids; it is then coated with a mixture contain-
ing a solution of line gelatine and bichromate of potash. This is impressed with the
image of a photographic negative by exposure in the copying-frame, and washed. The
film of gelatine is previously yellow, but the action of the light through the light parts
of the photograph change it dark brown, but the remainder is unaffected; conse-
quently, a picture is produced of a light yellow color on a brown ground. The action of
the light is to reduce the bichromate of potash, and, consequently, to render the gelatine
combined with it insoluble: whilst those portions which have been protected from the
action of the light by the dark parts of the negative, are still readily soluble in water, and
can be removed by soaking: the insoluble portion thus forms a raised picture, which is
submitted to a solution containing bichloride of platina in certain proportions, with a
little free acid and water, which etches out the exposed parts of the plate, and renders it
fit for engraving from. In the same specification is added an ingenious method of giving
to the whole picture the appearance of an engraving; it consists in spreading over the
gelatinized plate, when nearly dry, a piece of very fine muslin, and evenly pressing it so as
to leave an impression, of the cross-lines of the textile material upon the surface. By his
second specification, he alters the process so far as the washing is concerned, after obtain-
ing the picture on Ihe gelatinized plate, and thus obviates some injuries to which it was
thereby rendered liable. Instead of washing, the gelatinized surface is thinly but very
evenly covered with finely powdered copal or other resin, and the under side of the plate
exposed to sufficient heat to melt the resin, so as to form a thin varnish over the whole.
The etching fluid is then poured on, and, notwithstanding the resin coating, it acts
through to the metal, and eats in wherever the gelatine has not been rendered insoluble
by the action of the bichromate of potash and the light. When sufficiently etched, it is
washed in clean water, and the plate is freed from the resin and gelatine. Two modifi-
cations of this process arc given in the specification, to which the reader is referred for
fuller particulars. Dr. Talbot calls his process photo-glyphic engraving. The same proc-
esses, with some modifications, applied to zinc constitute photo-zincography, and to stone
pfioto-Uthoffraphy.(q.v.), both of which are largely practiced; and they have been brought
to such extraordinary perfection, especially by the late sir Henry James, director of
the ordnance survey,' and by an eminent firm in Brussels — Messrs. Simonau, Tooyey, &
Co. — that quite a new era is opened up in the art of engraving and printing.
These processes are particularly well adapted for copying maps and printed books, and
sir II. James has consequently turned it to a most profitable account in producing
reductions of the large plans of the ordnance survey to the proper sizes of maps; and he
has also published perfect fac-similes of Doomsday Book and other important docu-
ments. See under PHOTOGRAPHY, and ELECTROTYPE, PHOTOGRAPHIC.
PHOTOG RAPHY (Gr. phos, light, and grapho, I write). From the following brief
sketch of the history of this art, it will be apparent that its present advanced form has
resulted from the combination of various discoveries in reference to the nature and prop-
erties of light made by investigators at different periods. Each inquirer has availed him-
self of the results obtained by previous students, adding to the common stock the results
of his own investigations. TThe progress lias been far more rapid than in most of the
sciences which have been built up in a similar manner. Like other branches of chemis-
try, it owes its origin to the alchemists, who, in their fruitless researches after the phi-
losopher's stone and elixir vit(e, produced a substance to which they gave the name of
l/tna cornea, or horn silver, which was observed to blacken on exposure to light. This
property of the substance constitutes the leading fact upon which the science of photog-
raphy is based. More recently, the illustrious philosopher Scheele made experiments
with the substance in question, with a view to determine the effects produced upon it by
different rays in the solar spectrum. His words are these (published in 1777): " Fix &
Photography.
glass prism at the window, anel let the refracted sunbeams fall on (bo floor; 1n the
colored light put. a paper strewed with In- .and you wib observe that 1 he horn
•liver grows sooner black in the violet ray than in any of the other rays." Still more
recently, the names of Wedgwood and Davy (1NU2), and of Nicper. and* Daguerrc from
1814 to 18u9, occur as followers in the path inelie-ated by Scheele anel the earlier savaus;
and in the early months e>f the year 1804, the attention of the photographic sejcie-ty e>f
London was occupied by the endeavor to establish the authenticity and true photographic
character of some pictures found in the library of Matthew IJoullon. and believed te> be
true sun-pictures by James Watt, the celebrated engineer; thus offe'ring great probability
that the mind which produced the wonders e>f steam-power, bad also -ed in
tife flame investigations which have resulted in the present me>re extensive development
of photographic'scieuce. Most of the experiments alludeel to may be said to have been
based upon the fadt, that the salt of silver, called by the ancients /.///</ <-</rn(it, anel by
modern chemists chloride of .silver, is highly sensitive to the influence of light. But such
observers must have been fully aware that this substance is not the only one affected by
light, for it hael been long noticed that the light of the sun eloes not fall u, on any surface
without leaving traces of its action thereon. It cannot be absorbed or reflected without
in some way modifying the structure and properties e>f the exposed sunace. Even the
brick and stone of which our houses are built become blaneluHi by its influence, and iho>e
portions on which the shadows of trees or other detached objects fall arc: peivepiiMy
darker than those exposed to its full force; with the knowledge, therefore, of this all-
pervading influence before their minds, the investigations of scientific photographers have
been directed to the production of surfaces either of metal, paper, or gi;i s so imbued witii
chemical substances as to possess a maximum amount of sensibility to this subtle agent
—light. .
There seems but little doubt that some of the acute-minded men who investigated the
phenomena of the influence of light must have made use of the beautiful invention of
Baptista Porta of Padua, known as the camera obscura (q.v.); for the pictures of natural
objects formed on the inner surface of this instrument would readily Suggest its \
combination with the luna cornea. In the researches of a later period, the cam.'ra \\as
used. The earlier attempts by its means failed, however, owing to the want of a power
of fixing the images produced by the lens — i.e., e>f dissolving the unchanged /
without acting on the reduced silver of which the image was femned. That want hav-
ing, by mean's of chemical investigation, been supplied, the science of photography h;is
become firmly established in its principles, and the practice of it as an art i - diffused all
over the civilized world.
The honor of having been the first to produce pictures by the action of light on a
sensitive surface is now very generally conceded to Thomas Wedgwood, an account e>f
whoa
title
experiments detailed in this communication, white paper and white I'n'Jicr we're imbued
with nitrate of silver, and exposed either in the -camera obscura, or under the lev
trees or wings of insects. The result was, that the shadows preserved the parts conceale 1
by them white, while the other parts became speedily darkened. The misfortune was.
that no attempts made either by Wedgwood or Davy to prevent the uncolored portions
from being acted on by light"(or, as we now say, to f.x the picture), were successful.
This operation was not effected in a thoroughly ofticient manner until sir John Ilersch.-l
suggested the employment of hyposulphite of soda for that purpose. Many either fixing
agents had been previously used, as ammonia, iodide of potassium, chloride of sodium,
and bromide of potassium, suggested by Mr. Fox Talbot; none of these, however, were
found equal to the salt proposed and successfully used by sir John Hcrsehel.
M. Kiepce of Chalon on-the-Saone was the first to enjoy the satisfaction of producing
permanent pictures by the influence of solar radiations. This was accomplished in
and the name chosen to designate his process was heliography — a name in some re
preferable to photography. It consisted in coaling a piece of plated silver e>r glass with
a varnish made by dissolving powdered asphaltum to saturation in oil e)f lavander,
ing care that the drying and setting of this varnish be allowed to take place in 'he
entire absence of light anel moisture. The plate so prepared was then expei-ed in the
camera obscura for a length of time, varying from four to six hours! according to ti-e
amount of light. A faint image only is at first visible, and this is afterwards de\ doped
and fixed by immersion in a mixture of oil of lavender and oil of white petroleum; the
plate being finally washed with water, and dried. Light has little or no action on these
heliographs; they should, however, be protected from moisture. M. Dagucrre improve el
on this process," by suggesting the use of the resins obtained by evaporating oil of
lavender, whereby a great increase of sensibility was secured.
Adopting date of publication as the best evidence of discovery, the next process offer-
ing itself for consideration is that for photogenic drawing by Mr. Henry Fox Talhot,
communicated to the royal society on Jan. 31, 1839, jusf six months previous to the pub-
lication of Daguerre's process. Itconsisted in immersing carefully selected writing-paper
in a weak solution of common salt, and drying it. After this, a dilute solution of nil rate
of silver was .sprcael over one side, and the paper again dried at the liiv. When dry it
Photography.
was fit for use, the sensitiveness being much increased by alternate treatment with saline
and argentine solutions. Paper thus prepared yielded impressions in an incredibly short
time, and nothing could be more perfect than the images it gave of leaves and flowers,
the light passing through the leaves delineating every ramification of their nerves. Con-
siderable improvement in point of sensibility was attained by Mr. Talbot in the follow-
ing year, 1840, by the employment of iodide of silver on paper, as a foundation, to be
washed over with a mixture of aceto-uitrate and gallo-nitrate of silver, just previous to
exposure in the camera. Paper so prepared was so sensitive than an exposure of less
than a second to diffused light was enough to produce an impression. After exposure
and development, the picture was washed, and tixed by immersion in a solution of bro-
mide of potassium.
Mepce and Daguerre accidentally discovered that they were conducting experiments
of a kindred character, and shortly afterwards entered into a partnership. The former,
however, dying in July, 1883, a new deed of partnership was signed between his son Isi-
dore and M. Daguerre" which resulted in Ihe publication, in July, 1839, of the process
known as the daguerreotype. This was not done, however, until the French govern-
ment had passed a bill, securing to M. Daguerre a pension of 6,000 francs, and to M. Isi-
dore Niepce, the son of the Is'iepce, a pension of 4,000 francs, both for life, and one-half
in reversion to their widows. This handsome conduct on therpart of the French govern-
ment, was based upon the argument, that " the invention did not admit of being secured ly
I ate nt, since, as soon as ptMushed, all might avail themselves of its advantages; they, there-
fore, chose to enjoy the glory of endowing the world of science and of art with one of tkd
Most surprising discoveries that honor their native land."
The discovery of the daguerreotype may be said to have arisen from the Dissatisfac-
tion entertained by Daguerre with the insensibility of the bituminous surfaces of Niepce,
which induced him to^urn his attention to the salts of silver as a means of producing a
higher degree of sensitiveness. This he attained by exposing a highly polished plate of
silver (attached, for greater strength, to a copper plate) to the vapor of iodine, by which
pure iodide of silver was formed on the surface. The plate so prepared was exposed in
the camera obscura for a length of time (20 minutes), which was then considered very
short. No apparent effect was produced on the plate, the image being a latent one, aris-
ing from a minute molecular disturbance caused by the impact of the actinic rays. The
latent image was afterwards developed by exposing the plate to the vapor of mercury; and
it is this development of a latent image, reducing as it did the time of exposure from
hours to minutes, which truly constituted a new era in the science of photograph}'. It
is further due to Daguerre to ,f;tale, that, while his processes for the purpose were imper-
fect, he still succeeded in fixing his pictures, although it was reserved for sir John Her-
fcchel to announce the great suitability of the hyposulphites for dissolving the haloid salts
of silver. The sensibility of the silver plate was still further increased by Mr. Goddard,
who suggested, in 1839," the association of the vapor of bromine with that of iodine;
while M. Claudet, in 1840, employed chlorine. It is a remarkable fact, in connection
with these discoveries, that the elder Nicpce should, so early as 1820, have tried the
treatment of silver plates with the vapors of sulphur and phosphorus.
But the progress of this interesting science received a very important impulse from a
discovery, which at fir?t scarcely appeared to have any connection therewith. In 1838,
Bracoimot gave, in the Annales de Chimie, an account of a new substance obtained by
the action of nitric acid on starch, sawdust, linen, and cotton-wool. He named this sub-
stance xyloidinc; it was very combustible, and burned almost without residue. In 1838
Pelouze, iu the Comptcs Rendues, suggested its application in artillery. He says, "Plunge
paper in nitric acid (specific gravity 1500), leave it in for two or three minutes, and
wash: a kind of parchment is obtained, impermeable to moisture, and extremely corn-
bus; ible." ''Dumas, in 1843, proposed the name nitramidine, and suggested its use for
fireworks. At a meeting of the British association held at Southampton in the year 1846,
II err Schonbeiii, an eminent Prussian chemist, read a paper on the preparation of explo-
sive cotton, a substance obtained by acting on ordinary carded cotton by a mixture of
strong nitric and sulphuric acids. This explosive cotton was afterwards found to be solu-
ble iu ether and the solution so prepared was named collodion by its discoverer, Mr.
Maynard, who, in 1848, published in the American Journal of Medical Science the formula
for its preparation. This ethereal solution, having a certain proportion of alkaline,
iodides and iodide of silver added thereto, constituted the collodion first employed by
Mr. Archer, who, although deserving the credit of having first arranged a practicable
working process with collodion for its basis, without which photography could not
have Attained its present high position, says, in the second edition of his Manual, "it
is due to Le Gray to say that he was the first to publish an account of collodion as
a photographic agent;" thus illustrating the candor with which Mr. Archer admitted
his claim to be considered the first to suggest its value in photography. Mr. Fallon
Home and Mr. Fry materially assisted Mr. Archer in bringing his experiments to per-
fection. Although the announcement at the British association in 1846 was to the
effect that Schonbein had made cotton as explosive as gunpowder, no particulars were
published. In April, 1847, he obtained a patent; but 'in Oct,, 1846, Mr. Thomas Tay-
lor had published a similar method to that patented. By one of those singular freaks
of fortune which sometimes occur, Daguerre succeeded in* identifying his name with his
Photography.
process; but Mr. Archer was not, so fortunate as to give his name to the process which
lie invented. A reference to the article COLLODION will show thai (bearing iu mind that
glass perfectly cleaned forms the supporting medium) the sensitive surface is obtained
by the conversion of the soluble iodides and bromides in the collodion lilm into iodide
and bromide of silver by immersion in a solution of the nitrate of that base, and that it
is exposed in the camera while still moist with adherent nitrate, the latent image so obtained
being ilerdvped with a mixture of protosulphate of iron, acetic acid, and alcohol, Jixtd
with hyposulphite of soda, and varnished.
In the uicprotype or albumen process, glass plates of proper thickness and quality,
and perfectly clean, are coated with albumen (q. v.), to which an alkaline iodide lias been
added. When perfectly dry, they are immersed in a solution of nitrate of silver, when
ail immediate decomposition takes place ; iodide of silver being formed in the albumen
lilm, and nitrate of potash or ammonia remaining in solution. The plate is then freely
washed with water, dried, exposed, developed with gallic acid, and lixcd with hyposul-
phite of soda.
A retrospective glance will show the reader that four processes have now been p:
in review; and on a little consideration, it will be seen tiiat one />rf/n-ij>!<' pervades tl,c
whole — viz., the production of a latent image by the action of light on /»»,>/,• air.
untie of sitter, its subsequent development by suitable means, and the tiual removal of the
unaltered portions of the sensitive Him by a />//<// agent.
Among these processes, that in which collodion is employed has achieved a well-
merited distinction, and is now so generally employed as almost entirely to exclude Ihe
others. Various modifications of this process have been from time to time suggested lo
meet the exigencies of landscape photography. It has already been stated that the col-
lodion film is exposed while still moist with adherent nitrate of silver solution; and this
method is especially applicable to the taking of portraits, where it is desired to reduce
'.he time of exposure to a minimum; but for landscape purposes it is by no means so
imperatively necessary to curtail the time of exposure; and as the necessary apparatus
and materials for sensitizing and developing a wet plate are somewhat cumbrous fur
lield-work, it was suggested by the abbe Despratz to wash off the free nitrate from the
surface, and allow the film to dry in the absence of light. This is called the "dry collo-
dion process." A plate so prepared is, however, much less sensitive to light. A variety
of agents has been used to preserve the film, such as sugar, albumen, malt, tannin, etc.
The practice of photography in the present day is confined almost exclusively to the
POSITIVE, the NEGATIVE, and the DRY COLLODION processes. The ./?/•.--•(' and second differ
only in degree, or density of deposit, the image being a positint — i.e., having its lights
and shadows in their proper positions, when "seen by reflected light; and a
with its lights and shadows reversed, when examined by transmitted light. The positive
is backed With black varnish, and the desired pearly-white deposit produced by develop-
ment with the protonitrate and sulphate of iron, and nitric and acetic acids. The nega-
tive is used oidy as a cliche from which to print positive impressions on paper or other
suitable material, and requires a greater degree of density, its high lights being quite
opaque, and descending by delicate gradations to its deepest shadows, which should be
represented by clear glass. The negative requires a longer exposure in the camera than
the positive, and is "generally developed with protosulphate of iron and acetic acid.
and intensified with pyiogalhc and acetic acids, and nitrate of silver. The tltini or dry
process is distinguished from the preceding modifications of the wet process by the com
plete removal of the adherent free nitrate of silver, the application of a preservative
agent, and the necessity for adding nitrate of silver to the developer. There has recently
come into general use a modification of the dry process, which is likely to supercede all
others. It is known as the collodio-bromide or emulsion process, and was introduced
by Syce and Bolton of Liverpool in 18(i4, but attracted little attention tili 1:-?1. An
emulsion is formed by the addition of bromide of cadmium, and nitrate of silver to col-
lodion; this is poured on a plate, washed, and immersed in any of the preservative solu-
tions, and may be exposed wet, or dried and kept indefinitely. Plates so prepared are
very sensitive, and possess the great advantage of being capable of development without
nitrate of silver; pyrogallic acid, ammonia, and bromide of potass bringing them easily
up to printing density.
The following applications of photography may be referred to:
PIIOTO-LITHOGRAPHY, the application of photography to engraving on stone. A
lithographic stone is coated with a mixture of water, gum-arabic, sugar, and bichromate
of potash, dried in the dark, exposed in the camera, or under a negative. The effect of
the luminous action is to render the gum almost insoluble. A solution of soap is then
applied, which serves the double purpose by its decomposition of yielding a greasy
printing-surface, and by its solvent action to remove those portions unacted on by light;
its action being inversely proportionate to the extent to which the gum was fixed by the
light. In this condition the stone js freely washed with water, and when dry. receives
a coating of printer's ink from the roller, which, by uniting with the soap, gives addi-
tional body to the picture. This process was patented by -Mr. YV. K. Newtor. : but. in
common with others of ta kindred character, the resulting pictures 'were invariably
deficient in middle tint, possessing a degree of hardness very unpleasant to the eye, •
prevented its coming into 'general use.
"65 Photography.
PHOTO- XYLOGRAPHY, the application of photography to Wood-engraving. One
process, patented by Mr. Newton, consisted, first, in rubbing into the wood-block a var-
nish, composed of asphaltum, etlier, and lamp-black, to saturate the pores. Collodion
was then poured on as in the ordinary collodion process (q.v.). The surface was then
sensitized, aud exposed in the camera, the picture being developed in the usual way.
But the desired success was not complete, for the thickness of the united films was found
to interfere with the operations of the engraver, and the process, in consequence, did not
receive general adoption.
W. Crookes, F.K.S., subsequently simplified the method of producing an impres-
sion on wood-blocks, by rubbing them over with a mixture of oxalate of silver and
water, and exposing under a negative. The advantage of this process was, that it did
not require any treatment of the block for the purpose of fixing after exposure, as if
kept from the continued action of light, the block would keep long enough for the
engraver to work out the details with his tools. It is fair to assume, notwithstanding the
ingenuity displayed in these processes, that some insuperable objection exists in both of
them, since neither have been adopted to much extent.
PfiOTO-Mi CROOK APHY consists in the enlargement of microscopic objects, by means of
the microscope, and the projection of the enlarged image on a sensitive collodion film.
The manipulatory .details are the same as in the collodion process (q.v.). only that, on
account of the delicate nature of the markings to be rendered, it is necessary to employ
a collodion yielding what is termed a structureless film. The principle upon which the
enlargement is effected is that of the conjugate foci. This branch of microscopic and
photographic science has proved a useful aid in the study of the sciences of botany,
physiology, and entomology, by delineating, with unerring accuracy, woody fiber, ducts,
starch granules, muscular fiber, blood disks, nerve papillae, etc. Among the numerous
experimenters attracted by this interesting study, Dr. Maddox is perhaps the only one
who has attained to any renown; and by him, minute auimalculse, all but invisible by
unassisted vision, have been magnified to a superficial area of «> sq. in., in which the
most delicate details have been faithfully preserved. By reversing the arrangement
necessary for these enlargements of microscopic objects, it will be seen that minute
photographs of engravings, or other objects, may be produced which would require a
microscope for their inspection. In this way communication was maintained, during
the investment of Paris, when copies of letters and newsjvip:.'rs were inserted in quills,
and fastened to carrier pigeons; and this is really by no means so difficult to accomplish
us it may seem at first .sight, since photographs no larger than a pin's head have been
produced, including in that small space portraits of no less than 500 eminent men.
CELESTIAL PHOTO«KAPIIY comprehends the application of photography to the auto-
matic registration of celestial phenomena. The laborers in this field of scientific research
have been numerous both in America and Europe; the name of Mr. Warren de la Rue,
however, stands out so prominently before all others, that, in the limited space at com-
mand, it is scarcely necessary to do more than notice the leading facts established by his
researches. Not the least interesting of these is the demonstration of the sphericity of
the moon by means of the stereoscope and lunar photographs; also the determination of
the nature of many of the more obscure markings on its surface, by which elevations ave
clearly distinguished from depressions. The faculae or spots* on the sun's surface have
also been photographed, and examined stereoscopically, by which they have^een found
to arise from elevations of the outer regions of the photosphere. Photographs have also
been obtained of Lyra and Castor, and of the uebulse in Orion. The instrument employed
for the purpose is called a photo-heliograph.
PHOTO-GALVANOGRAPHY, a method of producing from a photograph an electrotype
copper-plate in a state fit for printing. It was invented by Mr. Paul Pretsch of Vicuna,
and is dependent on the property which unaltered gelatine possesses of swelling up in
water. In order that a plate should be fit for engraving, it is of course essential -that it
should have on its surface elevations and depressions corresponding to the lights and
shadows of the picture. Accordingly, the first operation consists in coating a glass with
a solution of gelatine and bichromate of potash, and when this is dry, exposing the same
to light under a negative. In accordance with the above-named property of gelatine, it
will be found, on applying water to the film, that the portion unacted on will swell up.
while those parts upon which the actinic rays have exercised their full influence will
remain unchanged by the water. From the image thus obtained a gutta-percha mold
is prepared, and its surface made conducting by means of levigated graphite or bronze-
powder. Copper is then deposited thereon by the electrotype process, and the plate thus
produced is printed from in the ordinary way.
PHOTO GLYPHOGRAPHY is a process, invented by Mr. Fox Talbot, for etching a
photograph into a steel plate. It consists in coating the plate with a mixture of bichro-
mate of potash and gelatine, and exposing under a negative. The effect of this treat-
ment is to render the gelatine insoluble, just in proportion to the intensity of the light's
action, after which a solution of perchloride of iron, of a certain definite strength, is
poured over the film, which solution penetrates those parts unacted on by light, reaching
the steel plate, and biting itself in, but is repelled by that portion of the gelatine ren-
dered insoluble; the plate being thus protected from the action of the solvent. Because
a dilute solution of perchloride of iron soaks into a film of gelatine more readily than a
Photo.
1'hreiiology. ,
strong solution, it is very important that the etching fluid should possess that amount of
dilution which lias been found by practice to yield the best results.
PHOTOLITHOGRAPHY, t-"ee PuoTociKArine EXGKAVINCI, PmrrocKAritY.
PHOTOMETER (Gr. ;;/««, light ; nttiroii, measure). an instruim nt for measuring the
intensity of light. The first who occupied him--elf in scicntilicaily de'crmining Ihe inten-
sity of light was 1'ouguer; but his investigations were far surpassed by those of Lam-
bert, about 1760. The latter indicated an exceedingly simple and effective kind of
photometer, which was afterwards constructed by Humford. The instrument consisisnf
11 screen of thin paper phvcd vertically, and behind ii, at the rii-ian-v of a few indies, is
placed a cylindrical stick, or any other similar body. When the intensity of light from
two llames is to be compared, they are placed behind this stick in such a way that each
casts a separate shadow of the stick upon the paper screen. The observer stands in front
<>[ the screen, and directs Mie removal of the two lights either to or from the stick, till
the shadows which are cast upon the screen are equally obscure. The disla;,c; of < -ueh
light from the shadow it casts on the screen is then measured, and the squares wf these
distances give the relative intensities of the two lights. This pholomeier may also be
modified by employing, instead of a cylindrical stick, a second screen parallel to the
first, but of greater thickness, and having an aperture cut in its center. '1 lie two lights
being then placed behind* the second screen, and considerably apart, each casts a sepa-
rate illumination through the aperture in the second upon the lirst screen, and the obser-
ver in front of the latter changes their relative distances till the illuminations appear to
the eye of equal intensity. The calculation is the same as before. There are several
other classes of photometers, which, however, do not deserve the name, as they dc pcnd
upon the heating and chemical powers which generally accompany light, and not upon
the intensity of its action on the organs of vision. Thus, Leslie's instrument is no. lung
more than a differential thermometer, while Saussure's and Lar.driani's depend upon the
chemical effects of light. Lampadius, instead of calculating the intensities from the
different distances of the lights trom the screen, used pla!"s of h irn. or other semi-opaque
material, of various thicknesses, and deduced his results from the comparative thickness
of the two plates. The results attained by the aid of the photometer, owing to the
imperfection of the instrument, are to be: relied upon only within certain limits. Some
of them are as follows: the light of the sun is 94,500 times greater than that of the moon ;
and an ordinary Argand lamp, with cylindrical wick, is equal to 9 newly-trimmed
caudles.
PHOTO-SCULP TURE, a new art. invented, during the year 1867, by M. "Willeme, ;v
Frenchman. It was introduced into Great Britain, practiced by M. Claudet in London.
and a, society was formed for carrying it out in Paris; but it was not a commercial suc-
cess. It consists in taking likenesses in the form of statuettes and medallions by the aid
of photography, and a very ingenious series of accessory contrivances. A building
specially adapted for the purpose is absolutely necessary : this consists of a circular room,
40ft. in diameter, and surmounted by a glass cupola 22 ft. high, the supporting wall
being about 8 ft. in height, and pierced with 24 equidistant holes about 4 ft. from the
floor; these are only sufficiently large to permit the action of an ordinary camera 1< r.s
through eafh one. Outside the surrounding wall of this circular chamber is a covered
dark passage, in which 24 cameras arc placed with their lenses adjusted to the holes i:i
the wall. The person whoso likeness is to be taken stands in the center under the gl-iss
dome, and at a given signal the cameras are simultaneously brought into action, and a
photograph is taken.
Tlie 24 photographs are carefully numbered, so that no error can take place in the
subsequent operation, which is performed in another chamber: any room which can b •
darkened will do. It consists in placing them in consecutive order on a vertical wheel.
which is so arranged that at the will of the operator each one can be brought before the
lens of a magic lantern, and its image projected on a transparent screen. The modeling
clay is so placed, rather behind the screen, that the artist can use a pantograph, which
has its reducing point armed with a molding or cutting tool instead of a mere marker;
and, as the longer arm of the instrument describes the outline of the projected 11
obtained from the photographs, the shorter one is reproducing on a smaller scale tli.'
figure in the clay. The statuette thus produced r< quires retouching with the hand io
remove the sharp and rugged lines of the cutting-tools, and of course much dcp"iid>
upon artistic skill in doing this. In the skilled hands which have yet had to do with i:s
operations, the arrangement had so marked a success as to promise to produce in time
the most satisfactory results.
PHOTO-ZINCOG RAPHY. See PHOTOGKAPHIC ENGRAVING.
PHRAGMITES . See REED.
PHRASE, the name given, in music, to the simple motives containing in themselves
no satisfactory musical idea, which e:;ter into the composition of every melody containing
a perfect musical idea, e.g. j Fjfe^^j-—^; "r^n: ^lE The phrase most usually
667
Photo.
1'Ui-enology.
consists of two measures; in compound time it maybe comprised in one measure, and
:ni extended phrase is one which contains three measures. In the more simple and regu-
lar forms of musical composition, two phrases unite to form a section ending in a cadence ;
tmd a perfect musical idea is formed of two such sections terminating, the first with the
dominant, the second with the tonic harmony.
1st Phrase.
2d Phrase.
Dominant
Section.
1st Phrase
2d Phrase.
Tonic
Section.
A little confusion lias arisen from the use, by some musical writers, of the word
phrase for what is here called a section.
PHEENI TIS. See MENINGITIS.
PHEEKOL OGY is a Greek compound signifying a discourse on the mind, but is used
in a more limited sense to mean a theory of mental philosophy founded on the observa-
tion and discovery of the functions of the brain, in so far as it is concerned in intellectual
Mid emotional phenomena. Phrenology takes into view likewise the influence of all
other parts of the body, and of external agents affecting these, upon the brain.
The founder of this system \vas Dr. Kranz Joseph Gall (q.v.), who died in 1828. In
Britain it has been amply expounded by his pupil Dr. Spurzheim (q.v.), by George and
Andrew Comb, (q.v.), by Dr. Elliotsou of London, and others. In America, Dr. Charles
Caldwell has been its ablest advocate. Gall's method of investigating the functions of
the brain is that which, applied to other organs, has led to the discovery of their func-
tions, but which had never before been systematically applied to the brain. When a
ph\>io!ogi-;t wished to ascertain the functions of any part of the body, he did not rest
satisfied with examining its structure, and speculating on the purposes for which that
structure seemed to be adapted. He observed what kind of function appeared during
life as the invariable accompaniment of the presence and action of that particular part;
and. by repeated and careful observation, he at last succeeded in discovering the func-
tion. 'The knowledge thus obtained was afterwards verified and completed by examina-
tion of the structure! and observation of the effects of its injury or diseases. To the
adoption of this principle in studying the functions of the brain, Gall was led by observ-
ing at school the concomitance of a quick and retentive memory of words with a peculiar
appearance of the eye, which he afterwards found to be caused by a large development
of a particular part 'of the brain. At school, at college, and in many other places, and
under the most different, circumstances, the same concomitance of talent with develop-
ment of brain came under his notice so frequently as to suggest to him the probability
that there might be discovered by the same method a connection of other talents and
dispositions with other portions of the brain. It was by the diligent application of the
method of inquiry which accident had thus suggested to him, and not, as some suppose,
by the exercise of his imagination, that Dr. Gall was at last led to conclude, first, that
the brain is an aggregate of many different parts, each serving for the manifestation of a
particular mental faculty ; and, secondly, that, all other condit ons being equal, (he size of
each of these cerebral 'organs is a measure of the power of its function. These twc
propositions constitute the distinctive or fundamental principles of phrenology. The
first of them, however, is not new. The impossibility of reconciling actual phenomena
with the notion of a single organ of the mind has, for many centuries, suggested the
probability of a plurality of organs in the brain. But the phrenologists hold that Dr.
Gall was the first to demonstrQU the fact, and to make any considerable progress in
determining with what parts of the brain the various intellectual and emotional faculties
and susceptibilities are connected.
That man, in his present state, cannot think, will, or feel without the intervention of the
Phrenology.
brain, is generally admitted by physiologist!, :mil appears from even tbc fact that, by prcs
sure applied to it, consciousness is at once suspended. That it is not a single organ is a
priori probable from such considerations as these: 1 It is a law in physiology that different
functions arc never performed by the same organ. The stomach, liver, heart, eyes, ears,
have each a separate duly. Dillvrent nerves are necessary to motion ami feeling, and
there is no example of confusion amongst them. 2. The mental powers do not all come
at once, as they would were the brain one organ. They appear sticcessfrvely, and the
brain undergoes a corresponding change. 8. Genius varies in different individuals: one
has a turn, as it is called, for one thing, and another for something different. 4. Dream-
ing is explain 'd by the doctrine of distinct organs which can act or res! alone. 5. Partial
insanity, or madness on one point with sanity on every other, similarly points to a plu-
rality of cerebral organs. 0. Partial injuries of the brain, affecting the mental manifes-
tations of the injured parts, but leaving the other faculties sound, tend' to the same
conclusion. 7. There could be no such state of mind as the familiar one where our
feelings contend with each other, if the brain were one organ.
Th"se are grounds for presuming that the brain is not single, but a clutter of organ*,
or at least that it is capable of acting in parts as well as in whole. For this conclusion
the phrenologists consider that they have found Satisfactory proofs in numerous obs, t \a
lions, showing that particular manifestations of mind are proportioned, in intensity
ami frequency of recurrence, to the size or expansion of particular parts of the brain —
this law bfting subject to modification in the case of the brain, as in that of the muscles
and other parts of the body, by differences of health, quality, exercise, etc.
If the size of organ, eceteris paribus, is the measure of the vigor of function, it is of
great moment in what region of the brain the organs are largest — whether in the animal,
moral, or intellectual. On this preponderance depends the character. Two brains may
be exactly alike in size generally, yet the characters may be perfect contrasts to each
other.
It is held by phrenologists — 1. That by accurate observation of human actions, it is
possible to discover the strength of the dispositions and intellectual powers of men; 2.
That the form of the brain can, in normal subjects not beyond middle age, be aseer'
with sufficient accuracy from the external form of the head — the brain, though the softer
substance, being what determines the shape of the skull; 3. That the organs or parts of
which the brain is composed appearon its surface in folds or convolutions, which have a
well-ascertained fibrous connection with the medulla oblongata, which unites the brain to
the spinal cord; 4. That the brain being divided into two equal parts called /;</// /.v/</" ?'<••<,
in each of which the same organ occurs, all the organs are double, like the ears and eyes.
See BRAIN. Bat when the term organ is used, both organs are meant.
It is true that where strength is most needful, the skull is thicker than at other places;
but this is not overlooked by phrenologists, nor do they fail to warn obs-rvers against
mistaking for signs of cerebral development the bony processes and ridges which
for the attachment of muscles to the skull. See SKULL. They recognize also, as we
shall see, the uncertainty often occasiued by the frontal sinus.
Besides the brain proper, there is a smaller brain, lying below the hinder part of the
main brain, and called the cerebellum.
The brain is divided into the anterior, middle and posterior lobes. The anterior lobe
contains the organs of the intellectual faculties;' the posterior lobe and lower range of
the middle one are the regions of the animal propensities; while the moral sentiments
are stated to have their organs developed on the top or coronal region of the head.
Phrenologists distinguish between power and <t •'//•/<•// in the mental faculties. Power,
in whatever degree possessed, is capability of feeling, perceiving, or thinking; while
activity is readiness and quickness in the exercise of power.
The powers of mind, as manifested by the organs, are called facilities. A faculty
may be defined to be a particular power o"f thinking or feeling. A. faculty is regarded
as elementary or primary — 1. When it exists in one kind of animal, and not in another;
2. When it varies in the two sexes of the same species; 3. When it is not in proportion
to the other faculties of the same individual; 4. When it appears earlier or later in life
than the other faculties; 5. When it may act or repose singly; 6. When it is propagated
from parent to child; and 7. When it may singly preserve its* Soundness, or singly
become deranged or extinct.
The faculties are usually divided by phrenologists into two orders — FEELTXOS and
INTELLECT, or AFFECTIVE and INTELLECTUAL FACULTIES. The feelings are divided into
two genera — the propensities and the sentiments; while the intellectual embrace the pern />-
five or knowing, and the reflective faculties. This classification, however, is avowedly
imperfect.
The following is a representation of the human head in four points of view, showing
the positions of the cerebral organs, according to Mr. Combe:
1. AmntitenesK, or sexual love, is believed to have for its organ the cerebellum, or at
least a portion of it. As the basis of domestic life, this faculty is of great importance,
and its regulation has ever been one of the prime objects of moralists and legislators.
2. Philoprogenitiveness, or love of offspring, is generally strongest in the female. Its
organ is one of the easiest to distinguish in the human head. Those who are flat and
perpendicular there, instead of being delighted, are annoyed by children. The feeling
669
Phrenology.
AFFECTIVE.
I.— PROPENSITIES.
is said to give a tender sympathy with weakness and helplessness in general. The most
savage races must have affection for their young, or they would become extinct. The
organ, like the other cerebral parts, may become diseased, and insanity on the subject
of children often occurs.
3. I/ihabitice>uss (called by Mr. Combe Concentrativencss) has its organ immediately
above the preceding. Dr. Gall did not discover its function; and Dr. Spurzheim, observ-
ing it large in persons attached to
their native place, or any place in
which they had long dwelt, called
it inhabitiveness. Mr. Combe thought
it has a more extended sphere of
action, lie observed it large in
those who can detain continously
their feelings and ideas in their
minds; while the feelings and ideas
of others pass, away like the images
in a mirror, so that they are incap-
able of taking systematic views of a
subject, or cuticcntmting their pow-
ers to bear on one point. The organ
is stated as only probable, till fur-
ther facts are obtained.
4. Adhesiveness. — The organ of
this feeling was discovered by Gall,
from being found very large in a
lady remarkable for the warmth
and steadiness of her friendships.
It attaches men and gregarious ani-
mals to each other, and is the found-
ation of that pleasure which man-
kind feel in bestowing and receiving
friendship, and in associating with
each other. Acting with amative
ness, it gives constancy and dura-
tion to the attachment of tlie mar-
ried. Generally speaking, adhesive-
ness is strongest and its organ larg- 1. Amativeness.
ptjf in \vnm-m 2- Philoprogenitiveness.
'"'-. - _. .. ,. 8. Inhabitiveness or Concen-
o. ' Cvmbfitiveness. — Dr. Gall dis- trativeness.
covered the organ of this propensity 4. Adhesiveness,
by a vast number of observations |- p^n^ctiv^ifess
on the heads of persons fond of ' [Alimentiveness.]
fighting. Dr. Spurzheim extended [Love of Life.j
its function to contention in general, Z- Secretiveness.
, ., i • i i rr>i 8. Acquisitiveness.
whether physical or moral. Those 9. Constmctiveuess.
deficient in it show that over-gentle
and indolent character which yields
to aggression, is easily repelled by
the appearance of difficulty and
trouble, arid naturally seeks the
shades and eddy-corners of life.
6. Destructiveness. — -The propen-
sity to destroy is abundantly mani- ^7' Localitv
fested by man raid carnivorous ani- 28. Number.
mals, and, when too strong or ill-reg-
ulated, is the source of cruelty and wanton mischief. As a defensive power it is of high
utility. Anger, resentment, and int 'gnation, spring from it. A small endowment is
one of the elements oT a "soft" character; while persons who have much of it are gen-
erally marked by an energetic, and probably fierce and passionate character.
Aliment ire ness and love of life. — Some of the recent phrenological works treat in
this part of the order of the' faculties, of a faculty of alimentiveness, or the propensity
to eat and drink, and also of another which follows — viz., love of life. The first being
represented as no more than probable, and the second as only conjectural, they have no
number allotted to them on the bust. The place assigned to alimentiveness is marked by
a cross on the side-view of the bust. Mr. Combe suggests that the organ of the love of
life is probably a convolution at the base of the middle lobe of the brain, the size of
which cannot be ascertained during life.
7. Secretiveness is the propensity to conceal, which in excess assumes the form of cun-
ning. It helps animals both to avoid and to prey upon each other. -In abuse, it leads
to lying, hypocrisy, and fraud, and with acquisitiveness disposes to theft and swindling.
The organ is subject to disease, and cunning madmen are difficult to deal with. Disease
kere often leads to belief in plots and conspiracies formed against the patient.
II. — SENTIMENTS,
10. Self-esteem.
11. Love of Approbation.
12. Cautiousness.
18. Benevolence.
14. Veneration.
15. Firmness.
36. Conscientiousness.
17. Hope.
18. Wonder.
19. Ideality.
20. Wit, or Ludicrousness.
21. Imitation.
INTELLECTUAL.
I.— PERCEPTIVE.
lividuality.
rm
24. Size.
Weight.
29. Order.
30. Eventuality.
31. Time.
32. Tune.
33. Language.
IT.— REFLECTIVE.
34. Comparison.
35. Causality.
Phrenology.
670
8. Ai-'i<ii:<ilir, ness.— The existence of a cerebral organ for the desire of property is
held by phrenologists to prove that, this is not, as many have though'!, a derived or 'sec-
ondary tendency. It is what lord Kum>-s calls the "hoarding appetite." This explains
the miser's desire to accumulate money, without regard to its use in the purchase of oilier
enjoyment. "\Vheu the organ is diseased, persons in easy circumstances arc sometimes
prone to pilfer everything of value, and often of no value, which comes in their wav.
9. Conab'lLCtiKenesi is the impulse to fashion and construct by changing the forms of
matter. Many of the inferior animals possess it, as the beaver, bee, and" birds. PI.
nature consists of raw materials Avhich coustructivcness prompts and enables man to
:idapt to his purposes.
10. Self-c.ff,-i'm is the source of that self-complacency which enhances the pleasure:-, of
life, gives the individual confidence in his own poucrs, and enables him to apply them
to the best, advantage. It is sometimes called proper pride, or self-respect, in" which
form it aids the moral sentiments in resisting temptations to meanness and vice. Ii>
deficiency renders a man too humble, and the world take him at hi.-, word, and push
him aside. Its excess produces arrogance, selfishness, disobedience, and tyranny. Self-
esteem becomes insane perhaps more frequently than any other faculty, a'nd then s!,o\\ s
itself in extravagant notions of self-importance. Such maniacs fancy themselves i
emperors, and even the Supreme Being. The organ is generally larger in nun than in
women, and more men are insane from pride than women.
11. Love of Approbation is the desire of the good opinion, admiration, and praise of
others. It is an excellent guard upon morals as well as manners. The lo.-s of character.
to those largely endowed with it, is worse than death. If the moral Kculimenis I e
strong, the desire will be for honest fame; but in meaner characters, the love of glory is
a passion that has deluged the world with blood in all ages. Miami Ics-ness is the et'iVcr.
of its deficiency, often observed in criminals. The organ oftener becomes di- :•;;>< d in
women than in mcn^ as in women it is more active than in the other sex generally.
12. Cautiousness. — The organ of this^faculty is found large in persons much troubled
with fears, hesitations, and doubts. Its normal character is well expressed bv its nan e.
When diseased, as it often is, the organ produces causeless dread of evil, despondency,
and often suicide.
13. Benevolence is the desire to increase the happiness and lessen the misery of others.
When strong, it prompts to active, laborious, and continued exertions, and, unless
acquisitiveness be powerful, to liberal giving to promote its favorite object. Unregu-
lated by conscientiousness and intellect, benevolence degenerates into profiii-ion and
facility. It often coexists with destructiveness in great force; as it did in Burns, whose
poem on a wounded hare expresses both feelings highly excited.
14. Veneration has for its object whoever and wJiater.er i-a deemed rcnrrnlle by the indi-
vidual. One man venerates what another treats with indifference, because his under-
standingjeads him to consider that particular object as venerable, while his neighbor
deems it otherwise. But any man with a large endowment of (he organ will have a ten-
dency to consider others as superior to himself. Veneration is the bads of loyalty, and,
having the Deity for its highest object, forms an element in religious feeling. So liable
is its organ to disease, that high devotional excitement is one of the most common forms
of insanity.
15. Firmness is the source of fortitude, constancy, perseverance, and determination;
when too powerful, it produces obstinacy, stubbornness, and infatuation. The want of
it is a great defect in character. The English soldier is more persistent than the French,
although in courage and spirit they arc equal.
16. Comcicntioiixnas gives the love of justice, but intellect is necessary to show on
which side justice lies. The judge must hear both sides before deciding, and his very
wHi to be just will prompt him to do so. Conscientiousness not only curbs our faculties
when too powerful, but stimulates those that are too weak, and incites us to duty even
against strong inclinations. The existence of conscientiousness as an independent ele-
ment in the human constitution explains some apparent inconsistencies in human con-
duct— that a man, for instance. Is kind, forgiving, even devout, and yet not just. The
organ is commonly larger in Europeans than in Asiatics and Africans; very generally
it is deficient in the savage brain. When it is diseased, the insanity consists in morbid
self-reproach, belief in imaginary debts, and the like.
17. Hope was regarded as a primary faculty by Spurzheim, but was never admit led
by Gall, who considered it as a function of every faculty that desires. Dr Spurzheim
answered that we desire much of which we have no hope. It product- ga\cty and
cheerfulness, looks on the sunny side of everything, and paints the future with bright
colors. When jiot well regulated, hope leads to rash speculation, and in combination
with acquisitiveness, to gambling, botli at the gaming-table and in the counting-house.
It tends to make the individual credulous of promised good, and often indolent.
18. Womler. — Dr. Gall found the organ of this faculty large in seers of visions and
dreamers of dreams, and in those who love to dwell on the marvelous, and easily believe
in it. Persons who have it powerful are fond of news, especially if striking and won-
derful, and arc always expressing astonishment; their reading is much in th.
the marvelous, tales of wonder, of enchanters, ghosts, and witches. When the senti-
» * * Phrenology.
mcnt is excessive or diseased, it produces that peculiar fanaticism \vhJcli attempts mir-
ticles, and (with language active) speaks in unknown tongues.
19. Ideality. — The organ of this faculty was observed by Dr. Gall to be prominent in
l he busts and portraits of deceased, and in the heads of a great number of living, poets.
This continued to him the old classical adage, that the poet is born, not made. He
called it the organ of poetry. The name of ideality was given to it by Dr. Spurzheim.
This faculty is said to delight in the perfect, the exquisite, the bcan-iiicdl, the beautiful
:\nd sublime. The organ is usually small in criminals and other coarse and brutal char-
acters, for it is essential to refinement. It prompts to elegance and ornament in dress
;uid furnitur,e, and gives a taste for poetry, painting, statuary, and architecture. A
point of interrogation is placed on the bust on the back part of the region of this organ,
ronjectured to be a different organ, but one allied to ideality. The existence of the fac-
ulty of ideality is held by phrenologists to prove that the sentiment of beauty is an
criminal emotion of the mind, and to settle the controversy on that subject. See
/ESTHETICS.
20. Wit, or the Sentiment of the Ludicrous. — The phrenological wriiers have discussed
At great length, and with not a little controversy, the metaphysical nature or analysis of
iii i.> faculty. We need not follow them into this inquiry, as most of them are agreed
that by means of it we feel and enjoy the ludicrous.
21. lmitd.ti'»i. — Dr. Gall found the prominence of this organ accompanied by instinc-
tive, and often irrepressible mimicry. The tendency to imitate is evidently innate; from
the earliest years it nakcs the young follow the customs and the manner of speech of
t.mse around them, and so preserves ia convenient uniformity in the manners and extcr-
>f society. Celebrated actors always possess it strong, and by its means imitate the
: u;>pos<'d manner, and even feel the sentiments, of their characters Its organ is found
hrge ai-o in painters and sculptors of eminence. In its morbid states the impulse to
mimic becomes irresistible.
We now come to the intellectual faculties, or those which make us acquainted wiih
; that exist, and with their qualities and relations. Dr. Spurzheim divided lluiu
into three genera — 1. The external senses; 2. The internal senses, or perceptive facul-
ties; 3. The reflecting faculties.
The external senses, as generally received, are five in number — touch, tnsie, smell,
ffii.rtnff, and .-tight. There seem to be two more — namely, the sense of hunger and thirnt,
and the inut.-ulur sense, or that by which we feel the state of our muscles as acted upon
by force and rerstance. Without this last sense we could not, keep our balance, or suit
• >!'.• movements to the laws of the mechanical world. Whether each sense has a special
cerebral orgu-' iu addition to its external apparatus and nerves, is a question regarded by
phrenologists as still undetermined.
22. Individuality, the first in the list of the perceptive faculties, is not 'easily defined.
It is said to take cognizance of individual objects as such, e.g.. a horse or a tree. Other
knowing faculties perceive the form, color, size, and weight of the horse, but individu
;ility is thought to unite all these, and give the idea of a horse. It is regarded as the
store-house of knowledge of things simply existing. When it is strong, without being
accompanied by reflecting power, the mind is full of facts, but unable to reason from
them. After puberty, the size of the organ of individuality, as well as of the neighbor-
ing organs of size, weight, coloring, and locality — all situated behind the superciliary
r: l;j; • of the skull — is often rendered doubtful by the existence of a hollow space, of
uncertain width and extent, between the two plates of the skull. This hollow is called
\hefront<tl s>n>.ix; and when it is large, there may be a great projection of the bone over
the eyes, without a corresponding projection of brain within. When this part of tha
skull is flat, however, the organs must be at least as defective as the flatness indicates.
Owing to the source of uncertainty here pointed out, and the smallness of the organs
V'hind the eyebrows, the functions of those parts of the brain are not regarded as being
so well ascertained as those of the larger organs, nor \njll a cautious phrenologist be too
n-ady to pronounce them large.
23. Form. — When the organ of form is large, the eyes are wide asunder. Dr. Gall
discovered it in persons remarkable for recognizing faces after long intervals, and
although perhaps only once and briefly seen. The celebrated Cuvjer owed much of his
• -.icr-ess in comparative anatomy to his large organ of form. Decandolle mentions that
"his [Cuvier's] memory was particularly remarkable in what related to forms, con-
sidered in the widest sense of that word; the figure of an animal seen in reality or in
drawing never left his mind, and served him as a point of comparison for all 'similar
objects."
24. Size. — Every object has size or dimension; hence a faculty seems necessary to
cognize this quality. The supposed organ is situated at the inner extrcmeties of the
eyebrows, where they turn upon the nose. A perception of size (including distance) is
important to our movements and actions, and essential to our safety.
25. Weight. — A power to perceive the different degrees of weight and force is like-
wise essential to man's movements, safety, and even existence. Phrenologists have
L-e::er;i;iv localized the onran of that power in the part of the brain marked 25 on the
•ptirenolosy. w I 3
26. Coloring. — Tho organ of this faculty is large in great painters, especially great
colorists, and gives an arched appearance to the eyebrow; for example, in Rubens,
Titian, Rembrandt, Salvator Uosa. and Claude Lorraine. In eases of color-blind nefts, it
is found small. Many persons, though able to distinguish colors, have no percept ;on of
their harmonies: for this perception a higher endowment of the faculty seems to be
required.
27. Locality. — Dr. Gall was led to the discovery of this faculty by comparing his own
difficulties with a companion's facilities in finding their way through the woods, where
they had placed snares for birds, anil marked nests, when studying natural history.
Every material object must exist in some part of space, and that part of 'lace becomes
place in virtue of being so occupied. Objects themselves are cognized by Individuality:
but their place, the direction where they lie, the way to them, fall within the sphere of
locality. Its organ is large in those who find their way easily, and vividly remembei
places in which they have been. It materially aids the traveler, and is supposed to give
a love for traveling. The organ was large in Columbus, Cook, Park, Clarke, and other
travelers.
28. Number. — The organ of this faculty is placed at the outer extremity of the eye-
brows and angle of the eye. It occasions, when large, a fullness or breadth of that part
of the head, and often pushes downward the external corner of the eye. When it is
small, the part is flat and narrow between the eye and the temple. Dr. Gall called tin-
faculty les sens des rapport* den nnmlnvx (the sense of the relations of numbers), and
assigned to it not only arithmetic, but mathematics in general. Dr. Spurzheim more
correctly limits its functions to arithmetic, algebra, and logarithms; geometry being ihe
products of other faculties, particularly size and locality. Dr. Gall first observed the
organ in a boy who could multiply and divide, mentally, ten or twelve by three figures,
in less time than expert arithmeticians could with their pencils. Many such examples
are on record. *
29. Order. — The organ of this faculty is said to be large in those who are remarkable
for love of method, neatness, arrangement, and symmetry, and are annoyi d by confu-
sion and irregularity. In savages, whose habits are slovenly, filthy, and disgusting, the
organ is comparatively small.
30. Eventuality. — The organ is situated in the very center of the forehead, nnd when
large, gives to this part of the head a rounded prominency. Individuality ha-
called the faculty of nouns; eventuality is the faculty of verbs. The first perceives
merely things that exist; the other, motion, change, event, history. The most powerful
knowing minds have a large endowment of both individuality and eventuality; and such
persons, even with a moderate reflie. ing capability, are the clever men in society — the
acute men of business — the ready p:-.:ciical lawyers. The organ of eventuality is gener-
ally well developed In children, and their appetite for stories "corresponds.
31. Time. — Some persons are called -walking time-pieces; they can tell the hour
without looking at a watch; and some even can do so, nearly,* when waking in the
night. The impulse to mark time is too common, too natural, and too strong, not to be
the result of a faculty; it*s an element in the love of dancing, almost universal in both
savage and civilized man.
32. June. — The organ of tune is large in great musicians; and when it is small, there
is an utter incapacity to distinguish either melody or harmony. The great bulk of man-
kind possess it in a moderate endowment, so as to be capable* of enjoying music in some
degree. Those in whom it is large and active become, in all stages of society
tinguished artists, exercising a peculiar power over their fellow-creatures, so as to rouse,
melt, soothe, and gratify them at pleasure. But the gift, in this active form, is liable to
be much modified according as it is accompanied by adhesiveness, combativeuess, ideal-
ity, benevolence, wit, and other faculties.
33. Language. — The comparative facility with which different men clothe their
thoughts in words, and learn to repeat them by heart, depends on the size of the organ
of language, which is situated on the super-orbitar plate, immediately over the eyeball,
nnd when large, pushes the eye outwards, and sometimes downwards, producing, in the
latter case, a wrinkling or pursing of the lower eyelid. Verbal memory is strong or
weak, without relation to the strength or weakness of the memory of things, forms or
numbers.
The perceptive organs are for the most part called into activity by external objects;
but internal causes often excite them, and objects are then perceived which have no
external existence, but which, nevertheless, the individual may beiieve to be real. This
is the explanation of visions a-nd ghosts, and of the fact that two persons never see the
same specters at the same time. Excess or disease in the organ of wonder predispose*
to belief in the marvelous and supernatural, and probably stimulates the perceptive
organs into action, when spectral illusions are the consequence.
34. Comparison. — Dr. Gall discovered the organ of this faculty in a man of science
who reasoned chiefly by means of analogies and comparisons, and rarely by logical
deductions. The middle of the upper part of his forehead was very prominent. The
precise nature of the faculty has been much disputed among phrenologists, but they
seem to agree that the perception of analogy depends upon it. Every faculty, we are
told, can compare its own objects: coloring can compare colors; weight, weights; form,
Phrenology.
forms; tune, sounds: but comparison can compare a color with a note, or a form -with
a weight, etc. Analogy is a comparison not of things, but of their relations.
35. (Jftusality. — This is regarded as the highest and noblest of the intellectual powers.
Dr. Spurzheim so named it from believing that it traces the connection between fintft
and effect, and recogni/es the relation of ideas to each other in respect of necessary con-
sequence. Some metaphysicians have held that we have no idea of cans*, but see only
sequence, or one event following another. Sec CAUSE. It is true that we do eoe
sequence; but we have a third idea — that of power, agency, or efficiency, existing m
home way in the antecedent, to produce the consequent. Whence do we get this third
idea ? — from a distinct faculty, causality. It is a large ingredient in wisdom.
The phrenologists have chiefly confined their attention to the organs of the brain, and
the various faculties of which these are the instruments. The former writers on mind
— Reid, Stewart, Brown, and others — gave, on the contrary, their chief care to the men-
tal acts called attention, perception, conception, etc., which they considered as faculties.
The phrenologist does not overlook the importance of this department of mental phi-
losophy, but differs from the metaphysicians in considering perception, conception,
memory, etc., as only modes in which the real faculties above described act. This dis-
tinction is one of great importance.
, According to Ihe phrenologists, the faculties are not mere passive susceptibilities;
they all tend to action. When duly active, the actions they produce are proper or
necessary; in excess or abuse, they are improper, vicious, or criminal. Small moral
organs do not produce abuses; but they are unable to prevent the abuse of the animal
organs, as larger tend to do; thus small benevolence is not cruel, but it does not offer
sufficient control to destructiveness, which then impels to cruelty. Catteris paribus, large
organs have the greatest, and small the least tendency to act — each faculty producing
the feeling or idea peculiar to itself. In active constitutions, the brain partakes of the
g< ncral activity, and comes more readily into play than where the constitution or tem-
perament is lymphatic. Health and disease, exercise and inaction, nutrition and starva-
tion, have also great influence in modifying both the power of the cerebral organs and
their readiness to act. Moreover, when certain faculties have been much exercised for a
series of generations in a family, they are apt to be manifested in greater strength and
activity tiian where no such hereditary influence exists. Seeing that all the organs
tend to action, each, it is concluded, must have a legitimate sphere of action, and be
necessary for the welfare of man.
The PROPENSITIES and SENTIMENTS cannot be called into action by the will. We
cannot fear, or pity, or love, or be angry, by willing it. But internal causes may stimu-
late the organs, and then, whether we will or not, their emotions will be felt. Again,
these feelings are called into action in spite of the will, by the presentation of their
external objects — cautiousness, by objects of terror, love, by beauty, and so on. The
excitability of the feelings, whether stimulated fn .111 within or without, is increased by
activity of the temperament. Insanity is a frequent result of over-activity of the pro
penalties and sentiments. These may be diseased and yet the intellect sound. The con-
verse is also true. When an organ is small, its feeling cannot be adequately experi-
enced. The will can indinctbi excite thi propensities and sentiments by setting the
intellect to work to find externally, or conceive internally, the proper objects. Lastly,
these faculties do not form ideas, but simply feel, and therefore have no memory, con-
ception, or imagination.
The PERCEPTIVE and REFLECTING FACULTIES, or intellect, form ideas, perceive rela-
tions, and are subject to, or rather constitute, the will, and minister to the affective fac-
ulties. The}' may be excited by external objects and by internal causes. When excited
by the presentation of external objects, these objects are perceived, and this act is called
PERCEPTION. It is the lowest degree of activity of the intellectual faculties; and those
who are deficient in a faculty cannot perceive its object. — CONCEPTION also is a mode of
action of the faculties, not a faculty itself. It is the activity of the faculties from internal
causes; either willed, or involuntary fiom natural activity. — IMAGINATION is conception
carried to a high pitch of vivacity.— MEMORY, too, is not a faculty, but a mode of action.
There is rm such thing as the general memory of the metaphysicians, but every intel-
lectual faculty has its own memory. Memory differs from conception and imagination
in this, that it recollects real objects or events which it has actually perceived, and adds
the consciousness of time elapsed since they were perceived. The other named modes
of action do not require realities or time. — JUDGMENT is, properly, the perception of
adaptation, fitness, and necessary consequence; this is a mode of action of the reflecting
powers. In a certain sense, the 'perceptive faculties may each be said to possess judg-
ment; as coloring judges of colors; form, of forms; tune, of music. By the word
"judgment," however, is meant right reasoning, sound deciding. To this, a proper
balance of the affective faculties is essential. There can be no sound judgment where
any of the feelings are excessive. — CONSCIOUSNESS is the knowledge which the mind has
oi its own existence and operations. — ATTENTION is not a faculty, but the application, or
. of any or all of the intellectual faculties. — ASSOCIATION is the succession of ideas
in the mind, each seeming to call up that which succeeds; so that in our Waking-hours
the mind is never without an idea passing through it. This is a state or condition of the
faculties, not a faculty. — PASSION is any faculty in excess: love is the passion of amalive-
U. K. XI.— 43
Phryganea.
Phylactery.
ness iii union with adhesiveness and veneration; avarice, of acquisitiveness; rage, of
destructivencss. — PLKASI-I;K and PAIN. JOY and GKIKF, also belong to each faculty,
according as it is agreeably or disagreeably all'ected. — HABIT is the power of doing any-
thing well, acquired by frequently doing'it. But before it can be dune at all, there
niusV be the faculty to do it, however awkwardfy.— TASTK was held by Mr. Stewart to
be- a faculty, a,nd to be acquired by habit. It seems to be the result of a harmonious
action of all the faculties.
Such is an outline of the system propounded by the phrenologists. So far as it shall
be confirmed by the mature experience and observation of conipeu-nl inquirers, the facts
and principles which it unfolds must be of great practical value to mankind. The study
of the mutual influence of the mind and body has ever been recognized by wise and
observant men as one of high importance, though of great dilliculty ; and certainly Gall
and his followers have not only given a strong impulse to thai study, but have thrown
much light on the diversities of human character, and accumulated a large body or facts
of a kind which had previously been too much overlooked. Much, it is admitted, still
remains to be discovered. "No phrenologist," says Mr. Combe, "pretends that Gall's
discoveries are perfect: they are far from it, even as augmented and elucidated by his
followers; but I am humbly of opinion that, in their great outlines, his doctrines are
correct representations of natural facts. . . . The future of phrenology will protyi-
bly exhibit a slow and gradual progress of the opinion that it is true and important; and
only after this stage shall have been passed will it be seriously studied as sricnee.
Hitherto this has not been done: the number of those who have bestowed on it such aii
extent of accurate and varied observation and earnest reflection as is indispensable to
acquiring a scientific knowledge of chemistry, anatomy, natural philosophy, or any other
science, is extremely small ; and the real knowledge of it, on the part of such as con-
tinue, through the press. and in public lectures, to oppose it. appears to me se;uve!y
greater than it was in 1815 and 1826," when it was ridiculed in the Edinburgh ll<
In considering the claims of phrenology, two questions should not be confounded.
One is— How far the functions of the different parts of the brain have been established
by observation of extreme instances of their large and small development ?— the other,
To what extent the facts so ascertained can be applied physiognomic-ally in prar-iice?
Gall disclaimed the ability to distinguish either ill-defined modifications of forms of'the,
skull, or the slighter shades of human 'character (Sur les Function* tin ro-r-.'im, iii .41);
nor, we believe, did he or Spurzheim ever pretend to estimate the size of <?vrry organ in
a single brain. By attempting too much in these directions some of their disciples may
have helped to prolong the incredulity with which phrenology is still widely regarded.
For the titles of numerous books on phrenology, see GALL (F. J.), SIMK/.IIKIM (.]. G.),
and CO.MBE (G.); also an article in The British and Foreign Medical Rericir, vol. ix. p.
190. Of other important works bearing on or criticising phrenology, we may mention
Dr. Lay cock's Mind and Brain, or the Correlation of Consciousness «n<! (},•;/<>, i/--/i/;«n (2
vols., Edin. 1860); his article on phrenology in the 8th ed. of the Encyc. Brit.; an article
on phrenological ethics in the Edinburgh Review for Jan., 1842, vol. Ixxiv. p. 870; Aug.
Comte's Philosophic Positive, torn. iii. (or Miss Martinean's transl., i. 466); sir Benj. C.
Brodie's Psychological Inquiries, dialogue yi. (Lond. 1854); G. H. Lewes's King. 7//W. >/f
Pkilos., p. 629 (Lond. 1857); Samuel Bailey's Letter-son the Philosophy oft/if //
Mind, 2d series, letters xvi.-xxi. (Loud. 1858); and Prof. Bain On the Study of Chanii'frr,
including an Estimate of Phrenology (Lond. 1861). Sir William Hamilton's objections,
mostly published many years since, and which are now appended to his 7,rv,';/ /•,*»// M, t-
aphyxics, i. 404 (Edin. 1859), weVe discussed in the Phren. Jour., vols. iv. and v., and
are remarked on by Mr. Combe in his work On the Relation between Science and Ileltyion,
pref., p. xvii. (Edin. 1857).
PHRYGA NEA. See CADDICE.
PHEYG'IA, a country in Asia Minor, the extent and boundaries of which varied very
much at different periods of ancient history. In pre-historic ages it is believed to have
comprised the greater part of the peninsula ; but at the time of the Persian invasion it
was limited to the districts known as Lesser Phrygia and Greater Phrygia — the former
stretching from the Hellespont to Troas (inclusive), the latter occupying a central portion
of Asia Minor. The inland boundaries of Lesser Phrygia are not well ascertained; but
Greater Phrygia was bounded on the n. by Bithynia and Paphlagonia, on the e. by ( ap
padocia and Lycaouia, on the s. by the Taurus range, and on the w. by the maritime
countries of Mysia, Lydia, and Caria. At a later period it was considerably reduced by
the formation of Galatia (q.v.) and the extension of Lycaonia. Phrygia was in genera! a
high and somewhat barren plateau, though its pastures supported immense flocks of
sheep, noted for the fineness of their wool, as indeed they still are. The most fertile part
was the valley of the Sangarius, but the most beautiful and populous district was the
s.w., at the base of the Taurus, where the Meander and other streams had thefr rise.
Tl^e mountains and streams yielded gold; Phrygian marble was anciently celebrated, and
the cultivation of the vine appears to have been extensively carried on.
The origin of the Phrygians is one of the mysteries of ancient ethnology. Some think
that they were settled at a very remote period in Europe, and that they emigrated from
Thrace into Asia Minor; and Xauthus, Herodotus, and Strabo certainly speak of
Phryganea.
Phylactery.
such a migration. Xanthus places it after the Trojan war; but if there be any truth in
the tradition at all, it can only refer to a return of some tribes to the cradle of the race
in the valley of the Sangarius, for the Phrygians were regarded as one of the oldest
races (if not the very oldest) in Asia Minor. Instead of seeking for their origin in Thrace,
the best classical ethnologists seek for it in the neighboring highlands of Armenia,
whence the Phrygians are believed to have spread, at a period far before the dawn of
authentic history, over the greater part of the peninsula, and thence to have crossed into
Europe, and occupied the greater part of Thrace, Macedonia, and Illyria; while the
mythic Pelops, who colonized the Peloponnesus, and gave it his name, was said by tradi-
tion to be a Phrygian. In both Greek and Latin poetry the Trojans are also called
Phrygians, and the same name is applied to other nations of A*ia Minor, such as the
Mydoniaus and Mysians. In Thrace, too, mnii}r of the names of places were the same us
. in Troas; while it has now been demonstrated that the Armenian, Phrygian, and Greek
languages are akin to each other, so that the people speaking the two tormer tongues,
like those speaking the latter, belong to the great Aryan branch of the human family.
The Phrygians began to decline in power and numbers after the Trojan war. They
were— if we can make anything like historic fact out of the mythic narratives of that
early time — pushed out of Europe by the Illyrians in the *iorth and the Macedonians in the
south, while in Asia Minor the rise of the Semitic Assyrians also depressed and weakened
them by breaking up the integrity of their territory. The whole of the s. coast of the
peninsula was occupied by Semitic invaders; theLydians and Cappadocians were of Syro-
Pheniciau origin; and Strabo speaks of structures of Semiramis as far n. as Poutus.
Their language, manners, and religion even, underwent radical changes — hence the
great difficulty experienced in ascertaining their original characteristics. After being
subjugated by Croesus they passed, on the dissolution of the Lydian monarchy, under the
sway of Cyrus; and it is only from this date that they are brought within the pale of
positive history. Their country formed part of the empire of Alexander, and subse-
quently belonged to the Syrian Seleucidae, to the kings of Pergamum, and to the Romans,
who obtained possession of it 133 B.C.
The Phrygians had not a warlike reputation among the ancients; but though in later
times commonly described as indolent and stupid, yet, like negroes, they were of a mys-
tic and excitable disposition. Their religious orgies, accompanied by wild music and
dancing, are frequently mentioned by classic writers, and appear to have exercised a
very material influence on Hellenic worship. Cybele, "the great mother of the gods,"
was the chief Phrygian divinity; others were Sabazius (Dionysus), Olympus, Hyagnis,
Lityerses, and Mar^yas.
PHRY'NE, one of the most celebrated courtesans of antiquity, was the daughter of
Epiclcs, and was born at Thespiae in,Bceotia. Her position in life was originally very
humble, and she is said to have at one time earned a livelihood by gathering capers; but,
as the fame of her marvelous beauty spread, she obtained numerous lovers, who lavished
gifts on her so profusely that she became enormously rich. In proof of this, the story
goes that she offered to rebuild the walls of Thebes, if the citizens would allow her to
place this inscription on them: "Alexander destroyed them; Phryne, the courtesan,
rebuilt them." The Thebans declined the proposal. Her enemies accused her of pro-
faning the Eleusinian mysteries. Summoned before the tribunal of the Heliasts, she was
defended by the rhetorician Hyperides, one of her lovers, who, perceiving that his elo-
quence failed to convince the judges, threw back her veil, and displayed her naked
shoulders and bosom. She was immediately acquitted, and carried in triumph to the
temple of Venus. The famous picture of Apelles (q.v.) — the "Venus Anadyomene" —
is said to have been a representation of Phryne. Praxiteles, also a lover of hers,
employed her as a model for his " Cnidian Venus."
PHTHALIC ACID. See NAPHTHALIC GROUP, ante.
PIITHIOTIS, in ancient geography, the s. part of Thessaly, from the Narthacian
mountains on the n. to the Maliac gulf on the s. , and from the Pagassean gulf on the e.
to Dolopia on the west. Its inhabitants were Achaeans, and their most important towns
were Larissa, Haluc Itonus, and Thebse. The name cornes from the Homeric Phtlria,
which included, however, a much larger portion of Thessaly. Part of the ancient Phthi-
9tis constitutes the modern eparchy of the same name.
PHTHISIS. See CONSUMPTION.
PHULOW'DI, a t. of India, in the Rajpoot state of Jodhpoor, in lat. 27° 8' n., and
long. 72° 28' east. It is built on a rising ground, near the bank of a stream, which, after
a course of no great length, loses itself amidst the sands of tb<e desert. Pop. about
15,000.
PHULWARA TREE. See BASSIA.
PHYCOL'OGY, See ALG/E, ante.
PHYLAC TERY (from Gr. phylasso, to guard), an amulet or charm worn by the Greeks
against demoniac influences. Certain strips of parchment, inscribed with certain passages
from the Scripture (Exodus xiii. 1-10, 11-16; Deuteronomy vi. 4-9, xi. 13-21), inclosed
in small cases, and fastened to the forehead and the left arm (ttfilliri) — also, in another
form, to door-posts (mfsusah) — in use with the Jews, in imagined accordance with Exo-
Phylaa. G* a
Physicians. ° < °
dus xiii. 9-16, etc., are also called in the New Testament phylacteries. The writ ins; of
these, is in the hands of privileged scribes (soferiiii) only, and many and scrupulous aie
the ordinances which they have to follow in the execution of this task. Only vellum "i'
a very superior kind is to be used; the characters must be traced with the greatest rare;
no erasures or corrections arc allowed; the lines and letters must be of equal length, etc.
The case in which they are inclosed consists of several' layers of calfskin or parchment.
It may be observed, by the way, that not the wearing, but the exaggerated form of the
phylacteries worn by some of the Pharisees, is inveighed against by Christ
PHYL/E, a Greek word, meaning tribes, applied specially to the divisions of Attica,
originally four, but made ten by Clcistheiies after the Pisistratidse were driven from
Athens. The number was still later raised to twelve. Kach ////.y/V had a leader, or phv-
larch, who possessed certain authority, both 'of a civil and military nature, and each tribe
sent 50 representatives to the Athenian senate. In time the civil duties, such a< presiding
over the assemblies, were taken from the phylarch and given to an ollicer called the
epimeletes.
PHYLLOSO MA. See GLASS-CRABS.
PHYLLOSTOM'ID^, a family of insectivorous bats (formerly classed only as a
genus), comprising the vampire bat (q.v.). As their name indicates, they arc distin-
guished by certain leaf-like nasal appendages. They are all of large size, atid are natives
of the Pacific region of North and South America.
PHYLLOXE'RA (Gr. phytton, a leaf, and xeros, dry), a genus of insects of the order
Tiemiptera, sub-order Jionwptera, the type of a family, phyUoxeridas, allied to the aplux (q. v. )
and coccus (q.v.) families. The ptyUoxerida attach themselves to various plants, on the
juice of which they feed, and which they often injure or destroy. P. /v^/,///v> is the
name given to an insect of this family which, since 18G5. has committed great devasta-
tion iiTthe vineyards of France, and seems to have been imported from .North America.
Great numbers of this insect appear on the roots of the vine, and their puncturings are
so numerous and incessant that the roots can no longer supply nutriment to the plant,
•which accordingly fades and dies. The P. ntflnfrij- has also been oloerved on the leaves
of the vine. It measures, when fully grown, only about ^ of an inch in length. It is
provided with a long, slender proboscis, which lies in a groove in its under side. Yellow
in summer, it becomes brown at the end of autumn. Another variety, the OAK PHYL-
LOXERA (P. quercus), appears on the leaves of oak trees.
PHYSA'LIA, a genus of acalepJtce, having an oval or oblong body, which consi-is in
great part of an air sac, so that the creature floats on the surface of the sea. with numer-
ous appendages of various kinds hanging from its underside. The shorter of these
appendages are suckers, which are kept in constant motion for procuring prey, and which
seem also to be employed in extracting nutriment fr6m it, as the physalia has no i
mouth nor alimentary canal. Among these shorter appendages, also, some seem to be
devoted to the purpose of reproduction by germination. The longer appendages, which
are extremely long — those of a physalia 5 or 6 in. in length being capable of extension
to 12 or 18 ft. — are rope-like tentacles, possessing a remarkable stinging power, which is
probably used for benumbing prey. It is a common trick with sailors to make a novice
pick up* a physalia, the beautiful colors of which always attract admiration. The sting-
ing power is, however, such as not merely to produce local pain, but constitutional irri-
tation. It was at one time supposed that the physalia has the power of expelling air
from its bladder, and sinking at pleasure in the sea; but the observations of Mr. Bennett
(Gatlwinga of a Naturalist in Australia) render it more probable that it always floats on
the surface, and is driven about by the winds. The name Portuguese man-of-war is
often popularly given to the species of physalia, and particularly to P. pelagira. The
physalm inhabit the seas of warm latitudes, but shoals of them are occasionally driven
to the British coasts.
PHYSALIS,a genus of plants of the natural order solanacea, remarkable for the calyx,
\vhich becomes large and inflated a'ter flowering is over, and incloses the ripened berry.
The species are annual and perennial herbaceous plants and shrubs, natives of temperate
and warm climates, and widely scattered over the world. The COMMON \\IVHK
CHERRY (P. aHceken(jt) is a perennial, native of the south of Europe and great part of
Asia, growing in vineyards and bushy places. It is not a native of Britain, but is pretty
frequent in flower-gardens. The berries have a sweetish subacid taste; the}' are seldom
eaten in Britain, but very generally in many parts of the continent of Europe. They
fare refrigerant and diuretic, and were formerly employed in medicine on account of
these properties. The DOWNY WINTER CHERRY, or PERUVIAN GOOSEBERRY. (P. ])»}><>*-
cens or P. Peniriana), is an annual American species, densely clothed with down; with
heart-shaped leaves, yellow flowers, and yellowish berries, which are eatable.
PHYSE TER. See CACHOLOT.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. See GEOGRAPHY.
PHYSICIANS. See MEDICAL PRACTITIONERS, in law; MEDICINE, HISTORY OF:
ante.
mPhylae.
Physicians.
PHYSI'CIANS, THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF (of London), was founded in 1518 by the
munificence of Thomas Linacre, a priest and distinguished physician, who was born in
1460, and died in 1524. In 1518, through the influence of cardinal Wolsey, he obtained
from Henry VIII. letters-patent granting to John Chambre, himself, and Ferdinandus
do Victoria, the acknowledged physicians to the king, together with Xic'iolas Halsewell,
John Francis, Robert Yaxley, and all other men of the same faculty in London, to be
incorporated as one body and perpetual community or college. They were permitted
to hold assemblies, and to make statutes and ordinances for the government and correc-
tion of the college, and of all who exercised the same faculty in London and within,
seven miles thereof, with an interdiction from practice to any individual unless pre
viously licensed by the president and college. Liuacre was the first president, and heir
the office till his death in 1524. The meetings of the college were held at his house in
Knightrider street, which he bequeathed to the college, and which, until the year I860,
continued in the possession of that body. About the time of the accession of .Charles I.
the college, requiring more accommodation, took a house at the bottom of Amen cor->
tier, which was subsequently purchased by Dr. Harvey, and in 1649 was given by him
to his colleagues. This was the seat of the college till 1666, when it was destroyed by
the great fire of London. A new college was then built in Warwick lane, and opened
in 1674 under the presidency of Harvey's friend, sir George Ent; and here the meetings
were held till 1825, when the present edifice in Pall Mall e. was opened under the presi-
dency of sir Henry Halford.
The reason for forming the incorporation, as set forth in the original charter, is " to
check men who profess physic rather from avarice than in good faith, to the damage of
credulous people;" and the king (following the exam pie of other nations) founds "a col-
lege of the learned men w,ho practice physic in London and within seven miles, in the
hope that the ignorant and rash practicers be restrained or punished." The charter fur-
ther declares that "no one shall exercise the faculty of physic in the said city, or within
seven miles, without the college license, under a penalty of £5;" that, in addition to the
president," four censors be elected annually to have correction of physicians in London
and seven miles' circuit, and of their medicines, and to punish by fine and imprison-
ment;" and that " the president and college be exempt from serving on juries." Four
years later, in 1522-23, an act was passed confirming the charter, and enacting that " the
six persons beforesaid named as principals and first-named of the said commonalty and
fellowship, shall choose to them two men of the said commonalty from henceforward to
be called and cleapecl elects, and that the same elects yearly choose one of them to be
president of the said commonalty;" and further directing that, in case of a vacancy by
death or otherwise, the surviving elects shall choose successors.
In 1540 an act was passed iu which it was declared explicitly that " surgery is a part
of physic, and may be practiced by any of the company or fellowship of physicians" — a
doctrine which in later times has been totally repudiated by the collegiate body, who,
until a few years ago, would not admit to their privileges a member of the Royal college
of surgeons, unless he formally resigned his surgical diploma. Other acts were passed
in 1553, 1814, and 1858; the last, known as " the medical act, "providing for the granting
of a new charter to the college, which was obtained in 1862. Finally, in 1860, "an act
to amend the medical act" was passed, which repeals the provisions of the act of 1522-23
as to the elects, and declares that the presidency shall in future be an annual office, open
to the fellows at large, who shall also be the electing body. As at present constituted,
the college consists of fellows, members, licentiates, and extra-licentiates. The fellows
are elected from members of at least four years' standing, who have distinguished them-
selves in the practice of medicine, or in the pursuit of medical or general science or lit-
erature. The government of the college is vested in the president and fellows only.
The present members consist of persons who had been admitted, before Feb. 16, 1859,
licentiates of the college; of extra-licentiates who have complied with certain conditions;
and of persons who have attained the age of 25 years, who do not dispense or supply
medicine, and who, after being duly proposed, have satisfied the college "touching their
knowledge of medical and general science and literature," and that they have "been
engaged in the study of physic during a period of five years, of which four years at
least shall have been passed in a medical school recognized by the college." No candi-
date is admissible if engaged in trade or connected with a druggist's business, or who
even practices medicine in partnership with another practitioner, so long as the partner-
ship lasts, or who refuses to publish, when required, the nature and composition of any
remedy he makes use of. The members are alone eligible for the fellowship. They con-
stitute a portion of the corporation, in so far as they have the use of the library and
museum, and the privilege of admission to all lectures; but they do not take any share
in the government, or attend or vote at meetings. The examiners for the membership
are the president and censors. The licentiates are not members of the corporation ; they
have access to the museum, lectures, and reading-room, but are not allowed to take
books away from the library; they may compound and dispense medicines for patients
under their own care, and in their qualifications very much resemble those who have
diplomas both from the college of surgeons and the apothecaries' hall. They must be
21 years of age, and must have been engaged in professional studies for four years
before being admitted to examination. The fee for admission as a fellow is 30 guineas,
Physicians.
Piacenza.
exclusive of stamp-duty; the member's fee is also 30 guineas, and the licentiate's 15
guineas.
The following by-laws of the college should be generally known: 1. No fellow of
the college is entitled to sue for professional aid rendered by him. This by-law does not
extend to members. 2. No fellow, member, or licentiate of the college is entitled to
assume the title of doctor of medicine unless he be a graduate in medicine of a univer-
sity. 3. No fellow or member of the college shall officiously, or under color of a benevo-
lent purpose, offer medical aid to, or prescribe for, any patient whom he knows to be
under the care of another legally qualified medical practitioner.
PHYSICIANS OF EDINBURGH, THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF, had its rise in 1617. in an
attempt to incorporate the practitioners of medicine, and raise the standard of the pro-
fession. King James I. of England looked favorably on the proposal, and granted an
order for its establishment; Cromwell in like manner issued a patent in its favor, but
both were- frustrated by the religious dissensions of the times, and it was not until 1681
that the body became incorporated under a charter from Charles II. A new charter with
many important provisions was issued in 1861. To the physicians belongs the honor of
having suggested in 1725 the plan of an infirmary in Edinburgh for the sick poor, which
has developed into the present magnificent institution. From the first they undertook
its medical charge gratuitously. The Royal Edinburgh asylum for the insane at Morn-
ingside was also first suggested by them in 1791. The college, which in ls?S) had over
160 fellows, possesses a library of upwards of 15,000 volumes; also a valuable and inter-
esting museum of matcria medica. An important arrangement was made in 1859
between the Edinburgh college of surgeons (q.v.) and that of the physicians, which
had long been on hostile terms, making it competent for the two to combine, in
order, by a joint examination, to give a double qualification, embracing medicine and
surgery.
PHYSICK, PHILIP SYNG, 1768-1837; b. Philadelphia; son of an Englishman who
had the management of the estates of the Perm family; educated at the Friends' acad-
emy, and studied medicine. In 1788 he went to Europe, studied with John Hunter, and
was admitted to St. George's hospital to take charge of indoor patients in 1790. In the
same year he received a diploma from the Royal college of surgeons in London, and
remained with Dr. Hunter, as assistant, for one }rear. He attended lectures at the uni-
versity, visited the Royal infirmary at Edinburgh, returning after a year to Philadelphia.
In 1793 he was appointed physician to the yellow-fever hospital at Bush Hill; in 1794,
one of the surgeons of the Pennsylvania hospital; and the following year, at the recur-
rence of the epidemic, he was placed once more in charge of the Bush Hill hospital. In
1801-16 he was surgeon at the Philadelphia almshouse infirmary; in 1805, professor of
surgery in the university of Pennsylvania; in 1819 called to the chair of anatomy, which
he filled until 1831; in 1821, consulting surgeon to the institution for the blind; in is1,' 4,
president of the Philadelphia medical society. In 1825 he became a member of the IJoyal
academy of medicine in France; in 1836, honorable fellow of the Royal medical and chi-
rurgical society of London. He contributed valuable papers to the best medical journals
of the day, and as a lecturer, theorist, and practical surgeon was held in high esteem.
PHYSIC NUT, Curcas, a genus of plants of the natural order eupliorMacccc, having a
6-partite calyx, 5 petals, and 8 to 10 unequal-united stamens. The species are not numer-
ous. They are tropical shrubs or trees, having alternate, stalked, angled, or lobed
leaves, and corymbs of flowers on long stalks; and notable for the acrid oil of their
seeds. The COMMON PHYSIC NUT of the East Indies (C. pitrgans), now also common in
the West Indies and other warm parts of the world, is a small tree or bush, with a milky
juice. It is used for fences in many tropical countries, and serves the puqwse well,
being much branched and of rapid growth. The seeds are not unpleasant to the taste,
but abound in a very acrid fixed oil, which makes them powerfully emetic and> purga-
tive, or in large doses poisonous. The expressed oil, commonly called jatropha oil, U
used in medicine like croton oil, although less powerful; it is also used in lamps. — :The
FRENCH PHYSIC NUT, or SPANISH PHYSIC NUT (C.multifidus), a shrub, native of the
tropical parts gf America, with many-lobed leaves, yields a purgative acrid oil, called
oil of pinhoen. To this genus belongs the PINONCILLO (C. hbatun).of Peru, the seed of
which is eaten when roasted, and has an agreeable flavor, although when raw it is a
violent purgative. When an incision is made in the stem of this tree, a clear bright
liquid flows out, which after some time becomes black and horny. It is a very power-
ful caustic, and retains this property for years.
PHYSICS, or PHYSICAL SCIENCE (Gr. pliyxikos, natural), comprehends in its widest
sense all that is classed under the various branches of mixed or applied mathematics.
natural philosophy, chemistry, and natural history, which branches include the whole
of our knowledge regarding the material universe. In its narrower sense it is equiva-
lent to natural philosophy (q.v.), which, until of late years, was the term more commonly
used in Great Britain, and denotes all knowledge of the properties of bodies as bodies,
or the science of phenomena unaccompanied by essential cnange in the objects: while
chemistry is concerned with the composition of bodies, and the phenomena siccom-
panied by essential change in the objects; and natural history, in its widest sense,
includes all the phenomena of the animal, vegetable, and mineral world. The applica-
Phycisians.
Fiuceiiza.
tion of the term physic to a branch of this last — viz., the science of medicine — is pecul-
iar to the English language.
PHYSIOGNOMY (Gr.), the art of judging of the character from the external appear-
ance, especially from the countenance. The art is founded upon the belief, which IMS
long and generally prevailed, that there is an intimate connection between the features
antf expression of the face and the qualities and habits of the mind; and every man is
conscious of instinctively drawing conclusions in this way for himself with more or le-s
confidence, and of acting upon them to a certain extent in the affairs of life. Yet the
attempt to reach this conclusion by the application of certain rules, and thus to rai.-e
the art of reading the human countenance to the dignity of a science, although often
made, has never yet been very successful. Comparisons have been instituted for this
purpose between the physiognomies of human beings and of species of animals nr'ed
for the possession of peculiar qualities, as the wolf, Ihe fox. etc. This was first begun
bv Delia Porta, a Neapolitan, who died in 1615, and was afterwards carried further by
T*ischbein. The subject of physiognomy was eagerly prosecuted by Thomas Campa-
nella; and when his labors had nearly been forgotten, attention was again strongly
attracted to it, although only for a short time, by the writings of Lavater (q.v.).
PHYSIOLOGY (Gr. physis, nature; logos, a discourse) is the science which treats of
the phenomena which normally present themselves in living beings, of the laws or prin-
ciples to which they are subject, and of the causes to which they are attributable. It is
in short, the science of life, and hence the term biology (Gr. bios, life) has been adopted by
some writers in place of physiology. Biology is, however, regarded by some authors
(and, we think, correctly) as including in its scope more than physiology, as will be seen
from the following extract from prof. Greene's remarks " on the principles of zoology."
" Biology," he observes, "is that branch of scientific inquiry which undertakes to inves-
tigate the nature and relations of living bodies. Every living being may be regarded
from two points of view, which it is necessary to distinguish clearly from one another.
The tirst of these exhibits to us living beings as possessing definite forms, which, in
most instances, are found to be made up of a number of dissimilar parts or organs;
while the second takes cognizance of the vital actions or functions which these organs
perform. That department of biology which determines the former is termed morphol-
of/y; that which investigates the latter, physiology. Hence the nature of living beings
is twofold — morphological and physiological." — A Manual of the Protozoa, 1859, pp. 9-10.
See BIOLOGY.
PlIYTEL'EPIIAS. See IVORY, VEGETABLE, ante.
PHYTOLAC CA, a genus of exogenous plants, of the natural order phytolaccacea. This
order contains about 70 known species, half shrubby and herbaceous plants, natives of
wann parts of Asia, Africa, and America, and is nearly allied to the order chenopodiacea>,
from which it is distinguished by the frequently numerous carpels, the corolla-like
perianth when the carpel is single, and the stamens either exceed the number of the seg-
ments of the perianth, or alternate with them. It is also nearly allied to potygonece. The
genus phytolacca has for its fruit a berry with 8 to 10 cells, each cell one-seeded. P.
decandra, the poke or pocan, a native of North America, now naturalized in some parts
of s. of Europe, is sometimes cultivated for its young shoots, which, when blanched, are
eaten like asparagus. Yet the leaves are acrid, and the root is an emetic almost or alto-
gether equal to ipecacuanha. The root is also externally applied to cure itch and ring-
worm. A tincture of the ripe berries, which are fully larger than black currants, and
grow in racemes, is efficacious in chronic rheumatism and syphilitic pains. By some it
is held to be more valuable than guaiacum. The pulp of the berries is employed in the
adulteration of wine. — The young shoots of P. acinosa are boiled and eaten in the Him-
alayas, those of P. octandra in Cayenne, and a Chinese species has recently been mtro
duced into British gardens for the same use under the name of P. esculenta.
PHYTOL'OGY, another name for botany, not much in use.
PHYTOZO A (Gr. phyton, a plant; zoon, an animal), also called antherozoids, are minute
bodies produced amidst a mucilaginous fluid in the antheridia of many cryptogamous
plants (algae, hepaticse, mosses, ferns), which are either aquatic or delight in moist situ-
ations. In some many-celled antheridia of the higher cryptogamous plants each cell is
devoted to the production of a single phytozoon. When the antheridiumis mature, and
bursts, the phytozoa move for a short time by means of cilia — a provision, apparently,
for their reaching the pistillidia. the spores contained in which — according to an opinion
rapidly gaining ground among botanists — they are destined to fertilize. Great diversi-
ties exist in the phytozoa of different cryptogamous plants. Those which, as lichens,
live in dry situations, have no phytozoa. although it is supposed that they have organs
destined to the same purpose, but destitute of the power of motion by cilia.
PIACEN'ZA, a city of n. Italy, in the province of the same name, on the right
bank of the Po, 2 m. below the confluence of the Trebbia with that river, and 36 m.
w.n w. of the city of Parma. Beautifully situated on a fine plain, confined on the s. by
well-cultivated hills, the city itself is gloomy and desolate in appearance. Its street are
broad and regular— that called the NrtHfartf is one of the most beautiful in Italy— but
many of them are unfrequented and grass-grown. It contains numerous palaces, and
Pincenza.
Piano.
about 50 churches. The cathedral, an edifice in the ancient Lombard style, founded in
the llth c., is famous for the richly-curious and grotesque ciiaractcr of its internal deco-
rations, for itfl numerous sculptures, its paintings, and for a number of frescos of great
grandeur, by Caniccio, Guercino, and others. '1'lie church of Sanf Anionio. the original
cathedral of Piacen/a, was founded in :-J24 A.n., but has been several limes rebuilt.
Ainoiiir the other principal buildings are tin' pala/./o Faincse. founded in 1558, and once
u .sumptuous edifice, but which lias been long in use as a barrack; the pala//:> del Com-
mune, and the Collegio del Mercanli are tine monuments of arU The principal square
is the I'ia/vca Cavalli, so called from the colossal bron/.e equestrian statues of the dukes
Alessandro and Rannuccio Farncse. This town occupies by far the most important
position in a military point of view, in Italy — a fact which was fully appreciated by those
who fortified it with solid walls and a strain;- castle, which, till 1SVJ, were guarded by the
Ausirians. On being forced from the city by the war of 1859, the- Austrian* did noi destroy
the works, and the Italian government has strengthened and extended them by the for-
mation of externally defended works, and of a formidable intrenched camp, which unites
and protects the other works on the right bank of the Po. Manufactures of silks, fus-
tians, linens, hats, etc., are carried on to some extent. The population, which had
rather decreased during the previous 10 years, was 34.9S5 in 1872.
Piacenza, called by the Romans Pi<trt itiiu, on account of its pleasing situation, is
first mentioned in 219 B.C., when a Roman colony was settled there. In 2<iu n.<\ it
was plundered and burned by the Gauls, but rapidly recovered its prosperity, and was
long an important military station. Piaceu/a was the western terminus of the great
^Emilian road, which began at Ariminum on the Adriatic. In later history it pla)s an
important part as one of the independent Lombard cities.
PIACENZA, DUKE OF. See LEHRUN, CHARLES FRANCOIS.
PI' A MA'TER. See NERVOUS SYSTEM.
PIA'NA DE' GEE CI, a t. of Sicily, in the province of Palermo, 10 m. s.w. from
Palermo, on one of the head-waters of Beliei. It was the chief colony of the Albanians
who settled in Sicily in the 15th c.. taking refuge from Turkish tyranny. Twenty-three
such colonies were established in Calabria, but only four in Sicily, where kin^ .John 11.
granted them land, and guaranteed to them the free exercise of their religion. Tiif
colony at Piana was founded in 1-188. The descendants of the colonists still follow tin-
Greek ritual, and adhere to all the customs of the eastern church, although acknowledg-
ing the supremacy of the pope. The Albanian dress is partiaLy retained among the
poorer classes, and particularly among the women. The innabitants of Piana are iu< isl ly
husbandmen and shepherds. The houses are generally mean buildings of a single stoiy.
Pop. 7,270.
PIA'NO (Ital. soft), abbreviated p, is used in music to denote that the strain where the
indication occurs is to be played with less than the average intensity of force : }>t>, or /i/tf. for
pianissimo, signifies very soft, or as soft as possible. In contradistinction fro. a jn'ti no, forte,
abbreviated/, is used to denote a more than usual force; andjf, orfff, forff/i/.^i/.-nt. a
still greater degree of force. The gradual transition, ivovn piano to forte is indicated by
the sign < ; from forte to piano by the sign > .
PIANO-FORTE (Ital. piano, soft, and/orte, loud) a stringed musical instrument played
by keys, developed out of the clavichord and harpsichord (q.v.), from which the piano-
forte differs principally in the introduction of hammers, to put the strings in vibration,
connected with the keys by a mechanism that enables the player to modify at will the
intensity of the sounds; whence the name of the instrument.
The idea of the piano-forte was conceived independently about the same time by
three persons in different parts of Europe — a German organist of the name of Schroter;
Marius, a French harpsichord-maker; and Bartolomeo Cristofali, a harpsichord-ma!
Padua. Priority in point of invention (1714) is due to the Italian maker. Sehri'Mer's
discovery was followed up in Germany by Silbermann of Strasburg, Spat of Ra:i-
Stein of Augsburg, and others. The first piano-forte seen in England was mad;; at
Rome by father Wood, an English monk there. A few German manufacture;-
workmen settling in London, gave an impetus to the new instrument. The English
piano-forte has been brought to its present state of perfection by Broadwoo 1, Stodart,
Col lard, Wornum, Hopkinson, and others. Erard and Pet /old made many improvements
in France; Germany has long been famous for its pianos: American makers have lately
become well known. The compass of the early piano-forte was, like that of the harpsi-
chord, 4 to 5 octaves, and has gradually increased to 6J, or 7 octaves, or occasionally
more.
The most natural of the various forms which the instrument assumes is that of the
grand piano-forte, derived from the harpsichord, with the strings placed horizontally,
and parallel to the keys. The strings are stretched across a compound frame of wood
and metal, composed of bars, rods, and strcngtheners of various kinds — appliances
necessary to resist the enormous tension. This framework includes a wooden sound-
board. The mechanism by which hammers are connected with the key- is e;,!I. d the
act/on of the instrument. In the earliest piano-fortes, the hammer was raised from below
by a button attached to an upright wire nxed on the back-end of the key. The impulse
A O 1 Piacenza.
Piano.
given to the hammer caused it to strike the string, after which it immediately fell back
' on the button, leaving the string free to vibrate. This was called the single action. As
the hammer, when resting on the button with the key pressed down, was thus neces-
sarily at a little distance from the string, the effectual working of this action required
that a certain impetus should be communicated to the hammer to enable it to touch the
string. Hence it was impossible to play very piano, and it was found that if the ham-
mer was adjusted'so as to be too close to the string when resting on the button, it was
apt not to leave the string till after the blow had been given, thereby deadening the
sound. This defect was remedied by a jointed upright piece called the Jiop'per, attached
to the back end of the key, in place of the wire and button. When the key was pressed
down, the hopper, engaging in a notch in the lower side of the hammer, lifted it so close
to the hammer, that the lightest possible pressure caused it to strike; and at his
moment, when the key was still pressed down, the jointed part of the hopper, coming
in contact with a fixed button as it rose, escaped from the notch, and let the hammer fall
clear away from the string. To prevent the hammer from rebounding on the string, a
projection called the check was fixed on the end of the key, which caught the edge of the
hammer as it fell, and held it firmly enough to prevent it from rising. A necessary part
of the action is the damper, which limits the duration of each particular note, so as to
cause it to cease to sound as soon as the pressure is removed from the key. It consists
of a piece of leather resting on the top of the string, and connected with the back part
of the key by a vertical wire. When any key is pressed down, its damper is raised off
the string, so as to allow the sound produced to be clear and open; but immediately on
the finger being lifted off the key, the damper-wire falls, and the damper again presses
on the string, muffling and stopping the vibration. The whole range of dampers may,
when required, be raised by the use of the damper pedal, so as to prolong the sound of
one note into another.
One further frequent and important addition to the action may be alluded to. In the
mechanism above described, the key must rise to its position of rest before the hopper
will again engage in the notch of the hammer for another stroke; hence, a note cannot
be repeated until time has been allowed for the full rise of the key. The repetition action
is a contrivance, varying in different instruments, for getting rid of this defect, by hold-
ing up the hammer at a certain height while the key is returning.
Great cliff erence of detail exists in the actions of different makers. Some are -more
complicated than others; bui in all are to be found the same essential parts, only modified
in shape and arrangement. The subjoined figure represents one of the simplest grand
piano-fc.'te actions now in ase. A is
the key, B the lever which raises the
hammer, C the hammer, D the string,
and E the damper; F is the button
which catches the lever after it has
struck the hammer, G the check, H
the damper pedal-lifter, I the spring,
and K. K, K are rails and sockets.
Formerly the strings of the piano-
forte were all of thin wire, now the
bass-strings are very thick, and coated
with a fine coil of copper-wire; and
the thickness, strength, and tension of the strings all diminish from the lower to the upper
notes. A grand piano- forte has three strings to each of the upper and middle notes, and
now, generally, only two to the lower notes, and one to the lowest octave. When the soft
pedal is pressed down the.hammers are shifted sideways, so as. to strike only two strings
instead of three, or one string instead of two.
Besides the grand, the kinds of piano-forte in use are the sqiiare, in which the strings
are placed still in a horizontal position, but obliquely to the keys: and the upright, in
which the strings run vertically from top to bottom of the instrument. The difference in
form necessitates alterations in the details of the action, but the general principle is the
same.
The piano-forte has in modern times attained a wide-spread popularity beyond that of
any other musical instrument. It possesses nearly all the powers of expression of any
other instrument; on no other, except the organ, can we execute such complete succes-
sions of harmonies; no other represents the orchestra so well, with the advantage that the
various parts adapted to it are brought out by the same performer. In all cities of the
civilized world there are numerous manufacturers of the piano-forte, employing multi-
tudes of workmen: and even in the secondary towns of Europe the number of makers is
daily increasing. In England the manufacturers who have for some time past enjoyed
the highest repute are Messrs. Broadwood, Collard & Co., and Erard; but other makers
are rapidly approaching them in excellence. Till lately the German makers adopted a
much less perfect action than the English, producing a very different touch and tone;
but they are now largely using the English action, which is spreading over the continent.
Music for the piano-forte is written in two staves, and on the treble and bass clefs. Many
of the most eminent musicians have devoted themselves to composing for the piano-forte,
and some composers of note, as Hummel, Czerny, Kalkbrenuer, Chopin, Thalberg, Liszt,
Piano. AftO
Fiazri.
and Heller, have almost entirely confined themselves to tlmt instrument. See Rimbault,
The Piano-forte, Us Origin, Progress, and Conxt ruction (Loud. 1860).
PIANOFORTE (ant<). The manufacture of pianos in the United States -was first
undertaken by Jonas Chickeriug in 1822. Since his time great progress has been made
by American manufacturers in perfecting tliis instrument, especially through the inven-
tion of the, iron frame and the introduction of the overstrun.ir scale. In ls"><> the manu
facture of grand pianos was begun by Steinwajifi Sons, ;ind upright pianos are now
made a specialty by a large number of linns. Among Amer'uan pianos \\hich have
made a reputation are those of Chickeriug, Stein way, Weber, Decker, Steck, Knabe, and
Haloes,
PI'ABISTS, called also familiarly Scolopini, or " Brethren of the Pious Schools," a relig-
ious congregation for the education of the poor, founded at Rome in the last year of the
16th century. The originator of this institute was a Spanish priest, named Joseph of
Calasan/u, who, while in Rome, was struck with the imperfect and insullicienl character
of the education which then prevailed, even for the children of the higher clashes and
conceived the idea of organizing a body for the purpose of meeting this want, which t lie-
Jesuit society had already partially supplied. The school which he himself, in con junc-
tion with a few friends, "opened, rapidly increased in number to Kid. and ultimately to
700 pupils; and in 1617 the brethren, who, under the direction of Joseph, had associated
themselves for the work, were approved as a religious congregation by Pan! V. (<\.\.),
who entered warmly into this and all other projects of reformation. In 1621 Gregory
XV. approved the congregation as a religious order. The constitution of the order was
several times modified by successive popes, down to the time of Innocent XI. Its tield
of operations has, of course, been confined to European countries; and at present it can
reckon communities in Italy, Austria, Spain, Hungary, and Poland. In Italy, during
the revolutionary wars, the Piarists received into their ranks many members of tin
pressed society of the Jesuits. lu Spain, their establishments were spared, on the LM-H
eral suppression of religious orders in 1836. In Poland, eleven houses still were in ( xist-
ence in 1832. The number of members in Hungary is said to be about 400, and the
order is also found in the German and Slavonic parts of the Austro -Hungarian empire.
PIAS ABA, or PIACABA, a remarkable vegetable fiber which, during the last 20 > ears,
has become an article of much importance in this country. It is procured from Brazil,
chiefly from the ports of Para and Maranham, and is produced by one or more species
of palm. That which furnishes the greater part is the coquilla-nut palm (Attuk-n /' :nif
era); but Mr. Wallace states that much of it is procured from a species of LeopoMinta,
which he has named L, piassaba. The fiber is produced by the stalks of the large fan-
like leaves. When the leaves decay, the petioles or stalks split up into bundles of cylin-
drical fibers of a dark-brown color, and of a hard texture, varying in thickness from
that of a horse-hair up to that of a small crow-quill. This material has been found of
great utility in making brushes of a coarse kind, particularly those required to sweep the
street; and for this purpose they have almost superseded birch-brooms, split whale bom;
brushes, and other similar means for scavengers' work. The coarsest fibers are best for
such purposes, and the finer ones are found very valuable for finer kinds of brushes.
PIASTER (Gr. and Lat. emplastron, a plaster; transferred in the Romanic langi;
to anything spread out or flattened, a plate, a coin), a Spanish silver coin which has been
extensively adopted by other nations. It was formerly divided into 8 silver reals, and
hence was termed a piece of eight, which name was invariably applied to it by the buca
neers of the Spanish main, the present Spanish piaster, commonly known as the //,•«>
duro, pesofuerte, or, briefly, duro, is the standard of the money system, and is equiva-
lent to about 4s. 3d. of our money. It is divided into 20 copper reals < <H<»,).
In the Levant, the piaster is called a colonnato, on account of the original coins, which
were struck for use in Spanish America, bearing 2 columns on- the reverse side.— The
Italian piaster, or scudo, was an evident imitation of the Spanish coin, and was exactly
equal to it in value. — The piaster, peso, or dollar in use in Mexico and C uba. as well as
in Chili, Peru. Uruguay, and other South American states of Spanish origin, have
approximately the same value (4s. or 4s. 2d.). The dollar (q.v.) of the United States of
North America was adopted from the Spanish piaster, but is a fraction less in value.
owing, it is said, to an error in the original estimate. The coin known as the Turkish
piaster is not an imitation, but is an independent national silver coin, which in 17.");; was
worth about 3s. 6d. sterling, but has since gradually and rapidly deteriorated, till at the
present day it is equal to not more than 2£d. of our money. — The Egyptian piaster is
•worth about 24d. sterling. Pieces of 2, 5, 10, and 20 piasters are struck in silver, and
of 50 and 100 in gold, the piece of 100 piasters being in Egypt the exchange at par for
£1 sterling.
PIATIGORSK (Pjdtifforsk), a t. in Caucasia, Russia, celebrated for its mineral springs.
Though in the center of a bare and uninteresting plain, its situation on the slope of
Mashuka, an isolated mountain upwards of 3,000"ft. high, gives it an imposing appear-
ance, and the higher parts of the town command a noble rTanoramic view of mount Elburx.
and the more distant Caucasus. The principal bath-houses are wrell sheltered, ami are
•leanly and comfortably fitted up. Pop. about 9,000.
/>OQ Piano.
OCO Piazzi.
PIATEA, a t. of Moldavia, 62 m. w.s.w. from Jassy, on the left bank of the Bistritza,
a branch of the Sereth. The church of Piatra is one of tho oldest in Moldavia. The
only paper-mills in the province are here. Much wood is floated down the Bislritzaaud
the Sereth to the Danube, to be exported from Galatz. Pop. about 11, 900.
PIATT, a co. in e. central Illinois, drained by the Sangamon river, traversed by the
Wabash, and the Indianapolis, Bloomiugton, and.Western railroads; 400 sq. m. ;pop. '80,
15,583— 14,717 of American birth. The surface is level. The soil is fertile. The prin-
cipal productions are corn, wheat, potatoes, and oats. Co. seat, Monticello.
PIATT, DONN, b. Ohio, 1829; educated at St. Xavier college, studied law, was fairly
successful in practice, anil was judge of a common pleas court. Under president Pierce's
administration he was secretary of the Pans legation, and for some months acting charge
d'affaires. He enlisted as a private at the outbreaking of the rebellion, and rose to the
rank of col. of volunteers, having served for the greater part of the war as adj. gen. ou
gen. Schenck's staff. Since the end of the war he has been a newspaper correspondent
and editor, and was the founder of the Washington Capital.
PIATT, JOHN JAMES, b. Milton, Ind., 1835; educated at the public schools of Colum-
bus, Ohio, and Keuyon college. His poems were published in the Louisville Journal,
1857. In 1859 several productions appeared in the Atlantic Monthly. Jointly with
William D. Howells he published, I860. Poems by Two Friends; Nests at Washington, in
1863, the combined work of his wife and himself. v Among those written solely by him
are Poems in Sunshine and Firelight, 1866; Western Windows, 1868; Landmarks, etc.,
1871. He resides in Cincinnati. He married Sarah Morgan Bryan, b. Lexington, Ky..
1835; writer of verses and author of A Woman's Poems, 1871, and A Voyage to the For-
innate Isles, 1874.
PIAUHY, a province in n.e. Brazil, bounded on the n. by the Atlantic, on the
e. by the provinces of Ceara and Peruambuco, on the s. by Bahia and Goyaz, and on
the u. by Maranhao; about 100,000 sq.m. ; pop. 232,000. It is bounded on the e. and s.
frontiers by mountains, from which the surface slopes down to the Parnahiba river.
The other principal rivers are the Piauhy and the Caniude. The surface is mostly a wide
grassy plain with little timber. The climate is hot, and in the lowlands unhealthy.
The soil is fertile, but agriculture is not much advanced. The chief crops are cotton,
tobacco, mandioca, rice, millet* and sugar-cane. Cattle raising is the principal business.
Iron, silver, lead and, other minerals are found, but the mines are little wrorked. The only
sea-port is Parnahiba, which has some trade in hides and cotton. Sugar and rum are
the chief manufactures. Capital, Therezina.
PIAZZA, or, more fully, PIAZZA ARMERINA, a t. of Sicily, in the province of Cal-
tanisetta, 17 in. e.s.e. from Caltanisetta. It stands on the crests and slopes of an isolated
hill on the left bank of the Terranova. It is the residence of many nobles and land-
owners. The chief trade is in corn, oil, fruits, and other agricultural produce. Pop.
'71, 15,923.
FIAZZI, GIUSEPPE, a celebrated astronomer, was b. at Ponte in the Valteline, July
16, 1746. He was received into the order of the Theatins at Milan in 1764; and studied
in that city, and subsequently in the houses of the same order at Rome and Turin. Sum-
moned to the professorial chair of philosophy at Genoa, he so alarmed the Dominicans
by the freedom and boldness of his opinions that he was removed to Malta, where, in
1770, he became professor of mathematics in the newly-founded university. On the
breaking up of this seminary, he returned to Italy, and after teaching philosophy in the
nobles' college at Ravenna, he went to Rome, where he became professor of dogmatic
theology in the institution of San Andrea della Valle. He was transferred in 1780 to
the chair of mathematics in Palermo, where, with the aid of government, he established
an observatory, which was put in working order in 1789. The first results of his obser-
vations were the rectification of some errors in the estimation of the obliquity of the
ecliptic, the aberration of light, the length of the tropical year, and the parallax of
various heavenly bodies; these results were published in 1792. Piazzi had now attained
a European reputation, which was further heigh ened by his discovery, on the night of
Jan. 1, 1801, of a new planet, the first known of the great group of planetoids between
Mars and Jupiter. Piazzi was only able to give a description of it to some of the German
and Italian astronomers, when it disappeared; Gauss (q.v.), however, rendered certain
the fact of its being a planet. Piazzi named it Ceres, after the ancient goddess ol Sicily,
to which country he was sincerely attached. In 1803 he published a map of the fixed
stars, far superior to any before published, the result of ten years' observations: the
work was crowned by the institute of France. In 1814 appeared a new and more com-
plete catalogue (containing 7,646 stars), for which he was again rewarded with a prize
from "*he French institute. He also made researches into the nature of comets, and
devoted the later years of his life to the improvement of public education in Sicily. He
wrote a number of works, of which, besides the catalogues of stars above mentioned,,
the Lezioni Elemeutari di Astronomia (Palermo, 1817) is the chief. He also wrote iu;»"'
memoirs for the various scientific societies of Europe. Piazzi died July 22, 1326, at
Naples.
Pibroch. CO A
Fichler.
PIBROCH (piokaireachd, piping), music played on the bagpipe, which has a wonder-
ful power in exciting the martial instincts and hilarity of the Highlanders. Its rhyihm
is so irregular, and its notes in the quicker parts so much jumbled together, that a
stranger has difficulty in following the modulations or reconciling his ear to them. The
earliest mention of the military music of the bagpipe is in 1594, at the battle of Balriunes;
indeed, prior to that period, the bagpipe can hardly be looked on as a national in>tru-
meut of Scotland. There are appropriate pibrochs belonging to various elans and dis-
tricts, but some of these may not be older than the beginning of last century. One of the
oldest known pibrochs is called the "battle of Ilariaw," but it may be doubted whether
it was contemporary with that event (1411). In the ballad account of that battle, there
is mention of trumpets and horns, but none of the bagpipe; and the pibroch style of
music has so obvious a relation to the bagpipe that it is difficult to suppose that ft pre-
ceded the use of that instrument. According to sir Walter Scott, the connoisseurs iu
pipe-music affect to discover in a well-composed pibroch the imitative sounds of march,
conflict, flight, pursuit, and all the current of a heady fight. Many remarkable instances
have been recorded of the effect of the pibroch on the Highlanders. At the battle of
Quebec, in April, 1760, whilst the British troops were retreating in confusion, the pipers
were ordered to strike up a favorite pibroch, and the result was that the Highlanders,
who were broken, rallied the moment that they heard the music, and formed with great
alacrity in the rear.
PI CA. See MAGPIE.
PICA. See MORBID APPETITES.
PICA. See PRINTING.
PICARD, JEAN, 1620-82, b. France; succeeded Gassendi in 1655, as professor of
astronomy in the college of France. In 1666 he became a member of the academy of
sciences. In 1671 he went to Uranienborg to determine the latitude and longitude of
Tycho Brahe's observatory, and the Paris observatory was founded by his efforts. He
was the first to use the modern method of determining the right ascension of the stars
by means of a pendulum marking the moment of their meridional passages: and the
first to exactly measure a degree of the meridian. He was also the first to use the tele-
scope to measure angles.
PICAEDY (PiCARDiE), an ancient province in the n. of France, was bounded on the
w. by the English channel, and on the e. by Champagne. The name does not occur
till the 13th century. The capital of this province was Amiens. The territory now forms
the department of Somme, and portions of the departments of Aisnc and Pas-de-Cd
PICCI'NI, orPICCIN'NI, NICOLO, 1728-1800;b. Italy; studied music with Duranteand
Leo at the conservatory of Sant' Onofrio, Naples. After producing a number of operas
at Naples he removed to Rome, where he brought out Alejandro nell' 2ndie(1758); Ccc-cltimi,
Ostifi Lab'tiona Ficjliuola, (1760). which had an unparalleled success; and Olimpiade. In
1776 he went to Paris, where Gluck was then the most popular composer. Marmontcl
and others championed Piccini, and for several years a bitter controversy was carried
on between the " Piccinists" and the " Gluckists." Marmontel made a modern version of
Quinault's drama Roland, and Piccini composed an opera on it, which had great success.
Pie also composed Iphigenieen Tauride, a subject on which Gluck had also written an
opera; Atys, and many others. He was professor in the eeole de chant, 1783-91, when
he was removed, and returned to Naples, where he suffered much annoyance from the
espionage of the government on account of his supposed revolutionary sympathies.
Returning to Paris in 1798 he succeeded in obtaining from Bonaparte the inspectorship
of music at the national conservatory, but he did not live to begin the duties of his
office.
PIC'COLO (Ital. flaiilo piccolo, small flute), a flute of small dimensions, having the same
compass as the ordinary flute, while the notes all sound an octave higher than their
notation. In joyous as well as violent passages this instrument is sometimes very
effective in an orchestra.
PICCOLOM'INI, one of the oldest and most distinguished families. of Italy, was origin-
ally settled at Rome, but afterwards removed to Siena, and subsequently obtained pos-
session of the duchy of Amalfi. It has produced numerous celebrated litterateurs and
warriors, one pope (Pius II.), and several cardinals. One of the most distinguished in
the history of this family was Ottavio Piccolomini. the first duke of Amalfi, born in
1599. and fifth in direct descent from pope Pius II. He early entered the Spanish
military service, and after taking part in the Milanese campaigns, was sent as capt.
with a Florentine cavalry regiment to aid Ferdinand II. against the Bohemians. As a
cavalry leader he distinguished himself; and from the regiment of cuirassiers under his
command issued the death-dealing bullet to Gustavus Adolphus. In 1634 he was plac< d
under the orders of Wallenstein, who took a great fancy to him, and confided to him his
secret designs against the emperor; Piccolomini, however, communicated these de-inns
to the emperor, and received, as a reward for his fidelity, a part of Wallenstein 's c>tat<s.
During the remainder of this year he was actively engaged against the Swedes, and
greatly distinguished himself in the first battle of Nordlingen. In the following season
he was sent with 20,000 troops to aid the Spaniards in the Netherlands, where the Freuch
i a Q X Pibroch.
Pichler.
and Dutch were carrying all before them. Piccolomini speedily drove out the French,
but his success agaiust the Dutch was not so marked. He was withdrawn by the
emperor in 1640 to stay the Swedes, who, under Baner, were threatening the hereditary
possessions of Austria; and his success against these invaders in Bohemia and the Palat-
inate, though damped by the defeat inflicted on him in Silesia by Torstensohn',
induced the king of Spain to entreat the emperor to send him again to the Netherlands
to take the command of the Spanish troops. But his success was not nearly so decisive
as before, the prestige of the Spanish infantry having been completely destroyed by the
great Conde at Rocroi (May 19, 1643). Piccolomini, however, was again successful against
both the French and Dutch till 1648, when he was anew summoned to Germany to encoun
ter the victorious Swedes; but after a brief campaign the peace of Westphalia (1648) put
an end to his career. He was created a field-marshal l>y the emperor, and was sent as
plenipotentiary to the congress of Nuremberg (1649), and soon after was raised to the
high dignity of a prince of the empire. The king of Spain conferred upon him the order
of the golden fleece, and bestowed upon him in fief the duchy of Amain*, which had
previously belonged to his family. Piccolomini died at Vienna, Aug. 11, 1656, leaving
no children; his son Max, who figures in Schiller's Wallenstein, is only a poetical fiction.
His fame as a warrior and general is somewhat tarnished by his cruel treatment of a
number of Hessian and Luneburger prisoners in I'j40.
PICHEGRU, CHARLES, a French gen., was b. Feb. 16, 1761, at Arbois, in the depart-
ment of Jura, France. Though of humble parentage he succeeded in gaining admission
to the college of his native town, where, and subsequently at Brieune, he received a
thorough education. He was specially distinguished in mathematics, and had some
thoughts of devoting himself to teaching as a profession ; but the advice of father Perault
induced him to enter an artillery regiment in 1783, and he had raisen to the rank of a
lieut. when the revolution broke out. Pichegru became an ardent democrat; joined the
army of the Rhine, and by his brilliant soldierly qualities soon attracted general atten-
tion. In 1793 he became commander-in-chief of the army, and in conjunction with the
army of the Moselle under Hoche, repeatedly defeated the Austrians, took from them
many important towns, as Gcmersheim, Spire, Worms, etc., and established himself in
the palatinate ; while, after the arrest of IMS coadjutor Hoche, his success at the head of
the combined Rhine and Moselle armies was not less decided. The rapidity and bold-
ness of his maneuvers, when he took the command of the army of the north, in 1794,
disconcerted the allies; and before long they were compelled to retreat beyond the
Meuse. After a brief respite, Pichegru crossed this river, driving the British before
him; and by Feb. 1795, had completed the conquest of the Dutch towns and provinces,
ending the campaign by capturing the enemy's fleet (which had been frozen in). He
next visited Paris, and while there, suppressed an insurrection of the faubourgs (April
1, 1795); but soon afterward returned to the army, which was now opposed to the
Austrians on the western frontier, and for some time displayed his usual skill and
energy, crossing the Rhine in the face of the enemy, and capturing Mannheim, the chief
fortre'ss, on its banks. But the anarchy which he had found at Paris, combined with
the flattering promises and bribes held out to him by the prince of Conde, converted
Pichegru into a secret partisan of the Bourbons. His remissness, the unwanted folly
and awkwardness of his military maneuvers, though prearranged with the Austrian
generals, was not suspected till he suffered himself to be shamefully defeated at Heidel-
berg, and then retreated, leaving Jourdan (q.v.) without support, thus compelling the
latter also to retire. The suspicions of the directory were now aroused, and Leiug con-
firmed by the seizure of Pichegru's correspondence, he was immediately superseded by
Moreau (q.v.), and retired to his native town, where he lived till 1797. when lie was
elected one of the council of five hundred. He soon became president; but continuing
his intrigues with the Bourbons, he was arrested, and subsequently transported to
Cayenne." Escaping in June 1798. he made his way to Surinam, whence he sailed for
England. He now entered heart and soul into the Bourbon conspiracy along with
George Cadoudal (q.v.), the two Polignacs, De Riviere, and others, the primary object
being the assassination of the first consul. The conspirators secretly reached Paris, and
there Pichegru, attempted to persuade Moreau, who was also a royalist, to join with
them, but without success. But the plans of the conspirators were soon known to the
police; and an intimate friend of Pichegru, with whom he resided, sold the secret of his
retreat to the police for 100,000 crowns. Pichegru was surprised in his sleep, and
carried off naked to the temple, .where he was found dead in his bed on the morning of
April 6, 1804. The royalists have endeavored to fasten a charge of private assassination
on Napoleon, but it is more generally believed that Pichegru strangled himself.
PICHIN CHA, an extinct volcano in the west cordillera of the Andes, in Ecuador,
about ten miles n.w. of Quito. It is of irregular form, and is 14,984 ft. in height.
Around the crater are two other peaks of nearly equal elevation.
PICHLER, KAHOLIXE, one of the most eminent novelists of Germany, was born in
1769 at Vienna, where her father, Franz von Greincr, held several legal offices and
court dignities. In 1796 she married councilor Andrew Pichler, and published her first
work under the title of Glcichnuse (Wien, 1800). This was quickly followed by other
writings, as the novels Oliver (Wien, 1802); Leonora (Wien, 1804); Ruth (Wien, 1805),
riohon. CO A
Pickett.
etc. ; and the success which attended the appearance of these productions, encouraged
her to try a more ambitious line of composition. In 1808 appeared A<!titli>ikU>>, which,
according to some critics, is the best of her novels. In this work, she endeavored,
jn opposition to the views expressed by Gibbon, in his llixtori/ <>f the Decline of the
Roman Empire, to depict the ennobling effect of Christianity on the human mind.
At the suggestion of Hormayr and other literary friends, who bad been struck by the
success with which she threw herself into the spirit of the times of which flie wrote, she
turned her attention to the task of popularizing German history, with the view of foster-
ing a more general feeling of patriotism. Among her best works of this kind, which
appeared between 1811 and 1832, and the earlier of which preceded Scott's greatest
historical novels, we may instance Graf en von JI<>lt< 'nf>< •/•;/ • (I.eip. ]SH): Di< />'< '<<;/< rung
Wien' a ton 1683 (Wien, 1824); Die Schwedcn in Prag (Wien, 1827); and HtnriMe von
England (Wien, 1832); while of her social novels, the following are among the most
popular: Frauenwurde (Wien, 1808); Die Nebenbuhler (Wien. 1881); and Zi-ithihl, r (\\'ien,
1840). She died at Vienna in 1843 Her dramas were failures, and in her novels there
is ni t a little tedious diffuseness, a remark which applies with equal truth to her auto-
biography, which appeared at Vienna in 1844 under the title of benkw&rdigkeiten a. m.
Lc'ticii, ami formed part of the edition of her collected works, published at Vienna in
1845 in sixty volumes.
PICHON, PIERRE AUGUSTE, b. France, 1805; studied painting with Ingres. His
favorite subjects are religious or historical, but he has also a reputation as a portrait
painter. Among his worts are Reception at Windsor ty King Richard II.; Communion;
and The Annunciation.
PICK' AWAY, a co. in s. central Ohio, drained by the Scioto river and Deer, Darby,
and Walnut creeks, traversed by the Scioto Valley and Cincinnati and Muskingum rail-
roads, and the Ohio canal; about 500 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 27,353—26,423 of American birth.
The surface is level, and about one-fifth covered with forests. The soil is fertile. The
principal productions are wheat, corn, wool, oats, hay, and cattle. Co. seat, Circleville.
PICKENS, a co. in w. Alabama, adjoining Mississippi; drained by the Tombigbec and
Sipsey rivers, and Lubbub creek; about 1050 sq.m.; pop. '80, 21,479 — 12,347 colored.
The surface is irregular and hilly. The soil is fertile. The principal productions are
wheat, corn, cotton, and potatoes. Co. seat, Carrollton.
PICKENS, a co. in n. Georgia, drained by the branches of the Coosawattee and
Etowah rivers; about 375 sq.m.; pop. '80, 6,790—6,781 of American birth. The sur-
face is uneven and mountainous, much of it covered with forests. The soil in the low-
lands is fertile. The principal productions are corn, wheat, cotton, and tobacco. Marble
is found. Co. seat, Jasper.
PICKENS, a co. in n.w. South Carolina, adjoining North Carolina; bounded on the
n.e. by the Saluda river, and on the s.w. by the Keowee, crossed by the Atlanta and
Richmond air line, and the Blue Ridge railroads; 400 sq.m.; pop. '80, 14,391 — 3,712
colored. The surface is uneven, and heavily wooded. The Blue Ridge extends along
the n. border. The soil is fertile. The principal productions are corn, wheat, cotton,
and potatoes. Co. seat, Pickens Court House.
PICKENS, ANDREW, 1739-1817; b. Paxton Penn. ; of Huguenot ancestry; removed
with his parents to the Wax haw settlement, S. C. 1752. He fought in the Cherokee
war as a volunteer April, 1761, under col. Grant, and on his return went to the Long
Cane settlement. At the beginning of the revolutionary war he was capt. of a militia
company, rising to the rank of brig.gen. In Feb., 1779, with 400 men under his com-
mand, he defeated col. Boyd, with '700 tories at Kettle creek. His horse was shot under
him at the battle of Stono,* 1779. In the same year he defeated the Cherokees at Tomas-
see. He commanded the militia at the battle of Cowpens, twice rallying them after they
had been driven, back; and was presented with a sword by congress. In June lie
captured Augusta. Ga., and while commanding the Carolina militia at the battle of
Eutaw, was saved from a fatal wound, by the glancing of the bullet off the buckle of
his sword-belt. He conducted another expedition against the Cherokees in 1782, and
gained possession of a large portion of the territory now included in the state of Georgia.
Soon after the close of the war he was elected to the South Carolina legislature, and
represented his district there until 1794: was member of the state constitutional con-
vention, promoted to ma j. gen. of militia 1795, member of the legislature 1801 and 1812.
He was commissioner on many occasions to treat with the Indians of the south; securing
Peudleton and Greenville, S. C. by the treaty of Hopewell; and soon afterward took up
his residence at that place. He was prudent, simple in manners, and of great decision of
character. He married Rebecca Calhoun, aunt of John C. Calhoun, in 1765. His son
Andrew, a lawyer, gov. of South Carolina 1816-18, d. Miss., 1838.
PICKEREL. See PIKE, ante.
PICKERING, CHARLES, 1805-78; b. Penn. ; grandson of Timothy. He graduated
at Harvard, became a physician, and was naturalist to the U. S. exploring expedition
under commander Wilkes, 1838-42. He afterwards traveled in India and "Africa. He
f{ o >j Pichon.
10 ' Pickett.
published Races of Men and ilieir Geographical Distribution, 1848; Geographical Distribu-
tion of Animals and Man, 1854; and Geographical Distribution of Plants, 1861. At the
time of his death he had in press Man's Record of his own Existence.
PICKERING. EDWARD CHARLES; b. Boston, 1846; educated at the, Lawrence scien-
tific .school in 1805, and was appointed professor of physics iu the Massachusetts institute
of technology. He was a member of the Nautical Almanac expedition which observed
the eclipse of 1869. He is now (1881) director of the observatory of Harvard university .
He published a work on Physical Manipulation in 1874.
PICKERING, JOHN, LL.D., 1777-1846; b. Mass.; son of Timothy; graduated at.
Harvard college in 1796, and became secretary of the U. S. legation at Lisbon the next
year. He was private secretary to Rufus King, U. S. minister at London, 1799-1801,
when he returned to Salem. He was admitted to the bar in 1804, and practiced at Salem
till 1827, when he settled in Boston, where he was city solicitor from 1829. He served
in the executive council, and both branches of the state legislature, was on the commis-
sion to revise the Massachusetts general statutes in 1833, was president of the American
academy of arts and sciences, the founder and first president of the American oriental
society, and an overseer of Harvard college. His chief publication was his Greek and
English lexicon, 1826, republished abroad. Among his other works are A Vocabulary
qf Americanisms, 181&; An Essay on a Uniform Orthography for the Indian Languages,
IS'JO; and Remarks on the Indian Languages of North America, 1836.
PICKERING, TIMOTHY, LL.TJ., 1745-1829; b. Mass.; graduated at Harvard in 1763,
and v.'as admitted to the bar in 1768. In 1774 he drew up and presented to gen. Gage
the memorial of the citizens of Salem in regard to the Boston port bill. He belonged to
the committee of correspondence, and his arrest was ordered for summoning a town
meeting to consider the state of public affairs, but the warrant for his arrest was with-
drawn. In 1775 he became a justice of the common pleas for Essex co., and the same
year appeared his Edtij Plan of Discipline for a Militia, which became the authorized
manual of the colonial militia. He led an Essex co. regiment of 700 men in 1776, was
made adj. gen., was at Brandywiue and Germantown, served on the continental board of
war in 1777, and was appointed quartermaster gen. in 1780. At the close of the war he
went into the commission business in Philadelphia, but removed to Wilkesbarre in
1786. He settled the territorial disputes between Pennsylvania and the inhabitants of
the Wyoming valley, and organized Luzerne co., which he represented in the Pennsyl-
vania convention of 1787 that ratified the federal constitution. Between 1790 and 1793
he negotiated treaties with the Six Nations, and the Indians in the n.w. In 1791 he was
appointed postmaster-general; in Jan., 1795, secretary of war; and in December of the
same- year he was transferred to the state department, from which president Adams
removed him in 1800. He again settled on his uncultivated lands; but, a number of his
Massachusetts friends having bought a large part of them to secure his return to his
nr.iive state, he removed to Essex co., of whose court of common pleas he was made
chief justice in 1802. In 1803 he filled the uncxpired term of Dwight Foster in the U.
S. senate, to Avhich he was re-elected iu 1805. In 1812 he served on the Massachusetts
board of Avar, and he was a member of congress, 1813-17. In politics he was an extreme
federalist, but the warmth of his temper involved him iu controversies with some of his
political colleagues. He wrote a Review of the Correspondence between John Adams and
William Cunningham, addresses, etc.
PICKERSGILL, FREDERICK RICHARD; b. London, 1820; studied at the Royal acad-
emy. His first picture, an oil-painting called "The Combat between Hercules and
Ac'helous," was exhibited in 1840. It was followed by a cartoon of "The Death of
King Lear," and by ''The Burial of Harold," which was bought for the new houses of
parliament. He was elected to the Royal academy in 1857, and is a regular exhibitor.
PICK ET, in military language, has several significations. It applies to a stake shod
and sometimes ringed witii iron, driven into the ground, and used to sustain ropes, which
mark off sections in a camping-ground, or for tying, horses to. These pickets are 4 or 5
ft. long. Short pickets about 8 in. long are employed as anchors for the ropes extending
tents. — In fortification pickets are pointed stakes for pinning gabions together and to the '
ground; also when pointed at both ends, and laid close together, of different lengths,
and in a position inclined towards the front, they form a powerful obstruction to 'he
advance of a storming-party, having a great effect in breaking; a line of soldiers. — Picket
was formerly a military punishment, where the culprit was held by the raised arm in
such a position that his whole weight fell on one foot, which was supported on a picket
with a blunt point. The time the man thus stood was proportioned to the offense. The
punishment became, after a few moments, extremely painful : it has long been discon-
tinued on sanitary grounds.
PICKET is a small body of men posted at some point beyond the general line of
the army or corps, for the purpose of observing the motions of an enemy, or giving timely
notice in case of any attack. Pickets are either outlying or inlying.
PICKETT, GEORGE E., 1825-75; b. Richmond, Va. ; graduated at West Point in
1846; served with credit in the Mexican war, and in 1855 was made capt. in the 9th
Pickles. A Q Q
Picts.
infantry. In 1861 he resigned and joined the confederate army as a col., and rose to
the rank of maj.gen. ; commanded a division at Frederieksburg, (icttyslmnr, and Ts'ew
Berne. He commanded at the capture of Plymouth, K". C., but met with heavy h>:-s at
Five Forks, and surrendered with Lee.
PICKLES. Although the term picked is applied to animal substances, such as beef,
pork, fish, etc., preserved in salt, yet pickles are generally understood to be the various
parts of vegetables preserved in vinegar. The process employed is first to wash the
articles intended for pickles in clean cold water, and afterwards to soak them for a few
days in a strong solution of salt in water. They are next taken out, and if fruits or
roots, dried in a cloth; but if vegetables, such as cauliflower, etc., they must lie well
drained, and then placed in the vessels intended to hold them, a few peppercorns, or
any other spiee which is suitable, being sprinkled in from time to time. When the ves-
sel is so far filled that it will hold no more, boiling vinegar is poured in until it is quite
full, and tightly covered up. Many persons prefer to boil the spices, of whatever
kind used, in the vinegar; and some add the vinegar cold to such vegetables or fruit as
are of a naturally soft substance, because, except in the case of green walnuls, and one
or two other fruits, extreme softness is objectionable in pickles. When the materials to
be pickled are naturally green, as in the case of gherkins or small cucumbers, French
beans, etc., it is considered very desirable to preserve their color as much as possible;
and it is sometimes very successfully accomplished by steeping vine, cabbage, :-pinarh,
or parsley leaves in the vinegar, by which their color is imparted through the vinegar to
the pickles. But this requires great care and patience, more, indeed, than is generally
thought worth applying to it, and dealers consequently resort to very reprehensible
methods of coloring their pickles, such as boiling the vinegar in copper vessels, and
thereby forming an acetate of copper, which is green; or even directly adding thai suit
to the pickles. Many serious accidents have resulted from the presence of liii> poison.
The principal pickles made in this country are cabbage, almost always made fr< m the
red variety; to this is frequently added slices of beet-root, which are an agreeable addi-
tion, and improve the color. The celebrated Spanish pickle is a mixture of li :
cabbage and slices of the large Spanish onion. Some housewives, in their efforts to out-
rival their neighbors, add a little cochineal to improve the color. The spices considered
most suitable for pickled cabbage are white and black peppercorns, gir.gcr, and mace. —
Cauliflowers, Only the flower portion, with its white branches, is u>ed, and in oiher
respects they are treated as cabbage. — Gherkins, or very young cucumbers. These
re*, aire the same spice's as the cabbage; but much care is required to keep as well ;
eible their green color. This pickle is the one which British cooks and housewives mo-t
L/ide themselves upon making well; and almost every one has some particular plan for
its preparation. A very much approved method is to soak the gherkins in a brine, com-
posed of six ounces of salt to the quart of water for 24 hours, then drain or dry in a
cloth, place them in jars, and pour in the pickle, composed of vinegar, with an addition
to each quart of one ounce salt, black peppercorns a quarter of an ounce, one <,unce
of ginger slightly bruised, ftne or two blades of mace, and a dozen bay-leaves. Alter
soaking two days, they are set on the fire until they simmer, and then replaced in the
jars, which must be well corked, and covered with skin, to exclude the air. — }'n iich
beam. The young green pods are prepared in the same way as gherkins. — On inn* and
eschalots are care fully peeled, and, after two days steeping in brine, covered with boiling
vinegar, to which the spice, usually black peppercorns, has been added. A small variety
of onion, called the silver-skin, is generally used. — Walmits. These are gathered green,
and so tender that a pin can easily be pushed through them: they are useless when the
shell has begun to form. They require at least a week's steeping in llie brine. The
vinegar must be poured on them boiling hot. The spices used are peppercorns, mace,
ginger, and sometimes a little garlic and cloves. — Mushrooms are sometimes pickled only
in brine, and are very useful for gravies, etc., in winter-time. They are also preserved
in vinegar, and must be washed in salt and water quickly, and then boiled in the vine-
gar, to which, besides the spices, a small quantity of salt i*s added. — Nanturtiums. Th«
young green fruit or seeds of the nasturtium plant, or greater Indian cress ( 7
nasturtium), make a most excellent pickle, which is an admirable substitute for the for-
eign capers in sauces for various dishes, and alone is an agreeable pickle. — Several kinds
of mixed pickles are made, the chief of which is one called picalilly or " Indian pickle,"
which consists of a mixture of cucumber, cauliflowers, etc., with a considerable quantity
of mustard-seed, and flour of mustard used as a spice, which gives it a bright yellow
color.
Of the foreign pickles imported from other countries, we have the unopened buds of
the beautiful plant capparis sjnnosa, called capers; olives, pickled both in brine and vin-
egar, but chiefly in the former— -l>oth from southern Europe. From tropical countries
every variety of the capsicum — green shoots of bamboo — and the fruit of the jr.aiiL'o,
which is in much esteem wherever it is known, notwithstanding a turpentine flavor,
which is not agreeable at first. Besides these, there are numerous other pickles of lesg
importance, almost every soft part of wholesome vegetables being adapted to this mode
of preparation . Pickles generally are considered provocatives to appetite, and if used
judiciously, and made properly, are wholesome and agreeable additions to our food.
Pickles.
Piets.
PI'CO, one of the Azores islands, stands midway between the eastern and western
extremities of the group, a few miles s.e. of Fayal. It is 45 m. long, and 5 m. in aver-
age width; urea about 225 sq.m. ; pop. — the descendants of Portuguese — about 30,000.
It is traversed by a volcanic ridge, which rises 7,618 ft. high in the peak (Pico), whence
the name of the island. See AZORES.
PICO, GIOVANNI, DELI/A MIRANDOLA, an Italian philosopher and theologian, whoso
genius is decidedly inferior to the reputation he once enjoyed, was the son of the sover-
eign prince of Mirandola and Concordia, and was b. Feb. 24, 1463. At the age of 14
he was sent to the university of Bologna, and after spending some years there, visited
the principal schools of Italy and France, everywhere distinguishing hi.nself by the;
extraordinary facility. with which he mastered the most difficult branches of knowledge.
His linguistic acquisitions embraced Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic, besides."
Italian and French; he was familiar with the different phases of the scholastic philoso-
phy, and he was also versed in mathematics, logic, and physics. At the age of 23 he
returned to Rome, when Innocent VIII. was pontiff, and immediately sought an oppor-
tunity of showing his learning in the most striking manner, by publicly posting up no
fewer than 900 theses or propositions in logic, etiiips, physics, mathematics, theology,
natural and cabalistic magic, drawn from Latin, Greek, Jewish, and Arabic writers,
offering to maintain an argument on each against all the scholars of Europe1, and under-
taking to pay the expenses of those who came from a distance. Pico presumptuously
entitled his theses De Omni Re Scibili (On Everything that can be Known), and Y'oltaire
sarcastically added, et de quibusdam alii*, which addition is as true as it is witty. Pico
had several encounters with notable scholars, and is reported to have come off victorious
on every occasion. But his very success was the cause of misfortune The church
appointed a committee to report on the propositions of the young prince, and the result
was that several of them were condemned as "heretical," although the author was
acquitted of any heretical intentions. Pico now withdrew from Rome, and after a short
time settled in Florence, where he austerely devoted his whole time to the composition
of polemical treatises against Jews and Mohammedans, and to the refutation of judicial
astrology. Among his closest friends were Politian and Ficino. He died Nov. 17,
1494, at the early age of 31. A complete edition of his works was published at Bologn:i
in 1496; it has since been frequently reprinted. The principal are Haptaplus, id est de
Dai Creatoris Opere sex Dierum Libri Ssptem, an allegorical explanation of creation as
recorded in the book of Genesis; Conduxiones Phitossophiccg, Caballsticce et Theological —
these are the famous propositions which excited so much ferment at Rome; Apologia,
C'lii-ordicB Comitis; Disputations adaernuK Astmloyiain Dimiiatrieem Libri xii. ; Anre.ce al
Fiimilidrcs Epistolm; De Ilominis Dignitaie. Pico is a happy illustration of the immedi-
ate effects produced in literature by the "revival of letters;" he is full of a specious
kind of universal learning, zealous and enthusiastic, but destitute of originality, depth,
or creative power. "He was," says M. Matter, "a prodigy of memory, elocution, and
dialectics, but neither a writer nor a thinker."
PICOTEE. See CARNATION.
PICOU, HENRY PIERRE; b. France, 1824; studied painting with Delaroche. His
most famous works are "The Harvest of Love," 1855; ''The First Kiss," 1867; "Moses
on the Banks of the Nile," 1870; and "The Night Watch," 1873.
PICRIC ACID. See CARBAZOTIC ACID, ante.
PICROTOX TNE (Cion0O4) is the. active principle of coeculus indicu*, from which it
may be extracted by boiling alcohol, or by water containing ft little hydrochloric acid.
It crystallizes in colorless prisms. This substance is extremely poisonous, one-third of
a grain being sufficient, when introduced into the stomach of a cat, to produce tetanic
convulsions and death in ten minutes.
PICTOR FABIUS. See FABIUS, ante.
PICTOU, a co. in Nova Scotia, lying upon Northumberland strait; drained by mnny
sm<i!l streams flowing into the harbors of the coast; 1125 sq.m. ; pop. '71, 32,114 — 27,165
of Scotch descent. The surface is undulating and the soil very rich. Iron, limestone,
nnd coal are found. The Pictou branch of the Intercolonial railroad traverses the county.
Co. seat, Pictou.
PICTOU', a thriving sea-port on the n. coast of Nova Scotia, on the n. shore of an
ample and perfectly protected harbor, 85 in. in direct line u.n.e. of Halifax. Lat. of
light-house, 45° 41' u. ; long. 62° 40' w. It stands in a fertile and well-cultivated dis-
trict, with extensive coal-mines and quarries of building-stone in the vicinity. It exports
building-stone, dried fish, and potatoes.. Commerce is rapidly increasing; ship-building
is vigorously carried on in Pictou. The mean summer temperature is 133.52°, and the
mean temperature for the year is 42.09°. Pop. '71, 3.462.
PICTS, the ancient inhabitants of the north-eastern provinces of Scotland. Everything
connected with -the history of the Picts has been made matter of controversy, and it is
not easy to ascertain the truth, where the information given by early writers is so scanty,,
and where most modern authors seem only to have looked for materials to support a
favorite theory.
U. K. XL— 44
Pift*.
690
It will be unnecessary to enter on an examination of the name ilself. The " Piets"
of the Romans probably represented a word by which the nation w;is known in its own
language, as well as the barbaric custom to which the well-known expression of C.'lau-
dian, " ncc falso nomine Pietos," bears reference. Of much more importance is the
inquiry regarding the origin and language of the Picts. This is what, among Scottish
antiquaries, has been emphatically called "the Pictish question;" respecting which the
best-known and most amusing, and certainly not the least useful discussion, is that
between Jonathan Oldbuck and sir Arthur VVardour, in the sixth chapter of The Auti-
(futii\i/. The disputants can hardly even now be said to be agreed; but the prevailing
opinion is, what sound criticism always pointed to, that the Picts wen; a Celtic race —
perhaps the first known inhabitants of northern Britain, and (as some hold) to be id< ui-
titd with the Caledonians of the Roman writers. At the time when they bvcame gencrallr
spoken of under the name of Picts, they occupied the whole territory n. of the firth of
Forth, except the western portion, which had been colonized or subdued by tlie Scots,
another Celtic nation, whose chief seat was in Ireland — the proper and ancient, Scotland.
Tue southern boundary of the Picts was the Roman province of Valcnlia, embracing
the territory between the two Roman walls. At a later period, when Britain was aban-
doned by its imperial rulers, the boundaries of the various nations occupying the north-
ern , art of the island may be traced with considerable distinctness. Making allowance
for partial changes at various times, these boundaries may be held to be the following:
The Piclish territory extended along the whole sea-coast from the firth of Forth to the
Pentland (irth. It was bounded on the w. by the country of the Scots, which extended
along tlie western coast from the firth of Clyde to Uie modern Ross-shire; but the precise
line between the two nations cannot be ascertained. The country of the Picts was
bounded on the s. by the firth of Forth and the province of Lothian, then po>s< s-ed l.y
the English; while the country of the Scots had .or its southern boundaries the firth of
Clyde and the kingdom of Cumbria, held by the independent Britons
The Pictish nation consisted of two great divisions, called the northern and the southern
Picts, the boundary between them being the mountain range known ai'ierwards* as the
Grampians. These divisions seem at some times to have been ruled by different princes,
at other times to have been under one sovereign. The Picts were converted to Chris-
tianity at different periods. The southern Picts received the faith from St. Ninian.
bishop of Candida Casa, early in the 5th century. This is mentioned by IJedc, and the
fact itself lias never been doubted; but controversy, as usual, has been busy with the
details. The point in dispute is the situation of the Picts who owed their conversion to
Ninian (q.v.). A careful examination of the statements of venerable Bode, and the fuller
but less trustworthy narrative of Ailrcd of Rievaux, will show that the southern Pi< -is.
converted by Ninian, had their seat north of the Forth; that they were, in fact, the great
division of the Pictish nation occupying the country between the firth and the (Jram-
piaus. The labors of Ninian were carried on and completed by teachers whose nann-s
are well known to the readers of ecclesiastical history — Palladius, Serf, Ternan. and
others. The northern Picts owed their conversion to a teacher of higher renown — St.
Columba (q.v.). The life of that, abbot, from his leaving Ireland in 563, to his death in
597, was chiefly spent in converting the northern Picts. Their ruler at this time wan
Brude, son of Mailcon, whom Bede styles a very powerful king. His chief residence
was on the banks of the Ness, and there Columba baffled and confuted the heathen Magi
in the manner recorded by his biographer Adamnan. It is impossible to ascertain this
precise character of the superstitions held by the Picts before their conversion. Those
whom Adamnan calls Magi, are by some modern writers styled Druids, .and their religion
is said to have been a species of Druidism — whatever that may be held to mean.
Brude. the first Christian king of the Picts, died in 586. Catalogues are preserved,
of more or less authority, of the sovereigns who succeeded him. It is impossible la
reconcile the discrepancies of these lists, which probublv contain the names of princes
who reigned at the same time in the northern and southern divisions of the kingdom.
The limits of the Pictisli territories continued much the same till the middle of the Ttli
c., when a portion of thesouthern province was subdued by Oswy, kingof Northmnbria.
In Hie beginning of the reign of Oswy's son and successor, Egfrid, the Picts made an
attempt to recover the territory which had been wrested from them. It was unsuccess-
ful; and the power of the English was so firmly established, that ihe conquered province
was erected into a diocese separate from Lindisfarne, the seat of the bishop being fixed
at Abercorn. Encouraged by the success which had attended his enterprises, Egfrid
seems to have contemplated the subjugation of the whole Pictish kingdom. He advanced
northwards with his army; Brude, son of Bill, king of the Picts, retreating before him.
The English sovereign passed the Tay, and the Picts made a stand at Nechtansmerc,
supposed to be Dunnichen, in Ananis. A conflict ensued; the English were utterly
defeated, and their king was slain. The consequences of this battle, which was fought
on the 20th of May, 685, wrere very important. The Picts recovered the whole territory
which they had lost, and even subdued for a time a portion of the proper Northumbrian
kingdom.
The next Pictish prince whose name calls for special notice is Nectan, son of Dereli.
who succeeded about the year 710. He cultivated learning to some extent, and aspired
Pico.
to Hie position of an ecclesiastical reformer. The Pictish church held precisely the
same doctrines as the English; but it differed in various points of ritual, the most impor-
tant of which related to the proper time of keeping caster. The king applied for advice
to Ceolfrid, abbot of Jarrow, and the answer, which is addressed "To the most excel-
lent lord, and most glorious king, Xectan," is preserved among the works of venerable
Bede. Encouraged by this epistle, he summoned a counsel of his clergy and nobles, and
enjoined tlieni to observe the English usages. The royal command met with a ready
obedience. He had also applied to the abbot of Jarrow for architects to build a church
of stone in the Roman fashion, which he proposed to dedicate to St. Peter. We arc
told by Bede that the architects were sent, but have no further information on this inter-
esting subject. The plans of the, king were probably interrupted by dissensions among
his people; and the entire assimilation of the ecclesiastical institutions of northern Brit-
ain to those of England was postponed for four centuries.
The most active of all the Pictish sovereigns was Hungus, son of Urgust, who suc-
ceeded in 730, and reigned for 30 years. He was engaged in constant wars wilh the
Scots, the Britons, and the English, in which he was generally victorious. After his
death, the kingdom began to decline. The history of its latest period is involved in
impenetrable obscurity; all that we know for certain is the final result. Various princes
claimed the crown, and held possession of portions of the kingdom. But the most pow-
erful competitor was Kenneth, son of Alpin, king of the Scots, who was descended, in
ihe female line, from the ancient sovereigns of the Picts, and was probably the true
inheritor, according to the peculiar law of succession which is said to have existed among
that nation. Kenneth was acknowledged as king in 843, and fixed his residence at Fort-
tviot, in Stratherne, the capital of the Pictish kingdom.
A famous passage from Henry of Huntingdon has often been quoted, in illustration
of the supposed utter destruction of the Picts, of their princes, their race, and their lan-
guage. It is referred to in that sense at the close of the following sentences of a work
written some time' before, but only published in the year 1864: "The Pictish vessel is
seen in the distant horizon; .she approaches rapidly, fill you clearly distinguish the crew
upon the deck; but before you are near enough to hear their voices, she sinks, the waters
( lose over her, and the week never can be raised. The total extinction of the Pictish
language renders any further inquiry impossible. The acumen and criticism of the 19th
e. cannot ad ance beyond ihe homely wisdom of the 12th century." — Sir Francis Pal-
grave's History of Normandy ond England, vol. iv. p. 294.
The impression conveyed by such words is an erroneous one. The Pictish princes
Hill continued to reign in the persons of Kenneth and his descendants. They were kings-
<>l the Picls in reality and by race, as much as James I. and his successors were kings of
England. The princes did not cease in the one case more than in the other to be sov-
ereigns of the larger kingdom, because they had previously ruled in the lesser one.
Neither did the nation of the Picts cease to exist. They dwelt as before in their own
land; their old capital was the capital of the new kingdom; and Pictavia is spoken of
by the chronicles long after the accession of Kenneth", and long before Scotia became
identified with northern Britain, or ceased to be the ordinary name for Ireland.
Fndoubtedly, through the influence of the kings, and perhaps of the clergy, whom the
later Pictish princes had held under an oppressive bondage, the Scots became the pre-
dominant race, and finally gave their name to the united kingdom and nation. Neither
did the language of the Picts cease to be spoken. It continued, as before, to be the dia-
lict of the north-eastern provinces, till, first in the extreme n., it yielded to the Scandi-
navian invader, and afterward — more than two centuries subsequently to the accession
of Kenneth — it began to recede slowly before the Teutonic tongue of English and Flem-
ish colonists. The same process which destroyed the Celtic language of the Pictish peo-
])!:.•, t'-jst roved also the Celtic language of the British kingdom of Cumbria. The subject
of the Pict'ish language has been of late thoroughly discussed by Mr. Skene in his Four
Ancient Books of Waks. In addition to Peanfa7>el, the sole Pictish word formerly
known. Mr. Skene has discovered four other distinct words, besides a number of sylla-
f hies entering into proper names; and from all these he deduces the opinion that Pictish
"is not Y\Telsh. neither is it Gaelic; but it is a Gaelic dialect partaking largely of Welsh
forms." More specifically, he holds that Pictish, as compared with Gaelic, was a low
dialect — that is, different from Gaelic in much the same way that low Get man differs
from high.
The chief ancient authorities for the history of the Picts are Adamnan's Life of St.
Colnmba, edited by Dr. Reeves; the Ecclesiastical History of venerable Bede; the Life of
St. Ninian, by Ailred of Rievaux, in Pinkerton's Ancient Lives of Scottish Saints; the
Pictish chronicle, in the appendix to Innes's Critical Essay on the Ancient Inhabitants of
Scotland, and in the appendix to Pinkerton's Inquiry into the History of Scotland; and the
Irish Annals, edited by O'Conor. The best modern works on the subject are Innes's
Critical Essay, and life Cfrfl and Ecclesiastical History of Scotland; Pinkerton's Inquiry;
f'halmer's Caledonia, vol. i. ; Ritson's Annals of the Caledonians, Picts, and Scots; Mr.
Grub's Ecclesiastical History of Scotland, vol. i. ; a dissertation in Garnett's Philological
Exsai/s; and Mr. W. F. Skene in his Four Ancient Books of Wales; and in Celtic Scotland
(2 vols. 1875-77).
Plcts.
Piedmont.
092
Plot's House at Kettleburn, ground-plan.
PICTS" HOUSES, a name popularly given in many parts of Scotland to the rude under
ground buildings, more commonly and accurately called EAHTII-HOCSES (q.v.)- The
name is often given also to a more advanced class of buildings of the same kind, found
in the more northern counties
^yzazTZZzzzvxo^ °f Scotland. The ground plan
of one of these at Ketlleburu,
s^%iiii%iffi$iif%ip iPP^IiP'sx. m ^aitnness. explored and de-
S •'•••" illfpX. scribed by the late }Ir. A. 11.
/ -• '^, ..--, ';;:, ' '.';.;•?''*;•;'; ' , \-","TN\ lilu'nd, of Sibstcr, is Jigured in
the accompanying wood cut. The
outmost circle represents the ex-
treme limits of the mound which
covered the structure; a, a bor.int-
ing wall, ii ft. thick, and o ft
high, rudely built of large un-
shaped stones; 6, an inner wall,
4 or 5 ft. high ; c and d, fragments
of walls faced outward; cam!/,
passages leading to the inner
chambers; g, h, and /, \<.
leading to smaller side chambers.
k, a wall within the wall of the
chamber s; in, a chamber, so
ruined that its walls could not be
traced all round; n, a large boul-
der, which, being difficult to re-
move, had been built over; o, a
chamber containing a regularly
built well (bet we Up and p), 9 ft.
deep, and roofed over. The whole
walls were built without mortar. The objects found within them were remains of ani-
mals and shell-fish, fragments of pottery,' and implements of stone, bone, horn, bron/.e,
and iron. The name of Picts' houses is also occasionally given in the n. of Scotland
to rude stone structures above ground.
PICTURES are now protected by the law in a manner similar to books, tho eopyrig'.it
f>f which belongs to some individual. By the act of 25 and 26 Viet. c. 6S. if the author'
of any painting, drawing, or photograph, in which there shall be subsisting copyright,
after selling the same, or if any one, without the consent of the proprietor for tin; tamo
being, repeat, copy, col orably imitate, or otherwise multiply for sale, hire, exhibition, or
distribution, or cause this to be done, or knowingly import into the United Kingdom, or
sell, etc., such copies, he shall forfeit to the proprietor of the copyright ;x sum not
exceeding £10, and the copies and materials shall belong to such proprietor. More"ver.
if any person affix a mark, monogram, or initials of a person who did not execute or
make such work, to paintings, drawings, or photographs, or fraudulently sell, exhibit,
or offer such for sale, such person ;iall forfeit £10, or double the price of the thing sold,
etc., and all spurious copies and imitations become forfeited to the real owner. This
statutory protection to artists and owners of pictures, engravings, and photographs,
extends to the United Kingdom.
PICTURES, RESTORATION OF. Some important observations on the action of light
on oil-paintings have led to a series of experiments by Dr. David Price of the crystal
palace, and he has succeeded in demonstrating that the discoloration of pictures in o;a]-
Icries and dwelling-houses arise in a great measure from the presence of sulphide of hydro-
gen gas, which reduces the metal in the white lead, and thereby gives the dark diniry
appearance which so frequently defaces even modern pictures in some places w'.\ n' the
pictures are hung on walls not exposed to the direct 'light of the sun. Dr. I;ii<-c shows
that pictures which have been thus injured can be completely restored by bein-r fully
exposed to light in a pure atmosphere, the light exerting a rapid and powerful influence
over the lead compounds, even though well protected with varnish. The same hold;
good even in a stronger degrca in water-color paintings in which lead-whites have been
used.
PICUS AND PICIDJE. See WOODPECKER.
PIDGIN, or PIGEON, ENGLISH. A " lingo" used in California and in the Pacific
ports of Asia, between the Asiatics and mercantile foreigners. "Pidgin" is the word
f >r "business," as it issues from the guttural organs of a Chinaman, as "cumshaw" is
that for "commission" or gift. The Chinaman accustomed mainly to monosyllabic
speech finds j.t easy to speak the English words of one syllable, or dissyllables whoso
rltimatcs are vowels, or, he will vowelixe words ending in hard consonants. For this
grotesque form of speech the foreigners rather than natives are responsible, since the
former, shrinking from the difficulties of oriental speech, first encouraged the Asiatics to
me simple foreign words. Pidgin English, though defying all known grammar, is yet
available for every-day use, and is duly taught in classes by Chinese "professors," and
Plct*.
Pieilinont.
is the daJiv nnv\ >nly means of communication between tens of thousands of people
in China, Japan, ,md California. This mongrel dialect, as different from Chinese as
Chines* is from English, contains Portuguese, Malay, French, and Hindustan elements,
besides English; but in many cases one word is used in a great variety of meanings.
Prominent in the vocabulary are »abe (French, sa-coir, to know), pecce (piece), pegyy,
(Malay, go away, take off, etc.) tvp-.ride (up), etc. Its syntax is usually formed by
arranging the words according to the Chinese order. A Japanese lad, in answer to the
writer's question, Doko (where?), answered, " Me Yokohama go" (I am going to Yoko-
hama), according to the native idiom, which requires the object first and verb last.
Foreigners, in u.>ing their own words, transformed into Pidgin English, think them to
be native, while the native imagines they are foreign. Though most persons regard
this " lingo" as an absurdly silly kind of baby talk, unworthy of adults, and though the
tribunals forbid it for testimony, and most printed specimens of it have a comic Havor,
yet earnest students recognise in it u new language in embryo, and predict its ultimate
status as an accepted tongut, believing that it will be a powerful aid in "westernizing"
China, Japan, and India.
PIE, a well-known culinaiy preparation, consisting of a crust of dough or pastry,
inclosing either meat or fruit, and baked in the oven. The origin of the word is very
obscure. There are two kinds of pies, one in which a dish is used, as in cases where
much juice or gravy has to Le retained; the other, without the dish. The latter are
called raised pies, and a partu ular kind of paste is required; which ii made with Lot
lard and water, and must have sufficient consistency to stand up. When molded into
the form or case of the pie it is filled with meat, usually game, and baked. This kind
of crust is not usually eaten with its contents, as it is considered unwholesome, it there-
fore merely serves as a case for 111,- inclosed viands.
PIEDIHON TE D'ALIFE, a t. of south Italy, in the province of Caserta, and 20 m.
n. by e. from Caserta, at the base of the Apennines, on a branch of the Volturno. It is
about 3 m. n.c. from Alife, the ancient Alifa', a city of the Samnites, now a small town
of only 2.6S9 inhabitants. In a grand and gloomy ravine, called the Val d'lnferno. near
Piedimonte d'Alife, a torrent issues from a cavern, which is supposed to derive its
waters through subterranean channels from a lake, about T m. distant, amongst the
mountains. This and other mountain torrents afford water-power for a number of
cottor. paper, flour, fulling, and copper mills in and around the town. Piedimonte
d'Alife is one of the most active manufacturing towns in lialy. The extensive cotton-
inills established by Mr. Egg give employment to about 1500. hands. There are copper-
mines in the vicinity. Pop. about 6,000. Piedimonte is the name of several smaller
(owns and villages in Italy and Sicily.
PIEDMONT, or PrEMDXT (Fr. pied, foot, mont, mountain), an Italian principality,
which now forms the n.w. part of the kingdom of Italy, is inclosed mostly by natural
boundaries, having on the n. the Pennine Alps, on the w. the Graian and Cottiari Alps,
on the s. the Maritime Alps and Genoa, and on the e. the Ticino and the duchy of
Parma. It includes the former duchy of Mont ferrat, which lies in its south-eastern
corner, what was the Sardinian portion of the old duchv of Milan, and contains 11.777
English pq.m., with a population (1871) of 2,899.564. The mountain ranges which form
its boundary on the n., w.. and s. attain, in various places, a great elevation above the
sea; the Col de Tende. Monte Viso, Mont Cenis. Mont Iseran, Mont Blanc. Mont St.
Bernard, Mont Cervin. Monte Rosa, and the Simplon being all on the boundary line.
As to its general character, the country is partly mountainous, partly hilly, and much
diversified with hill and dale; the ranges which traverse the country being spurs from
the alpine boundary, and converging townrds the central tract, through which flow the
Po and its chief tributary, the Tanaro. The valleys which separate these ranges are all
watered by rivers which take their rise in the Alps, and pour their supplies into either
the Po or the Tanaro, according as thev come from the n. and w., or from the s. The
umornt of the water supply in f'\e country may be imagined when it is considered that
in Piedmont the Po receives no fewer than 10 tributaries on the left, and 6 on the ruht.
all of them of considerable size, and some of them, as the Tanaro and Dora Bnltoa.
worthy of being classed as rivers. The valleys of the Po and Tanaro are exceedingly
rich and fertile, producing abundant crops of grain, pulse, hemp, chestnuts, olives, and
many kinds of fruit. Maize and barley are the chief cereals, the former being the ordi-
nary article of food to the inhabitants, while abundant herds of swine are fed upon the
latter. The climate is mild in winter; but in summer, especially on the level country e.
af the Dora Baltea and the T;maro. the heat Is scorching, and this portion would be
rendered a perfect sandy desert, were it not for the complete system of irrigation, which
•upplies moisture to more than half a million of acres, and renders the eastern districts
the granary of the country. So valuable is the privilege of using the water of rivers as
n means of irrigation, that a considerable tax is levied upon it. The other products of
Piedmont are wine and silk, which are. produced in great abundance, especially silk,
which is the best in Italy, and is generally exported raw. The chief manufactures are
cilk,' linen, woolen, and cotton goods, hosiery, paper, leather, cutlery, various fer-
menlod liquors, glass, and iron. The inhabitants are active and industrious, and mostly
belong to the Roman Catholic religion, but are more tolerant than in other parts of
Piedra. t>O i
Pierre.
Italy. The Vaudots or Waldcnses (q.v.), have from time immemorial inhabited the wild
vales at the foot of the Cottiun Alps, in the western corner of the principality. Many of
the Pictlmontcse, like the S\vi>s and Tyrolese, spend tlieir yonlh and early manhood in
traveling through other countries as dealers in engravings, jewelry, ami other articles
of merchandise, and returning with a small hoard spent the rest of their days m comfort
in their native land.
Piedmont, in the 10th c.. was possessed by the marquises of Susa, Ivrea, Montferrat,
and Saluzzo; and it was not till when, a century al'ierwards, the marquisate of Susa
passed iuto the house of Savoy, that the latter, then counts of the Mauricnne (thes. pi r
lion of Savoy), gained a footing in the country. At the oomniem enient of the l~'th c.
Uie possessions of the house of Savoy were divided, and the lines of Savoy and Pied-
mont formed; but they were again united, in 1410, by Amadeus VIII. (afterwards pope
Felix V.), who, in the following year obtained from the emperor Sigismund the ti.le of
duke of Savoy, which they exchanged for that of king in 1684. During the Spanish
war of succession, Piedmont was increased by the addition of the provinces of Ales
saudria, Valence, Lomelliuo, and the Val di Sesia (1708), by Tortona and Npvara in 1?;'..")-
36, and by Vigevanase and Bobbio in 1743. In 1796 it was seized by the French ar,d
parceled out into six departments, live being incorporated with France, and one with
the kingdom of Italy; but after the fall of Napoleon the house of Savoy recovered pos
session of it. See ITALY, SARDINIA, SAVOY. Since 1860 the name Piedmont, as a
provincial designation, has been disused; and Piedmont proper is now divided into the
provinces of Alessandria, Coni or Cuneo, Novara, and Turin.
FIE DBA BLANCA, a t. of the Argentine Republic, South America, in the province of
Catamarca, and 20 m. s.w. from Catamarca. Pop. 10,000.
PIEGANS, an Indian tribe in Montana, They belong to the Blackfeet, from whom
they separated under the leadership of a chief named Piegau, whence their name. In
return for the cession of some of their territory, by treaty, in 1868. the U. S. governmci.1
agreed to pay them $1.000,000. In 1870 lieut-col. Baker led a force against them, and
attacked Red Horn's camp on the Marios, killing 173 men, women, and children. The
act of congress, April 15. 1874, deprived them of their best hunting grounds. They have
suffered greatly from small-pox, but still number over 2, 000.
PIE POWDER COURT, in England, nn ancient court held in fairs and markets to
administer justice in a rough and ready way to all comers, called also the court of duMy
foot (Fr. pied poudrcux). Its jurisdiction seems to have been confined mostly to petty
vagabonds, peddlers, and other wanderers. The court has long been obsolete, the only
jurisdiction of that kind being now merged in the court of petty sessions (q.v.).
FIER, the block of solid wall between doors, -windows, etc.; also a solid mass of
masonry built to receive the arch of a bridge. The term is also used synonymously for
the pillars (q.v.) of a church; thus, we speak of nave-piers, etc.
PIERCE, a co. in s.e. Georgia; drained by the gatilla and Little Sntilla rivers, and
Hurricane creek; and traversed by the Atlautfcand Gulf, and the Brunswick ;.ml All any
railroads; 640 sq.m. : pop. '80. 4.538—4,022 of American birth; 1,473 colored. The sin-
face is level, sandy, and mostly covered by pine forests. Corn, cattle, lumber, and p< rk.
are the products. Co. seat, Blackshear.
PIERCE, a co. in n.e. Nebraska, drained by the n. branch of the Elkhorn river; MO
sq.m. ; pop. '80. 1203—780 of American birth.' The surface is level and the soil very
rich; corn, oats, wheat, and hay are the chief products. Co. seat, Pierce
PIERCE, a co. in the w. center of Washington territory, bounded on the e. by Cas-
cade mountains, and on the w. by Puget si und and Nesqually river; cios.-cd by the
Northern Pacific railroad, and drained by the Green and White rivers; 2,01,0 .-q.m. ; pop.
by
1 by n-
and other trees; the soil is fertile
'80, 3.319. The surface is varied by mountains, prairies, and dense forests of In, cedar.
rtile in the valleys; the principal products are grain, wool.
hay, and lumber. Mount Rainier, 14.444 ft. high, is in the s. part, and is the highest point
of the Cascade range. Co. seat, Steilacoom City.
PIERCE, a co. in w. Wisconsin, bounded w. and s.w by t lie St. Croix and Mi.^s.4
sippi rivers; drained also by several smaller streams; 560 sq.m.; pop. '80, 17,744 — 12. ">!;<>
of American birth. Lake Pepin is a small but beautiful sheet of water on the Minnesota
border. The surface is partly prairie and partly hilly. The soil is fertile, and produces
•wheat, hay, and oats in large quantities. Lumber 'is the chief export. Limestone is
found. Co. seat, Ellsworth.
PIERCE, BENJAMIN, 1757-1889, b. Mass. ; entered the revolutionary army soon after
the battle of Lexington, took part in the battle of Bunker's hill, and was made ensign
after the battle of Bemis heights. He obtained the rank of lieut. ; remained in the
service till the close of the wai% and was afterwards appointed brig. gen. of militia. He
was 'n the New Hampshire legislature 1789-1802, was councilor 1803-9, and 1814-lb;
many years high sheriff, and governor, 1827-29.
PIERCE, FRANKLIN, the fourteenth president of the United States of America, was b.
in Hillsborough, N. II., Nov. 23, 1804. His father, gen. Benjamin Pierce, was a soldier
of the war of Independence, and governor of New Hampshire. Franklin Pierce wasedu-
Piedra.
Pierre.
rated at Bowdoin college, Maine, and was an officer in a college military company, in
which his biographer, Nathaniel Hawthorne, was a private. He spent his first vacation
in teaching a country school, studied law with Levi Woodbury, governor and senator,
was admitted to the bar in 1827, became speaker of the state house of representatives in
1829. and was elected to the 33d congress, a democrat of the school of Jackson. In
18:57 he was elected to the U. S. senate, of which he was the youngest member. He
declined the office of attorney-general, offered him by president Polk, and refused the
nomination for governor of New Hampshire; and tit the commencement of the Mexican
war volunteered as a private, but was appointed brig. gen., and led his brigade in the
battles of Contrcras and Churubusco. In 1852, in consequence of the conflicting claims
of the leaders of thi- democratic party at the Baltimore convention, he was nominated as
a compromise candidate for the presidency, against gen. Scott, the whig nominee, and
received the vote-; of all but four states. He appointed an able cabinet, including Jeffer-
son Davis as secretary of war. During his administration, the Missouri compromise was
repealed; the treaty tor reciprocity of trade with the British American colonies was made;
j:n:l a treaty with Japan; and the Kansas difficulties which then arose, with the growing
animosity b. 'tween the north and south, led to secession, and the war of 1861. At the
eliisc of his term of office in 18.17 he traveled in Europe, and. having no sympathy with
the party which subsequently came into power, he took no part in politics. He died iu
1339.
PIERCE, GEORGE FOSTER, D.D. : b. Ga. 1811; graduated at Franklin college in
1829; studied law, but left it for the ministry; joined the Georgia conference of the
Methodist Episcopal church iu 1830; was pastor of several churches in Georgia until
1837, when he became president of the Georgia college for women, Macon. In 1848 he
was chosen president of Emory college, Georgia, and in 1854 was elected bishop. He
was a prominent member of the general conference of 1844 iu New York, when measures
were adopted for the division of the church. He u an eloquent preacher and an able
executive officer. He has published Incidents of Western Travel, also several sermons
and addresses.
PIERCED, in heraldry, a term used to indicate that a charge is perforated so as to
show the field beneath it. The aperture is presumed to be circular, unless some other
form, as square-pierced or lozenge-pierced, be specified in the blazon.
PIERPOINT, FRANCIS HARRISON, b. W. Va., 1814; worked in his father's tan
yard until the age of 21; graduated at Alleghauy college 1841; studied law three
years, supporting himself by teaching; commenced practice 1844. He was a thorough
abolitionist, vigorously opposed the dogma of state supremacy and secession, and at a
convention of the loyal people of the state held June, 1861, was unanimously elected pro-
visional governor of the "restored government of Virginia." The president, informed
of the rebellion in the state, recognized him as governor, and requested him to raise and
commission troops. At the end of 6 months he, was elected by the people for two years,
and then re-elected for four years. He removed the. ;:-eat of government to Alexandria,
and after the surrender of Lee, transferred it to Richmond in the spring of 1865. In a
few months he had completely restored the state government. At the expiration of his
term he returned to Fairmont, where he still resides. He has been since the war
engaged iu the coal-trade, and in other ways interested in developing the resources of
West Virginia. He has served one term in the state legislature. In 1871 he was presi-
dent of the Methodist Protestant general conference, the first layman who ever held that
position.
PIERPONT, JOHN, 1785-1860, b. Conn.; graduated at Yale, studied law at the Litch-
field law school and removed to Newburyport. Mass. After unsuccessful business ven-
tures in Boston and Baltimore, he studied theology at the Harvard divinity school, and
in 1819 was ordained over the Hollis street Congregational (Unitarian; church in Boston.
His advocacy of anti-slavery, temperance, and other reforms, caused his withdrawal
from that pastorate in 1845, after which he was pastor of the Unitarian church. Trov.
N. Y., and of the first church (Unitarian), Medford, Mass. In the war of the rebellion
he was for a time chaplain of a Massachusetts regiment, but resigned to accept an
appointment in the U. S. treasury, where he remained till his death. In 1816, lie pub
lished a poem called Airs of Palestine; in 1840 Airs of Palestine, and Other Poems; an •
in 1851 he read a poem at the Litchfield centennial. He also published a number of etr
mons and addresses, and a series of school readers.
PIERRE, JACQUES HENUI, BERNARDIN DE ST., a celebrated French writer, was b.
at Havre, Jan. 19, 1737. He received his education at Caen and Rouen, and afterwart!
entered the government department of civil engineers. On his dismissal from their ser
vice in 1761, he wandered about the continent for several years, endeavoring to realize
his dream of a republican colony. He returned to France in 1766, and soon afti»r
obtained a commission as engineer for the Mauritius; but after a residence of three years
in the island, he returned to Paris. At this time he wrote the story of Paul ei Virrjinit.
The little book, with its passion, its simplicity, its tenderness, achieved an immense
success, and has been translated into almost every language. St. Pierre passed through
the storms of the revolution in safety, and was lucky enough to secure the patronage of
Plerrepont. AQfi
Pietra.
Napoleon. He died Jan. 21, 1814. Besides Paul et Virginia, he wrote other talcs, essnys,
and several plays
PIERREPONT, EDWARDS, LL.D., b. N. Y., 1817; graduated at Yale in 1837; was
admitted to the bar 1840: and practiced law in Ohio till 1848, when lie returned to New
York. He was elected judge of the superior court, New York, is.}?, resigned in 1860,
iind resumed his practice. In 1863 he was chosen by president Lincoln and gen. Dix, to
Jake charge of the proceedings against prisoners of state, then conlined in the forts, on
charges relative to the rebellion, and in 1867 conducted th.- case for the government
ug.iins; John H. Surratt, indicted as an accomplice in the murder of president Lincoln.
he was ifppoiuted district attorney by president Grant in 1869, a*id resigned a year later.
He received the honorary degree of LL.D. from Columbia college in 1851, and from Yale
in 187iJ. He was appointed attorney-general of the United .Suites in 1^75, and envoy
extraordinary, and minister plenipotentiary, to the court of St. James, which position he
resigned in 1877.
PIERSON, ABRAHAM, 1641-1708; b. Lynn, Mass.; graduated 1668 from Harvard
college. His father was the lirst minister of Newark, and. of Southampton, L. I. The
son was his colleague at Newark, was afterward pastor of a Congregational church at
Killingworth, Conn., 1694-1707; and for the last six years of his life was the tirst presi-
dent or rector of Yale -college, which then had its seat at Saybrook. though the classes
were taught by Mr. Pierson at that part of Killingworth now known as Clinton. A
statue of him, rather ideal than a portrait, was executed by Launl Thompson, and now
stands on the college green.
PIERS PLOWMAN, or rather The Vision of William concerning Piers the Plowman, is a
remarkable poem -by William Langland or Langley. who was born, apparently in Shrop-
shire, about 13ov, was educated for the church, and died in London near the end of the
century. The Vision, a powerful poem in vigorous alliterative verse, describes a series
of nine dreams, in certain of which a person called Piers the plowman appears. Under
allegorical covering, the Vision exposes the manifold corruptions of the state, of tlie
church, and of existing social arrangements. From the forty-three MSS. which remain,
it Is evident that the poem, originally written about 1362, was repeatedly revised, altered.
uud extended, and that it continued to Occupy the author all his lifetime.
PIERS PLOWMAN (ante). The Vision of William concern/lift Pier* t7u .
attributed to Robert Langland, Longland, or Langelande, b. Cleolmry-Mortitner, Slir<>|).
i-.hire, England, about the middle of the 14th century. He is supposed to have studied
at Oxford, and to have been a monk at Malvern. The scene of his poem is laid in the
" Malverne hillcs" on the Welsh border, and the frequent allusions to the Bible and tho
fathers, show that its author was an ecclesiastic. The poem which is written in allitera-
tive verse, recounts, the vision of Piers Plowman, who falls asleep beside a stream among
the Malvern hills. It contains much vigorous satire of the abuses of society in church
mid state. It attained a great popularity, and was often imitated by subsequent political
and religious reformers. The most notable of these imitations is 7Y< >•••>• Pl<nr>naita
Creede, composed about 1390 in the Wvcliffitc interest. The best edition is that edited by
W. W. Skeat for the early English text society, 1867-77.
PIETA' (an Italian word signifying piety, in the sense in which that term indicates or
includes affection for relatives), the name given in the language of art to representations
of the Virgin Mary embracing the dead body of her son. It is a counterpart to the
madonna with the infant Jesus in her arms, The one affords an opportunity for the
representation of the purest joy and highest motherly love; the other, of the utmost pain
and grief. The pieta has long been a favorite subject, not only with painters, but wilh
sculptors. A famous one by Michael Angelo is in the church of St. Peter at Rome.
PI'ETISTS, a designation given since the end of the 17th c. to a religious pirty in Ger-
many, vMiich, without forming a separate sect, is distinguished not only by certain pecul-
iarities of religious opinion, but also by the manner in which these are manifested. The
peculiar character of their religion is very generally denoted by the term ri< firm, which
H frequently employed with reference to the same tendencies of opinion, feeling and
conduct, wheresoever and whensoever exhibited. Pietism may be regarded as consisting
in an exaltation of the importance of religious feeling, and of the practical part of religion.
with a corresponding depreciation of doctrinal differences, and a contempt for outw.-mi
ecclesiastical arrangements; and has been more or less strongly dev loped from time to
time in all sections of the church, a tendency towards it always existing in a large class
of earnestly religious minds. In the church of the middle ages, tliis tendency was dis-
played in an endeavor to attain to a superior spirituality and purity by means of religious
contemplation and asceticism, and many, consequently, embraced a monastic life. The
reformers, adopting the Augustinian doctrines, rejected this mode of seeking deliverance
from indwelling sin, and proclaimed the efficacy of faith in the sacrifice of Christ. But
the controversies which arose among them, and increased among their succ<
gradually gave a too exclusively doctrinal and polemical character to the sermons and
writings both of the Lutheran and Calvinistic divines, particularly in Germany, and a read-
Pierrepont.
Pietra.
tion ensued, not in favor of the church of Rome, but in favor of a religion of feeling and
good works, or of the heart, and life. Disgust at the sectarian bitterness and exclusive-
ness which prevailed led even to an undervaluing of disputed points; and thus the
Pietism of Germany was generated and developed The origin of it is referred to :i
work entitled Vom wahren Christenthume, by John Arnd, published in 1605; to the
Invitatio Fraternitatis Christi of John Val. Andrese, published in 1617, both of them
Lutherans; and to the writings of Cocceius, a Calvinist. But its fuller development is
unquestionably to be ascribed to Spener (q.v.), in the latter part of the 17th c., and to
his frieuos and disciples. The name Pietists' was first given in contempt to certain
young docenU in Leipsic. who begnn in 1689 to give prelections on the New Testament
both to students and citizens, and to addict themselves much to a meditative mode of
life. Spener had held meetings of a somewhat similar kind in his own house when
pr.'acher at Frankfort-on-the-Main, and in his writings had urged the necessity of a
ivi'orm in the Protestant church and theology. He and his followers dwelt much upon
lhe importance of studying the Scriptures rather than the symbolical books, upon the
miritness of any unconverted or unregenerate person for the office of the ministry, upon
the right and duty of the laity to take part in the exercises of Christian assemblies, and
upon the necessity of a practical rather than a systematic religion. But many of the
more extreme Pietists carried their antipathy to the doctrinalism and the established
i-ervices of the church to -a degree that alarmed the theologians of the old school, the
high and dry Lutherans, or German " moderates," who accused Spener and his disciples.
not without reason, of a tendency to make all goodness and virtue consist in mere
religious feeling, or pious sentimentalism; to represent the divine grace as operating in
<co sudden and abrupt o manner; to exaggerate the value of good works: to depreciate
I lie value of learning and of clear intellectual perception in the study of Scripture; and
to indulge in a strictness of judgment upon the religious character of the ordained
"leigy, tending to sectarianism, and indeed incompatible with ecclesiastical unity. The
weapons of argument, however, were not the only weapons employed against them.
The docents were compelled to give up their prelections, and finally to leave Leipsic; the
Miectings for mutua' edification were suppressed by the government as disorderly con-
venticles; and Fraicke (q.v.), the most distinguished of the Leipsic docents, having gone
lo Erfurt, was prevented from lecturing, and quickly compelled to retire. Spener's
influence, however procured a refuge for his friends in the newly founded university of
lialle, and Francke obtained a professorship there. Halle became thenceforth the
source of new religious influences, and, indeed, of a new religious life to Germany.
The Pietists, although spiritually exclusive— disposed to regard themselves as the
"chosen of God,' and to look down on all others as "children of the world," or even of
the devil — did not attempt to form a separate sect. To do them justice, they were as
far ris possible from being ecclesiastically ambitious; all their desire was to excel in
"labors of love," and to cultivate feelings of intensest piety. The rise of the Wolfian or
Rationalist'c theology, the spread of thai sort of skeptical anti-clerical philosophy which
flourished for awhile under the name of avfldaning (enlightenment), exercised an injuri
ous and depressing influence on Pietism; yet through all the long, obstinate warfare
maintained ;i£rainsttlie doctrines of the church by the rationalists during the last half
of the 18th. and the most part of the 19th c., Pietism continued to number some adhe-
rents; and it can hardly be doubted that it is to the Pietists, and not to the Lutheran
dotrmatisti, that Germany is in a great measure indebted for that revival of religious
fnitli and feeling which, begun with the great Schleiermacher — himself trained up under
pietistic influences — has since widely diffused itself through her biblical scholars and
Micologians. The patriotic enthusiasm called forth by tlie insolent conquests of the
French naturally allied itself to pietistic tendencies, for, in Germany, the triumphs of
Napoleon even as emperor were looked upon as the triumphs of revolutionary, republi-
, party
of devout men and women were formed to distribute tracts, and tohuxuliie.the radical
and heathen masses with pietistic sentiments. But this attempt to use "piety" for
reactionary political purposes sullied its purity, and alienated from it the very parties
whom it wished to influence. Still, however, Pietism exists as a distinct element 'in the
n-litrious life of Germany, and now, as ever, its strongholds are Prussia (Berlin, Silesia,
Wupperthal), Hesse, and Wiirtemberg.
PIE'TRA-DTJ'RA, a name given to .the finest kinds of Florentine mosaic-worK, in
X-hich the inlaid materials are hard stones, such as jasper, carnelian, amethyst, agate,
crtc. The real pietra-dura work dates as far back as the 16th c., about 1570: and from
diat time to the present has been almost confined to Florence, where a government
fdelier lias existed ever since the beginning of the 17th c., which was originated in order
to supply decorations for the Capella Medicea. It is sometimes called Pietre Commesse,
and Lnvoro di Commesso. In the inferior kinds, which are sold in Italy, and are manu-
factured now pretty extensively in Derbyshire and other parts of Britain, pieces of
colored sea-shells are used instead of the harder and more valuable colored stones.
PIETHAPrB'ZIA, a t. of Sicily, in the province of Caltanisetta, and six m. s.c. frora
CallaniseUa, <.u a lolly height rising from ihelei't bank of the !5also. Then: arcsulphur-
inines in ihu vicinity. Pop. 9,1)09.
PIETIIASANTA, u t. i;i llic: province of Lucca, Italy; 17 m. n.w. of Pisa, 2 in. from
t!ie Mediterranean; pup, '74, li},~-!r. Ii is on a hill, on the top of which is alaruc fortress;
it is surrounded by a high wall and entered by three gates, one of ihem opening near
the? principal square, on which stands an ancient palace, now used for public offices, and
liie Prctorio. The s! reels arc wide, well p.ived aiid straight, and most of the buiklings
aro in the style of the 14th and loth centuries. The surrounding country, partly level
a:id partly mountainous, is extremely fertile, and the vine and olive are. produced in great
abundance. The Serrauezza marbie is quarried here.
PIEZOM ETEB (Gr. piczo, I press: metroii, a measure), an instrument for measuring
the compressibility of fluids. Oersted's (q.v.) instrument, the tirst by which the com-
pressibility of water was satisfactorily determined, consisted of a cylindrical glass jar,
into the neck of which a narrower cylindrical tube of glass, open at both ends, was
firmly fixed. In this tube worked an air-tight piston by means of a screw. In the
interior of the jar was placed a bottle, whose neck was drawn out into a long capillary
graduated tube, and along side this bottle was suspended a cylindrical tube, closed at the
top, but open at the bottom. When the compressibility of any liquid was to be determined,
the instrument was adjusted in the following manner: the bottle inside was tilled
almost to the top of the capillary tube with the fluid, and being replaced inside the
jar, the latter was completely filled with water up to the piston in the neck. The. liquid
m the submerged bottle, then under, pressure of the water above it, fell slightly in the
capillary tube, being kept from contact with the water by an air-bubble, the motion of
which up or down, according as the pressure was less or greater, served as an index for
reading off the graduation. The suspended tube alongside being at first only filled with
air, the water rose in it to some extent, and by graduations on the tube it was made to
indicate the pressure in atmospheresor parts of atmospheres. Pressure was now applied
to the water in the jar by screwing down the piston; the compressed water communicated
the pressure to the liquid in the bottle and to the air in the suspended tube; the descent
el the air-bubble in the former indicating the amount of diminution in bulk the liquid
had undergone (the capillary tube being graduated in inches and parts of inches, and
each inch of tube being known to contain a certain fraction of the contents of the bot-
tle), while the ascent of the water in the suspended tube showed the amount of pressure
which had been applied.
PIG. See HOG.
PIGEON (Ital. pigione, piccione, or pipione, from pipiare, Lat. pipv-e, to peep or cheep),
a name sometimes applied, like dove (q.v.), to all the species of uolumbuhe (q.v.), and
sometimes almost restricted to those still included by ornithologists in the genus cohimba;
having n bill of moderate length, hard, and a little arched at the point, the base of the
upper mandible covered with a soft thick skin, in which the nostrils are pierced; the
feet with toes divided to the base, and formed both for walking find perching; the wings
rather large and pointed ; the tail of moderate length, and generally square at the end.
The species of this group are numerous, and occur in almost all parts of the world.
Some of them build their nests in trees, and some in holes of rocks; they lay only 2 eggs
at a time, but breed twice or of tener in a year, and both the male and the female take
part in incubation. The original of all the varieties of th« DOMESTIC PIGKON is now
almost universally believed to be the ROCK PIGEON or ROCK. DOVE (C. livid), the bt'.vt of
the French, a bird of extensive geographical range, being found as far n. as the Faroe
islands, and on many parts of the coasts of Europe, Asia as far as Japan, and the n. of
Africa, breeding in crevices of rocks, and often within caverns which open on the sea.
It swarms in prodigious numbers in some of the rocky islands of the Mediterranean : and
even on the British coasts great numbers are found in some localities, particularly in
the Orkneys and Hebrides. Its food consists partly of mollufcksand othersmall animals,
partly of grain and seeds; and it often makes unwelcome visits to the corn iields of its
vicinity. In a wild state this bird exhibits great uniformity both of size and plumage:
being not quite 12 in. in length from the tip of the bill to the end of the tail; tin pre-
vailing color bluish-gray, in some parts with green and purple reflections, two broad and
distinct bars of black across the closed wings; the lower part of the back white; the tail
deep gray, with a broad black bar at the end; the bill blackish-brown; the legs and toes
reddish-orange.— Until recently naturalists very generally confounded this species with
the STOCK DOVE or SMALLER WOOD PIGEON (C. cenas), a species which inhabits woods,
and generally builds in trees, preferring the hollows of old decaying trees, or the tops of
such as have been pollarded and have become bushy — whence the name stock dove. In
some of the open parts of England, however, it makes its nest in rabbits' burrows or
other holes in the ground. It is rather larger than the rock pigeon; its prevailing color
is bluish gray, in some parts passing into pale gray, but nowhere into white; the wings
destitute of bands; the sides of the neck with green reflections; the breast purplish red.
It congregates in large flocks in autumn and winter. It is partially migratory in some
parts of Europe; a summer visitant of the northern regions. In Britain it is found only
in the southern parts of the island. Its geographical raogc includes great parts of
Pietraperzia.
Pigeon.
Europe and Asia, and the n. of Africa. It feeds on beech-mast, acorns, grain, pulse,
etc., and sometimes resorts to turnip-fields to eat the tender tops. Its voice is very dif-
ferent both from that of the rock dove and that of the ring dove. Its flesh is of very
tine flavor. — The RING DOVE, WOOD PIGEON, or CUSHAT (C. paluinbus), is the most com-
mon British species, and is diffused over great part of Europe, either as u permanent
resident or a summer bird of passage, although it is not found at all in some of the most
northern regions; and occurs also in the temperate parts of Asia, and the u. of Africa.
Its soft loud coo is one of the pleasant intimations of approaching spring. It inhabits
woods, and builds its nest among the branches of trees. It is the largest of the British
•pecies, being about 17 in. in entire length. It feeds on green corn, young clover, turnip-
tops, grain, pulse, acorns, etc. Where it abounds, its voracity is often very injurious to
the farmer. It is gregarious in winter. It is in considerable estimation as an article of
food; but it is very shy and wary, not easily approached by an inexperienced sports-
man.— These are all the British species of pigeon. Our limits quite preclude us from
noticing almost any other. The KING-TAIL PIGEON (C. Caribbea) may be mentioned as .t
West Indian species, much valued for the richness and delicacy of its flesh, which is
reckoned one of the greatest luxuries of that part of the world. The BALD-PATE cr
WHITE-HEADED PIGEON (C. leucocephala) is another large and fine species, plentiful in
the West Indies. It migrates to the Keys of Florida in summer. — The DOUBLE-CRESTED
PIGEON (C. diloplia) is a large species, inhabiting the n. of Australia and warmer regions
to the northward, remarkable for its crest, which consists of two parts, one on the back
of the head, and another of lax recurved feathers springing from the forehead, and even
from the base of the bill.
Only one species of pigeon has been truly domesticated, and having long been so, it
has undergone many remarkable changes, and there are numerous varieties or breeds;
some of them, exhibiting very strange peculiarities, and known as fane// pigeons, being
carefully preserved and tended by pigeon-fanciers. Pigeon-fancying is nowhere carried
further than in London, where there are many persons who give great part of their time
to it, and whose pigeons are their chief delight. The prices of such fancy pigeons as are
deemed most perfect of their kind are very high. The ordinary domestic pigeons, kept
for profit as a kind of poultry, differ from the wild rock dove chiefly in color in which
they are often very unlike it, although a tendency always manifests itself to return to
the original colors, and the bars on the wings are apt to reappear in the progeny even of
what may be called the most artificial varieties. Of these may be mentioned, as among
the most interesting, the rough-footed pigeon, having the feet feathered; the Jacobin,
which has a range of feathers inverted over the head, and extending down each side of
the neck, as a hood; the fan-tail, or fan-tailed shaker, in which the number of the tail
f oat hers is greatly increased, and the bird has the power of erecting its tail like that of a
turkey cock, whilst it has also a peculiar vibratory motion; the tumbler, so called from
tumbling in the air in its flight, and further characterized by a very short bill; and the
pouter or cropper, which has the power of blowing up its crop to an extraordinary
degree, so that the head seems fastened on the top of an inflated bladder. The carrier
pigeon (q.v.) is regarded as a variety'of the common pigeon.
The law regarding pigeons is stated in the article DOVECOT. For the profitable keep-
ing of pigeons, it is necessary to have a properly-constructed dovecot, divided into cells,
a cell for each pair, each cell 16 in. broad, by 12 from front to back, and the door toward
one side, so that the nest may not be seen from without; a slip of wood in front of each
cell for the birds to sit and coo on. The dovecot must be placed at such a height as to
be out of the way of rats and other depredators; and must be frequently cleaned, other-
wise it may probably be deserted by its occupants. It ought to be painted white, that
color being very attractive to pigeons, and contributing to retain them when a new dove-
cot is established, in which there is often found to be not a little difficulty. Pigeons
begin to breed at the age of 9 months, and breed every month except in very cold weather.
The male and female continue faithful to each other from year to year, a circumstance
noted by Pliny and others of the ancients, and evidently, as well as their somewhat
demonstratively manifested affection, a reason of the poetic references often made to the
dove.
PIE3ON BERRY. See POKE, ante.
PIGEON COVE, a village in Rockport, Essex co., Mass., on the sea-coast, about 3C
m. from Boston. It is a summer resort, and has several hotels.
PIGEON ENGLISH. See PIDGIN ENGLISH.
PIGEON HAWK, Falco columbarius of Linnaeus, a bird of prey of the falcon family
inhabiting the warm and temperate parts of America. It is from 12 to 14 in. in length,
with a spread of wing, in the female, of from two feet to 26 inches. The male, as i»
usual with falcons, is smaller. In the adult the back is of a bluish slate color, everj
feather having a longitudinal black line. The throat, breast, and belly are of a pale
pinkish, yellowish white, each feather with a longitudinal line of very dark brown. Tho
quills are black, with ashy white tips; bill blue, legs reddish yellow, with dark lines.
It is the most fierce of all hawks in proportion to its size, and lives upon woodpeckers,
thrushes, wild pigeons, snipe, and smaller ducks.
Pigeon.
If ike.
PIGEON PEA, Cnjanua, a genus of plants <Tf the natural order lefftnninosfp, suborder
pti'f(ilionaceo>., of which according to some botanists there is only one species (6'. flavus), a
native of tlie East Indies, but much cultivated also in tl <• West Indies ;uul in Africa;
according to others there are two species, C. Jktvun, with flowers entirely yellow, the pod
marbled with dark streaks, and two or three seeds in each pod; and U. tricolor, called
C'ojsuo PEA in the West Indies, the pulse of which is much coarser, and is used chiefly
by negroes. The tiuer kind is nearly equal to the common pea. This kind of pulse is
•very much used in tropical countries. The plant is a shrub (cytixitx cnjnn of Linnaeus)
about 18 in. high. It is half-hardy in the s. of England. In tropical countries the
plants stand and are productive for several years. They throw off their leaves annually,
and reproduce them along with their flowers. The pigeon pea is one of the most valu-
able of the tropical kinds of pulse. It grows either on rich or poor soils. It is called
ilM and urhur in the East Indies. The name pigeon pea is We^t Indian.
PIG MENTS. See PAINTS.
PIGNEHOL. See PINEROLG, ante.
PIG NUT. See HICKORY, ante.
PIGWEED, a name given to some species of clienopodium, particularly C. albrem.
belonging to the goosefoot family (clienopopiaeea), and going by the common name of
goose foot in England. The principal characteristics of the geniis are: flowers perfect,
all bractless; calyx 5-cleft, with lobes* somewhat keeled, more or less enveloping the
depressed fruit, stamens generally 5; styles 2, seldom 3. Flowers sessile in small clus-
ters in spiked panicles. The species in, this country are all annuals except two. They
are quite common, growing in cultivated ground (gardens, plowed orchards, farmyard!-).
'1 he best-known species is C. album, sometimes called lamb's quarters, but more often
pigweed. It grows from 1 to 3 and 4 ft. high; leaves varying from rhombic-ovate to
lanceolate; the lower ones, sometimes all, are" angulate toothed, mealy beneath, pale
green above. There are several varieties.
PIKA. See LAGOMYS, ante.
I IKE— PIKEMAN. Previously to the use of the bayonet, infantry of the line of bat-
tle— that is, the heavy-armed troops — were from the earliest times armed v.'ith pikes or
spears. The Macedonians carried pikes 24 ft. long; those of modern warfare averaged
12 or 14 feet. They were of stout wood, and tipped with a flat iron spearhead, which
sometimes had cutting edges. As a defense against cavalry, the pike, from its length and
rigidity, was of great value; but though it long survived the introduction of gunpowder,
that event was really fatal to it. For success with the pike, especially in oft'en.-ive war,
a depth of several men was essential, and this depth rendered the fire of artillery pecul-
iarly fatal. The pike is now superseded by the bayonet on the end of the musket.
PIKE. Ewr, a genus of malacopterous fishes, including all the species of the family
eitociciae, as restricted by Midler, and characterized by an elongated body, covered with
scales, a depressed head, and broad blunt muzzle, with very large mouth, abundantly
furnished with teeth of various sizes on the jaws, palatine bones, and vomer; no adipose
fin; and the dorsal fin placed very far back over the anal fin. The species are not
numerous; thry are all inhabitants of fresh waters in the northern hernisMhere. Only
one is found in Europe, the COMMON PIKE (E. Indus), a native also of Asia and North
America. It is very generally diffused over Europe, and is abundant even in its most
northern regions: and is now abundant in lakes, ponds, and slow rivers in ill parts of
the British islands, although it is supposed not to be truly indigenous to them, but
introduced. The statement, which has been often made, however, that it was intro
duced in the reign of Henry VIII., is certainly erroneous, as there is evidence of its exist-
ence in England at a much earlier date. Edward I., graciously regulating the price of
commodities for his subject*, fixed the price of the pikr higher than that of the salmon,
and ten times higher than that of the turbot and the cod, from which we may perhaps
infer its comparative rarity at that period. Some of the waters in the fenny districts of
England are peculiarly adapted to pike, which are there found in very great quantity,
and of superior quality.
The pike is of a dusky olive-brown color on the upper parts, becoming lighter and
mottled with green and yellow on the sides, and passing into silvery white on the belly;
th« fins brown; the larger fins mottled with white, yellow, and dark green. The tail fin
is forked. The pike grows to a large size, occasionally attaining a weight of 60 or 70
pounds, although the stories of pikes much larger than tliis are liable to suspicion. The
excessive voracity of the pike has long been proverbial. No animal substance which it
can swallow, and which is capable of being digested, seems to be unpalatable toil; and
no animal large enough to attract its attention, and which it can master, escapes beintr
devoured. Mr. Jesse mentions an irist-mce of eight- pike, of about five pounds' weight
each, consuming nearly 800 gudgeons in three weeks; and one of them devoured four
roach, each about four in. in length, in rapid succession, and seized the fifth, but kept it
in his-mouth for about a quarter of an hour before swallowing it. The pike readily
attacks a fish of own its size, and preys freely on the smaller of its own species Frogs are
frequent prey; water-rats and ducklings are sometimes devoured. A large pike often
lakes possession of a particular hole in the bank of a river, from which it issues to seize
'TAI Pigeon.
<Ui Pike.
tny creature that may pass. — The pike spawns in the beginning of spring, for that pur-
pose ascending narrow creeks and ditches, in which it is very easily caught by nets.
Large quantities are caught at the spawning season in Lapland, and dried for future use.
The pike grows very rapidly when the supply of food is abundant, reaching a length of
8 to 10 inches in its first year, 12 to 14 in the second, 18 to 20 in the third, and after-
wards increasing for a number of years at the rate of about four pounds every year. A
young pike is sometimes called a jack or pickerel. The name luce (Lat. luclns) is still
known as an English name of the pike. The Scotch name is gedd, a name similar to
those in the Scandinavian languages.
The flesh of the pike is much esteemed, but that of pikes of moderate size is reckoned
superior to that of small, or of very large ones.
The pike is not only caught by means of nets, but by the rod, by set lines, and by
trimmers or liggers, which may be briefly described as floats with lines attached to them,
the line being so fastened that the bait swims at a proper depth, and that some yards of
line runout when the bait is taken. The floats are sometimes made of wood or cork,
sometimes of bundles of rushes, sometimes of bottles. In angling for pike various baits
are used, such as a minnow, par, or other small fish, a portion of a fish, etc., and some-
times an artificial fly is employed with great success, made of two large hooks tied
together, and adorned with two moons from a peacock's tail. The angler unaccustomed
to th£ pike must be cautioned as to the manner of the taking the hook from its mouth,
as any rashness may lead to severe laceration of his hand by its teeth. Pike may be
fished any time from May to February inclusive, except when it is actually freezing.
The best month is considered to be November; the pike are then in the best condition.
One of the most approved tackles for angling for the pike is the spinner, baited with a
small dace, bleak, gudgeon, or par of about two ounces. The mode of using it is
thus described in Bailey's Angler's Instructor (Longman & Co., 1857): "Having cast
your bait as far as possible, allow it, if you are fishing in a pond, or lake, or deep
water, to sinii a little, say 2 ft., then wind away at a brisk rate, holding your rod
on one side rather low; if no run, wind out and throw again, but this time wind
brisk four or five yards, then all of a sudden stop a moment, then off again, doing so
three or four iimes in one cast. I have often found this a good plan. If you still have
no run try another throw and wind brisk as before, but occasionally giving your rod a
sharp but short twitch." See also Stonehenge's British Rural Sports (London, 1875).
Other species of pike are found in the lakes and rivers of North America, as esox estor,
which is sprinkled with round blackish spots, and E. -reticularis, which is marked with
a network of brownish lines.
"The gar-fish (q.v.) is sometimes called the sea pike. The same name is also given to
certain large voracious fishes of warm seas, belonging to the perch family.
• The Saury pike is noticed in a separate article.
PIKE, a co. in s.e. Alabama, drained by the head-waters of the Oonecuh river and by
the Pea river and Patsaliga; 850 sq.m.; pop. '80, 20.640—20,601 of American birth,
6,274 colored. Its surface, is undulating and largely covered with thick pine forests. Its
soil, fertile along the water courses, is sterile in most sections. On the river banks a
sandy loam produces sweet potatoes, wheat, cotton, and is adapted to stock-raising and
the products of the dairy. A branch of the Mobile and Girard railroad terminates at its
co. seat, Troy.
PIKE, a co. in s.w. Arkansas, drained by the Little Missouri river forming its s.e.
boundary, and Antoine creek its e. border; 600 sq.m.; pop. '80,6.845 — 6,328 of Ameri-
can birth. 394 colored. Its surface is hilly and well supplied with building timber.
Among its mineral products are limestone much used for building purposes, gypsum,
marl, etc. Its rivers furnish convenient water-power, which is utilized in cotton facto-
ries, saw and grist mills. Co. seat, Murfreesborough.
PIKE, a co. in w. Georgia, having Flint river for its w. boundary; 300 sq.m. ; pop.
'80, 15,849 — 15,824 of American birth* 8,071 colored. It is drained by the Pota'o river,
the Elkius, and other small streams. Its surface is hilly, and largely covered with
forests. It is intersected by the Macon and Western railroad. Iron ore abounds, and
the soil is moderately fertile, suitable for stock raising, dairy products, corn, cotton, and
sweet potatoes. Co. seat, Zebulon.
PIKE, a co. in w. Illinois, having the Mississippi river for its w. border, separating
it from Missouri, and the Illinois river on the e. border; 770 sq.m.; pop. '80, C3.761 —
32.138 of American birth, 301 colored. Its surface is nearly level, containing extensive
beds of coal, and well-timbered portions diversified by broad, fertile prairie land. Itg
eoil is remarkably fertile, drained centrally, by the Salt river. Large crops of grain are
produced; also vegetables, honey, and sorghum. Niagara limestone is quarried. It is
intersected by the W abash, and the Quincy, Alton and St. Louis railroads. Its indus-
tries are important and varied, embracing the manufacture of carriages and wagons,
cooperage, flour, woolen goods, and iron. Co. seat, Pittsfield.
PIKE, .a co. in s.w. Indiana, bounded on the n. by White river and its e. fork;
drained also by Pntoka creek; about 360 sq.m.; pop. 'SO, 16,384—16,016 of American
birth. The surface is level and heavily wooded. The soil is fertile. The principal
Filchard.
productions are corn, tobacco, and wheat. Bituminous coal is mined. Co. seat, Peters-
burg.
PIKE, a co. in e. Kentucky, adjoining Virginia; drained by the Louisa, Elkhorn,
and Russell's forks of the Big Sandy river; about 600 sq.in. ; pop. '80, 13,003—1?.") col-
ored. The surface is hilly, and heavily wooded. The Cumberland mountains an- on
the s e. border. It contains deposits of bituminous coal. The soil is fairly fertile, and
the principal productions are corn, pork, and live stock. Co. seat, Piketon.
PIKE, a co. in s. Mississippi, having the state line of Louisiana for its s. boundary,
drained by the Bogue Chitto and the Tangipahoa rivers; TOO sq.in.: pop. '80, 16,688 —
Hi.iyi of American birth, 8,115 colored. Its surface is mostly level, partly covered
with hard wood forests, and diversified by groves of cypress and magnolia. Its soil is a
sandy loam adapted to the production of cotton, corn, and live s'ock. It is intersected
by the New Orleans, St. Louis and Chicago railroad. Co. seat, Magnolia.
PIKE, a co. in e. Missouri adjoining Illinois; bounded on the n.e. by the Mississippi
river, drained also by Copper and Salt rivers, and Speucei's creek; traversed by the
Chicago and Alton railroad; about 625 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 26,716 — 5,378 colored. The
surface is rolling or hilly, and heavily wooded. The soil is fertile, and the principal
productions are com, wheat, oats, tobacco, hay, and live stock. Co. seat, Bowling
Green.
PIKE, a co. in s. Ohio, drained by Scioto river, and Beaver and Sunfish cre-'ks,
intersected by the Scioto Valley railroad, and the Ohio canal; about 450 sq.in. ; pop. 'MO.
17,927 — 1227 colored. The surface is hilly and heavily timbered. The soil is fertile.
Tiie principal productions are corn, wheat, oats, and live stock. Co. seat, Waverly.
PIKE, a co. in n.e. Pennsylvania, adjoining New Jersey and New York, bounded on
n.e. and s. e., by the Delaware river; drained also by Shohola and Lackawaxen creeks,
and traversed by the Erie railroad; about 050 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 9,661 — 8,334 of American
birth. The surface is uneven, and the soil mostly poor. The principal productions are
torn, hay, aud potatoes. Co. seat, Milford.
PIKE. AT/3EKT, b. Boston, 1809; entered Harvard college, but was obliged to leave
for want of funds. In 1831 he set out on a western tour and vent with an expedition
t > Sau'a Fe. In 1832 he explored the bead waters of the Brazos and lie 1 rivers, and
witl» four companions went 500 miles on foot, to fort Smith, in Arkansas. After edit-
ing the Arkansas Advocate, be was admitted to the bar and in 1836 edited the Arkansas
revised statutes. He served in the Mexican war, and in the rebellion raised a force of
Cherokees, and fought on the confederate side. Besides reporting for five years the
decisions of the Arkansas supreme court, arid publishing The Arkansas Fbrm-ltook*, he
has written Hymns to the Gods, 1831; Prose Sketches and Poems, 1834; and Ntir/cp, 1854.
PIKE. MARY IT. (GREENE), b. Maine, 1827; has published Ida May, 1854; Bond <m.l
Free, 18o8; j'.te Cypresses, 1865; and other stories.
PIKE, Zr.mn.oN MONTGOMERY, 1779-1813. b. 1ST. J. ; entered the army in 1799, and
was made capt. in 1806. After the cession of Louisiana to this country, he wa.c; sent on
an exploring expedition to the source of the Mississippi. Leaving St. Louis in 1805.
with 20 men and provisions for 4 months, he returned at the end of 9 months, after
great sufferings from hunger and co!d. In 1808-7 he was sent on a geographical expedi-
tion to Louisiana. After a march of 3 montbs, his party came, as they supposed, to the
Red river; but. it proved to be the Rio Grande, and they were arrested by a detachment
of Spanish cavalry for trespassing on Spanish territory, and carried to Santa Fe. His
papers were sei/cd, and he was subjected to along examination by the commandant
gen. of the province of Biscay, who finally sent him home with an escort. He arrived
at Natchitoehes in 1807, and was thanked by the government. He rose by rapid promo-
tions to the ra-'k of brig.gcn. in 1813, when he was also appointed adjt. and inspector
gen., and put in command of the land portion of the expedition against York, upper
Canada. He arrived at York, April 27, with 1700 men, landed under a heavy tire, and
in storming a batte.1/ was killed by the explosion of a magazine.
PIKE'S PEAK, a peak of the Rocky Mountains, in the territory of Colorado, lat. 39°
n., long. 105" w., di vovered by gen. Pike, U. S. army, in 1806. It is made by different
measurements 12,000 H-K! 14,500 ft. high, and commands a view of 100 miles' radius of
a rugged, mountainous country, containing many lakes, and the sources of four great
rivers — the Platte, Arkn^sns, ftio Grande, and Colorado of California. In 1858 large
deposits of gold were discovered here: and during the first four years after the discovery,
there were shipped mere ihan .€6.000,000 in gold. It abounds in rich gold-bearing
quartz. The mining country :s 5,000 feet above the sea. with a dry climate, having a
rainy season of only seven weeks. Denver city, capital of the territoiy, had (1870) a
pop. of 4,759.
PIKE-PERCH, Lucioperca, a genus of fishes of the perch family, having two dorsal
fins, of which the first has strong spiny rays, but resembling the pike in its elongated
form, large mouth, and formidable teeth. The muzzle is not, however, broad and
depressed, as in the pike. Several species are known, of which one (L. sandra) is
jommon in the Danube, and in most of the rivers and lakes of the n.e. of Europe,
Pilchard.
extending westward to the Oder and the Elbe, although not found in Italy, France, or
Britain It is highly esteemed for the table, and its introduction into Biitish rivers
seems particularly desirable. Salted and smoked, it is a considerable article of trade in
pcnie parts of Europe. It is a fish of rapid grov/th, and attains a weight of 23 or 80
pounds. This fish readily takes the minnow and the artificial fly. It is calk-d minder,
tt'iiidd, orsa/ulat, in some parts of Germany; nagmaul in Bavaria; and nchillm Vienna.
Another species (L. Amcriatna), much resembling it, of a greenish-yellow color, is found
in the lakes and rivers of North America.
PILASTER, in classical architecture, a square pillar, sometimes standing free, hut
usually attached to a wall from which it projects -£, \, or other definite proportion of
its bici'.dth. Greek pilasters, or ant*, were of the same breadth from top to bottom,
and had different capitals and bases from those of the orders with which they were
associated. The Romans gave them a taper like the columns, and the same capitals and
bases.
PILATE, PONTIUS, sixth Roman procurator of Judea. His family name Pontius
was conspicuous among the Romans at a very early period of their history; and his cog-
nomen Pilatus, " armed with a javelin," may refer to military employment and success.
He is known in history chiefly as connected officially with the crucifixion. Josephns
agrees with the gospels'in fixing the date of his administration; and Tacitus unites with
the Scriptures, creeds, and all Christian history in affirming that Christ, the founder of
the sect of Christians was put to death by Pontius Pilate in the reign of Tiberius. Of
his early history nothing is known. On being appointed to the government of Judea he
removed the headquarters of the army from Caesarca to Jerusalem. He greatly enraged
the people by introducing the standards bearing the image of the emperor secretly into
the city, and to prevent an insurrection was obliged quickly to withdraw them" On
two other occasions he almost drove them to rebellion by similar disregard of their relig-
ious convictions. Kis unwillingness to condemn Jesus, his repeated efforts to release
him, and ultimate submission to the clamors of the priests and populace agree well with
the representations of secular history concerning the unmanliness of his character, and
the fears which he habitually cherished of popular accusation preferred against him to
the emperor. The accuracy of the gospel narrative concerning his proceedings at the
trial is illustrated by several well-known facts of Roman history. As lie was only a pro-
curator he had no quoe>tor to conduct the trial, ai d was therefore brought directly into
communication with Jesus. At an earlier period Roman governors had not been allowed
to have their wives with them in the provinces: but in his time the prohibition had
fallen into neglect, and the senate refused to enforce it. The judgment seat spoken of
in the gospels was a well-known part of a governor's official equipage; and the " tessel-
lated pavement" was so necessary to the administration of justice that Julius Caesar car-
ried one with him during his expeditions. The power of putting lo death had been
taken from the Jews on their subjection to Roman rule. And it is well known that the
Romans often scourged prisoners before putting them to death. The New Testament
says nothing concerning Pilate after the resurrection of Jesus. But Josephus relates
that the Samaritans having accused him of undue severity towards them, Viiellius, .then
president of Syria, sent him to Rome to answer before the emperor. On his arrival
there he found Caligula on the throne. Eusebius says that Pilate, wearied with misfor-
tunes, at length committed suicide. The time and place of his death are not known.
One tradition points to a pyramid 50 ft.' high, at Vienna on the Rhone, which is called
Pontius Pilate's tomb; and* another asserts- that, having sought in vain to hide his sorrows
by the lake of Lucerne, on the mountain now called mount Pilatus, he at last plunged
into its dismal flood. Concerning his official report of the death of Jesus, see ACTS OK
PILATE.
PILATE. ACTS OF. See ACTS, SPURIOUS OR APOCRYPHAL.
PILATT, oi- PILAW, a dish common in India, Turkey, Egypt, and Syria, consists gen-
erally of rice, but occasionally some animal food is added. It is sometimes seei) at tablee
in this country, prepared for those who have been accustomed to it abroad. Tiie correct
method of preparing it is to boil the rice tAventy minutes, with sufficient water to soak it
thoroughly, and swell the grains to their utmost, taking care not to break thorn by mak-
ing them too soft; it is then drained and gently stirred with butter, pepper, and finely-
chopped onions, and served up. This is the way in which the pibms of the pcorer
classes are prepared; but for the tables of the more wealthy, fowls, lama, mutton, shreds
of ham or bacon, variously cooked, but always much boiled or roasted, are placed on the
lop of the rice and served up with it. In India very numerous and elaborate recipes
are in use.
PIL'CHAED, Chipea pfl.cTiardus, or Alaitm piWmrdits, an important fish of the family
clupe'lda? (q.v.), referred by some naturalists to the same genus with the herring (clupea),
and by others to the same genus with the shad (alausa). The pilchard is nearly equal in
size to the herring, but rather thicker, and the lines of the back and belly arc straightcr;
the scales are also larger and fewer: and the dorsal fin is rather further forward. The
mouth is small, and in the adult fish destitute of teeth; the under jaw longer than the
upper. The upper part of the body is bluish-green; the sides and belly silvery-white;
Pileomnyo. THJ.
Piles. ' U
the cheeks and gill-covers tinged with golden yellow, and marked \vitb radiating strife;
the dorsal fin and tail dusky. The pilchard is an inhabitant of more .-o;:thern seas than
the herring, being nowhere plentiful on the British coasts, except in the extreme south,
nnd chiefly on the coasts <,f Devonshire and Cornwall; whilst it occuis on many par's of
the Atlantic coasts of France and Spain, and on the coasts of I'orti.-gal, and is found IB
the Mediterranean sea. Like the herring, it was formerly, supposed to be a migratory
tish, annually visiting the coasts of England and other countrii s; but. as in the ra-e .>f
the herring, this opinion has now been relinquished; and the ;-hn:il- of pilchards whici>
are seen on the coasts are believed merely to issue from deeper v\a'n ;s m\.i at hand, for
the purpose of spawning. The spawning season of the pilchard begins caily in sumirur;
but on the coasts of Devonshire and Cornwall, the principal tlshe.y is in Augus-t and
September. Pilchards are caught either with drift-nets or seine nets, but principally with
seine-nets. By means of <.ne or more seine, each 3(>0 ft. long and 36 ft. deep, a shoal is
iuclosed; the bottom of the net is then drawn together by a peculiar contrivance, and
the pilchards arc taken out at low water by small bag-nets. Prodigious numbers are
sometimes inclosed in a single seine. Twenty-four millions and a h.ilf arc .-aid to have
been taken at once from a single shoal, which, however, may have 1 i over -t-v
eral sq. miles. The approach of a shoal of pilchards is known by the rippling of the
water, md the sea-birds hovering above, and is often watched for and marked from the
shore. In some years the quantity taken in the pilchard lishery on tue English coast is
enormous, and the capital invested in it in Devonshire and Cornwall is probably i:oi
much under £1,000,000. The English pilchard fishery is regulated by several a
parliament, the first of which are of the da}rs of Elizabeth. Great quantities of pilchards
are annually exported to the West Indies and elsewhere. Those intended for exportation
are pickled, and packed in barrels by means of great pressure, by which oil is expressed
to the amount of three or four gallons from a hogshead of fish. The oil, with the blood
and pickle with which it is mingled, is generally used for manure. A favorite Devon-
shire dish is a pie made of pilchards, with their heads protruding from the crust. It is
now generally admitted that the pilchard and the sardine are identical, and a Cornish
sardine company has been started for preparing pilchards, like sardines, in oil. It is said
that the Cornish sardines cannot be distinguished from those imported from France. — A
great number of boats are employe:! ii> the pilchard lishery in and near the estuary of the
Tagus. — The pilchard is known in Scotland as the gyp»y ltcrring.
PILCOMAY 0, a river of South America, whose course has not as yet been thoroxijhly
explored, draws its waters from the Bolivian Andes, and is formed by the confluence of
two rivers, the Suipacha and the Pilaya. Of these head-waters, the south one, the Sui-
nacha, rises in the mountains immediately s. of Potosi; while the northern branch, the
Pilaya, drains the valleys around Chuquisaca. These streams unite in hit. a! out ~j
»., to form the Pilcomajo. which flows in a general direction s.e., crosses the Bolivian
frontier, waters the n.e. region of the Argentine Confederation, and falls into tin-
guay a few miles below Asuncion. It is at least 1200 m. in length; but it-
much spent in lagunes on its course, so that it adds no great volume to the waters of the
Paraguay. It is navigable for about 500 in. ; but numerous hordes of hostile Indians
render navigation perilous. Before entering the Paraguay, it divides into two arms, of
which the northern is called Araguay-Guaso ; and the southern, which is again divided
into two branches, the Araguay-Mino. The mouths of the Pilcomayo are narrow, deep
and much obstructed by water-plants.
FILE, in heraldry (from Lat. pilum, a javelin; or from the pile or stake used in the
construction of a bridge), an ordinary, or, according to some heralds, a subordinary. in
the form of a wedge, issuing generally from the middle chief, and extending towards the
middle base of the shield. It is said that a pile should occupy one-third of the breadth
of the chief, or, if charged, double that breadth. When a pile is borne issuing, not from
the middle chief, but from some other part of the bounding-line of the shield, this must
be specified in the blazon. Three piles arc sometimes borne conjoined in point. A piie
transposed is one whose point is upward.
PILE-BRIDGE, a bridge of which the piers are built with piles. These may be either
temporary wooden s'ructuros, in which wooden piles, driven into the ground, serve alvo
as piers, or they may be permanent bridges, with iron cylinders forming the piles below
the surface, and piers above. See PII.KS.
FILES arc usually squared logs of wood used in engineering operations, such as dams,
bridges, roads, Cxc. They are sharpened at the point, and, if necessary, protected with
Iron points, to enable them to cut through Hie strata they encounter as they are driven
into the ground. When used for coffer-dams, or such temporary purposes, they are
placed close together, and driven firmly into the earth; the water is then pumped out,
and the piles form a dam, to enable workmen to lay foundations of piers, etc. When
the force of the water rolmd the dam is creat, two rows of piles are driven in all
round, and the space between the rows filled with clay, and puddled. Piles are also
used for permanent works, when the}' are driven through loose soil tili they reach
a firm bottom, and thus form a foundation on which buildings, roads, etc., may be
placed.
Cast-iron is frequently used for piles, which are cast hollow. Wharf-walls are some-
Pilcomayo.
Piles.
times built of piles; they are then cast with grooves on the sides, into which cast-iron
plates (forming the walls) are fitted.
A kind of pile has been invented by Mr. Mitchell, which is of great use in very loose
and shifting substances. It is called the screw-pile, and consists of a long shaft (of
wrought iron), with a broad cast-iron disk, of a screw form at the lower end. These
piles are especially useful for light-houses, beacons, etc., which have to be placed on
sands. They are fixed by means of capstans, which give them a rotatory motion. Com-
mon piles arc driven in by machines called pile-drivers. In these a heavy weight (or
monkey) is raised to a considerable height between two guides, and then let fall on the
head of the pile. The application of steam to these drivers has made them very power-
ful engines — Nasmytlfs steam-hammer being a well-known instance.
In 1843 Dr. L. H. Potts obtained a patent for a new kind of pile, which consists of
hollow tubes of iron, from which the sand, etc., within them is removed by means of
an air-pump, and the pipes arc then sunk.
In recent railway bridges, cylinders have been much used to form both piles and
piers. They are of cast-iron, and made in pieces (of about 6 ft. in height), which are
applied one on the top of another. The sand or gravel is removed from the inside of
the first laid, which thus sinks down; another cylinder is placed above it, and the same
process continued till it also has sunk sufficiently; and so on, cylinder over cylinder, till
a solid foundation is reached. The requisite number of cylinders is then piled up to
form the pier above ground.
PILES, or HEMORRHOIDS are small tumors situated either within or on the verge of
the anus. They consist of folds of mucous and sub-mucous membrane in an inflamed,
infiltrated, or permanently thickened condition, and usually contain enlarged veins.
There are several varieties of these tumors. Sometimes the pile is mainly composed of
a little knot of varicose veins in the sub-mucous tissue; in this case it is readily emptied,
by pressure, of tiie fluid blood contained in it, which, however, returns when the pres-
sure is removed. Sometimes the blood in a dilated vein coagulates, forming a solid
tumor surrounded by tissues, thickened in consequence of inflammation; or the tumor
may consist of a kind of erectile tissue formed by an abnormal condition of the vessels
of the mucous membrane; this variety is especially liable to bleed. These tumors are
divided into Weeding and blind piles, according as they are or are not accompanied with
hemorrhage; and into internal and external piles, according as they are within or without
the sphincter muscle of the anus.
The following are the general symptoms of this affection. The patient, after hav-
ing experienced for a varying time a feeling of heat, fullness, and dull pain about the
lower part of the bowel, becomes conscious of a sensation as if there were a foreign
body in the anus; and. on examination after an evacuation, discovers a small tumor,
usually about the size of a grape, which either remains outside, or is retracted, accord-
ing as it originated without or within the sphincter. This tumor gradually increases,
and others form around it, until a mass at length results as large as a pigeon's egg, or
larger. In its ordinary indolent state the tumor has little sensibility, and occasions com-
paratively little annoyance; but when it is inflamed (from strangulation of the sphincter
muscle, or from any other cause), it is exquisitely tender to the touch, and is the scat of
burning and stinging sensations, rendering the evacuation of the bowels (and sometimes
of the bladder also) difficult and painful. In women an inflamed pile may cause pain
in the back, irritation of the womb, with mucous discharge, and many other anomalous
symptoms. In severe < a-es the patient can neither stand nor sit with comfort, and only
finds relief in the horizontal position.
Piles may be caused by any circumstances which cause congestion in the lower
bowel, such as luxurious and sedentary habits of life, pregnancy, and such diseases of
the liver as tend to check tire return of blood from the veins of the rectum. Moreover,
anything that causes irritation of the rectum, siich as acrid purgatives and especially
aloes, dysentery, inflammation of the prostate gland, etc., may cause piles. But of all
causes, constipation is probably the most frequent; it operates in producing them partly
by the pressure of the accumulated and hardened fseces upon the veins carrying the
blood away from the rectum, and partly by the straining and irritation such fasces occa-
sion during their evacuation.
In the treatment of piles, it is expedient to relieve the congested state of the lower
bowel by one or two doses of sulphate of magnesia, and a cooling vegetable diet, after
which the continued u.-e oi; mild laxatives should be resorted to. A teaspoonf til of an
electuary, consisting of an ounce of confection of senna, half an ounce of cream of
tartar, and half an ounce of sulphur, if taken in the middle of the day, usually ar-ts
gently about bedtime, which is far the best time for the bowels of patients of this' kind
to act, as the parts irritated by the passage of the evacuation become quieted during the
night. In long-standing cases, in which there is general relaxation of the mucous mem-
brane, the confection of pepper in doses of a dram may be given thrice daily with
advantage, or a scruple of common pitch may be taken at bedtime in the form of pills
or in capsules Amongst the milder forms of local treatment must be mentioned (1) the
injection of the rectum with cold water both before and after the motion; (3) washing
the anus with yellow soap and water after each evacuation; (3) the application of gall
U. K. XI.— 45
Pillnitz.
ointment or of other astringents,; and (4) the injection of astringent lotions, as, for
instance, of sulphate of iron, in the proportion of a grain to an ounce of water. If these
fail, recourse may be had to pressure by means of instruments specially devised for the
purpose; to the application of strong nitric aeid. which, in the case of internal piles,
affords the most speedy and effective means of relief (the operation must, of course, be
performed by a surgeon, and if the parts cannot be protruded, the acid must be applied
through the speculum); to ligature; or, in the case of external piles, to excision. When
the piles are inflamed, leeches to the anus (but not applied directly to the tumors) are
sometimes required; but the inflammation generally subsides under the influence of rest
in the horizontal position, fomentations, poultices, and low diet.
The treatment of the hemorrhage that frequently accompanies piles requires a few
words. If the bleeding is moderate in quantity, and has continued for some time with-
out inducing weakness or any other bad symptom, it is not expedient to interfere with
it. When, however, it obviously requires clucking, the effect of cold water injected
into the rectum, as already recommended, should be tried, and. in case of its failing,
astringent injections should be had recourse to. At the same lime, the patient should
remain in the horizontal position, and take the medicines usually prescribed for internal
hemorrhage, amongst which may be especially mentioned oil of turpentine, in doses of
20 drops three or four times a day, or ergot of rye in divided doses to the extent of a
dram ciaily. In rare cases it is necessary to tie a vessel, or to touch it with a red-hot
wire (through the speculum), or to plug the anus.
FI'LEUS. See FUNGI.
PILEWORT. See RANUNCULUS.
PIL'GRIM (Ital. pelkgrino, Lat. peregrinus, "a visitor of foreign lands"). A pilgrim
is one who visits, with religious intent, some place reputed to possess especial holiness.
The early Chiistians, like the Jews and the pagan Gentiles, regarded certain places with
special religious interest; above all, the Holy Land, and particularly the semes of the
passion of our Lord at Jerusalem. St. Jerome (Ep. xliv.) refers the practice of visiting
Jerusalem to the discovery of the holy cross by St. Helena, lie himself was a zealous
pilgrim; and throughout the 4th, 5th, and 6th c., pilgrims habitually undertook the
long and perilous journey to the Holy Land from almost every part of the west. Other
sacred places, too, were held to be fit objects of the same visits of religious \vneration.
The tombs of the apostles Peter and Paul, and of the martyrs in the catacombs at Rome,
are so described by St. Jerome (Commentar. in EzekinT). "St. Basil speaks in the same
terms of the tomb of the forty martyrs: and the historian Thedoret tells of not only visit-
ing such sanctuaries, but of hanging up therein, as offerings, gold mid silver ornaments,
and even models of hands, feet, eyes, etc., in commemoration of the cures of di
supernaturalry obtained as the fruit of these pious visits. The PII.OJUMAC;*:. however,
pre-eminently so called, was that of the Holy Land; and even after Jerusalem had been
occupied by the Saracens, the liberty of pilgrimage, on payment of a tax. was formally
secured by treaty; and it was from the necessity of protecting pilgrims from outrage
that the well-known military orders (q.v.) had their origin. The crusades Ul-v-) m:1.v '"-'
regarded as a pilgrimage on a great scale; the direct object, being to secure for the Latin
Christians immunity of pilgrimage. On the other hand, the final abandonment of the
crusades led to a great extension of what may be called domestic pilgrimage, and drew into
religious notice and veneration many shrines in Europe, which, after the lap-e of time,
became celebrated places of pious resort. The chief places of pilgrimage in the west
were: in Ital y — Rome, Loretio (q.v.), Genetsauo, Assisi: in Spain — Compostella, Guada-
lupc, Montscrrat; in France— Fourvieres, Puy, St. Denis; in Germany— Getting, Xell,
Cologne, Trier, Einsiedeln; in England — Walsingham, Canterbury, and many ul
minor note. The pilgrim commonly bound himself only by a temporary vow (differing
in this from the palmer), which terminated with the actual visit to the place of pilgrii
or at least with the return home, and by which he was bound for the time to chastity and
to certain other jiscetic observances. The costume consisted of a black or gray gabardine
girt with a cincture, from which a shell and scrip were suspended, a broad hat. orna-
mented with scallop-shells, and a long staff. Many abuses arose out of these pilgrimages,
the popular notions regarding which may be gathered — although, probably, with a dash
of caricature — from Chaucer's Cantei'bury Tales. Pilgrimages, which have a!\\ays sub-
sisted in Italy, Spain, southern Gennany, and Swii/crland, had gone much into dis.iM-
in France during and since the revolution. In late years, however, pilirrims have re-
in large numbers, not only to the ancient sanctuaries of Notre Dame de la Garde, de Four-
vieres, de Puy, etc., but also to La Salette, Lourdes, Paray-le-Monial, and Pontigny. In
1873 and 1874 organized parties of pilgrims on a very large scale from France, Belgium,
England, the United States, etc., visited the sanctuary of Paray-le-Monial, the place at
which the vision of Marie Alacoque, which gave rise to the devotion to the sacred heart
of Jesus (q.v.) is recorded to have taken place. In 1874,500 English pilgrims \
Poutigny. Numerous pilgrimages have also been held in Belgium.
PILLAR, a detached support like a column; hut its section maybe of any shape,
whereas the column is always round. Pillars have been used in all styles of architecture,
and their forms and ornaments are usually amongst the most characteristic features of
the style. The Greek and Roman pillars\or columns) are the distinguishing elements
707 Pileus.
Pillnitz.
in the various orders. In Gothic architecture, also, the pillars are of different forms at
the various epochs of that style. First, in the Norman period, we have plain massive
pillars, square, circular, and octagonal, frequently ornamented with zigzag ornaments,
spiral bands, etc., on the surface. As vaulting progressed, the system of breaking the
plain surface, and giving to each portion of the vaulting a separate little column or shaft
to support it was introduced. This was done either by attaching shafts to the circular
pillars, or by cutting nooks in the pillar and setting little shafts in them.
In the early pointed style a plain circular or octagonal pillar, with a number of small
shafts attached around it, is a favorite arrangement.
In this style, the attached shafts are very frequently banded to the main pillar at dif-
ferent heights, and they are sometimes made of a finer material, such as Purbcc marble.
In the decorated style the pillar is of a lozenge form, and not so much ornamented with
detached shafts as with moldings; plain, circular, or octagonal pillars, however, are
used in this, as in all the styles. The moldings and shafts are usually filleted; and
some of the moldings run up into the arch without any cap. In perpendicular the same
idea is further carried out; the moldings become thinner, and are more frequently run
up into the arch without caps. See FLAMBOYANT.
PILLAR SAINTS— called also " STYLITES" (Gr. from stylos, a column), " pillarists,"
"holy birds," "air martyrs," and several similar names — a very remarkable class of
anchoretical ascetics (see ASCETICISM), chiefly of Syria, who, with a view to separating
themselves more completely from earth and fellow-men, took up their abode on the
tops of pillars, on which they remained without ever descending to earth, and exposed
to all the variations of a Syrian climate. The earliest of them, and the most cele-
brated, Simeon (called also Simon) the Stylite, had been a monk, and had lived, in
the beginning of the 5th c., in extreme seclusion in his monastery for nine years, with-
out ever moving from his narrow cell. Increasing in enthusiasm, he withdrew to a place-
about 40 m. from Antioch, where he built a pillar, on the top of which, only a yard in
diameter, he took up his position. From this pillar he removed to several others in suc-
cession, each higher than its predecessor, till at last he attained to 40 cubits, or about 60
ft. in height. In this mode of life he spent 3T years, his neck loaded with an iron chain,
and his lips engaged in constant prayers, during the recitation of which he bent his body
so that his forehead touched his feet. His powers of fasting were no less marvelous;
he is said to have frequently limited himself to a single meal in the week, and during
the 40 days of Lent abstained entirely from food. The fame of his sanctity brought
crowds of pilgrims from the most distant countries, even Britain itself, to see him; and
the admiration of his austerities is said to have converted many pagans and Saracens to
the church. In trial of his virtue, through the test of humility, some neighboring monks
reproaching him with vanity and the love of novelty in this extraordinary mode of life,
ordered him to come down from his pillar. Simeon prepared without hesitation to com*
ply, and the compliance was accepted as an evidence of his perfect humility and holU
ness of purpose. It is said that in consequence of an ulcer which was formed on one or
his legs, he was obliged for the last year of his life to remain on his pillar upon one foot.
In this position he died in 4GO, aged 73 years. A disciple of Simeon, named Daniel, suc-
ceeded to his reputation for sanctity, and to his mode of life, which he maintainad for
83 years, in the still more trying climate of the shores of the Bosporus, about 4 :n. from
Constantinople. The marvels of Daniel's career are still more startling. He was some-
times almost blown by the storms of Thrace from the top of his pillar. "At times for days
together he was covered with snow and ice. How he sustained life, what nourishment
he took, was a mystery even to his disciples. The emperor a'., length insisted on a cover-
ing being placed over the top of the pillar, and Daniel survived till the year 494. In.
Syria there were many pillar saints as far down as the 12th c. ; but in the west, Daniel is
all but a solitary example. A monk named Wulfailich, near Trier, attempted the pillar
life in the 6lh c., but the neighboring bishops compelled him to desist, and destroyed
his pillar.
PILLARS OF HERCULES. See HEKCTJLES, PILLARS OF, ante.
PILLAU, a sea-port t. of Prussia, at the entrance of Frische Haff. on the Baltic, 26
m. w. of Konigsberg; pop. '71, 2,909. It is also the port for Ebling and Braunsberg,
and is beautifully situated on a strip of land called Paradise. It has a forticss and a
school of navigation, and is a leading watering-place. It was founded in 1722.
PILLIBHIT', or PHILLIP-IT, a t, of India, in the British district of Bareilly, n.w. pro-
vinces, 28 m. n.e. by e. from Bareilly, on the left bank of the Gurrah, and on the road
from Bareilly to Petagorah. Pillibhit is a place of considerable trade. The Pillibhit
rice, celebrated throughout India for its excellence, is the produce of the south of
Kumaon, brought to Pillibhit to market. Pop. '71, 29,840.
PILLNITZ, a palace and ordinary summer residence of the royal family of Saxony, in
a beautiful situation 7 m. s e. of Dresden. The grounds are finely diversified, and the
walks ascend to the summits of hills, of which one 's nearly 1000 ft. high. Pillnitz
acquires a historic interest from the meeting of princes held in the castle in Aug., 1791,
when the declaration of Pillnitz was framed, according to which Austria and Prussia
agreed to declare the circumstances of the king of France (then a prisoner in the Tuii-
Pillory. 7f\Q
Pilot. <V
cries, after his ineffective flight to Varcnnes) to be a matter of common interest to the
sovereigns of Europe, and to express the hope that common cause would be made for his
restoration. The emperor and the king of Prussia were resolved to use force in order to
cil'ect this result; but any immediate interference on their part was rendered unneces-
sary by Louis's acceptation of the constitution as modified by the national assembly, alter
which he was again placed on the throne.
PILLOEY, an engine for the public punishment of criminals, disused in Britain since
1837; but previous to that time commonly employed, as it also was in France and Gei-
many. It consisted of a stout plank fixed like a sign-board on the top of a pole, the pole
being supported on a wooden platform elevated above the ground. Above, and parallel
to this plank another of similar dimensions was placed in a similar position with respect
to the pole, and fixed to the former by a hinge, being thus capable of Being moved
upwards from it, or closed upon it, when necessary. A large circular hole is cut, with
its center in the line of junction of the two planks, and two corresponding holes of
smaller size are formed, one on each side of it; the large hole is for receiving the n. ck.
and the two smaller the wrists. When a criminal is to be placed in the pillory, he is made
to mount and stand upon the platform; the upper of the two hinged planks is raided to
allow the culprit's neck and wrists to be inserted in their proper grooves, and then brought
down into its place, and fastened by a padlock, or in some other way. The pillory M-ems
to have existed in England before the Conquest, in the form of the stretch-neck (an instru-
ment by which the neck only was confined), and was originally intended, according to the
" statute of the pillory" (51 Hen. III. c. 6), for " forestallers, users of deceitful weights,
perjury, forgery, etc.," and all such dishonorable offenses. Its use was exclusive!;,
fined to this class of offenders till 1G37, when restrictions were put upon the press, and
all who printed books without a license were put in the pillory. From this time it
became the favorite mode of punishing libelers (or those who were considered to be
such by the government), authors and publi-h'-is of seditious pamph!'-' }, or of strictures
on the government; and many eminent men were accordingly from this time put "in
and on the pillory," among whom may be mentioned Leighton, Lilburn and Warton the
printers. Prynne, Dr. Bastwick, Daniel Defoe, etc. The insufficiency of the pillory a^ a
means of inflicting a definite amount of punishment was now apparent, for to those who
were popular favorites it was no punishment at all, while those who were objects o. pop-
ular dislike were ill-used to such an extent as occasionally to cause death. The stiffen -is
above mentioned being popular favorites, or having at least a numerous class of support-
ers, were shaded from the sun, fed, and otherwise carefully attended to; Avhile the
encouragement, applause, and sympathy of the crowd nround converted the intended
punishment into a triumph; but such men as Titus Gates, and the class of oiTcnd<Ts
including perjurers, swindlers, polygamists, etc., who were objects of popular haired
and disgust, were pelted with rotten eggs (the favorite missile), garbage, mud. soni'
even with more dangerous missiles. In 1814 the celebrated naval hero lord Cochrane
(see DONDONALD. EARL OF) was sentenced to the pillory, but the government of the day
was not prepared to brave the consequences of such an act, and the sentence was not car-
ried into effect. In France the pillory was anciently called pilori, and in recent times c»r-
can, from the iron collar by which the criminal's neck was attached to the post: but
punishment by this mode was abolished in that country in 1832.
PILLOW, GIDEON JOHNSON, 1806-78; b. Term.; son of Gideon, and grandson of
John, a revolutionary soldier; graduated at the university of Nashville. 1827: com-
menced the practice of law in Columbia, Tenn., 1830; soon ranking among the eminent
lawyers of his state. President Polk, in acknowledgment of certain services rendered
in his nomination and election, commissioned him brig.gen., 1846. He went to ti>c
Mexican war in command of a brigade of Tennessee volunteers, and was with Scott at
Vera Cruz. He was conspicuous in the operationsNvhich caused the capitulation of that
city, and was one of the commissioners to negotiate terms, lie was wounded at Ccrro
Gordo while leading an assault; promoted to maj.gen., 1847. lie was in the battles of
Contreras and Churubuspo, and was wounded at Chapultepec. After the war lie
returned to private life, settling on a large estate. In 1850 lie was a member of the
Nashville southern convention where he opposed the ultra views of some delegates. He-
was active in raising men for the confederate army, and was a maj.gen. on that side
during the war of the rebellion.
PILLS are the most generally convenient and popular of all forms of medicine. They
are formed from masses of a consistence sufficient to preserve the globular shape, and
yet not so hard as to be of too difficult solution in the stomach and intestines. This form
is especially suitable for (1) all remedies which operate in small doses, as metallic salts;
(2) those which are designed to act slowly and gradually, as certain alteratives; (3) those
which are too readily soluble, when exhibited in other forms; (4) substances whose ope-
ration it is desirable to retard until they have reached the lower intestines, as in certain
pills for habitual costiveness; (5) bodies whose specific gravities are too inconsiderable
to allow their suspension in aqueous vehicles; and (6) fetid substances: while it i^
unsuitable for (1) medicines which require to be given in large doses: (2) deliquescent
salts; (3; fluid or semi-fluid substances, such as oils, balsams, etc., which require a very
>7AQ Pillory.
< Uy Pilot.
large proportion of some dry powder to render them sufficiently tenacious to form into a
mass; (4) substances so insoluble, that wlien exhibited in solid form they pass through
the intestinal canal unaltered, as extract of logwood (Paris's Pharmacologia, 9th ed. p.
550). Many substances, such as vegetable extracts, may be at once iormed into pills
\viihout any addition; but most substances require the addition of a material termed an
c'xcipient, for converting it into a pill-mass. The excipients in most common use are
bre.ul-erumbs, hard soap, extract of liquorice, mucilage, syrup, treacle, honey, castor
oil. and couserve of roses. From the property of preserving pills for a long time in a
properly soft state, the most valuable excipient is the conserve of red roses; and, per-
haps, next to it treacle is the most valuable excipient, as it does not undergo any change
by time, but maintains a proper consistence, and preserves the properties of vegetable
powders unimpaired for years. It is common to place pills in some fine powder, to pre-
vent them from adhering to each other, and to conceal their taste. For this purpose,
liquorice powder, wheat flour, starch, and magnesia are generally used in this country,
and lycopodiiuu on the continent. Pills retain their moisture and activity far longer in
small bottles than in the ordinary pasteboard boxes. The ordinary weight of a pill is
5 grains; if it much exceeds that weight, it is too bulky to swallow conveniently if it
consist of vegetable matter. It is very common to meet with patients who express their
inability to take this form of medicine. If, however, they practice with a small globular
mass, toward which they feel no repugnance, as a pellet of bread or a currant; placing
it on the back of the tongue, and gulping it down with water, they will soon get over
the difficulty.
PILOT is a person specially deputed to take charge of a ship while passing turough a
particular sea, reach, or dangerous channel. The intricacy of almost all coast navigation
renders it impossible that any navigator, however skillful, can be master of all the waters
to which he may have to sail his ship; and the risk of failure, through ignorance of local dan-
gers, is therefore avoided by transferring the direction of her course to some one perfectly
) cquainted with the spot. The imm to whom so much is intrusted must be a responsi-
ble person, and therefore in all countries qualified sailors are officially licensed to act as
pilots in their districts, and they are granted the monopoly.- The origin of the word
pilot is uncertain; but it is probably" taken from or nearly identical with the Dutch.
I'ijlldot, which is compounded oiptilen, to sound the depth, and the root which appears
in D. loottunan. O. E. lodes-man, and signifies to lead, direct. Pilot thus means one who
conducts a vessel by sounding. The laws of Wisby, promulgated at least as early as
the 14th c., and subsequently incorporated in nearly every maritime code, render it com-
pulsory on the matter of a ship to employ a pilot when sailing near a coast.
The British laws relating to pilots were revised and consolidated by the act 16 and 17
Yift.-c. 129. Certain fees are established in proportion to the distance and responsibil-
ity; and the master of every vessel, above 50 tons, passing up the channel or the
Thames, or vice i-cn-d, is required to accept the services of the first pilot tendering, pro-
vided he shows his license as a proof of qualification. Except in matters of discipline, the
command of the vessel is then vested entirely in the pilot, who can have the sails, steer-
ing, etc., of the ship carried on entirely at his discretion until the limit of the pilot's dis-
trict is passed, except that the captain resumes his powers when the question of taking
up ground in a harbor is concerned. The fees vary with the draught of the ship and
the distance; as specimens, may be cited the highest and lowest in the London district:
a ship drawing 22 ft. of water 'is piloted from Orfordness to Blaekwall for £27 12s; a
ship drawing not more than 7 ft. is guided from Gravesend Reach to Long Reach for
9s. 3d
Pilots are associated in guilds called brotherhoods, of which the principal are the
brotherhood of the Trinity house of Deptford-Stroud, situated on Tower Hili, which has
pilots at the larger ports
being vested in certain officials lawfully appointed as "pilotage authorities." Their
powers over the members, etc.. are defined in the act above quoted, and in the merchant
shipping act of 1854, 17 and 18 Viet. c. 104. sections 330-388.
Pilots board vessels entering their districts in boats conspicuously painted, on the
hows and sails of which must be the man's distinguishing number as shown by his
license. The boat also bears a flag of comparatively large size, of red and white divided
horixontally. A ship requiring a pilot hoists a square blue flag. In passing up or down
the Thames, every ship above 50 tons or 6 ft. draught must bear a pilot; but her master
or first-mate may act by license in that capacity, if he have passed the necessary exam-
ination. A master is subject to a penalty for sailing without a pilot; and, on the other
hand, so also is any person, without a license, or whose license has been forfeited, pre-
suming to act or offering to act as a pilot.
In the navies of some countries the pilot is a permanent officer of the ship, and has
charge of her course ; but his functions in that case approach nearer to those of the Brit-
ish navigating officer. Large French vessels have often several sailing pilots called
pilotes hauturierx, and a piloie. cotier or lamaneur. The ancient laws of France contained
provisions for the education and regulation of both these classes.
Pimpernel.
The general rule as to the responsibility of the owners of th,e ship is, that no owner
or master of a ship is answerable to any person whatever for any loss or damage, occa-
sioned by the fault or incapacity of any qualified pilot, acting in charge of such ship
within any district where the employment of the pilot is compulsory.
PILOT (ante). In thi/country pilots are controlled as to their examinations, qualifica-
tions, and conduct, by the laws of the states within whose waters they arc licensed to ply
their trade. Under the provision of the constitution giving congress power to " regulate
commerce with foreign nations and between the several states," the national legislature
in 1789, 1837, and 1860. passed acts granting to the states power to enact each its own
regulations regarding pilotage. In all they are licensed to oiler themselves, and while
the ship's master is usually obliged to accept the first pilot boarding him, the pilot on
his part is generally compelled to obey the call of the ship-master. The pilot's fee is
called pilotage, and for it there is a lien on the ship which may be enforced in an admi-
ralty court. The master need not give up control of the ship when first boarded unit s-j
lie choose; at New York the pilots often find a vessel two or three hundred miles at sea.
but the practice is for the pilot to take control 15 or 20 m. off Sandy Hook. The duty of
the pilot does not extend beyond the proper guidance of the ship. Tiie captain is
responsible for the proper execution of the necessary orders. It has been held by the
U. S. supreme court that the mere fact that a licensed pilot is on board a vessel will not
relieve the owners from liability in case of collision. It' a ship refuse to take a license, ;i
good defense exists in an action against insurers of goods or vessel. In New York
about 180 pilots are licensed by the board of commissioners. The license is revocable
for misconduct or inefficiency; and, in case of loss through the pilot's fault, the pilotage is
forfeited, and perhaps a suit for damages would lie. The pilotage for taking a ship into
N. Y. harbor varies from $2.70 to $6.50 per foot of the vessel's draft, with s4 added
in winter, and one-quarter added to the rate if the ship be boarded outside Sandy
Hook. Outward pilotage is somewhat less, y, --sels going in and out of the Sound
through Hell Gate are obliged to take a pilot or pay a fixed sum in commutation. This
is generally regarded as a hardship, most coast sailors being fully competent to make the
passage safely.
PILOT-FISH, Nauerates ductors, a fish of the family awmbeindw, and belonging lo
a section of that family in which the first dorsal fin is represented by mere spines, and
there are no finlets behind the second dorsal and the anal fins as in "the mackerel, etc.
The shape of the pilot-fish is very similar to that of the mackerel. It is usually about a
foot long; the general color silvery grayish-blue, five dark-blue transverse bands pas-ing
round the whole body. Its flesh is very delicate, and resembles mackerel in flavor. It
is common in the Mediterranean, and appears to be widely diffused through the warmer
parts of the ocean, often following ships for a long time and very far, in which way it
has been known to come from Alexandria to Plymouth. It is, however, of rare occur-
rence, even on the southern coasts of Britain. It is supposed to be the ]i"iii]n'H>ix of the
ancients, which was believed to point out their desired course to sailors. It is often seen
in the company of a shark, and is therefore very commonly supposed to direct the shark
to its prey. Concerning this many wonderful stories are to be found in the writings both
of voyagers and of naturalists. It has been con tended, on the other hand, that the pilot-
fish merely follows the ship along with the shark for the same object that gulls follow
the steamboats on our coasts, to feed on anything eatable that may fail or be thrown
overboard; or that it attends the shark in order to seize small morsels of its large prey.
The following statements of Dr. Bennett may be received with confidence: "I have
observed that if several sharks swim together, the pilot-fishes are generally absent;
whereas, on a solitary shark being seen, it is equally rare to find it unacompanietl by one
or more of these reputed guides. . . . The only method by which I could procure this
fish was, that when capturing a shark I was aware these faithful little fishes would not
forsake him until he was taken on board; therefore by keeping the shark, when hooked.
in the water until he was exhausted, or, as the sailors term it, 'drowned.' the pilot fish
kept close to the surface of the water over the shark, and by the aid of a dipping-net
fixed to the end of a long stick, I was enabled to secure it with great facility " (Cnt/ier-
ings of a Naturalist). — A much larger species of nauerates is found on the coasts of South
America.
PILOT KNOB, in Iron co., Missouri, 6 m. s. of Iron mountain, is a conical, circular
hill, about a mile in diameter at its base, and 600 ft. high. It consists of beds of iron ore,
porphyry, and porphyry conglomerates. The bed of iron ore lies under a conglomerate
14()ft. thick, in which layers of ore are frequent. The extent of the ore bed is about
200,000 square yards. The ore is hard specular, steel-gray in color, extremely brittle,
and has little luster.
PILOT MOUNTAIN. See ARARAT, ante.
PILOTY, KARL THEODOR VON, b. Munich, Bavaria, 1826. He studied art there and
at other great art centers of Europe, and devoted himself to historical painting. His first
work, 1853, was the " Establishment of the Catholic League." He has since produced
many pictures of great merit, among which are " Wallenstein's Assassination" ('
" Nero Among the Ruins of Rome"(1861), and " The Death of Csesar." In 1874 he was
7 1 1 Pilot.
Pimpernel.
elected president of the Munich academy of fine arts, of which he had for many years
been a professor.
PILPAI. See BIDPAI.
PILSEN, a t. of Bohemia, in a fertile and beautiful valley at the confluence of the
Mies and the Beraun, 52 m. w.s.w. of Prague. The church of St. Bartholomew (built
in 1292), the town-hull, and Ihe house of the Teutonic Knights are interesting Gothic
edifices. The town also contains a gymnasium and other educational institutions, an
arsenal, theater, and a number of churches and convents. Pilsen has leather and cloth-
factories, a great alum-work, iron and coal mines, and an important brewery. Pop. '09,
23,681.
PIM, BEDFORD CAPPERTON TREVYLIAN, b. England, 1826; educated for the royal
navy. He took part in the search for sir John Franklin, and was the first to pass from
the e. to the w. side of the n.w. passage. lie was in the Russian war, was dangerously
wounded in China, and was made a commander in 1858. He was retired from the
service in 1870 with ihe rank of capt. , called to the English bar in 1873, and returned to
parliament in 1874. Among his writings are The Gate of the Pacific, 18G3; The War
Chronicle, 1873; and An Essay on Feudal Tenures.
PIMA, a co. in s. Arizona, adjoining Mexico, bounded on the n. by the Rio Gila,
drained by the Rio Santa Cruz and Rio San Pedro; about 20,000 sq. m. ; pop. '80. 17,007
— 8,298 of American birth. The surface consists of table-lands intersected by mountain-
chains. The .soil is fertile in parts. The principal productions are wheat, barley, corn,
and grass. Gold, silver, copper, and lead are found. Co. seat, Tucson.
PIMAS, or NJBVOMKS, an Indian tribe in Arizona, Sonora, and Sinaloa; embracing
the Pimas. Eredeves, Joves, and Opatas. The Pimas proper live in earth-roofed, huts, iu
villages. They cultivate cotton, and make baskets and rough pottery. The Pimas in
Arizona live on a reservation of 64,000 acres granted them in 1859. They number about
4,000. and support themselves by agriculture. Jesuit missions were established among
the Pimas in the 17th c., and there is now a mission of the Reformed church among
them. The Opatas live in Sonora, and are the most civilized of the Pima tribes.
PIMENTO, PIMEXTA, ALLSPICE, or JAMAICA PEPPER, a well-known spice, is the
dried fruit of eugenia pii/n-nfo (see EUGENIA), a small West Indian tree, which grows to
the height of 20 or 30 ft., and has oblong or oval leaves about 4 in. long, of a deep shin-
ing gree;i, and numerous axillary and terminal trichotomous panicles of white flowers,
followed by small dark-purple berries. The pimento tree is much cultivated in some of
the West Indian islands. It is a very beautiful tree, with straight trunk and much
branching head, and about the month of July is covered with an exuberance of flowers,
which diffuse a rich aromatic odor. The leaves and bark partake of the aromatic prop-
erty for which the fruit is valued. The fruit, when ripe, is filled with a sweet pulp, and
the aromatic property, which so strongly characterizes it in an -unripe state, has in a
great measure disappeared. The gathering of the berries, therefore, takes place as soon
as they have reached their full size, which is about that of pepper-corns. Tliev are
gathered by the hand, and dried in the sun on raised wooden floors, during which pro-
cess great care is taken, by turning and winnowing, to prevent them from being injured
b}' moisture. Their color- changes in drying from green to reddish-brown. When dry
they are packed in bags for the market. Same planters kiln-dry them. — The name alhpice
was given to pimento from a supposed resemblance in flavor to a mixture of cinnamon,
nutmeg, and cloves. Pimento is much employed in cookery, and is also used iu medi-
cine as" a carminative and stimulant to prevent the griping of purgatives and to disguise
the taste of nauseous drugs. It depends for its properties chiefly on a volatile oil, oil of
pimento, which is obtained from it by distillation with water, and is sometimes used to
relieve toothache, and for making the spirit of pimento (or of allspice) and pimento (or
allspice) water of the shops.
PIMPEENEL, Annrjrtllis, a genus of plants of the natural order primulacece, having a
wheel-shaped corolla, and the capsule opening by division round the middle. The
species are elegant little annual and perennial plants, natives chiefly of temperate cli-
mates. The flowers are not large, but very beautiful. — The SCARLET PIMPERNEL (A.
arvensis) is a common plant in Britain, occurring as a weed in fields and gardens; it is
common also in most parts of Europe and in many parts of Asia. The flowers are of a
fine scarlet color, with a purple circle at the eye. There is a common belief in England,
mentioned by lord Bacon, that when this plant opens its flowers in the morning a fine
day maybe expected; and they certainly close very readily on the approach of rain.
They usually open about eight in the morning and close about noon. — The BLUE PIM-
PERNEL (A. cm-idea) is far less common in Britain but very abundant iu some parts of
Europe. — The Boa PIMPERNEL (A, tenella), frequent in bogs in England, but rare in
Scotland, is an exquisitely beautiful plant. — Several species are cultivated in our flower-
gardens. — Acrid properties prevail in this genus, and A. arvensis has been used medicin-
ally in epilepsy, dropsy, and mania. — The name WATER PIMPERNEL is given to samel us
vateraruU. also called Irrookweed, another British plant of the same order, with racemes of
small white flowers, growing in watery gravelly places. It is supposed to be the samolvs
which Pliny says the Druids gathered fasting, with the left hand, and without looking
Pin. >71O
Pinchbeck.
at it, ascribing to it magical virtues in the cure and prevention of diseases in cattle. Its
geographic distribution extends over almost all the world.
PIN. Asa requisite of the toilet, etc., pins were first used in Britain in the latter
part of the loth -a.; they were at first made of iron wire, but in I.Yin bras- ones were
imported from France by Catharine Howard, queen of IN nry Yill. Several inventions,
however, were previously in use for holding together parts of the dress, such as buckle-,
brooches, laces, cia-ps, hooks, etc. At first pins were made by tiling a point to a proper
!• .igth of wire, and then twisting a piece of tine wire around the other extremity, or fix
i .g it alter twisting, in order to form a knob or head ; and ultimately these operations
were so skillfully conducted that a completely round head was made of very small *•]•/.<•.
and scarcely showing the nature of its con.-! ruction. Home pins are still made in this
way. It Is surprising how many operations are needed to complete so small an article.
They are as follows: 1. Straightening and Cutting the \Virc. — The straightening is neces-
sary, because the wire-drawers coil the wire as they make it upon a cylinder, and when
it is unrolled the coils remain. It is therefore drawn through an arrangement of upright
iron reds which completely straighten it, after which it is cut into leog h> »( '.'>() it., and
these are again reduced to lengths of four pins. 2. Pointing. — This is done by two
operations and different workmen, each standing at a separate grindstone: the first is the
rough grinder, and the second the finisher. Each holds with the thumb on the palm of
the hand a number of the wires amounting to 80 or 40, and by a movement of his thumb
he manages to make the wires turn round so as to make a point to each as he holds them
to the grindstones, the second of which, being of a fine material, gives them a smooth
linish; they are then reversed and the other end pointed. 3. Cutting. — The length of a
single pin is cutoff of each end of these pieces; the intermediate portions are llien
handed back to the pointers, and each end receives ;i point, after which they are divided
into two, and thus the four pin piece is reduced into sinirle pin lengths, each having a
point. 4. Twisting the Heads. — These are made of very thin wire, which is coiled twice
by means of a lathe around the end of another piece of wire the same thickness as the
pins. 5. Cutting the Heads. — The head being formed on the thin wire it is handed to
another workman who cuts it off; these two operations arc performed with great rapidity,
sogivat, indeed, that as many as 12,000 have been made. in an hour. (i. Annealing the
j[,,i(lit. — This is softening them by putting some thousands into an iron ladle, and after
making them red hot, plunging them into cold water. 7. ^ton/jii/if/ <•»• >'/<"/"'"// tin Jt«i<l*.
— This is pressing the heads into a better shape by means of a small lever press, and at
the same time fixing them on the pins; a good worker will do as many as 12.000 to 15.000
per day. 8. Yellowing or Cleaning the Pin*. — This is done by a proci ss which is often
called "mmrvng-; it consists in boiling them for about half an hour in the -di
beer or a solution of argol or cream of tartar, and then washing them in clean water. 9.
Wlntiiting or Tinning.^- In this process a large copper] an is used, and in it is first placed
a layer of about six pounds of the cleaned or yellowed pins, and over the. e a layer of
grain-fin to the amount of about eight pounds. Several alternate layers of pins and tin
are put in one vessel, and then by & pipe arranged inside the copper pan water is gently
poured in, and goes through the pipe to the bottom, first rising up through the different
layers so gently'as not to disturb them. Fire is now applied to the bottom of the pan,
and when it is nearly boiling its surface is sprinkled with a quarter of a pound of cream
of tartar, and the whole is slowly boiled for half an Lour, then poured into a strainer and
shaken to separate the pins from the grain-tin and liquid; by this process a thin deposit
of tin has been thrown on the pins which are now white instead of yellow: without the
souring this would not take place, it being essential that they should be quite free from
any oxidation or soil. 10. Washing — The pins are now thoroughly wa>hed in pure
water. 11. Drying and Polishing. — They are now put into a large leathern bag with a
quantity of bran and violently shaken backward and forward by two nun. \'2. Win-
nouring.—Tl\e bran is next separated by fanning. 13. Pricking tkt Paper* to retire the
Pins. — This is now done by an ingenious machine, through which the papers are passed,
and which, at regular intervals, arranged according to the size of the pins, pinches up a,
fold of the paper, and at the same time pricks the holes to receive the pins, and then
places the pins in their places. Formerly this required a separate operation. Thus 14
persons were required to make and put up for sale; a pin, and in some manufactories this
is still the case; but in all the large establishments machines are now employed, :<ud an
immense reduction of hand labor is effected by them.
The first machine was invented by Lemuel Wellman Wright, of the United States, in
1824. This did very little more than make solid heads to the pins, by a process in pi in-
ciple like that used for nail-making — viz., by driving a portion of the pin itself into a
counter-sunk hole. The action, however, was automatic, and consisted m an arrange-
ment by which the wire was seized in two small grooved cheeks. When both cheeks are
placed face to face, and the wire is held tightly in the groove, with a small portion pro
jecting, a small ram or hammer connected with the machine strikes on the project ing
portion described, and compresses it into a small cup-shaped depres.-ion, and thus the
head is formed. The pointing and dressing of the pins was afterwards carried on as
described in the processes for hand-made pins. Since Wright's invention many remark-
able improvements have been effected in these machines, which have consequently
71 ^ pin-
Pinchbeck.
become very complicated in their details, although the principles upon which they act
are very simple. No description would convey a satisfactory idea of these wonderful
pieces of mechanism, which now, without the aid of hands, complete the piii in all
respects except the coloring and polishing; but a slight account of the leading features
will enable the reader to understand their mode of working. First, then, a reel of wire
as it comes from the wire-drawer is placed in the rear of the machine, and the end of the
wire is taken hold of by a pair of nippers, which pull it over a fixed tiraigJdening-bo&rd,
and pass it on completely straightened, until it is seized by two cheeks, when a cutter
descends and cuts it oif", leaving the projecting part for the head; oil the withdrawal of
the cutter, the hammer flies forward, and makes the head as before described; the cheeks
<;p.'ti, and the pins drop on to a sloping metal plate finely grooved, down which they
slip with the heads upwards, until the end which is to be pointed comes in contact with,
a cs'lindrical roller with a grinding surface, which soon grinds points upon them, owing
to two or three ingenious arrangements: the flrst is, that the grooved surface of the
plate by which the pins descend terminates a little above the grinding roller, then a slight
depression is given to the sloping plate and also to the roller, so that one end is an inch
or two lower than the other; therefore, as the pin descends the groove, and is thus
brought down the inclined plate, until it lies on the smooth part, where it is highest, and
with its end in contact with the grinding roller which is revolving, the pin itself is com-
pelled by the friction of the roller to turn round, and gradually descends from the upper
to the lower part of the inclined plate, and then fails off into a box placed to receive it.
These operations are performed so rapidly that they can scarcely be followed by the eye,
and the pins fall into the box beautifully pointed in a complete stream. They are then
yellowed, tinned, and prepared for papering, which is a remarkable process. The machine
by which it is done is worked by two children; one feeds the machine with pins, the
otiier with papers. The first part of the machine is a box, about 12 in. long by 6 in.
broad, and 4 in. deep; the bottom is made of small square steel bars, sufficiently wide
apart to let the shank of the pin fall through but not the head, and they are just as thick
as the space between papered pins. The lower part of the bottom of the box is made to
detach itself as soon as the row of pins is complete, and row after row at regular inter-
vals is received and passed down a corresponding set of grooves, until they reach the
paper, which, as before described, is pinched into regular folds ami pierced to receive the
pins, which, by the nicest imaginable adjustments, come exactly to their places, and are
pressed into them. • In this way many thousands of those neat-looking paper packages
of pins, with which all are familiar, are put up in oiie day, by two little girls, aided by
these wonderful machines.
PI'NA CLOTH, a very beautiful fabric made of the fibers of the leaves of the pine-
apple plant (An-uuiixsa natiKci), and other allied species. This cloth is only-made in Man-
ila, and in its manufacture resembles jorse-hair cloth, because the threads both of warp
and weft are each single uuspun libers, consequently only small pieces can be made; the
workers have, however, a plan of joining the fibers of the coarser ki'nds end to end, so
as to make warp threads of -considerable length. Pina cloth is very strong, and the bet-
ter sorts far excel the finest lawns in texture. It is chiefly employed in the manufacture
of ladies' pocket-handkerchiefs, which often have their costliness much increased by
beautiful embroidery. ,
PLXACOTIIEK, a picture-galley in Munich, completed in 1836, after designs by
Kli.-n/.e, the architect of the Glyptothek. It comprises also the new Pinacothek, com-
] >'et i >d in 1853, and in which are placed the works of contemporary artists. The main
gallery is one of the most important in its contents in Europe. One compartment con-
95
of
Rembrandt, and Vandyke. It comprises the best works of the royal collections, these
V-ii'.u: arranged with regard to their various schools, in 9 halls and 23 compartments.
The building is itself a monument of art, one of its corridors being divided into 25 logyie
>ed by Cornelius, with works illustrative of the history of the fine arts in the mid-
ille ages. The lower story of the building contains 9,000 drawings by the old masters;
liie original drawings for Cornelius's logcjie; and a cabinet of more than 300,000 engrav-
i igs. There is also an important collection of Etruscan and other vases. The new Pina-
cothck contains Kaulbach's " Destruction of Jerusalem," and Willde's celebrated " Read-
ing of the Will."
PIXAL, a co. in s. Arizona, drained by the Gila river, pop. '80, 3,044 — 1701 of
American birth. The surface is mountainous and contains gold and silver. Co. seat,
Florence.
PINASTER. See PINE, ante.
PINCH BECK is an alloy of zinc and copper, in which the proportions slightly differ
from those which constitute brass; 3 parts zinc to 16 of copper constitute this material,
instead of 1 part of the former to 2 of the latter as in common brass. Pinchbeck, when
new, has a color resembling red gold, and it was at the beginning of the present century
much employed in making watch-cases and other small articles in imitation of gold.
Plnckney. 711
1'iiie. ' 1-*
PINCKNEY, CHARLES, b. Charleston, S. C. ; the second son of Thomas Pinckncy,
founder of the; family, lie was educated in England, returned to South Varolina, and
there prat-sired law for many year*. In 1752 he was made king's councilor and chief
justice of the- province. In 1753 chief-justice Pinckut-y again visited England, where
he spent 5 years, returning shortly before his death in 1750.
PINCKNEY, CHARLES, LL.D., 1758-1824: b. Charleston, S. C.; admitted to the bar,
and elected to the provincial assembly in 1779. He was captured at the surrender of
Charleston, and remained a prisoner till the peace. He was elected to congress from
South Carolina in 17*5; was a member of the convention which drew up the I . S.
constitution in 1787; of the South Carolina convention which ratified it in 17.SH. and presi-
dent of the convention which framed the South Carolina constitution in 1790 He was
elected governor of the stale in 1789, 1791, and 1796; and in 179s became I . S. senator.
He was a leader of the republican party, a warm supporter of Jeu"er>on for the presi-
dency in 1800, and was appointed by him minister to Spain in 1802. While there, he
secured from the Spanish government a release of its interest in the territory sold by
France to the United States. He was again elected governor in 1806. His last appear-
ance in public life was as a determined opponent of the .Missouri compromise.
PINCKNEY, CHARLES COTESWORTH, LL.D., 1746-1825; b. Charleston; son of chief
justice Charles. IL: was educated in England, graduated at Oxford, and studied law.
After a short residence at the royal military academy, in Caen, France, he began tiie
e'actice of his profession at Charleston, in 1769, and soon became prominent in poll lies.
e served in the first provincial congress of South Carolina, was elected col. of a pro-
vincial regiment in 1775: was at the capture of fort Johnson, and the repulse of the
British squadron off fort Moultrie. He was afterward one of Washington's aids-de-
camp, was at Brandy wine and German town; and returning to the south in 177s. joined
the expedition to Florida. Soon after his election in 1779 to the pm-idency of the
South Carolina senate, he joined Moultrie in the defense of Charleston against the
British under Prevost. He showed great gallantry in the attack upon Savannah in
October of the same year; commanded fort Moultrie during the siege of Charleston,
upon whose surrender, which he had vigorously resisted, he was taken prisoner, and he
was not exchanged till February, 1782. After the evacuation of the city the following
December, he resumed practice. He was a prominent member of the U. S. constitu-
tional convention in 1787; of the South Carolina convention which ratified the new U.
S. constitution, and of the convention which in 1790 framed a state constitution for
South Carolina. Sent to France in 1796 as U. S. minister, he was received with studied
discourtesy by the directory, which finally made him leave the country; nor on his return
to France, as a joint commissioner with Elbridge Gerry and John Mar-hiill, was his
reception more favorable. Talleyrand assured the commissioners that a gift of money
to the French government was a necessary preliminary to the negotiations, and that a
refusal would bring on war. Piuckney is said to have answered: "War be it, then;
millions for defense, sir, but not one cent for tribute!" On his return to this country a
war with France seemed imminent; and he was appointed a maj.gen. II is last appear-
ance in public lire was as a federalist caudidateSvith John Adams, in the presidential
election of 1800.
PINCKNEY, THOMAS, 1750-1828, b. Charleston; brother of Charles Cotesworth,
educated at Westminster and Oxford, and called to the English bar. lie returned to
Charleston in 1770; became a lieut. in a provincial regiment in 1775. and was soon
promoted maj. He was appointed aid-de-camp to gen. Lincoln; distinguished him-
self at the battle of Stono. and commanded a column of the American army in the
attack upon Savannah in 1779. After the surrender of Charleston, he joined the army
under Gates, and was dangerously wounded and taken prisoner at Camden; remaining
in confinement at Philadelphia till the close of the war. In 1789 he was elected
ernor of South Carolina; in 1792 appointed minister to England, and in 1794 minister
to Spain. After negotiating the treaty of Ildefonso, which guaranteed to the United
States the free navigation of the Mississippi, he returned, and was a federalist con-
gressman for the Charleston district, 1797-1801. As maj.gen. of the southern military
division, in 1812, he fought the Seminoles and Creeks, giving a crushing defeat to the
latter, at the battle of Horse-Shoe Bend
PINCKNBYA, or Georgia bark, a shrub growing in low or swampy land in Florida.
Georgia, and Smith Carolina, rarely found elsewhere. It belongs to the botanical fam-
ily of ' rubifirete, has large oval leaves, and beautiful clusters of purple-spotted flowers at
the ends of the branches. It has medical qualities akin to Peruvian bark and is used by
the country people as a substitute for quinine.
PIN DAE (Gr. Ptndar.o»), the great lyric poet of Greece, was born about 522 B.C. of a
noble family of Thebes, at Cynoscephahe, a village in that territory. His genius for
music was hereditary, and at an early age he was sent by his father, himself a flute-
player, to receive instruction in the same art from Scopelinus. At this time his genius
for poetry too — foreshadowed, according to later writers, by a swarm of bees miracu-
lously resting on his lips when asleep — began to develop itself, and so he went to Athens
to be placed under the tuition of Lasus of llermione, the founder of the Athenian school
Pinckncy.
Pine.
of di'hyrambic poetry. Before completing his 20lh Tear lie returned to Thebes, ere
he continued to pursue his studies under Myrtis and Corinna, of Tanagra, two poetesses
then famous in Boeotia. With bolli of his instructresses he contested the prize for
music at Thebes, but was five times defeated by Corinna. He was still a young man
when he entered on his professional career as a poet, and his services soon came to be in
great request on festive occasions throughout all the Hellenic states. He composed
choral songs for Hiero, tyrant of Syracuse; Alexander, son of Amyntas, king of Mace-
donia; Theron, tyrant of Agrigeutum ; Arcesilaus, king of Gyrene; and also for many
free states and private individuals. He won not only the admiration of his employers
for his lyrical genius, but also their respect for his independent character, which, amid
all the presents and rewards conferred upon him, never degenerated into that of the poet,
who merely performed for hire. He was especially the favorite of Alexander, king of
Macedonia, and of Hiero, tyrant of Syracuse; and it is said that to the praises he lav-
ished on the former of these monarchs his house owed its preservation at the hands of
Alexander the great, when he reduced the rest of Thebes to ruins. His life was for the
most part spent abroad at the courts of kings, and at the scenes of the great public
games; and at one period, 473 B.C., he resided at Syracuse at the court of Hiero for the
space of four years. He died most probably in 442 B.C., in his 80th year. Of the
immense number of his poems, consisting of hymns to the gods, pa?aus, dithyrambs,
odes for processions (prowditi), maidens' songs (purthcrn-ia), mimic dancing songs
(liyporclie-mala), convivial songs (scolia), dirges (threnoi), and encomia on princes, we
only possess fragments. His cpii,ikia, or triumphal odes, however, have come down !o
us entire; and it is from these — divided into four books, and celebrating the victories
won in the Olympian, Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian games respectively — that we
must form an opinion of Pindar as a poet. A victory at these games conferred honor
not upon the winner and his family only, but also on the city to which he belonged; and
for its celebration — which began with a procession to the temple, where sacrifice was
offered, and ended with a convivial banquet — a poem was specially composed, and was
sung by a chorus either during the procession, or, more frequently, at the banquet
(comus). Pindar's poetical style is peculiar. Full of bold conceptions and striking met-
aphors, his manner is so rapid and so subject to abrupt transitions, as to render him not
only a (iillieult but an obscure composer. Typical examples of his strength, as well as of
his weakness, will be found in the second Olympian and first Pythian odes, where the
description ot the islands of the blest in the former, and of an eruption of mount ^Etna
in the latter, are brilliant offsets to the shadowy mythological allusion and the undevel-
oped metaphor which also characterize them. His meters, in spite of the able efforts of
Bdckh, t-tiil remain to be satisfactorily elucidated; and all that we can here say of them
is, that he makes chief use of the Dorian rhythm, and not unfrequently of the ^Eolian
and Lydian. He has been fortunate neither in his numerous imitators nor translator? —
Gray being, perhaps, the most successful among the former, and Carey, Abraham
Moore, Moricc, and Baring among the latter. He has been elaborately explained and
criticised in Schmidt's Piinld /•'.« L<bcn und Diclduny (1852); while his relation to iyric
poetry in general forms the subject of Yilleinain's brilliant Emris »nr 1e Genie de Pin-
dare et f>nr la Poesie Lyrique (1859). The best editions are those of Bockh; of Dissen,
re-edited by Sclmeidewin; and of Hartung.
PINDAR, PETER. See WOLCOT.
PIND DADUN' KHAN, a t. in the Punjab, stands on a narrow verdant plain on the
right bank of the Jhelum, and at the southern base of the Salt range or Kahdmgh moun-
tains. 110 in. n.w. of Lahore. The town consists of three groups of houses, four m.
from the Jhelum. The houses are built of mud, but the framework is of cedar-wood.
In the vicinity, salt is extensively raised in th« Salt Range. See PUNJAB. Entire pop.
'72, 13.840.
PIN'DTTS, anciently the name of a chain of mountains in Greece (q.v.).
PINDEMONTE, IPPOLITO, 1753-1828; b Italy; educated at Modeua and Este; made
a European tour, lived for some time in Malta, and finally took up his residence near
Verona. Amon? his works are Prose e Pfiexie Cnmpestri (1795); Arminio a tragedv,
(1804); 8ermoni(1805); Eputole in Versi (1819); and Elogi di Letterati (1825-26). ifis
brother, GIOVANNI, 1751-1812, published a number of dramas, and a translation of
Ovid's Re media Amoris.
PINE, Pinys. a genus of trees of the natural order conifem. The Linna3an genus
includes all kinds of fir, larch, and cedar: but as now limited, the genus pimis is distin-
guished by monoecious flowers, and woody cones with numerous two-seeded scales, the
scales having an angular truncated apex. The leaves are linear and very narrow, of a
very dirk-green color, growing in clusters or in pairs, and surrounded bjscarious scales
at the base. To this genus belong many noble and useful trees. They mostly grow in
mountainous or other exposed situations, and their narrow leaves are admirably adapted
to evade the force of winds, which produce in the tops of pines a peculiar sound, much
noticed by the ancient poets, more soft and continuous than in trees of richer foliage.
Most of the pines are more or less social, one kind often covering a considerable tract;
some of them clothing the sides and even the summits of mountains with mag-
Pine.
716
niftceut but Mfttber forests; some <jrowin.ii in lower situations, on otherwise unproduc-
tive sandy grounds, us the pi in' /></>•>•<' a * t>\' North America. Tin; pines growing in the
most l);irren soils, or in tlu' coldest climates and most exposed situations, are often very
small; and although very unlike any other shrubs or bushes, are scarcely to be called
trees. Pines are widely diffused over the northern hemisphere, being found on moun-
tains within and near th-- tropics, and in the colder temperate and the arctic regions
descending to the level of the sea.
The SCOTCH PINE or SCOTCH FIH (/'. nytccxtfix) is Hie only species indig' 'nous to
Britain. It lias leaves in pairs, about an inch and a half long; the cones about the same
length, obtuse, and with unarmed scales. 0» very poor soils and a( great elevations it
i- reduced to a kind of shrub, but in favorable situations it becomes a I o ft y tree. A
plank live feet and a half in diameter has been obtained from a Scottish forest. The
Scotch pine is of quick growth, but has been known to attain the age of 400 years. Its
h -ad is somewhat conical or rounded, and the lower branches die oil' as the tree grows,
leaving the older trees bare of branches for the givaicr part of their height; but it is
more apt to send off large branches than most of the eonifcne. There are still native
forests of Scotch pine at Braeuxar and elsewhere in the highlands of Scotland; and even
in the south of Scotland noble trees are to be sc.cn which, probably, were not planted by
man. The Scotch pine is not indigenous to the south of England; but, having been in-
troduced, is spreading rapidly and spontaneously, along with the pinas'er. in some of the
heaths and other unfertile tracts. Immense forests at' it exist in some countries of
Europe, in some of which it is mingled with the spruce fir. lu the middle and north of
Europe and of Asia it is found even in plains near the level of the' sea. especially where
the soil is somewhat sandy; in the south of Europe it grows only on mountains. Jts
timber is highly valuable, being very resinous and durable, and is the m/ deal »r ml j>in«
used in house and ship-carpentry.- There is very great difference, however, in the lim-
ber of Scotch pine growing in different soils and situations, rich soils and sheltered situa-
tions being unfavorable to the quality of the timber, which becomes white, soft, and
comparatively worthless; and there exist several varieties of Scotch pine, some of which
yield timber very superior to others. Many plantations in Britain have, u;i fortunately,
been made of inferior kinds. One of the best varieties is that which forms the northern
Scottish forests, often designated Bracmar pine by nurserymen, li is remarkable for
its very horizontal branches, and is therefore sometimes called P. h<> -The
Scotch pine is not only valuable for its timber, which is available for some purp •
every stage of its. growth, but on account of other products. Common turpentine is iu
great part obtained from it, and much tar, pitch, resin, and lamp-black. Bee
heads. Oil of turpentine is sometimes distilled from the cones, and even from the 1<
the leaves have also been used in Germany for the manufacture of a substance resem-
bling tow, and called waldicolle (forest wool), suitable for stuffing cushions, etc. The
resinous roots are dug out of the ground iu many parts of the highlands of Scotland, and
being divided into small splinters, are used to give light in cottages instead of candles.
Fishermen, in some places, make ropes of the inner bark, which is applied to n, very
different use, when most soft and succulent in spring, by the Kamtchatdales and Lap-
landers, being dried, ground, steeped in water to remove the resinous taste, and used for
making a coarse kind of bread. — The DWAUF PINE (P. pum'dio or P. Mnr/Ji>t.-<) is found
on the Alps and Pyrenees, its trunk often lying on the ground, although sometime-;
it appears as a bush or low tree. The recumbent trunks are called krui «,ked-
wood) and knieholz (knee-wood) by the Germans. — The leaves are in pairs, very like
those of the Scotch pine, but a little longer; the cones are also similar. From the young
shoots an oil resembling oil of turpentine is obtained by distillation, which is a kind of
universal medicine among the peasantry of Hungary, as is also the resin spontaneously
exuding from the tree, which is known as Hungarian balsam. — The BLACK Pi
BLACK FIR (P. nigricans, or P. Austriaca), is another species closely allied to the Scot;-h
pine, but remarkable for its very long leaves. It is a native of Austria. It abounds ni
resin more than any other European tree.— To the same group of pines belongs the SKA-
SIDE or TAUUIAN PINE (P. Palla&iana, maritima, or Titnrica), which also affords rc-in in
great quantity, and of a very pleasant odor. It is found iu many parts of the south of
Europe. Its timber is of little value; but great part of the turpentine of the La ml
other maritime districts of France is obtained from it. It yields also part of ihe />'///•-
gnndy pitch of the apothecaries' shops. — The ALEPPO PIXB (P. Halepensis), a native of the
south of Europe, Syria, etc., is a very graceful tree of moderate size, with leaves in pairs
and slender. It yields a liquid resin or turpentine, which is extracted from it in Prov-
ence and elsewhere, and sold as Venice tiu-f/entine. The wood is extensively used in the
Levant for ship-building. — The LARTCIO (P. laricio) has leaves in pairs, lax, and 4 to 8
in. long, cones 2 to 4 in. long, with the scales slightly pointed. It is often called
the CoustCAN PINE. It grows on the shores of the -Mediterranean sea, and is valuable
both for its limber and for its resinous products. In the island of Corsica, it frequently
attains the height of 140 feet. It grows we'll in sandy soils, and has been made particu-
larly useful for preventing the drifting of the sand, and turning to account the otherwise
useless tracts between the mouths of the Garonne and the Aoour in France, thus also
preserving valuable lands which the sand threatened to overwhelm. The PINASTKI: or
CLCSTEB PINE (P. pinaster) is another of the most important European species. It has
717
Pine.
cones in whorls of 3, 4, or even 8 together, 4 to 6 in. long, leaves in pairs, and very
long. It is found on the shores of the Mediterranean, and also in the Himalaya and in
China. It has been used in France to a great extent, in the same way as the Laricio,
for covering waste sandy tracts. The timber is of inferior quality, but great quantities
of resin are procured from it. It yields Bordeaux turpentine. — The PYKEXEAN PINE
(P. Pyrenaica) is a majestic tree, a native of the Pyrenees, and producing very line
timber.-.— The CALABRIAX PIXE (P. Bmttiu) somewhat resembles the pinaster. — The
STONE PINE (P. pinea) a tree with a broad umbrella-shaped head, a form often seen also
in the Scotch fir, forms a characteristic feature of the scenery of the Mediterranean, and
is very often introduced in paintings. It is the pinie of the Germans, the pif/non of the
French. The leaves are in pairs, 4 to 5 in. long; the cones very large, ovate, and
obtuse. The seeds, which do not ripen till the fourth year, are large, abound in a fixed
oil, and when fresh have a sweet taste resembling that of almonds. They are used ia
Italy and other countries in the same way as, almonds and pistachio nuts for the dessert,
in various dishes, also in emulsions, etc., under the names of pinies, pinioles, and piynomt.
The use of them, however, is almost entirely confined to the countries in which they are
produced, as they very soon becoinc rancid. They are sometimes imported into London
in the cone, in which way they can be kept longer, but the cost of importation is much
increased. The wood of this tree is very useful and beautiful. It yields resinous prod-
ucts only in small quantity. — The CKMBKA PINE, or Swiss STONE PIXE, which grows
in the central parts of Europe and the south of Siberia — a stately tree, with the lower
branches more persistent than they are in most pines, and rigid leaves in groups of three
to five — also produces eatable seeds (Cenibra nuts), which, although they are extracted
with difficulty, are much used. The cuticle contains a resinous juice; but in Siberia
this fruit is so much prized, that noble trees are often cut down to obtain it. The Cem-
bra pine yields a pellucid, whitish oil, resembling oil of turpentine, and known as Car-
pathian balsam.
North America produces many species of pine, some of them very beautiful and very
valuable. Besides those long known, and which are found in the states and colonie's
near the Atlantic, a number of the noblest species of this genus have, since the com-
mencement of the present century, been discovered in California and the n.w. parts
of America. — The liED CANADIAN PINE (P. resinosa) is found from Canada to the
Pacific, but does not reach far south in the United States. It is the YELLOW PINE of
Canada and Nova Scotia. It delights in dry and sandy soils, and attains a height of 70
to 80 ft., with a diameter of 2 ft. at the base, the trunk continuing of uniform diameter
for two-thirds of its length. The leaves are in pairs, and are congregated towards the
extremities of the branches. The limber is highly esteemed for strength and durability,
and furnishes excellent planks for ship-building. It is also used for masts. — Somewhat
resernbling this in botanical characters is the SCRUB PINE, or GRAY PINE (P. Banksia,,,>).
generally only 3 to 10 ft. high, which begins to appear in the northern parts of the
United States upon high mountains, and is interesting as an arctic species, extending
further north than any other. — The YELLOW PINE (P. variabilis, or P. mitix) abounds in
the Atlantic states from New Jersey to Virginia. It is a tree of 50 to 60 ft. high, 15 to
18 in. in diameter at the base, with leaves 4 to 5 in. long, usually in pairs, but sometimes
in threes upon the younger shoots. The timber is very extensively used for ship-build-
ing, and is largely exported to Great Britain. At Liverpool it is known as NEW YORK
PIXE. — The JERSEY PINE, or SCRUB PINE (P. mops), abounds in the lower parts of New-
Jersey, and thence to the s.w. The leaves are in pairs, 1 to 2 in. long, the cones armed
with strong spines. The tree is rarely 30 or 40 ft. high. Great quantities of tar are
made from it in Kentucky. — The PITCH PINE (P. rigida) is a native of the northern and
middle parts of the United States, often growing in great miry swamps, and attaining a
height of 70 to 80 ft., and a diameter of 2 ft. at the base. "The leaves are in threes,
varying much in length, as the cones do in size. Immense quantities of it are used for
fuel. Tar and lamp-black are sometimes made from it. — The LOBLOLLY or OLD FIET.D
PINE (P. Tceda) grows in dry and sandy soils in the lower, parts of the Southern states,
often occupying lands exhausted by cultivation. Vast tracts never cultivated, in the
Southern states, are pine barrens, in great part covered with this species of pine. It
attains a height of 80 ft. and upwards, and has a wide-spreading crown. The leaves are
6 in. long, in threes, sometimes in fours on young branches; the cones 4 in. high, with
strong spines. The timber is not of much value.— The LONG-LEAVED PINE, or SOUTHERN
PINE (P. paluMris, or P. Australia), is perhaps the most important of North American
forest trees. It furnishes the greater part of the tar, resin, pitch, and turpentine used in
the United States. The timber is also very valuable, and is much used for ship-building.
In England and the West Indies it is linown as GEORGIA PITCH PINE. The tree attains
a height of 60 to 70 ft., and a diameter of about 16 to 18 in. ; the leaves are in threes, and
about a foot long; the cones 7 to 8 in. long, and 4 in. in diameter, with small spines.
The seeds are sometimes eaten. — The "\VEYMDUTH PINE, or WHITE PINE (P. Sir-
attains a height of 150 ft., and a diameter of 5 ft. and upwards. It has lax sub-triangu-
lar leaves in groups of five; and pendulous cones 4 to 5 in. long, with thin smooth scales,
It is frequently planted in Britain and on the continent of Europe for its beauty. In its
native country it abounds chiefly from lat. 47° to lat. 43°, and southward on the Alle-
ghanies. The timber is not strong, but easily wrought and durable. — Of the species
Pi ue.
718
belonging to the n.w. parts of America, one of th^ most magnificent is P. Lam-
bcrtiana, which is found on the Rocky mountains, between lat. 40 and lat. 43°, chiefly
in sandy soils. It attains a height of 150 to 200 ft., and a diameter of 7 ft. and upwards,
almost to 20 feet. The trunk is remarkably straight, and destitute of brandies for two-
tliinis of its height; the leaves in rives, the cones upwards of a foot long. The timber is
white, soft, ami light; and the tree produces great quantities of a pure amber-colored
resiu, which, when the wood is partly burned, is changed into a somewhat saccharine
substance, used by the natives as a substitute for sugar. The seeds are eaten either
rousted or pounded into coarse cakes. — P. Jlcxilix is found on the Kocky mountains, near
the head-waters of the Arkansas, and occurs almost to ihe limit of perpetual snow. It
hue a dense crown, formed of numerous and remarkably flexile branches. The ]eav<.s
ait1 in lives. The seeds are used as food by hunters and Indians. — /', I,<IH<!> /vw another
native of the Rocky mountains, is a magnificent tree, remarkable for the heaviness of
its timber, which almost sinks in water. The leaves are in threes, and !) to 14 in. long. —
P. fjabiiimnn. P. Coulten, and P. fiiti/ym'x are also noble species from the w. of :
America. The Himalaya mountains abound in pines, some of which rival in magnifi-
cence those of n.w. America. The BHOTAN PINE (I*, exo <'•"), much re-emblini the \\Yy-
inouth pine in its botanical characters, and attaining a height of 00 to 120 ft., abounds in
Bhotan, although it is not found in the neighboring countries of Sikkim and Nepaul.
The wood is highly valuable, being durable, close-grained, and so resinons as to be KM d
for flambeaux and candles. — The CHEER PINE (P. lo/>!/if</l<n) of India is a tree of remark-
able and most graceful appearance; with leaves in threes, very long, very slender, and
generally pendulous. It is abundant on the crests of hills in the lower Himalaya, grow,
ing at a lower elevation than the other pines. It is cultivated in some parts of India as
an ornamental tree. It is much valued for its resin. The wood is used in Ir.-'ia a^ a
substitute for European deal. — The KHASIA PINE (P. Khartum) is peculiar to the Khasia
mountains, and has very much the general appearance of the Scotch pine. — P. <<•
iana, a species with leaves in threes, is a large tree, a native of Nepaul. The seeds an;
eatable. — The mountains of India and the n.w. parts of America produce m:i:
other species; Mexico has a number of very fine ones peculiar to itself; the mounta'
St. Domingo have one; the Canary islands' have one; China and Japan also have some.
Most of those which have been named, and a number of others, are now readily to be
procured in nurseries in Britain, although some of them only at prices which prevent any
attempt at extensive plantation. Some wealthy noblemen and gentlemen devote a por-
tion of their grounds to a collection of different kinds of pine, called a Pindnm. A few
foreign species have become pretty common in plantations. Most of the pines are quite
hardy in Britain, but this is not the case with the cheer pine and seine of the Mexican
species. The name pine is often popularly extended, and even in scientific works, to
other conifercn.
PINE-TIMBER. — This term is in general use for the timber of the pine-tribe (s<-e COM-
FER^E), and is not confined to that of the genus pinus, but embraces the wood of species
of abies, larix, Araucaria, dammara, etc. From the Baltic ports we receive red and
\vbite pine, or deal-timber. The former is yielded by the Scotch fir (pin>:>
and the latter by the spruce fir (abies excehd). These two. with the larch (laru
yield the greatest part of the pine-timber of Europe. Next in importance to th-'se is the
pine-timber of the British North American colonies, -which is chit fly yielded by the
Weymouth or white pine (pinus atrobnn), although, doubtless, the wood of other conifer-
ous trees is often substituted for it. It makes excellent masts; but is not so serviceable
for large timbers, as it is subject to dry-rot. Of white pine, the dominion of Canada
exported in 1876, 289,441 tons, valued* at £613,179; and 37,040 tons red pine, worth
£62,532, besides large quantities of pine in the form- of battens or staves and deal. Tho
wood has a peculiar odor. The celebrated pitch-pine of Savannah, in the southern
states is the produce of pinus rigida. It is much used for ships' masts and yards, and for
all purposes requiring great strength and durability, in both of which qualities it excels
most others of its kind. The kinds above mentioned are those which constitute, thu
greater part of the pine-timber used in ship and house building, carpentry, etc,, iu
Great Britain. In France the timber of the Corsican pine (pinus Laricio) and the sea-
side pine ( pimts pinaster) are greatly used. In Italy the pine-limber is chiefly yielded
by the stone pine (P. pinto) and the Calabrian pine (P. Bruttiii}; that of Spain is from
the Pyrenean pine (P. Pt/rennica). In Germany, and especially in Austria, the black
pine (P. Austria ca) furnishes the greater portion; but the fine-grained, soft white pine,
or deal, so much used for sounding-boards of musical instruments, is the wood of the
silver fir. See FIR. The trade, in this timber is very great, for not only do the Ger-
mans use it almost exclusively in their vast toy-manufactories and for lucifer matches,
but considerable quantities are exported. The finest is cut-in the forests of Bohemia,
where large establishments are formed for dressing and preparing the wood for various
purposes.
The timber of the Norfolk island pine (Araucaria, excelsa') is sometimes imported for
making ships' masts, as several other kinds of pine-timber arc imported from time to
time, but those mentioned form the great staples of the timber-trade. The chief value
of this clas" of timber-woods is in the combination of lightness and strength, with
softness of texture and ease in working with ordinary tools; they constitute, in fact, the
719
Pine.
principal materials of our builders, and are more used than all other kinds of wood
together. Much confusion prevails as to their common designations, for in this country
alone fir, pine, and deal are terms applied to all and each of them, according to the
caprice of the individual. The two first names are used because the material is derived
from one or other of those genera; but the last is a misnomer altogether, as the terra
deal belong only to pieces of fir or pine timber cut to particular sizes: they are 3 in. iu
thickness, 9 in. broad, and of variable length; if of less width they are called battens.
PINE, a co. in e. Minnesota; divided from Wisconsin on the s.e. by St. Croix river;
traversed by the Lake Superior and Mississippi railroads; drained by the Kettle and
Sunke rivers, and smaller streams; 1450 sq.m.; pop. '80, 136."). The surface is undulat-
ing, and extensively covered with pine trees of large size, and other evergreen trees.
The soil is heavy, and but little cultivated. Lumber is the chief product. Co. seat,
Pine City.
PINEAL BODY, is a small, reddish-gray body, of a conical form, and deriving its
name from its resemblance to the fruit of the pine. It rests upon the corpora quadri-
gemiua of the brain, in front of the cerebellum. It is about four lines in length, and
from two to three in width at its' base. It is larger in the child than in the adult, and in
the female than in the male. It consists chiefly of gray matter, and in its base is a
small cavity, which contains a transparent viscid fluid, in which are granules composed
chiefly of phosphate and carbonate of line, and termed acervulus cerebri. This organ
was regarded by the ancients as the seat of the soul.
PINE-APPLE, or ANAXAS, Anana-stsa satim, a plant of the natural order bromeUaceas,
highly esteemed, and much cultivated for its fruit. The fruit is sisorosis, formed by the
calyces and bracts of a close spike of flowers, becoming succulent and combined. This
is the distinctive character of the genus Ananasm. The pine-apple has a number of
long, serrated, sharp-pointed, rigid leaves, springing from the root, in the midst of
which a short flower-stern is thrown up, bearing a single spike of flowers, and, therefore,
a single fruit. From the summit of the fruit springs a crown or tuft of small leaves,
capable of becoming a new plant, and very generally used by gardeners for planting; the
pine-apple, in cultivation, being propagated entirely by crowns and suckers, as, in a
state of high cultivation, perfect seed is almost never produced. The pine- apple is a
native of tropical America; it is found wild iu sandy maritime districts in the n.e.
of South America, but it has been very much changed by cultivation. It has also been
gradually diffused over tropical and subtropical countries, and not only as a cultivated
plant, for it is fully naturalized in many parts both of Asia and Africa. It delights ju a
moist climate, and consequently does not succeed well in the dry climate of the s. of
Italy, although the warmth is sufficient. The first particular account of the pine-apple
was given by Oviedo in 1533. It was in Holland that it first began to be cultivated in
hot-houses; but it was introduced into England in the end of the 17th c., and its cultiva-
tion rapidly became general in the gardens of the wealthy. It is only since the peace of
1815 that it has received similar attention in continental Europe. Great care is requisite
in the cultivation of the pine-apple, which, without it, is generally fibrous and coarse.
•with little sweetness or flavor; and with it, one of the most delicate, and richly flavored
of fruits. Its size also very much depends on cultivation. The size varies from 2£ Ibs.
to 12 Ibs. in weight. • The pine-apples grown in British hot-houses are generally much
ior to those of the West Indies, because the latter grow almost or altogether with-
out cultivation; but the importation of pine-apples from the West Indies having now
been carried onto a considerable extent, and promising to add to the sources of wealth
for these colonies, has led to greater care in cultivation there, and consequent improve-
ment of quality.
In the cultivation of the pine-apple in Britain, a tropical heat must always be main-
tained. It is generally cultivated in hot-houses specially appropriated to it, called
pineries or pine-stoves; sometimes also in fined pits; and sometimes even without fire-
heat, in frames continually supplied with fresh tanners' bark and dung. The universal
practice, till of late, was to grow the plants in pots, plunged to the requisite depth in
tanners' bark or other fermenting matter, and these were transferred fro7n one house or
one compartment to another, according to their stage of advancement; three years' cul-
ture being deemed requisite from the planting of a crown or sucker to the production of
the ripe fruit; but the pine-apple is now often planted in beds, and fruit of the best
quality is sometimes obtained in 15 months. The best soil is a rich and rather sandy
loam. It is often formed from the turf of old pastures, with dung, peat, sand, etc.,
thoroughly mixed. Ventilation must be freely allowed from time to time, but care
must be taken to keep the atmosphere moist. A pine-apple which has borne fruit is
thrown away as useless.
There arc many varieties of the pine-apple in cultivation. Of these, some are referred
by some botanists to distinct species. But the greater number of varieties are univer-
sally referred to A. saliva, and differ in the more or less spiny serratures of the leaves,
the globular, cylindrical, or pyramidal fruit, its size, etc.
A spirituous liquor (pine-apple rum) is made from the pine-apple in some warm
countries.
The use of the fiber of the pine-apple is noticed iu the article
Pine.
1'mk.
PINE-CHAFER, or PINT V.KKTI.V.. TT}iinrrpix pinipcrfln, a small coleopterous insect of
the family .<// A ^ >//.'///. See BAKK-IIKHTLK. It is often very destructive to Scotch firs in
rich soils and low situations, attacking the young terminal shoot in summer, and soon
eating ils way into the heart, which it proceeds to excavate so as !,, convert the shoot
into a tube. Pines growing in open situations are little liable to the attacks of this
insect; and trees of 30 ft. in height, or upwards, are very rarely attacked. The insect is
about) the size of a seed of the Scotch fir, and of a black or dark-brown color.
PINE-FINCH, or PINE GI:OSI;KAK, Cort/llmx. a genus of birds of the family/nnr/'"
nearly allied to bullfinches and crossbills, the bill nearly resembling that of the former,
hut the tongue very similar to the tongue of the CTOSSbilJB, \\~\\\\ the same peculiar bone
articulated to the liyoid bone. See CKOSMSII.I,. One species, the COMMON I'INK-KIM n,
(C. eiiuckxttor], is a very rare visitant of Britain, but is abundant in many of the northern
parts of Europe. Asia, and America. It is larger than a bullfinch, but much resembles
the bullfinch in form, wings, tail, etc. The general color of the male is n d. This bird
frequents pine-forests, and associates in flocks in winter. It is easily tamed. li-
is rich and full. — There are other species in the northern parts of the world. — The name
pine-liucu is given in North America to a very different and much smaller bird (can
"
PINEL, Pmi,rppE, a celebrated French physician, was b. April 20, 1745, nt Saint-
Andre, in the department of Tarn, France; and after receiving a good classical educa-
tion at the college of Lavour, removed to Toulouse, where he studied medicine, and
took his degree in 1773. He continued his medical studies at Mnntpcllicr, maintaining
himself meantime by teaching mathematics; and in 1778 removed to Paris, where IK;
acquired some reputation by a translation into French of Cullen's A" <"'''.'/.'/ (1785), and
the works of Baglivi (1788), and also by some memoirs on subjects connected wit'
ogy and comparative anatomy. Having applied himself with success to the study of
mental alienation, he was charged, in 1791, to make a report on the insane inmates of
theBicGtre, became chief physician of this institution in 1793. and in 17M wa> chosen
to the same office at the Salp6triere (a similar asylum, but for fe?nales). ]n the latter
institution Piuel commenced a class of clinical medicine, which he continued after his
appointment to the chair of medic-'! physics and hygiene, and subsequently that of
pathology, at the school of medicine in Paris. He was admitted as a member of the
institute in 1803, and died at Paris, Oct. 26, 1826. His most valuable works were his
Traite Medico-philosoplrique de I'Alienation Mentale (1791), and /,-'
pluqite (1798), with its commentary, La Medicine Clinique (1802). Pinel gained for him-
self undying fame by his reformation of the old barbarous methods of treating the
insane. The physicians brought up under the old system were not ashamed to ollVr a
vigorous opposition to Pinel's philanthropic opinions; but he fortunately succeeded in
thoroughly establishing their correctness, and his system in a few years prevailed over
the whole of Europe.
PINERO'LO, or PFGXEIIOL, a t. in the n. of Italy, on the Clusone, at the entrance of
tho valley of Perosa, in the province of Turin, and 23 m. by railway s.w. of the city of
that name. It was formerly strongly fortified, and was the residence of the rul
Piedmont It contains a new cathedral, a bishop's palace, seminaries, barracks etc.
The ruins of the citadel, for some time the prison of the Man with the I
are still to be seen on the hill of St. Brigide. Broadcloth, paper, leather, iron, and silk
are manufactured. Pop. '72, 11,832.
PINES, ISLE OP, in the s. Pacific ocean, a dependency of New Caledonia, and
belonging to France; 12 m. in circumference, situated in lat. 22" 38' s., long. 167° 2,T e;
pop. 800, exclusive of convicts. The original inhabitants were cannibals, and of the
same race as those of New Caledonia. The surface is mostly barren, excepting a wide
strip surrounding the shore, which is fertile, and on which a few Europeans ha-.
tied. The island was discovered by capt, Cook, in 1774, and is surrounded by smaller
islands heavily timbered with valuable wood which is exported. In 1872 it was chos'-n
as a penal station by France for convicts, and many connected with the communal insur-
rection of 1871 have been placed there. The mountain of N;gu, 872 ft. high, is in the
s.e. portion, and is a prominent landmark.
PINE SNAKE, Pituophts mdanolencus, a large serpent, found in the s.e. United
States, 6 ft. long, 2 in. thick, of a glistening creamy- white color, blotched with dark
brown. It is a beautiful variety of snake, and harmless to man. It derives its name
from the pine lands m which it is found, emits a strong disagreeable odor, and feeds on
eggs, birds, and small mammals. It makes a loud bellowing noise which has given it
the name of bull-snake.
PINE-WOOL. Several attempts have been made of late years to utili/e the leave- d
pine and fir-trees, which are cut down in vast nnmbers for their timber only. Tho
leaves contain a considerable quantity of fine vegetable fiber, Avhich, when separated,
has much the appearance of cotton. In Germany, several works have been established
for preparing this fiber, and fitting it for various applications; and, under the name of
pine-wool, it is now sold for stuffing cushions, making wadding, etc. The principal
>7O1 Pin*.
••** Pink.
manufacture is near Breslau in Silesia, where it is carried on by the inventor, Hcrr
Pannewitz.
PINEY TREE. See CALOPIIYLLUM.
PINEY-VAENISH. See DAMMAR.
Pl>,rGRE ALEXANDRE GUI, 1711-96; b. Paris; educated at a convent in Senlis. He
at first taught theology of the Roman church; but becoming a believer in the Junsenigl
doctrines, turned his attention to astronomy. Between 1760 and 1776 he went on a.
number of scientific expeditions for the observation of stellar transits. He calculated
the orbits of 24 comets, published Cometography, or a Historical Treatise on Comets
(1783); a series of nautical calendars, and a translation of the Astronomica of ManilSus
(1780). He also computed the eclipses for the thousand years before the Christian era.
PINGUIC ULA. See BUTTERWORT.
PING YANG, or PIENG-AN, the u. w. province of Corea, bordering on Mantelmria. hav-
ing its capital city of the same name. Tlie province is bounded on the w. by the Yalu
river and the Yellow sea. The only legal place of ingress and egress from China or
el ewhere, or out of Corea, is at the t. of Ei-chiu on the Yalu river. Pop. of the prov-
ince about 1,500,000.
The city of Ping Yang lies on the n. bank of the Ta-long river, 50 m. from its
mouth. It is a place of great commercial and historical importance, and was the capital
and royal residence until 1892. Besides suffeiing many sieges, it was the scene of a
great battle between the invading Japanese and tlie army of succor sent by the Ming^
emperor from China to the Coreaus, in 1593. On Aug. 6, 1866, the heavily-armed
(private) American schooner 6V?/. Sherman entered the Ta-tong river on a semi-piratical
trading expedition — the venture of an Englishman at Tien-tsin, who also held the post
of U. S. vice consul. The exact truth of the details is unknown; but the entire crew,
consisting of three Americans and two British citizens, with nineteen Malay and Chinese
saiiors, were killed, and the vessel was burned. By orders from Washington, commander
I\. W. Shufeldt in the U. S. steamship Wachvsct went over to the const of Corea,
arriving January 23. and waited in the approach to the Ta-tong river for nearly a week,
communicating with the authorities. His demand that " the murderers of the crew of
the Gen. Sherman be produced upon the deck of the Wachusef" was answered by the
repeated invitation, " Please go a\\ay ;;s soon as possible." After a survey of the inlet,
the WacJniset returned to Chifu. In May, 1868, the U. S. steamship Shenandwth also
visited the Ping Yang inlet, and commander J. C. Fcbiger learned from the natives the
circumstances attending the slaughter of the foreigners, by \\hieh it appeared that the
latter were mistaken for " Frencl.men" (^ee KANG-HOA), and put to death after insults
offered to the officials. Finding it impossible to obtain satisfaction, the United States
government, not believing I he Corcitn version of the affair, dispatched in 1871 the naval
expedition which destroyed the forts along the Han river leading to Seoul the capital.
See RANG HOA.
FINHOEN, OIL OF. See PHYSIC NUT.
PINK, Ditintlnis, a genus of plants of the natural order carynpJn/Uacece, of which there
are many species, annuals and perennials, with beautiful and often fragrant flowers,
chiefly natives of Europe and the temperate pans of Asia. The calyx is tubular,
5-toothed. with two or four scales at the Uise; there are 5 petals suddenly contracted at
the throat of the corolla into a linear claw. There are 10 stamens, and one germen
with two styles. The capsule is cylindrical, and one-celled The exquisite beauty of
the flowers has attracted admiration in all ages; and some of the species have long
been much cultivated in gardens, particularly the GARDEN PINK and CARNATION (q.v.),
which are often referred to one original, the CI.OVE PINK (I), caryopliyllus), a native cf
the s. of Europe, growing wild on rocks and old walls, and naturalized in so*me places
in the s. of England; while some botanists refer the garden pinks in part to the MAIDEN
PINK (D. (UHMae*), a pretty common British species, and tlio.-e culled pheasant-eye pinks
to the FEATHER PINK (D. plumaritis), a native of some parts of continental Europe,
differing from the clove pink chiefly in having the leaves rough on the margin, and the
petals bearded and much cut. Nearly allied to them is D. »iijr-ei-biic, found in moist
places in some parts of Europe, and not unfrequemly to be seen in flower-borders. It
has very fragrant flowers. All the varieties of garden pinks, whatever their origin, have
been much changed by cultivation, and careful cultivation is requisite to preserve them
in perfection. Both single and double pinks are generally propagated by pipings, which
are short cuttings of the younger shoots. They are also sometimes propagated by layers.
A rich loamy soil is the best for pinks. The clove pink, in a. wild state, has flesh-colored
flowers. The leaves are linear-awl-shnped, grooved, and glaucous. The maiden pink
is a small much-branched plant, growing in grassy places, on gravelly and sandy soils;
it has rose-colored flowers spotted with white, and a white eye encircled by a deep-purple
ring. — The Deptford pink (D. armeria) and the CLUSTERED PINK, or CHILDING PINK,
(D. prolifcr), also natives of England, differ from these in being annuals, and in having
plastered flowers. — The BEARDED PINK, or SWKET WILLIAM (D. barbatus}, a native of the
middle of Europe and the s. of France, with lanceolate leaves, flowers crowded in dense
clusters at the top of the stem, acuminated bracts, and bearded petals, has long been a
U. K. XL— 46
Pink
I'iuuigradcs.
favorite garden flower, still retaining its place alike in palace and collate gardens.
Although perennial, it is sown annually by florists, to secure tine flowers, and there are
many varieties, single and double, exhibiting much diversity of color. — The INDIAN
PINK or CHINA PINK (D. chine n*i*) is now also common in flower-gardens.
The clove pink was formerly regarded as possessing medicinal properties, and was
used in nervous maladies. — Sea-pink is a Qommon name of thrift (q.v.).
PINK COLORS, very light shades of rose-red color: they are usually produced by
extreme dilution of cochineal or carmine, Brazil and Bra/ilctto wood colors, with whit-
idg. Some mineral pinks for oil colors are obtained from preparations of manganese.,
etc. See RED COLORS. The term pink is also applied to several yellow colors (q.v.).
PINKERTON, JOHN, an industrious and learned litterateur. Visa born at Edinburgh,
Feb. 17, 1758, and educated at the grammar-school of Lanark, where he was noted for
the unusual excellence of his classical attainments, and for his hypochondriacs! tendency.
He was afterward apprenticed to a writer to the signet, his father refusing to let him pro-
ceed to the university; and While engaged in the irksome and distasteful practice of law,
he published an Ode to Craigmillar Castle, in 1776, which he dedicated to Dr. Beat tie.
In 1780 he went to London, where he settled as a man of letters. Next year he gave to
the public a volume of Riines (as he called his pieces), and a collection of S'".v /.>.•// Tragic
Ballads, followed in 1783 by a second collection of lliUml* of the Comic Kim! — both of
which subsequently appeared under the title of Select Scottish Ballads. They professed to
be ancient, but many of them were really compositions— /w/y> /•<>>-, some might say. of
Pinkertou's own, and would hardly deceive a critical archaeologist. In IST-ilie publislied
.an Essay on Medals, which went through several editions, and long held a high place
among books on numismatics; and in 1785 Letters on -Lit, rnturc. marked chiefly by a
novel'system of orthography (e.g., the use of a instead of s in forming plurals), Intended
to soften the harshness of the English language, and which was abused as heartily as it
deserved. These letters were, however, the means of introducing him to Walpole,
through whom he became acquainted with Gibbon and other literary celebrities. Pinker-
ton's next publication was a most valuable one, Ancient Scottish Poems never bef*i\ in
Print, from the MS. Collections of Sir Richard Maitland of Lethington, Knight (2. vols.
Lond. 1786). It was followed in 1787 by his once notable Dissertation on the Origin uml
Progress of the Scythians or Goths, in which, for the first time, appears that grotesquely
virulent hatred of the Britanno-Celtic race — Scotch Highlanders, Welsh, and Irish — that
reaches its climax in his Inquiry into the History of Scotland preceding tin Reign of Mn!-
,colm III. (2 vols. Lond. 1790), where he affirms again and again, obviously with the
•€xtrcmest gusto, that the Highlanders are "mere savages, but one degree above brutes;"
.that they are just as they were "in the days of Julius Ctesar;" that "like Indians and
negroes," they "will ever continue absolute savages," and that "all we can do is to plant
•colonies among them, and by this, and encouraging their emigration, try to get rid of
them." But in spite of this extravagant truculence of speech, the Inquiry contains a
•great deal of important matter — rare and curious historical documents, some of which
jare to be found nowhere else in print. Pinkerton left England in 1802, and fixed his resi-
dence at Paris, where he died Mar. 10, 1826, after a life of hard literary work. His
principal publications, besides those already mentioned, are The Metallic Ilistory of Eng-
land to the Revolution (1790); Scottish Poems (3 vols. 1792), reprinted from scarce editions;
Inconographia Scotica, or Portrait* of llluxtrions Persons of Scotland, irith Biographictu,
Notes (2 vols. 1795-97); The Histoi-y of Scotland from the Accession of the ll»u>><> t>f Stuart to
that of Mary (2 vols. 1797), valuable for its laborious investigation of original materials,
but disfigured, in a literary point of view, bv an imitation of the grandiose style of Gib-
bon; Walpolmna, a collection of his notes of his friend Horace Walpole's conversation,
in 2 vols. ; The Sc-ottish Gallery, or Portraits of Eminent Persons of Scot/and, iritJi thtir
Characters (1799); Modern Geography (3 vols. 1802-7); General Collection of ]•'»//. ';...•.• <tnd
Travels (16 vols. 18Q8-13); New Modern Atlas (1809-15); and Petralogy, or a Trtdti*t on
Rocks (2 vols. 1611).
PINKNEY, EDWARD COATE, 1802-28; b. London; son of William; educated at Rt.
Mary's college, Baltimore; joined the navy 1816, serving 8 years. He undertook to prac-
tice law, but had no success; tried without result to get a commission in the Mexican
navy, and in 1827 began the publication of a political journal cal'ed Tic Maryfa nMtr. He
published in 1825 Rodolph and other Poems, a later edition appearing in the Mirror
Library in 1844 entitled Rococo, with an introduction by X. P. Willis.
PINKNEY, WILLIAM. LL.D.. 1704-1822; b. ?id.; admitted to the bar in 1786. nnd
soon obtained a large practice. He was a member of tlrj Maryland convention called in
1788 to ratify the t'. S. constitution; served in the state council, house of delegati s. and
senate, and in 1790 went to England as commissioner under the Jay treaty. lie returned
in 1804, and the next year was made attorney -general of Maryland. In 1K)6 he was airain
sent to England as minister extraordinary, and he remained as minister resident 1807 1 1.
He was attorney-general of the United States 1811-18, and served in the Avar of Ibl2 as
commander of a volunteer corps, receiving a dangerous wound at Bladen.sburg. He was
elected to congress in 1815, and appointed minister to Kussia the next year He entered
the U. S. senate in 1819.
mPInk.
Pinnigrades.
PINK EOOT. See SPIGELIA.
PIN-MONEY, in law, a sum of money paid annually by the husband to his wife to
spi-nd for her personal expenses. On tlie death of the wife her representatives cannot
claim unpaid arrears. The husband is not at any time bound to pay the arrears for more
than a single year. Pin-money given to the wife but not spent by her, upon the death of
the husband, goes to his representatives, Pin-money, now practically obsolete in Eng-
land, was never established as a custom in this country. The name is said to have been
derived from an old English tax assessed to supply the queen with pins.
PINNA, a genus of lamellibranchiate mollusks of the same family with the pearl »/ ni-
sei (avieulidce), and having a shell of two equal wedge-shaped valves, closely united by a
ligament along one of their sides. The mantle is closed on the side of the ligament; the
foot is small and conical. The byssus is remarkably long and silky; and by ft the species
affix themselves to submarine rocks and other bodies, sometimes even to sandy or muddy
bodies. The best-known species is P. nobiUs, a native of the Mediterranean, the byssus
of which was used by the ancients for fabrics, but chiefly as an article of curiosity, to
which a great value was attached. It is still so used in Sicily and elsewhere. It is very
strong and lustrous. The only reason against its more general use is the difficulty of
procuring it in sufficient quantity. The byssus of this species is sometimes two feel long,
the shell is about the same length. Pinna;, are often found in large beds, with only the
edges of their shells appearing above the mud or sand. The animal is eaten.
PINNACE (from the Ital. pinaccia, a dimunitive of pino, a ship), was originally a small
vessel, usually schooner-rigged, employed as tender to a large ship, for the purpose of
communicating with the shore, etc. At present, however, the signification is limited to
a large boat carried by great ships. It is smaller than the launch, but larger than the
cutters; and is generally rowed "double-banked,"' by from ten to sixteen oars.
PINNACLE, an ornamental termination much used in Gothic architecture. It is of
simple form in the earlier periods of the style, having a plain square or octagonal shaft
and sloping roof or top, terminating with a finial; but in later examples the pinnacle is
greatly developed, and becomes one of the most varied and beautiful features of the
style. It is ornamented with shafts bearing canopies, and niches filled with statue-;.
Pinnacles are most frequently used on buttresses and parapets, and when placed over
the former, serve ;:s a dead-weight to increase their power of resisting a thrust.
PINXIGRADE3, or PINNIPEDES. a section of carnivora, comprising seals and wal-
ruses, in which the fore and hind limbs are short and expanded into broad, webbed
swimming paddles. The hind feet are placed very far back, nearly in a line with the
axis of the body, and somewhat incorporated with the tail by the integuments. The
body is elongated and somewhat fish-like, covered with short furor hairs, and terminated
by a short conical tail. The five toes of each foot are united by the skin and form pow-
erful swimming paddles. The tips of the toes are armed with claws, but they have little
power for land locomiotion. the typical seals being able only to drag themselves along
when out of the water. The ears arc small, often only indicated by apertures, which
the animal can close under water. The dentition varies, but teeth of three kinds are
always present. The canines are always long and pointed, and the molars have sharp
cutting edges. Sometimes there are only four or two lower incisors, and sometimes
they are wanting altogether, as in the walrus, and the upper incisors may also be less
thaa six. The dental formula of the common seal is
.3-3 1-1 4-4 1-1
*2TT2;C n-i'^4^4; rol=l = 84
The pinnicrradcs include three families, the earless seals (phodda), the eared seals
(f)ttt.ri(i<E), and the walruses (trichecidte). The pJtoctda differ from the walruses b}~ hav-
ing incisor teeth in both jaws, and moderate-sized canines, and from the otaridfe by the
absence of ears and inability to use the hind limbs on land. They are very numerous,
being found in most seas of temperate and frigid zones, but are most numerous in thte
latter. Their principal food is fish, for holding and masticating which their teeth are
adapted. They are much hunted for their blubber and skins. The eared seals, or sta-
tions, differ from the typical seals by having small, conical ears, and in the greater use'
of the limbs, especially the hind ' limbs, so that they are enabled to execute a sort
of walk. The sea-lions are chiefly found in the Pacific and southern Atlantic,
s. of La Plata river. The third family of pinnigrades, or tricliecidm comprises
only the walrus or morse, and is distinguished from the true seals by the dentition.
According to Owen there are six incisors in the upper jaw, and four in the lower, but
these are only present in the young animal, soon disappearing, with the exception of the
outer pair of upper incisors. The upper canines are enormously developed into long
tusks, often over 15 inches. The upper jaw has on each side three premolars and two
molars, with flattened crowns, and the lower jaw has the same number ©f premolars and
one molar on each side; but the true molars are deciduous, so that the dental formula in
the adult is
.1-1 1-1 3-3 0-0
Pinnule. 'TO/I
Piozzi. I**
In all other respects the walruses arc very similar to the seals. See MORSE, OTAHY, and
SEAL, ante.
PINNULE, in holany, a leaflet of a pinnate loaf, or of one which is bipinnnte. trinin-
nate, elc. tSce LEAVES. The term is more frequently used, lioucver, lo de>igiii.lc the
u'-iinatt divisions of the fronds of ferns, when divided in the .-a. no manner.
PIHSK. at. of w. Russia, in tlie government of Minsk, surrounded l>y vast marshes
called the I'msk marshes, stands on the banks of the Pina, a branc!) of 'the l'iv. ei. ?"','•
m. s.8. \v. of St. Petersburg, hit. 52° 7' n., long. 26° 6' east. It was founded in ;i.e iuh.
C., was conquered by the prince of Lithuania in 1820, w:;s annexed, tom-ilier wiin ].i;h
uania, to Poland in 15(59, and came at last into the possession ot Russia in 171 ,."». The
trade of Pinsk, chiefly transit, has increased, especially since the opening of li.e O::liin-
sky canal, which connects the Dnieper and the Black sea with the Nicmcn :imi the
Baltic sea. A very considerable number of ships and barges enter and clear the port.
They are laden principally with salt, coin, hemp-seed, iron. gla>s, tar, tallow, \vool,
tobacco, and timber. The manufacturing activity of the town is not great. The project
for a branch line of railway (55 m.) connecting Pinsk with the main" line to Minsk, has
already been sanctioned. Of the pop. '67, 16,162, three-fourths are Jews, and have
the trade almost entirely in their own hands.
PINT, a measure of capacity used both for liquids and dry goods, nnd equivalent
to the eighth part of a gallon (q.v.), or 34.65925 cubic inches. The Scotch pint, slill in
use. though superseded as a legal measure by the imperial pint, is equivalent to 3.00G51
imperial pints.
PINTA DO. See GUINEA FOWL.
PINTAIL, or PINTAIL DUCK, Drtjiln, a genus of ducks, of the section with the hind
toe destitute of membrane, The bill is without tubercle at the base, narrow, with laminae
not projecting beyond the margin. The tail of the male is long, and tapers to a point. —
The COMMON PINTAIL (D. acufa) is a handsome bird, rather longer in shape than most <>f
the ducks; the neck also longer and more slender. It is about equal in size to the mal-
lard. The head is bro\\n, with a white longitudinal line on each side extending down
the neck; the back and sides marked with waving lines of black and grayish--\\hit<-; the
lower parts white; the elongated central tail-feathers black. It is a na'tive of all the
northern parts of the world, migrating southward in winter, and a regular visitant of
aiany parts of the British coasts. It also frequents fresh-water lakes and ponds, raid is
common in winter in the valley of the Mi.-si.vsippi. Itswintei range extends southward
to the Mediterranean and the gulf of Mexico, and even to Africa and the West Indian
islands. Its flight is very rapid and noiseless. It is very much esteemed for the table.
It has been tamed, and has bred in confinement.
PIXTARD, JOTIN, LL.D.. 1759-1844; b. N. Y.; graduated at the college of New
Jersey in 1776; studied but did not practice law; was a volunteer in the revolutionary
war, and for three years a clerk to his uncle Lewis Pintard, commissioner for American
prisoners in New "iork; editi d The Daily Advertiser; afterward engaged in commerce;
was for many years city inspector. He was the founder of the New York historical
society; vice-president of the American bible society, and an active member of several
other societies. He Avas distinguished as a philanthropist, and also as a local antiquary
in New York. He wrote articles for several periodicals.
PINTOS, a name applied to the people inhabiting the valley of the Mcscala, in the
state of Guerrero, Mexico, l>ecause they are liable to a disease which is produced, as it is
thought, by some peculiar properties of the water of the Mescala, and resembles leprosy
— the name Pintos (Sp.) signifying spotted. The people being mostly of Indian descent,
the mistake has been made of supposing that the name Pintos applied lo them as a tribe.
PINTURIC'CHIO, BERNARDINO (BERNADINO BETTI), 1454-1513; b. Italy; supposed
to have been a pupil of Perugino. His first work was the decoration of the Belvedere
at the Vatican; the most celebrated were his ten frescos in the Sienna cathedral. On
these he is said to have had the assistance of Raphael. His "Discovery of the True
Cross" was painted for the chapel of the church of Ara Coeli. Alexander VI. employed
him in the decoration of the Vatican, 1473-96.
PINZON, FRANCISCO MARTIN, the youngest of three brothers, belonging to a
wealthy Spanish family, known as bold navigators, who sailed with Columbus on his
first voyage to America. Francisco acted as pilot to the Pinta, which was commanded
by his brother Martin. Charles V. honored the family by conferring upon them the
rank of hidalgoes. Admiral Pinzon, who, in 1863, was in command of the Spanish
fleet which took possession of the Chincha islands, Peru, is a descendant.
PINZON, MARTIN ALONSO, the head of an Andalusian family of the port of Palos
de Moguer. It was chiefly through the influence of the Pinzons that Columbus was
able to obtain crews for the vessels provided by the crown. Martin commanded the
Pinta. After the discovery of San Salvador, he deserted Columbus with the view of
obtaining fame by original discovery. He landed at the mouth of a river in Hispaniola,
long called by his name, but now known as Porto Caballo, and carried off some of the
natives; but was compelled to return them by Columbus, whom he encountered at sea.
Pinnule,
Piozzi.
Pinzon was parted from his commander by a storm on the return voyage, and reached
Bayonne. Believing that the admiral had'hecn shipwrecked, he sent a full account of
the discoveries to Ferdinand and Isabella, claiming more than his share of the credit.
He arrived at Pinto on the: same day as t'olumbus. was badly received by the court, and
died the same year, 1493, it is said from mortitication and dtjection.
PINZON, VICENTE YANEZ, b. Spain; commander of the Nifla on the first voyage of
Columbus. Under the general license granted by Ferdinand and Isabella to go on
voyages of discovery, he sailed from Palos, in 1499, with four vessels. Sailing some TOO
leagues, he crossed the equinoctial line, and, Jan. 28, 1500, discovered cape St. Augustine.
He 'landed, and formally took possession of the territory m the name of Spain; but, on
account, of the hostility of tlie natives, he set sail to the n.w., passed the mouths of the
Amazon and Orinoco, and arrived at Ilispaniola in June. Two of his ships foundered
in a storm, and he finally reached Palos. having spent his entire fortune iu the enter-
prise. In 1501 he obtained the royal consent to settle and rule the territory which he
had discovered, from a point n. of the Amazon to cape St. Augustine. He never, how-
ever, returned to that country, though he took part in expeditions which were sent out
in 1503 and 1508, to discover (lie passage which Columbus imagined between the Atlantic
and a s. ocean. He was the first European who crossed the equator in the western
ocean, and the first to discover Brazil.
PIOMBI NO, a principality now incorporated i'i the kingdom of Italy, lies along the
Italian coast opposite the island of Elba, the greater part of which belonged to it. Its
extent was about 132 English sq. m. ; and its population, previous to its incorporation
with the rest of Italy, about 2.1000. Piombino was originally a fief of the empire, and,
at the end of the 14th c., came into the possession of the family of Appiani, which,
after ruling it for nearly 300 years, made way for a new dynasty, the family of Buon-
compug-'.i. This latter dynasty was mostly under the suzerainty of the neighboring
states "of Sardinia and Naples alternately. In 1801, the Buoncompagni family were
expelled by Napoleon, and the principality given to his sister Elisa, the wife of Felice,
prince B ciocchi; but the latter was ejected, and the old dynasty restored, by the con-
gress of Vienna; the principality being then put under the suzerainty of Tuscany, whose
grand duke indemnified the Buoneompagni for their loss of sovereignty. It is now part
of the province of Pisa, in the kingdom of Italy. The strait between Piombiuo and
Elba is called the "channel of Piombino."
PIOMBO, FRA SEBASTIANO DEL, 1485-1547; b. Venice; educated for the musbal
profes.^ion, in which he attained great excellence in his youth; afterwards studied t'le
rudiments of painting with Bellini; then became a pupil of Giorgkme. For many years
he painted after the designs of Michael Angelo, thus enhancing his reputation. His
principal works are his "Pieta," in the church of the Conventuale at Viterbo; the
"Transfiguration," and "Flagellation/1 in San Pietro in Montorio; and his "Raising of
Lazarus," which is considered his masterpiece. Receiving from pope Clement VII. the
ofh'c •" of keeper of the papal signet, he assumed the monk's habit, and the title of Fra,
or Frate del Piombo.
PIONEER, a militar\' laborer employed to form roads, dig trenches, and make bridges
as an army advances, and to preserve cleanliness in the camp when it halts. Formerly,
the pioneers were ordinary laborers of the country in which the army was, impressed for
military purposes; but now such persons are only brcught in as auxiliaries, a few men
being attached to every corps as a permanent body of pioneers. In the British army one
man is selected, for his intelligence, from every company. These pioneers march at the
head of the regiment, and the senior among them commands as corporal. Instead of a
musket each man carries a saw-backed sword, which is at once tool and weapon. Each
bears also an axe and two gun-spikes, other necessary tools being distributed among
them. There is something rather conflicting between the functions of the pioneers and
those of the engineer force.
PIOTRKOW, a division of Russian Poland, adjoining Prussian Silesia. Warsaw,
Kalisz, Kielce, and Radom; drained by the Warta and Pilica; 4,730 sq.m.; pop. '72.
696,007. The surface is level, though somewhat hilly in the s., and the soil fertile.
PIOTRKOW, since 1867 the capital of one of the 10 governments into which Poland
was then divided, is near the Warsaw and Vienna railway. It is one of the oldest Polish
towns; here, in the 15th and 16th centuries, diets were held, and kings elected. In 1703
Piotrkow was burnt by the Swedes; in 1709 the Russians gained a battle here. Pop.
'67, 13,633.
FIOZZI, MRS. (n«e HESTER LYNCH SALUSBURY), who cannot be forgotten while the
great Dr. Samuel Johnson continues to be remembered, was the daughter of John Salus-
bury, esq., of Bodvel, in Caernarvonshire, where she was born in the year 1739. Early
introduced into the fashionable world of London, she charmed by her beauty and
her lively manners; and, in 1763, was married to Mr. Henry Thrale, a rich brewer
with a recognized position in society, and, at the time, one of the members for
the borough of Southwark. Her acquaintance with Dr. Johnson, which speedily
became an intimacy of the closest and most affectionate kind, began shortly after. Of
all Johnson's many friendships this was perhaps, in certain essential respects, the most
pip.
IMporlne.
valuable to him To Johnson, widowed and alono, and subject, as he had been through-
out, to excesses of a frightful gloomy hypochrondria, which made life at times to him an
almost intolerable burden, the society of Mrs. Thralc, and of the circle which she
gathered round her, was a source of incalculable solace. Mrs. Thrale in particular, with
her warm heart, and bright Womanly intelligence, was always a comforting presence;
and her unfailing cheerfulness and vivacity enlivened for him many an otherwise cloudy
hour. Her married life, though prosperous, was not an eminently nappy one, Mr. Henry
Thrale, though always a plea>ant and kindly gentleman, being no miracle of conjugal
virtue. If Johnson owed her much, it may be surmised that the benefit was in M>me
sort reciprocal, and that, by her affectionate reverence and solicitude for her sage, she a
little consoled herself for the gentlemanly indifference of her husband. On the death,
in 1781, of her husband, Mrs. Thrale retired with her four daughters to Bath, where, in
1784, she married Mr. Gabriel Pio/./.i, an Italian teacher of music. This mesalliance — as
it was held — was deeply censured by all her friends, and so unreasonably excited the ire
of Dr. Johnson in particular, that a rupture of friendly relations was the result. In the
correspondence between them on the subject, it must be admitted the lady has much the
better of the philosopher, whose tone of unmannerly rudeness gives some countenance
to the good-natured suspicion of his friends, that he had an eye to the widow himself.
Though the feud was ostensibly healed, the friends never again met; Mrs. Pio/./.i leaving
England for Italy with hur husband, and Dr. Johnson dying soon after. Some little
time subsequent to his death she published an octavo volume, entitled Anecdote* of Dr.
Samuel Johnson during the last Twenty Years of his Life, in which it seemed to the
indignant Boswell and others, that her main intention was to take her little feminine
revenge on the deceased for his outrage in the matter of Piozzi. This work she supple-
mented in 1788 by a collection of Letters to and from Dr. Samuel Johnson, in 2 vols. 8vo.
Of works more properly her own may be mentioned Observations and Reflections made
in the Course of a Journey through France, Italy, and Germany (2 vols. 8vo, 1189); British-
Synonymy, or an Attempt at regulating the Choice of Words in Familiar Con '-fruition (2
vols. 8vo, 1794); and Retrospection, or a Review of the most striking and important Er<-nts.
Characters, Situations, and their Consequences, which the laxt Eighteen Hundred YKHX Jmre
S resented to the View of Mankind (2 vols. 4to, 1801) — books long since utterly forgotten,
'ever they were at all read and remembered. Having survived her second husband,
her own celebrity, and almost in some sort that of the great Dr. Johnson, with whom
her name remains indissolubly connected, Mrs. Piozzi died at Clifton, near Bristol, oil
May 2, 1821.
PIP, CHIP, or ROUP, a disease of poultry, often very fatal, particularly to chickens
and turkey poults. It is very frequent also in young pheasants. Adult birds are, how-
ever liable to it; and when it appears in a poultry-yard it often attacks many in rapid
succession, so that it is regarded as highly contagious. It most frequently occurs in wet
or very cold weather, and is generally described as a kind of catarrh, although perhaps
it might more accurately be called a kind of influenza. It begins with a slight hoarse-
ness and catching in the breath, which is followed by an offensive discharge from the
nostrils and eyes, rattling in the throat, and an accumulation of mucus in the mouth,
forming a " scale" on the tongue. The communication of the disease from one lard to
another is supposed to take place through the contamination of the water in their com-
mon drinking-vessel, and therefore a bird affected with it should at once be removed
from the rest. Castor-oil is freely administered by some poultry-keepers. Mrs. Blair,
in The Henwife, recommends a table-spoonful, but without saying whether this do-e is
for a full grown fowl or a young chicken. She recommends also a medicine composed
of half a dram of dried sulphate of iron, and one dram of capsicum, made into 30 pills
with extract of licorice, one pill to be given three times a day. Thi? after a certai.i time
is to be followed by another compound, of sulphate of iron, cayenne pepper, and butter.
The eyes, nostrils, and mouth are to be washed with vinegar. In a work on poultry
published in 1867 (The Practical Poultry-keeper, by L. Wright, London), it is especially
recommended that the diseased birds should be kept warm: they are to be fed on oat-
meal mixed with ale, and to get plenty of green food. In other respects, except as to
the castor-oil, the treatment recommended nearly agrees with Mrs. Blair's ; but the
removal of the "scale" from the tongue is not regarded as necessary, because it will dis-
appear of itself on the cure of the disease. — It is proper to mention that there is consider-
able confusion of nomenclature as to the disease of fowls, and that, by some writers, the
mere symptomatic affection of the tongue is called pip, and the disease itself roup. The
terms, however, are generally used in the same sense.
PIPA, a genus of batrachians, in general form resembling frogs and toads, nnd char-
acterized by the very broad and triangular head, the sides of which are destitute of the
glands (pnrotmds) so large in the true toads; the eyes small, and situated near the margin
of the lower jaw; the ear concealed beneath the skin; the tongue merely rudimentary;
the jaws destitute of teeth; the fore-feet not webbed, but divided into four finuers, each
of which divides at the extremity into four small points, these again being minutely
divided in a similar manner; the hind-feet five-toed nnd completely webbed; the larynx
of the male extremely large — a triangular bony box, within which are two small movable
bones for occasionally closing the entrance of the bronchi; the back of the female fur-
mpip.
Piperlne.
rushed with numerous cells or pouches, in which the eggs are hatched, and the young
undergo all their transformations till they have attained a form similar to that of their
parents. These characters are so remarkable as to make the creatures of this genus
objects of peculiar interest; but particularly the mode of rearing the young. It was at
first supposed that the young were produced in some unusual way in the cells from
which they were seen finally to emerge; but this is not the case. The eggs are deposited
by the female in the ordinary manner, and are carefully placed by the male in the cells
of her back, which close over them. When the young are ready to use their limbs they
struggle out of the cells, to which they never afterwards return. The best-known species
of pipa is that commonly called the Surinam toad (P. surinamensiii), a native of Guiana
and other warm parts of continental America, where it inhabits swamps and ditches,
and is occasionally found in damp and dirty corners of houses. It is sometimes 7 in.
long; its color is brownish-olive above, whitish below; the skin covered with small hard
granules, mingled with occasional horny tubercles. The whole aspect of the creature is
peculiarly hideous.
PIPE, a measure of quantity commonly employed in Portugal, Spain, France, and ill
some other countries which trade with these. It is used almost exclusively for wine and
oil, and has a particular value for almost each locality. The pipe is called in England a
butt, and is equal to two hogsheads, or half a tun. The pipe of Oporto is larger than
those of Lisbon and of Spain in the proportion of 93 to 76. There are three different
measures of this name in France; and there was formerly a pipe, a measure of capacity
for dry goods, in use by the Bretons. But the pipe in England varies with the descrip-
tion of wine it contains: a pipe of port contains 114 imperial gallons; of sherry, 108
imperial gallons; and of madeira, 92 imperial gallons; while the" common English" pipe
contains 126 wine gallons, or 105 imperial gallons nearly.
PIPE-CLAY is a fine clay (q.v.), free from iron and other impurities, having a grayish-
white color, a greasy feel, and an earthy fracture. It adheres strongly to the tongue,
and is very plastic, tenacious, and infusible. It is used for the manufacture of tobacco-
pipes and white pottery. The localities where it is chiefly obtained are Devonshire, and
the Trough of Poole in Dorsetshire. It is also found in various places in France, Bel-
gium, and Germany.
PIPE-FISH, Syngnathus, a genus of osseous fishes of the order lophobranchii (q.v.), and
of the family tyngnatkidcs. In this family the form is elongated, there is little flesh, and
the body is almost covered with partially ossified plates; the head is long; the jaws are
elongated so as to form a tubular snout — whence the name pipe-fish and syngnathus (Gr.
syn, together, and gnathos, a jaw); and the males have pouches, variously situated, in
which they receive the eggs of their mate, and carry them till they are hatched. The
family syngnaihida is sometimes restricted to those in which the egg-pouch of the males
is on the tail, and is open throughout its whole length, and the tail is not prehensile. Thus
restricted, it contains a number of genera, of which one only, syiigitathvs, is British. —
One of the most common British species is the GREAT PIPE-FISH (syngnathus acus),
which is sometimes found in deep water, and sometimes at low tide among the sea-weed
in rock pools. The specimens commonly seen are from 1 ft. to 16 in. in length; but this
fish is said to attain a length of 2 or 3 feet. Its food, and that of the other species, is
believed to consist of small marine animals and the eggs of fishes; and it may be seen
slowly moving about, with curious contortions, poking its long snout into every crevice
in search of food, and sometimes assuming a vertical position wiih the head downward,
poking into or stirring the sand. This and the other pipe-fishes show great affection for
their young, which are believed to return, on the appearance of danger, to the pouch of
their male parent, after they have begun to leave it, and to swim about in the sea.
The name pipe-fish is sometimes also given to the fishes forming the family fistularidcB
(q.v), or flute-mouths, sometimes called pipe-mouths.
PIPERA'CEIE, a natural order of exogenous plants, natives almost exclusively of the
hottest part of the globe, oarticularly of Asia and America. None of them found in cold
regions. About 600 species are known, to most of which the name PEPPER is sometimes
given, although some are also known by other names, particularly those of which the fruit
is not used as a spice, but of which some part is employed for some other purpose, as
betel, cubebs, matico, and ava. See these heads. But pepper (q.v.) is the most important
product of the order. Of the pipcraceoe, a few are almost trees; but they are generally
shrubs or herbaceous plants, often climbing. They have jointed stems; opposite
whorled or alternate leaves, with or without stipules, and insignificant greenish flowers
in slender spikes, unisexual or hermaphrodite, the different kinds generally mingled in
the same spike; the flowers without calyx or corolla, but each with a bract, the stamens
2 to 6, the ovary with one cell and one ovule, and crowned with one or three stigmas;
the fruit somewhat succulent, containing one seed.
PIP'EKINE (G^H^NOe) is an alkaloid possessing very weak basic properties, which
is found in the pepper tribe. It may be obtained by heating powered pepper with
alcohol, which extracts the piperineand some resinous matter, which maybe removed by
digestion in a solution of potash. It occurs in colorless well-formed prisms, which are
insoluble in cold water, but dissolve readily in alcohol and ether. According to Miller,'
Pipes.
728
piperine " has . in acrid taste, resembling that of pepper;" while Gorup-Besancz asserts
that " it is devoid of odor or taste, and that, consequently, the well-known properties
of pepper are not dependent on it." On heating pipurine with soda-lime, a remarkable
oily base, piperidine (CioHnN), is obtained, with a pungent odor, resembling both that
of ammonia and pepper.
PIPES, or TUBES, are made of various materials and for various purposes. Thus,
we have draining-pipes for agricultural and sanitary purposes, made of earthenware,
woqd, and metal; pipes of various kinds of metals for a great variety of puipo.-<:s, and
tobacco-pipes (q. v.) of various materials. Formerly, wooden pipes were extensively used
for conveying water and for draining; but so great an improvement has been effected of
late years in the manufacture of metal and earthenware pipes that they have now
become exceedingly rare, and will soon disappear. For agricultural purposes, drain-tiles
are made of ordinary brick-clay; and owing to the use of machinery in their manufacture,
they are produced very rapidly and cheaply. They are of various si/.es, but the most
general is 15 in. in length by 2$ in. diameter. The operation of the drain-tile machine is
to squeeze a continuous length of soft plastic clay through a ring-shaped orifice, the cen-
ter of which is occupied by a core or mandrel of the d/.e of the hollow part of the pipe.
Another arrangement of the machine is to cut the pipe to the proper lengths as it passes
through, and by means of a traveling- table, to carry them forward to be removed to the
sheds, where they are dried, previous to being burned in the kilns.
Earthenware pipes are now made of almost every size, from an inch or two in
diameter up to the enormous size of 54 inches. They are usually made of fire clay, and.
are glazed like common pottery. See the article POTTERY. They are wider at one end,
BO as to form a socket to receive the end of another, and thus form a continuous tube.
These are greatly used for the drainage of houses, and for sewering, for which they
are admirably adapted: the inner surface being glazed as well as the outer, offers no
resistance to sedimentary matters, which are consequently carried away readily. These
pipes are of such great strength, that many small towns in England are now sewered
with them almost entirely. Another kind has been introduced for chimney flues. They
are also made of fire-clay, but unglazed externally, and so thick that there is little fear of
breaking. They are placed one on another, and are built into the walls of houses,
instead of the ordinary chimneys, and in this way save much labor in building, and
afford a much more effective, and easily cleaned flue. Caoutchouc vulcanized anil f/utfa
perc/ui are also extensively used for making pipes for a variety of purposes, their flexi-
bility rendering them very useful. Leathern pipes are used chiefly for the conveyance of
water temporarily, as in the case of fire-engines: they are generally called ho*n. .Metal
pipes are made of iron, lead, tin, or an alloy of tin and lead, copper, brass, etc. Iron
pipes are usually cast, and the manufacture of such pipes has become of enormous
extent, in consequence of the vast works, by which almost all large towns in this king-
dom am} in many foreign states are now supplied with water and gas, the pipes for which
are largely exported from Great Britain. A great proportion of the trade in cast-iron pipes
is carried on in Scotland. The water-works which supply the great towns of Lancashire
have nearly all been furnished with pipes from Scotland; and the magnitude of the sup-
ply can be best understood when it is known that for the Rivington pike works, which
supply Liverpool, upwards of 20 m. of iron pipes, nearly 4 ft. in diameter, are required.
It would be impossible to make a correct estimate, but it has been stated, with great reason
for belief, that in Great Britain the gas and water pipes laid and in use exceed half a
million of miles in length.
Pipes made from the ductile metals, such as brass, copper, and tin. are made Ly first
casting an ingot of the metal into the shape shown in fig. 1, with a hole throng!, its
length of the same diameter the bore of the pipe is intended to have. Into this is placed
an iron rod, called the mandrel (a, fig. 2), which exactly fits, and which projects slightly
at the tapered end (b, tig. 2). It is then brought to the drawing-table, and here the
email end with its projecting mandrel is put into a funnel-shaped hole, drilled through a
steel post (a, fig. 3), so as to allow the point to be griped on the other side by a pair of
pincers, at the end of a strong chain ;
the machine-power is then applied to
the other end of the chain, and the
soft metal and its mandrel are drawn
through, the former being extended
equally over the surface of the latter,
which is then removed, and the length
of pipe is complete. Some metals re-
quire repeated drawing through holes,
getting gradually smaller, and have to
be softened or annealed at intervals, as
the metal hardens under repeated
drawing. In this way, brass, copper,
tin, and pewter pipes are made; and
a patent has also been taken out for making steel ones; but lead pipes are made of great
lengths by squeezing the soft metal through a hole iu a steel plate in which there is a lixed
Pipes.
Tifptd,
core or mandrel projecting, which forms and regulates the size of the bore of the pipe.
Pipes are also made from copper, brass, and malleable iron by rolling out narrow strips
of metal, aud then passing them successively through rollers, which arc- deeply grooved,
and which turn up the edges. A mandrel is then laid in it, and it is next passed through
double-grooved rollers, which turn the edges in, and thus form a complete tube lound
the mandrel. The edges, however, require soldering or welding, if of iron. All boiler
tubes used to be made in this way; but the method of drawing has lately been so much
improved, that copper and brass pipes, or tubes, as they are frequently called, are now
drawn of considerate thickness and diameter.
PIPE-STICKS It is usual to call the wooden tubes used for some tobacco-pipes by
this name; and unimportant as it may at first sight appear what the tube is mane of,
there is great difference of taste in this respect; and great care is taken by some smokers to
get what they consider the choicest material. Perhaps the most prized are the agriot or
cherry pipe-sticks of Austria. These are the young stems of the mahaleb cherry (primus
maluileb), which is extensively grown for the purpose in the environs of Vienna. An
astonishing amount of care is bestowed on the cultivation of these shrubs, which are all
raised from seed. When the seedlings are two years old, they are each planted in a
small pot, aud as they continue to grow, every attempt at branching is stopped by remov-
ing the bud. As they increase in size from year to year, they are shifted to larger pota
or boxes, and great care is taken to turn them round almost daily, so that every part is
equally exposed to the sun. When they have attained a sutlicient height, they are
allowed to form a small bushy head, and continue to receive the same attention in daily
turning, etc., until they are thick enough in the stem. They are then taken up, and the
roots and branches removed, and the stem put by to season. Afterwards, they are bored
through and are ready for use. These pipe-slicks have an agreeable odor, and are
covered with a reddish-brown bark, which is retained. Sometimes they are 5 ft. in
length, and as smooth and straight as if turned. When of such a length, they command
high prices. In Hungary, pipe-sticks made from the stems of the mock orange (Plula-
delp/u/s coi'unarius) are much used; and t;:e jessamine sticks of Turkey are in great esteem
in all countries. Orange aud lemon trees and ebony are also used. The chief recom-
mendation of these materials seems to be in the power of the wood to absorb the oil pro-
duced in smoking tobacco, and consequently to render the smoke less acrid. See
TOBACCO- PIPES.
PIPESTONE, a co. in s.w. Minnesota, bordering on Dakota, drained by the Rock
river and by the Big Sioux and its tributaries; 3">0 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 2,092. The surface
is mostly rolling prairie. It is noted for its quarry of red stone, from which the Indians
made their pipes, and which was regarded by them as sacred. Co. seat, Pipcstone.
PIPI, the name given to the ripe pods of CcBMlpinin papai (see C^SALPINIA), which
are used in tanning, and are not unfrequently imported along with dividivi (q.v.), and
sometimes separately, but not to any considerable extent, being very inferior to dividivi.
They arc easily distinguished from the pods of dividivi, not being curved as they are,
but straight.
PIPING CBOW. See BARITAH.
PIPIT, TITLING, or TITLARK, Anthits, a genus of birds included by Linnoeus among
larks ((duuda); but now regarded as forming even a distinct family, anthidce, which is
ranked among the dentirontres, whilst the lark family (ahmdidce) is ranked among the
conirostrex. The bill is more slender than in larks; the tips of Hie mandibles slightly bent
downwards and notched. The hind-claw is long, although not so long as in larks, and more
or less curved. The plumage resembles that of larks; in habits and motion of the tail,
there is a greater resemblance to wagtails. The bill is not strong enough for feeding on
grain or hard seeds, and insects and worms are the principal food of pipits. The mos< com-
mon British species is the MEADOW PIPIT, COMMON TITLARK, or TITLING (.4. pratemis),
familiarly known in many parts of England and of Scotland as the moss-cheeper. It is
found in almost all parts of Europe, and the n. of Asia, in western India, in Japan,
and in Iceland. It is a small bird, its color brown of various shades. It frequents
heaths, mosses, and pastures; aud usually makes its nest on a grassy bank, or beside a
tuft of grass or heath. Its song is weak and plaintive, and it generally sings in the
air. It is' gregarious in winter. The cuckoo is said to deposit its eggs more frequently
in the nest of the meadow pipit than in that of any other British bird. — A rather
larger British species is the TREE PIPIT, or FIELD TITLING, which has a shorter claw,
and perches on trees, frequenting inclosed and wooded districts. It is a summer
visitant of Britan, and most common in the s. of England. It occurs in most parts of
Europe, in Asia, and the n. of Africa. — The rock pipit, or SEA TITLING (A. petrosus), is
to be found on the shores of all parts of Britain and Ireland. It is rather larger than
the tree pipit, and has a long curved hind -claw. It feeds chiefly on small marine
animals, seeking its food close to the edge of the retiring tide.
PIPPI. See GIULIO PIPPI, ante.
PIPPIN (so called probably because raised from the pip, or seed), a name given to
many varieties of apple, among which are some of the finest in cultivation, as the Golden,
Pippin, llibiston Pippin, etc. The ribston pippin was long supposed to be an originally
Pipsiscewa. *T'Z(\
l*i. sa. • ou
English variet}', produced at Ribston liall in Yorkshire, but it is proved to have been
Introduced liom Normandy in the beginning of the 18th century.
PIPfclSCEWA. See WIN'; KUUKKLN, ti/itc.
PIQUA. :i city in Miami co., Ohio; on the w. bank of the Miami river, on the Miami
and Er.e canal, and the Cincinnati, Hamilton and Dayton, and the Pittsburg, Cincin-
nati, and St. Louis railroads; £8 in. n. of Cincinnati, 73 m. w. of Columbus; pop '15
8,000. It is situated on a large 'plain, has broad streets lighted with ga.s, and has a fine
trade from the surrounding country, which is very fertile, the products of which are
mostly shipped from this point. The river is here spanned by three bridges: the place
is supplied with water-power by the river and canal, and contains various manufactories,
schools, churches, a town hall, and banks.
PIQTJET, a game of cards played between two persons with 32 cards— viz., the four
honors, and the highest four plain cards of each suit. The cards are shufik-d and cut as
in whist, and then dealt, two by two, lill each player has 12; and the remaining 8, called
the lafau, or stock, are thin laid on the table. The first player must thin discard from
one to five of his cards, replacing them with a similar number from the talon: and after
him, the younger hand may discard if he pleases, similarly making up his proper nun. her
from the remaining cards of the talon. The player who first scores 100 wins il.e gain-.
and ihe score is made up by reckoning in the following order— carte-blahche, the point.
the sequence, the quatoize, the cards, and the capot. Carte-balanche is a hand of 12
plain cards, and counts 10 for the player who possesses it. The point is the greater
number of cards in any suit, or, if the players are equal in this respect, that which is
highest in value (the ace counting eleven, each court-card 10, and the plain cards accord-
ing to the number of pips), and counts a number equal to the number of cards in the
suit. The sequence is a regular succession of three or more cards in one suit, and the
highest sequence (i.e., the one containing the greatest number of cards, or if the players
have sequences equal in tnis respect, the one of the two which begins with the highest
card), if of three cards, counts three; of four cards, four; of five cards, fifteen; of six
cards, sixteen, etc. The quato-rze is a set of four equal cards (not lower than tens), as
four aces, four queens, etc., and the highest quatorze counts 14 for its holder; but should
neither player have a quatorze, then the highest set of three is counted instead, but it
reckons only three. The possessor of the highest sequence or the highest quatorze al-so
counts all inferior sequences and quatorzes (including sets of three): while his oppouent'8
sequences and quatorzes go for nothing. The first player reckons his points, and plays
a card; the dealer then reckons his points, and follows his opponent's lead, and c;:nls arc-
laid and tricks are taken as in an ordinary card-game. Each player counts one for every
card lie leads, and the taker of the trick (if second player) counts one for it: the i oss< >sor
of the greater number of tricks counting 10 in addition (the " cards"); or if he takes all
the tricks, he counts 40 in addition {the il capot"). If one player counts 30 — i.e., £9 by
his various points, and 1 for the card he leads, before his adversary has cor.nt* d anything,
he at once doubles his score, reckoning 60 instead of 30 (this is called the " pique"); and
should his score reach thirty before he plays a card, or his adversary begins to count, he
mounts at once to 90 (the " re-pique").
PIQUE WORK, a veryfine kind of inlayingwith gold, silver, and other costly m.-iterials;
\i is, in fact, a kind of buhl-work (q.v.), carried out on a very minute scale. It is only
upplied to articles of small size, such as snuff-boxes, card-cases, and similar articles.
PTRANE'SI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA, 1720-78, b. Italy; studied architecture at Rome.
In 1741 he brought out a work on triumphal arches and other antique architectural
remains. The engravings in this work gave him a high reputation. He produced, in less
than 40 years, nearly 2.000 engravings. His most import ant works are Architcclvra
ffmnn-nn; Onnpns Ma-rtius; » collection of Ancient Siutiies and Must*; and Antiquities of
Ui'TC'ilaneAim and Pompeii. Piranesi drew his subject upon the plate itself, and com-
ftleted it by etching in aqua fortis.
PIRACY is robbery on the high seas, and is an offense against the law of nations. It
Is a crime not :'!_':iinst~any particular state, but against all mankind, and may be punished
in the competent, tribunal of any country where the offender may be found, or into
which he may be carried, although committed on board a foreign vessel on. the high
seas. It is of the essence of piracy that the pirate has no commission from a foreign
Rtate, or from one belligerent state at war with another. Pirates being the common
enemies of all mankind, and all nations having an equal interest in their apprehension
and punishment, they may be lawfully captured on the high seas by the anmd v< s>< Is
of any particular state, and brought with its territorial jurisdiction for trial in its tribu-
nals. The African slave-trade was not considered piracy by the law of nr.ticns, but the
muncipal laws of the United Kingdom and of the United States by statute declared it to
be so: and since the treaty of 1841 with Great Britain, it is also declared to be so by
Austria, Prussia, and Russia.
PIR.2E"u"S (Gr. Peira>ns), the principal harbor both of ancient and modern Athens
(q.v.). Only a few traces remain of the long walls which formerly united it and Muny-
chia with the capital city. The modern Piraus, which has sprung up since 1885. is a
regularly laid-out town, with some good houses and shops.aud a handsome stone exchange,
*TO-1 Pipsiscewa.
* ° Pisa.
built at the expense of themuncipality. It was in 1869 connected with Athens by a mil-
way, and it has several spinning factories of recent construction. The harbor, called
also Porto Leone or Drakoni, is both safe and deep; but the entrance is narrow. In 1871,
the number of vessels which entered the Pira'iis was 6,206, with a tonnage of 294,338
tons. Pop. '70, 11,047.
PIRANO, a sea-port of Austria, in the market-grafdom of Istria, stands onapeninsula
in the bay of Largone, 15 m. s.w. of Trieste. It contains an old castle, has a port and
several dock-yards, commodious roads, in which large vessels find safe anchorage, and
is the seat of considerable trade and commerce. Among its more important edifices are
an interesting Gothic church, a town-house, and a miuorite convent, with a number of
good pictures. \Yiue and oil are made in considerable quantities, and there are salt-
works in the neighborhood, which produce upward of 330,000 cwts. of salt annually.
Pop. 9,000.
PIRON, ALEXIS, 1689-1773; b. France; studied law at Besangon, but was unable to
support himself in that profession. Going to Paris in 1719, he became secretary to
Belle-Isle, the grandson of Fouquet. He soon began writing for the stage, and produced
comedies and tragedies. Few of the latter have much merit. His best work is his
comedy La Metro/inline, which appeared in 1738. He was chosen a member of the academy
in 17o3, but the royal sanction was refused on account of a licentious ode which he had.
written in his 20th" year. On this occasion Piron proposed this epitaph for himself:
Ci-git Piron, qni nefut rien,
Pas meme aciidemicien.
P1RAYA, or PIRAT, the name given in Guiana to zerrasalmo pmiya, and other species
of SKrraaalmo, a genus of fishes of the family cluiracinidce, regarded by man}' as a sec-
tion of salmonidfB (q.v.). The fishes of this genus, of which numerous species inhabit
the rivers and other fresh waters of tropical South America, have a compressed and
deep bod}', the belly keeled and serrated with a double row of hard serratures. They
are extremely voracious fishes, and not only consume with great rapidity dead carcases
thrown into the water, but attack living creatures very much larger than themselves,
biting off the fins of large fishes, and then devouring them at leisure, often mutilating
ducks and geese by depriving them of their feet, and venturing to attack even oxen and
human beings. Tiie latter, however, make reprisals on them, and find them very good
food. Serrasitlmo piruyci seldom exceed 10 or 12 in. in length, but some of the species
attain a considerably larger size. Some of them are very brilliantly colored. The Indi-
ans use the teeth for sharpening the arrows, made of the very hard' ribs of palm-leaves,
which they use for their blow-pipes, and which they sharpen to a very fine point by
drawing them across a piraya's jaw, an article with which the Indian of Guiana is
always provided1; nor does the edge of the the soon begin to be worn. Pirayas are read-
ily taken by a baited hook, and almost any kind of bait will do; tut they at once cut
through any line, and the line must therefore be cased above the hook in tin-plate. The
Indians often shoot them with arrows.
PIRMASENS, a t. of the Bavarian palatinate, and formerly the chief t. of the county
of Hanau-Lichtenberg, 22 m.w. of Landau. In 1875 it had 10,139 inhabitants; chief
manufactures, shoes and musical instruments.
PIRNA. a small t. of Saxony, stands on the left bank of the Elbe, 11 m. by railway
s.e. of Dresden. It is surmounted by a hill, crowned by a castle, now used as a lunatic
asylum, contains a beautiful parish church, and a number of important benevolent insti-
tutions. The manufacture of stoneware employs many hands. Pop. '75,10,581.
PISA, a province of Italy, bounded on the n. by the province of Lucca, on the e. by
that of Fircnze, on the s. by that of Siena, and on "the w. by the Mediterranean; drained
by the Aruo, Serdiio, Cecina, and Era; intersected bv railroads running to Leghorn,
Florence, and Lucca; 1177 sq.m. ; pop. '72, 265,959. The surface is varied, crossed in
the central and n. parts by branches of the Apennines, and swampy in some other
parts. The n. part is a wide plain, on which the city of Pisa is built. Corn, wine, fruits,
flax, silk, ai.d hemp are the chief products. Capital, Pisa.
PI SA, one of the oldest and most beautiful cities of Italy, capital of the province of
the same name, which formed part of the late grand duchy of Tuscany is situated on
the banks of the river Arno, which intersects the city and is spanned by three noble
bridgee. Pisa is siluated in 43° 43 n. lat.. and 11° 24' e*. long. The population was, in
1872, 50,341. It has broad, straight, well-paved streets, and several fine squares. Among
its 80 churches, the most worthy of notice is the cathedral, or Duomo, begun in 1068,
and completed in 1118, with its noble dome, supported by 74 pillars, and its fine paint-
ings, variegated marbles, and painted windows. Near the cathedral stands the round
marble belfry known as the leaning tower of Pisa, from the circumstance that it deviates
about 14 ft. from the perpendicular. This celebrated building, which is 180 ft. in height,
and consists of seven stories divided by rows of columns, and surmounted by a flat roof
and an open gallery commanding a splendid view of the surrounding country, was
erected in the 12th c. by the German architect Wilhelm of Innsbruck. The baptistery,
or church of St. John, opposite the cathedral, an almost equally remarkable structure,
Pisa. 7QO
Pisciculture.
was completed in 1162 by Diotisnlvi. The main building, which is circular, and raided
on several steps, supports a leaden-roofed dome, having a second dome above it, sur-
mounted by a statue, oi' St. John. The beautifully proportioned interior, noted lor its
wonderful echo, contains a pulpit, which ranks us the greatest masterpiece of Nicola
Pisano, various pieces of sculpture, and a large octagonal marble font. The Campo-
Santo, or ancient national cemetery, dates from the year 1228, when the Pisans en used
earth to be brought from Jerusalem for the graves of the most distinguished citizens of
th*! republic. In 12SJJ. the ground was surrounded by cloisters, the walls of which were
adorned by fresco-paintings, now nearly obliterated,' although some of these works of
art, which are chiefly by Giotto, Vencziano. Orcagni. and Mcmmi, still retain tiaees of
their original beauty. Among the other public buildings of Pisa, special notice is due
to the churches of La Madonna della Spina and San Stei'auo, both rich in pain i ing- and
sculptures, and the latter famous for its organ, the largest in Italy; the grand ducal and
Laufranchi palaces; the Torre della Fame, so tailed from its being supposed lo ha\e been
supposed the spot in which Ugoiiuo Gaerardesca and his children were starved to dc ah
in 1288; the university, founded in I3:j0. and restored by Cosmo 1. dc' -Medici, \\liicli
enjoyed a high reputation in the middle ages, and still possesses claims to consideration
in its library, botanical garden, observatory, and alliliaied schools and art collections,
etc. The population of Pisa, which, in the 13th c., amounted to 150,000, had fallen, in
the present c., to less than one-sixth of that number; but of late years, trade and indus-
trial arts have made a rapid advance, and the population has increased in proportion.
In the neighborhood of Pisa, at the foot of San Giuliano, lie the mineral baths, whose
fame was known lo Pliny, and which continued through the middle ages to attract suf-
ferers from every part of Italy. The waters, which are rich in carbonic acid and chloride
of sodium, are found efficacious in various arthritic and rheumatic affections.
Hixtury. — Ancient Pisa, like other Etruscan cities subject to Rome, retained its
municipal government, and enjoyed an almost unlimited freedom while nominally under
Roman protection; but. on the decline of the imperial power, it was compelled to sub-
mit in turn to the various transalpine nations who successively overran northern Italy.
Early in the llth c., Pisa had risen to the rank of a powerful republic, whose sway
included the then fertile district known as the Maremma di Lcrici, and which yielded
little more than nominal homage to its suzerain lords, the emperors of (ici'inany.
Throughout the llth c. Pisa was at the height of its prosperity, and to this period belong
most of the splendid monuments of art that still adorn the city. Ks troops took part in
in all the great events of the Holy Land; and its fleet in turn gave aid to the pope in
southern Italy, to the emperor in" northern France, chastised the Moors, and exacted its
own terms from the eastern emperors. In their wars with the Saracens of Sardinia, the
Pisa ns had conquered Sardinia, Corsica, and the Balearic islands, and for a time main-
tained their ground against their hereditary enemies, the Genoese; but having sided
with the Ghibellines in the long wars which desolated the empire, Pisa siiiVered
severely at the hands of the victorious Guelphic party. Indeed, the rivalry of the
Guelpliic cities of Florence. Lucca, and Sienna nearly brought Pisa to the i-rink of
ruin at the close of the 13th c. ; and after struggling for more than a hundred years
against external foes and the internal dissensions between the democratic mob and
the Ghibclline nobles, without losing their character for indomitable valor, the Pisans
finally threw themselves under the protection of Galeazzo, visconti of Milan. The
son of the latter sold the Pisan territory to their greatest enemies, the Florentines,
from whose tyrannical rule it was for a time relieved by Charles VIII. of France, who,
in 1494, accepted the protectorate of the city. When the French left Italy, the old
struggle was renewed; and after a desperate resistance, the Pisans, .in 1509. were com-
pelled by hunger to surrender to the Florentine army. The most influential families,
as formerly in 1406, emigrated. Pisa, with the rest of Tuscany, became part of the
kingdom of Italy in 1860. Since 1868 Pisa has given its name loan Italian province,
containing a population of, '71, 265,959. The city and suburbs contain 41,790.
PISA, COUNCIL OF, one of the councils commonly reputed by Roman Catholics as
ecumenical or general, although some, especially of the ultramontane (q.v.) school do
not look upon it as such. It was assembled in the time of the great -western schism,
for the purpose of restoring the peace of the church, and the unity which had been
interrupted by the rival claims of two competitors for the papacy. The history of
this rival claim will be found under the head SCHISM. WESTERN. For our present
purpose, it is enough to state that the adherents of both the claimants of the -
Rome — those of Gregory XII., as well as those of Benedict — agreed on the necessity
of a general council, as the only means of putting an end to the schism; and the rival
popes having themselves either evaded or declined the demand, the cardinals of both
united in issuing letters of convocation, and in summoning both the claimants to the
council so convened. Neither of them complied with the citation; but the council pro-
ceeded, nevertheless, to examine and deliberate upon the cause. It was opened at
Pisa, Mar. 25, 1409, there being present 22 cardinals, 4 patriarchs, 12 archbishops, 80
bishops, together with representatives of 12 archbishops and 102 bishops, and a vast body
of abbots, doctors in theology, and other eminent ecclesiastics. Of the proceedings, it
will be enough to say, that after a formal citation of the rival popes to appear within a
/7QQ Pisa.
' °° Pihf.icultnre.
stated period, the council, on the expiration of that period, proceeded to declare them
contumacious, and to examine their respective claims as though they had appeared.
The result, after a protracted inquiry, was a decree in the 13th session by which they
were both declared schismatics, and their conduct heretical, and calculated to lead the
people from the faith; wherefore, since they had violated the solemn engagements made
at their respective elections, they we/e deposed from the papal dignity, and their follow-
ers released from obedience. In the 17th session, the cardinals having tirst pledged
themselves by oath, each, that, if elected, lie would continue the sittings of the council,
entered into conclave to the number of 24, and unanimously elected Peter Philargi, one
of the cardinal priests, and a member of the Franciscan order, lie took the name of
Alexander V. The council proceeded after his election to pass a number of decrees,
for the purpose of giving validity to the acts done on either side during the schism.
A vain attempt was made to obtain the submission of the still recusant rivals, and it
was resolved that a new council should be held within three years. The authority of
this council, like that of the council of Constance, is alleged, on the C:dl:can side, as
establishing the superiority of a general council over the pope. But the ultrumontanes
reply that both these councils, and also that of Basel, mx st be regarded as abnormal
assemblies, called to meet the special emergency of a disputed succession and of a
doubtful pope, and that these principles cannot by any means be applied to the ordi-
nary circumstances of the church, or form a precedent by Avhich to estimate the normal
relations between a pope whose title is certain and undisputed, and a general council
regularly assembled at a time of peace, and in the ordinary circumstances of the church.
It cannot be doubted, nevertheless, that the spirit of the fathers of Pisa was the same
which ran through, the succeeding assemblies of Constance and Basel, and found its
permanent representation in the Gallicanism (see GALLIC AN CHURCH) of later cen-
turies
PISA'NO, ANDREA. See ANDHEA PISANO.
PISA'NO, GIOVANNI, 1240-1320; b. Italy; studied with his father Nicola. The
fountain near the Perugia cathedral, the church of Santa Maria della Spina, and the
Campo Santo at Pisa, and the Neapolitan Castel Nuovo, after which the Paris Bastille
was modeled, are his work. He was engaged on the design of the Campo Santo 1278-
83. lie imitated, or was associated with his father in some of his works. His finest
sculptures are the mausoleums which he built for some of the popes, and the shrine for
the high altar of the Arezzo cathedral. He is not to be confounded with Donatello's
pupil of the same name.
PISANO, NICOLA, 1200-78; studied the antique sculptures, and began the renaissance
in Italian statuary. His finest sculptures are the pulpit for the cathedral of Sienna, the
pulpit in the baptistery of Pisa, and the marble urn of St. Dominic at Bologna. In archi-
tecture he designed the Fran church at Venice, the Santa Trinita at Florence, the
basilica of St. Anthony at Padua, and the campanile for the church of San Nicola at
Pisa,
PISCATAQTJA, a river about 80 m. in length, which forms the southern part of the
boundary between Maine and New Hampshire, United States, and empties itself into
the Atlantic, forming at its mouth the excellent harbor of Portsmouth.
PISCATAQUIS, a co. in n e. Maine, intersected by the Bangor and Piscntnquis rail-
road, and drained by the Penobscot and Piscataquis rivers and their branches; 378sq.m. ;
pop. '80, 14,873. The northern portion is avast forest; the southern portion contains
fertile lands, and is extensively settled. The surface in generally hilly, and in some
parts mountainous, abounding in lakes, the largest of which are Moosehead and Chesun-
cook. Mount Katahdin, 5,835 ft. high, stands near the center of the county, and is the
highest point in the state. The principal products are grain, cattle, wool, cheese, and
butter. It contains 22 saw-mills, manufactories of carriages, leather, harness, and
woolen goods. Co. seat, Dover.
PISCICULTUKE, or FISH CULTURE, the breeding and rearing of fishes, in order to the
increase of the supply for food. Hitherto it has been almost entirely limited to fresh-
water fishes; nothing having been done as to sea-fishes but by legislation — chiefly in the
case of the herring— to prevent the destruction of the very young fish, and that
not, apparently, to much advantage. Ponds for sea-fishes have, indeed, been sometimes
constructed, advantage being taken of natural circumstances favorable for the purpose.
The ancient Romans had such ponds, and some have been made on different parts of the
British coast, fishes being caught in the open sea and placed in them to be fed and fat-
tened for the table. Such ponds, however, are of little real utility. That the Romans
succeeded in keeping sea fishes in fresh-water ponds, as has been asserted, must be
regarded as mere fable, or as an exaggeration, founded on the power which a few fishes
have of adapting themselves both to fresh and salt water. But it may be doubted if in
modern times sufficient advantage has been taken of this power.
Ponds for fresh-water fishes have been common from a very remote antiquity. It
appears from Isaiah, xix. 10, that they were used in ancient Egypt. In the times
of Roman luxury almost every wealthy 'citizen had fish-ponds. The Chinese have long
bestowed more attention on pisciculHire than any other nation, and with them it is truly
Pisciculture.
734
a branch of economy, tending to the increase- of the supply of food and of the national
•wealth; not merely, as it seems to have beea among the Romans, an a; pliance of the hix-
ury of the great. In some countries of modern Europe this branch of pisciculture
is also prosecuted to a very considerable extent, particularly in Germany and Swei.cn,
and of late years in France, in order to the supply of fish for the market. In Brituin it
has never been systematically prosecuted, or lor any important purpose; the country-
seats of the nobility and gentry being, indeed, generally provided with fish-ponds,
but in most cases rather as ornamental waters than for use. In the northern p;;r;s
of Britain trout, perch, and pike are almost the only fish kept in ponds; in Engi..:id i;;cy
are often stocked with carp and tench, and are turned to much belter account than in
Scotland. In Germany, ponds carefully attended to are found very productive ;:nd
remunerative. There can be no doubt that in Brituin, also, many a piece of land a'
ent very worthless, might easily be converted into a pond, and made to yield large quan-
tities of excellent fish; but such a thing seems almost never to be thought of.
In tli3 construction of ponds, or stews, for tish, it is recommended to have, if pos-ible,
a succession of three ponds on the same rivulet, with sluices, by which they can lie dried,
so that the tish may be easily taken when required, the different ponds being in part
intended for fish of different ages. But all this must be very much regulated by local
circumstances. It is of more importance to note that the margins sltoukl be shalio-
that there may be abundance of reeds and other water plants, and that only a small part
of the pond should be too deep tor the growth of pond-weeds (iioluiitoyc'vit). Much
depends upon the soil of the neighborhood as to the supply oi food, and consequently
the growth of fish and productiveness of the pond. A stony bottom is very advantageuiis
to perch and trout ponds; and in designing these, cave should be laken to provide places
of shelter for the fish, more especially if the pond be a shallow one, as trout and perch
are easily killed by the glare of the sunshine. Ponds for" pike must be larger than is
necessary tor any other fish known to British pisciculture; an extent of at least six acres
is desirable. A nursery for minnows may be established with great advantage in connec-
tion with a fish-pond, as they aiford most acceptable food to perch, pike, and trout. But
in a pond where carp and tench are expected to spawn, the presence of minnows is very
undesirable. It is often impossible to provide a pond with a place suitable for the
spawning of trout, for which a gravelly stream with a quick current is n;-< v<sary; b:it
for perch, pike, carp, or tench, the pond itself is sufficient, and the stock, once intro-
duced, is kept up without replenishing. Indeed, it is recommended that a pond stocked
with carp should also be stocked with pike, that the excessive multiplication of the carp
may he checked, which would otherwise prevent the fish from growing rapidly or to a
good size. Private ponds and stews in which country gentlemen hived fish forthe use of
their o\vn tables, as well as similar places attached to monasteries and oilier religious
edifices, in which fish were grown for fjist-day uses, were at one time common enough
throughout Great Britain and Ireland. It is probable that some of our r - were
introduced into this country during the old monastic times, such as tho Loclilevcu i
the ven dace, etc.
The greatest improvement in pisciculture, and a most important branch of it,
to which the term is often restricted, is the breeding of fish in artificial breeding places,
from which not only ponds, but rivers, may be stocked; or the art of f.
and hatching fish-eggs, and feeding and protecting the young animals till they are of an
age to secure their own food and protect themselves from their numerous enemies.
Modern pisciculture is the revival of an old art well known to the ancient Italians.
but which had fallen into abeyance for a number of centuries. The art of breeding and
fattening fish was practiced by the luxurious Romans, and many stories are told about
the fanciful flavors which were imparted to such pet fishes as were chosen for the nurnp-
tuous banquets of Lucullus, Sergius Grata, and others. The art had doubtless been 1» :•
rowed from the ingenious Chinese, who are understood to have practiced the art of col-
lecting fish-eggs and nursing young fish from a very early period. Fish fonns to the
Chinese a most important article of diet; and, from the extent of the water-territory of
China, and the quantities that can be cultivated, it is very cheap. The plan adopted for
procuring fish-eggs in China is to skim off the impregnated ova from the surface of the
great rivers at the spawn ing- season, which arc sold for the purpose of being hatched in
canals, paddy-fields, etc.; and all that is necessary to insure a large growth of fish is
simply to throw into the water a few yolks of eggs, by which means an incredible quan-
tity of the young fry is saved from destruction, as a large percentage of the young of all
fish die for want of food. Although all kinds of fish are enormously fecund, it is well
known to naturalists that only a small percentage of the eggs ever come to life, and of
the young tish, very few ever reach the table as food. So many of the eggs are destroyed
by various influences, and so many likewise escape impregnation, that if we ave to keep
up our fish supplies, pisciculture, or protected breeding, becomes absolutely necessary.
Commercial pisciculture, as at present carried on, owes its origin to the French, the
art having been first put iu practice by M. Rciny, a poor fisherman who gained a living
by catching fish in the streams of La Bresse m the Vosges. This re-discovery of the
lost art of fish breeding is understood to have been quite accidental on the part of Re my.
although it is thought by some zealous Scotsmen that the Frenchman must have heard
of the experiments of Mr. Shaw of Drumlanrig, who, for a few years previous to
735
Pisciculture.
Remy's discovery, had been trying to solve some problems in the natural history of the
salmon by means of the artificial system. The art had also been par;;al!y revived in
Germany about the middle of last century by a gentleman of the name of Jacob:, who
practiced the artificial breeding of trout. Whether or not Retny had heard of either of
these experimenters, it is certain that to him we owe the revival of the art in its larger or
commercial sense; the others only used it as an adjunct to their study of the natural
history of fishes.
It was the great waste of eggs incidental to the natural system of fish-breeding that
led Henry, about 1842, in conjunction with Geliin, a coadjutor whom he assumed as a,
partner, to try what lie could do in the way of repeo^liug the fish-sti earns of his native '
district. His plan being at once successful, attracted the favorable notice of many of
the French savans, and led to rewards and preferment for Remy; the new art was
besides taken under the protection of the government. At Huningue, in Alsace, on the
Rhine, a gigantic fish-nursery and egg-depot for the supply of eggs, and the dissemina-
tion of the art, was erected some years ago. Since the cession of Alsace to Germany,
the operations of the establishment at Huningue (now known as Hliningen) have been
conducted on a still larger scale by a German association.
The course of business at Huiiingue is as follows: The eggs are chiefly brought from
the streams of Switzerland and Germany, and embrace those of the common trout, as
well as the Rhine and Danube salmon, and the tender charr or ombre chevalier.
People are appointed to capture gravid fish of these various kinds, and having done so,
to communicate the fact to Huningue. An expert is at once sent to deprive these fishes
of their spawn, and bring it to the breeding or resting- boxes, where it is carefully tended
till it is ready to be dispatched to some district in want of it. It is, of course, much
more convenient to send the eggs than the young fish, as the former, nicely packed
among wet moss in little boxes, can be carried' to a distance with greater facility. The
mode of artificially spawning a salmon is as follows: It should, of course, be ascer-
tained that the spawn is in a perfectly matured state, and that being the case, the salmon
is held under water in a large tub, while the hand is gently passed along its abdomen,
when, if the ova be ripe, the eggs will flow out like so many peas. The eggs are theu
carefully washed, and the water is poured off. The male salmon ; ; then Dandled in a
similar way, when the contact of the milt immediately changes the eggs into a brilliant
pink color. After being again washed, they may be ladled out into the breeding-boxes,
and left to come to life in due season. The period occupied in hatching is different in
different climates. At Stormoutfield. where the eggs have no shelter, the usual period
is about 133 days; but salmon ova have been known to burst in about half that period,
and to yield very healthy fish. Great care is of course necessary in handling the ova.
The eggs manipulated at Huningue are all carefully examined on their arrival, when the
bad ones are thrown out, and those that are good arc counted and entered in a record.
The ova are watched with great care, and from day to day all that become addled are
removed. The applications for eggs, both from individuals and associations, are always
a great deal more numerous than can be supplied; and before second applications can be
entertained, it is necessary for the parties to give a detailed account of how their former
efforts succeeded. It may be interesting to note, as regards the cost of pisciculture
at Huningue, that the most expensive fish is the ombre chevalier. Of some species,
as many as 60 or 70 per cent of the eggs are lost. The general calculation, however, is
12 living fish for a penny.
The most sustained effort in British pisciculture has been in connection with the
salmon-fisheries of the river Tay. At Stormontfield, near Perth, a series of ponds lias
been constructed, and a range of breeding-boxes laid down capable of receiving 500,000
eggs. The operations at Stormontfield were begun in 1853, and are still continued. It
is calculated that by means of these ponds half a million of young salmon are annually
added to the stock of the river Tay, the rental derived from which is now over £18,000
per annum. At several other places in Scotland, the artificial system is being introduced
as an adjunct to the natural breeding resources of different rivers. The arf of piscicul-
ture was also introduced into Ireland, at the fisheries of Loughs Mask and Carra. by the
late Mr. Ashworth, who for a time obtained excellent practical results. These lo'Hts
contain an area of water equal to 35,000 acres: and. a communication with the sea having
been opened, they now teem with salmon. Several attempts have been made to intro-
duce British fishes into the rivers of Australia, which, in the case of trout, carp, tench,
and perch, have been quite successful; but in that of salmon greater difficulty has been
experienced, and the result of the extensive experiments that have been made are not
decisive. The fact that a salmon of 6 Ibs. weight has been caught in Sandy bay. Tas-
mania, in the beginning of 1878, is proof that salmon ova are capable of being hatched
in Australian waters after such a lengthened voyage.
Pisciculture is largely practiced in America, both by private persons and under the
auspices of a commissioner, Mr. Spencer F. Baird, who acts on behalf of the govern-
ment. Eggs are collected foi distribution in the seas and rivers of the United States in
enormous quantities, and are transported hither and thither to and from all parts of the
country. As one example of what has been lately accomplished, it may be stated on
the authority of a recent report to the house of representatives, that the number of eggs
of the Californian salmon collected during the season of 1875 at the United States pisci-
Piscina.
PisUUatus.
cultural establishment on the upper Sacramento, amounted to about 11,000,000, mnkins:
a bulk of eighty bushels, and weighing with their packing gear nearly ten tons. In the
years 1874 and 1875, a total of 2G,i37,b55 eggs of shad and various kinds of salmon were
distributed by the U.S. tish commission; anil altogether 40,000,000 of fish eggs were
handled by the fishery officers of the slates during the three years ending in 1875.
Nearer home, namely in France, great efforts have been made to increase the supply
of oysters by means of artificial cultivation. Oysters were culiivatcd in Italy during the
classic ages; but the art of cultivating them seems lo have been lost till it was accident-
ally re-discovered by an artisan of the He de Ke, who found out that the chief point in
artificial oyster-culture is to insure a supply of spat. The seed of the oyster is too often
carried away from the place of its birth by adverse winds acting on the waves, and thus
it sometimes falls on an unpropitious growing-place. The spat of the oyster must have
a "coign of vantage" to which to cling; if it tails on a muddy bottom if is lo>t forever.
On the foreshores of the He de lie, there are countless oyster-beds of the most simple
description, in which the spat is reared and tended during its period of growth. All
that is requited for a good bottom to an oyster-bed is a n cky surface, which, if not
found naturally, can be easily constructed by the laying down of stones and tiles.
Oyster-culture, in simple form, has been practiced at Whit stable, on the coa»t of Kent,
fora long period, ami the famous "native" oysters are fed on ground at that place.
Other experiments are in course of being made, and on some parts of the English coast
artificial pares have been laid out on thcFretuh plan, in which plentiful supplies of
oysters have been grown to maturity. The gnat difliculty in all experiments connected
with oyster-culture is to liud the requisite supply of spat liom which to rear the mature
animal.
Pisciculture is now being practiced to some extent in several countries of Europe, and
has IK en deemed of sufficient importance to demand the attention of governments. It
is probable ihat the attention turned to the whole subject of pisciculture, and the example
of the transportation of salmon to Austraiia, may had to the introduction of valuable
kinds of fishes into waters where they are now unknown. The grayling has thus already
been introduced into the Clyde and Tweed. There is no apparent reason why every
valuable fresh-water fish of Europe should not be plentiful in Britain.
PISCINA, the large basin (or pond) in the Roman thermae, containing tepid water, in
which the Bather might swim.
PIECiNA, a shallow stone basin with a drain (usually lending directly to the earth), in
Pon.au ( at holic churches, in which the prkst washes his hands, and for rinsing the
chalice at the celebration of the mass. In England, it is almost invariably placed on the
s. side of the choir, at a convenient height.
PISE, a kind of work used instead of brick, etc., for the walls of cottages. It con-
sists of loam or earth hard rammed into framing, which, when dry, forms a wall.
PISE, CHAKLES CONSTANTINE, D.n., 1802-66, b. Md. ; graduated at Georgetown
(D. C.) college, became a member of the society of Jesus, which he left two years later
on the death of his father, who was an Italian. He studied in Home, receiving'the degree
of D.D., and knighthood, and on his return taught rhetoric in the college of Emmelsburg.
In 18 5 he was ordained priest in the Roman Catholic church, and called to the cathedral
of Baltimore; afterwards he ministered at St. Patrick's, Washington, and was chaplain
of the senate; was assistant pastor of St. Peter's, New York; and in 1849 was appointed
to St. Charles Borromeo, Brooklyn, where he remained till his death. He published
Hi»toi-y of the Chvrch, 1827; Father Rowland, his finest work, 1829; Alctheia, or Letter* on
the Truth of the Catholic Doctrines, 1843; St. Ignatius and hi* First Companions, 1845; and
Christianity and the Church, 1850.
PISEK (Boh. PiKcek, sand), a small t. of Bohemia, on the right bank of the 'NVottawa,
an affluent of the Moldau, stands on a sandy plain (from which circumstance it probably
received its name) 55 m. s.s.w. of Prague. The town is old, and contains the remains
of a royal castle. Among other institutions are a school of arts and a high school. The
manufactures are woolen and cotton fabrics, iron wire, and musical instruments. Pop.
'69, 9,071.
P1SGAII, a range of the mountains of Abarim, of which mount Ncbo was the
highest; or, as some suppose, the top of mount Nebo itself, from which Moses In-held the
promised land, and where he died. It was in ,!he land of Moab, at the n.e. angle of the
Dead cec, near Jericho. The view obtained by Moses included "all the land of Gilead
unto Dan; all Naphtali; the land of Ephraim, and Manaeseh; all the land of Judah unto
the utmost sea; the s., and the plain of the valley of Jericho — the city of palm-trees — unto
Zoar." Tristam in Land of Israd beautifully describes the view which he and his party
had, during a clear day, from a spot at, or near, which Moses probably stood. The
elevation was about 4,500 ft., yet the ascent was not difficult.
PISID'IA. an ancient division of Asia Minor, bounded on the n. by Phrygia. on the
e. and n.e. by Cilicia and Isauria, on the s. by Pamphylia, and on the s.w.. and w. by
Lycia and Phrygia. It belongs to the modern Turkish vilayet of Konieh. It was drained
by the Catarrhactes, Cestus, and other streams emptying "into the gulf of Pamphylia.
The principal towns were Selge and Autiochia. The wines of Amblada were celebrated,
fro *7 Piscina.
Pisistratus.
and 'salt and olives were chief productions. It was made a separate province by Con-
stantine. Its inhabitants were mountaineers, and never submitted to the Romans.
PISIS'TRATUS (Gr. Peisistratus), a t'.-imous " tyrant" of Athens, belonged to a family
of Attica, which claimed descent from Pyliau Nestor, and was b. towards the close of
the 7th c. B.C. — certainly not later than 612 His father's name was Hippocrates, and
through his mother he was prettj- closely related to the great lawgiver, Solon, between
whom and Pisistratus a very intimate friendship long existed. He received an excellent
education; and the charm of his manners, as well as the generosity of his spirit was so
great that (according to Solon) had he not. been ambitious, he would have been the best
of Athenians: l»ut his passion for the exercise: of sovereign power led him to adopt a
policy of artifice and dissimulation, for the purpose of attaining his ends, which prevents
us from regarding him with the admiration that the beneficent character of his govern-
ment might seem to demand. At first, Pisistratus co-operated with his kinsman Solon,
and in the war against the Megariaus, acquired considerable military distinction ; but
afterwards, when probably his ambitious views had become more matured, he came for-
ward as the leader of one of the three parties into which Attica was then divided. These
were, the Pecluai (party of the plain), or the landed proprietors; the Parali (party of the sea-
board), or wealthy merchant classes; and the Diuc-rii (party of the Highlands), chiefly a
laboring population, jealous of the rich, and eager for equality of political privileges.
It was to the last of these that Pisistratus attached himself; but indeed he assiduously
cultivated the good-will of all the poorer citizens, to whom be showed himself a most
liberal benefactor. At last Pisistratus took a decided step. Driving into the market-
place of Athens one day, and exhibiting certain self-inflicted wounds, he called upon
the people to protect him against his and their enemies, alleging that he had been
attacked on account of his patriotism. Solon, who was present, accused him of hypoc-
risy; but the crowd were, according to Plutarch, reach' to take up arms for their favorite:
and a general assembly of the citizens being summoned, Ariston,. one of Pisistratus'"s
partisans, proposed to allow him a body-guard of fifty men. The measure was carried
iii spite of the strenuous opposition of Solon. Gradually Pisistratus increased the num-
ber, and in 560 B.C., when he felt himself strong enough, seized the Acropolis. The
citizens, in general, seem to have tacitly sanctioned this high-handed act. They were
sick of the anarchic broils of the different factions, and probably glad to see their cham-
pion and favorite usurp supreme authority. Megacles and the Alcmseonids — the heads
of the rich aristocratic party — immediately fled from the city. Solon, who loved
neither oligarchic arrogance nor military despotism, but was a thorough constitutionalist,
tried, but in vain, to rouse the Athenians against Pisistratus. Pisistratus, who was not
at all vindictive in his disposition, did not attempt to molest Solon; he even maintained
the legislation of the latter almost intact, and distinguished himself chiefly by the vigor
of his ad ministration. Pisistratus himself did not enjoy his first "tyranny" long. The
Pt'di'.ei and the Parali rallied under Lycurgus and Megacles, united their forces, and
overthrew the usurper, who was forced to go into exile. But the coalition of the two
factions was soon broken up. Megacles hereupon made overtures to Pisistratus, invit-
ing him to resume his tyranny, which he did; but a family quarrel with Megakles
induced the latter to again ally himself with Lycurgns, and Pisistratus was driven from
Attica. He retired to Euboea, where he remained for ten years, ever keeping an eye,
however, on Athens, and making preparations for a forcible return. How he managed
to acquire so much influence while only a banished man is difficult to ascertain; but
certain it is that many Greek cities, particularly Thebes and Argos, placed the greatest
confidence in him, and finally supplied him abundantly with money and troops. Pisis
tratus at length sailed from Eubcea, landed in Attica at Marathon, and marched on the
capital. His partisans hurried to swell his ranks. At Pallene he encountered his
opponents, and completely defeated them, but used his victory with admirable modera-
tion. When he entered the city no further resistance was made, and he resumed the sover-
eignty at once. The date of this event, as of most others in the life of Pisistratus, is
very uncertain; perhaps we shall not err far if we place it about 543 B.C. He lived for
sixteen years afterwards in undisturbed possession of power, dying 527 B.C., and trans-
mitting his supremacy to his sons, Hippias and Hipparchus, known as the Pisistratidce.
\\\* rule was mild and beneficent. Although the precautionary measures that he adopted
tit establish his authority involved at first a certain resolute and stringent policy (e.g., the
sei/ure of the children of his leading opponents, and the detaining them as hostages); yet
no sooner had he placed himself out of danger, than he began to display that wonderful
tact, moderation, kindliness, and sympathetic appreciation of the wishes of the Athenians,
that have won him the praise and esteem of all later ages, in spite of his usurpation,
lie firmly, but not harshly, enforced obedience to the laws of Solon ; emptied the city
of its poorest citizens, and made them agriculturists, supplying such as had no resources
with cattle and seed; secured provision for old and disabled soldiers; bestowed great
cave on the celebration of the religious festivals of the Atticans, and even introduced some
important changes; encouraged literature more than any Athenian had ever done before
— it is to Pisistratus, or to the poets, scholars, and priests about him, that we owe, for
example, the first complete edition of Homer (q.v.); and, like his still more brilliant suc-
cessor in the following century, Pericles, he adorned Athens with many beautiful build-
ings, such as the Lyceum, a temple to the Pythian Apollo, another to Olympian Zeus, eta
U. K. XI.-47
rishamin.
738
PISHAMIN. Sec DATE PLUM.
PI SOLITE (Gr. pea-stone), a concretionary limestone, differing from oolite in the
particles being as large as peas.
PISTA CIA, a genus of tieesof the natural order ana-cardiacece, having dioecious flowers
without petals, and a dry drupe with a bony stone. The PISTACIA, or PISTACHIO TREE
(P. rera), is a small tree of about 20 ft. high, a native of Persia and Syria, but now culti-
vated in all parts of the s. of Europe and n. of Africa, and in many places naturalized.
It has pinnate leaves, with about two pair of ovate leaflets, and an odd one; flowers
in racemes; fruit ovate, and about the size of an olive. The stone or rait splits into two
valves when ripe; the kernel, which is of a bright green color, is very oleaginous, of
a delicate flavor, and in its properties very much resembles the sweet almond. In the
s. of Europe and in the east, pistachio nuts are much esteemed; but as they very
readily become rancid, they are little exported to other countries. They are sometimes
(•ailed green almonds. Oil is expressed from them for culinary and other uses. In culti-
vation one male tree is allowed to live or six fertile ones. The tree produces flowers and
even fruit readily enough in the s. of England, but the summers are not warm
enough to ripen the fruit, and the tree is apt to be destroyed by a severe frost. — TIIK
MASTIC TREE, or LENTISK (P. lentiscus), yields the gum-resin called mastic (q.v.). It is
a native of the countries around the Mediterranean. — The TUKI-KNTINK TKKI-: (/'. (crebin-
thus) yields the turpentine (q.v.) known in commerce as Cyprus turpentine, Ckian turpen-
tine, or 8cio turpentine, which is of a consistency somewhat like that of honey, a greenish-
yellow color, an agreeable odor, and a mild taste, and in its properties resembles the
turpentine of the Coniferae. but is free from acridity. It is obtained by making incisions
in the trees, and placing stones for the turpentine to flow upon, from which it is scraped
in the morning, before it is liquified again by the heat of the sun. The tree is about 30
or 85 ft. in height, and has pinnate leaves, of about three pair of leaflets and an odd one;
the flowers in compound racemes, the fruit nearly globular. The kernel of the fruit is
oleaginous and pleasant. — The BATOUMTREE (P. Atlantica). a round-headed tree of about
40 ft. in height, a native of the n. of Africa, produces a fruit much used by the
Arabs; and a gum-resin of pleasant aromatic smell and agreeable taste, which exudes
from its stem and branches, is chewed to clean the teeth and impart a pleasant smell to
the breath. — The fragrant oil of the kernels of P. olcoza, a native of Cochin China, is
used by the people of that country to impart a perfume to ointments.
PIS TIL, in botany, the female organ of fructification in phanerogamous plants; that
part of the flower (q.v.) wkich, after flowering is over, is developed into tlie fruit. There
is sometimes one pistil in a
flower, sometimes more: in some
(lowers, which have numerous
pistils, they form a number of
whorls, one within another,
sometimes on an elevated recep-
tacle or elongated axis, or more
rarely, they are spirally arranged.
In every case the center of the
flower is occupied by the pistil
or pistils, if present. See FLOW-
ER. A pistil is either formed of
a single carpel (q.v.), as is the
case when there are numerous
pistils, or of several carpels com-
bined; and the number of car-
pels of which the pistil is formed
is often indicated by the num-
ber of the cells of the germen, or
by its lobes or angles. The pistil
usually consists of a germen
(q.v.) or ovary, in which the
ovules (q.v.) are contained, and
which is surmounted by a stiyma,
PISTILS: either immediately or throuirh
1. Section of flower of a species of primrose, showing the pis- !«« intervention of a style; but
i!) laid open; numerous ovules attached to a free central pla- in gymnogens (q.v.) tnere
eenta. -7, Section of flower of comfrey. with corolla removed, neither germen, style.norstisrma,
showing two of the four ovaries, and the style. 3. Pistil of the .••-•?• <• /•
barberry, consisting of several carpels combined ; the style very
short and thick, the stigma shield-like. 4. Section of the ovary
of a lily. 5, Section of flower of cherry, showing pistil of two
separate carpels, only one of which comes to perfection in fruit.
6. Pistil of pea. opened; a, ovule; b. placenta; /, umbilical
cord.— From Balfour's Class-Book of Botany.
the female organs of fructifica-
tion being mere naked ovules.
The germen is always the lowest
part of the pistil. The stigma
exhibits an endless variety of
is adapted to the
forms, and
reception and retention of the pollen grains requisite for fecundation, partly by the
roughness of its surface — which is of a somewhat lax cellular tissue, covered with pro-
>7QQ Pishamin.
Pisuiii.
jecting cells, often in the form of minute warts, and often elongated into hairs — nnd
partly by the secretion of a viscous fluid. The stigma, when not sessile — or seated
immediately on the germen — is supported by the style, which rises from the gcrmen,
and on the top of which the stigma is generally placed. The style is sometimes very
loug and slender, sometimes very short; the germen sometimes passes imperceptibly
into the style, and sometimes the style rises from it abruptly; and similar differences
appear in the relations of the style and stigma; the stigma, however, may be regarded
as always an expansion of the top of the style, although it is sometimes, but rarely, siti--
;.ted on one or both sides of the style, beneath its summit. In like manner, by peculiar
modifications taking place in the growth of the germen, the style sometimes seems to
rise from beneath its apex, or even from its base; but it always rises from what is.
structurally considered, the real apex of the germen. When several carpels are united
to form one germen, they are sometimes again separated in their styles, and more fre-
quently in their stigmas, so that one germen bears several styles, or the style divides at
some point above the germen, or one style is crowned by a number of stigmas. The
style is usually cylindrical; and wrhen this is not the case it is often owing to the com-
bination of several styles into one, although sometimes the style is flat and even petal-
like. It is traversed throughout its whole length by a canal; which, however, is in gen-
eral filled up by cells projecting from its sides, and often also by very slender tubes
extending in (lie direction of its length; the function of the canal, to which in someway
or other the inclosed slender tubes are subservient, being to bring about the connection
between the pollen and the ovules for fecundation (q.v.). The length of the style is
adapted to the ready fecundation of the ovules, being such that the pollen may most
easily reach the stigma; and in erect flowers the styles are usually shorter than the
stamens; in drooping flowers they are longer than the stamens. After flowering is over,
when fecundation has taken place, the foramen of the ovules closes, the germen enlarges
and ripens into the fruit, whilst each ovule is developed into a seed. The style and stigma
meanwhile either fall off. or remain and dry up, or they increase in size, and are changed
into various kinds of appendages of the fruit, as feathery awns, beaks, etc.
PISTILLID'IUM, in botany, a term which, along with antlteridium (q.v.), must be
regarded as provisional, and as expressive of an opinion, probable, but not yet ascer-
tained to be true. The evidence in favor of it, however, seems continually to increase,
and its great probability is more and more generally acknowledged. The pistillidium is
an organ of eryptogarnous plants, supposed to perform functions in fructification analo-
gous to those of the pistil in phanerogamous plants. It consists of a germen-like body —
the sporangium, them, or «pore-case — hollow, and containing spores (q.v.), by which the
species is 'propagated. These spore-cases are very various in their forms, and in the
situations which they occupy in different orders and genera; being sometimes immersed
in the substance of the plant, sometimes distinct from it, sometimes sessile, sometimes
stalked, etc. See the articles on the different eryptogarnous orders.
PISTO'JA (anc. Pistonum). a manufacturing t. of Italy, in the province of Florence,
"and '21 m. by railway n.w. of the city of that name, stands on a gentle rising ground at
,the foot of the Apennines. It is well built; its streets are thoroughly Tuscan, and it is
'surrounded by lofty and well-preserved walls. The chief buildings are the cathedral,
'built at various times, and containing a number of good pictures; several old and inter-
esting palaces, and a number of churches, some of which are of importance in the history
of mediseval architecture and sculpture. The principal manufactures are iron and steel
wares, and paper. Pop. '72, 12,966.
PISTOL is the smallest description of fire-arm, and is intended to be used with one
hand only. Pistols vary in size from the delicate saloon-pistol, often not six in. long,
to the horse-pistol, which may measure eighteen in., and sometimes even two feet.
They are carried in holsters at the saddle-bow, in the belt, or in the pocket. Every cav-
alry soldier should have pistols, for a fire-arm is often of great service for personal
defense, and almost indispensable in giving an alarm or signal. Sailors, when boarding
an enemy's ship, carry each two in thsir waist-belts. As early as the reign of Henry VIII.
the English cavalry carried clumsy pistols called "dags." The latest improvement on
the pistol is the revolver (q.v.).
PISTO'LE, the name formerly given to certain gold coins current in Spain, Italy, and
several parts of Germany. The pistole was first used in Spain, and was originally
equivalent to about 11 old French livres, but till 1728 it was merely an irregular piece
of gold. From this time till 1772 its value was 17s. Id. sterling. But it was after this date
ijecr eased till it reached the value of 80 reals, or 16s. 2d. sterling. The Italian pistoles
were also gold coins, and varied considerably in value; that of Rome = 13s. 9d.; of
Venice — 16s. 2£d. ; of Florence and Parma = 16s. 10|d. ; and the old coin of Piedmont =
ill, 2s. 7|d., or 24 old liras. Gold coins of this name used to be current in Hesse-Cassel,
Switzerland, Brunswick, and Hamburg, but were in most cases merely convenient mul-
tiples of the ordinary thaler and gulden. Of late years, and especially since the intro-
duction of new systems of coinage in Spain and Italy, and of a uniform system in the
German empire, the name pistole is scarcely ever used.
PI'STJM. See PEA.
Pit. /74.Q
Pitcher.
PIT, in gardening, is an excavation in the ground, intended to be covered by a frame
(q.v.), and to afford protection to tender plants in winter, or for the forcing of vegetables,
fruits, etc. Pits are often walled on all sides, although, in many cottage gardens, excellent
use is made of pits which are mere excavations. The walls are often raised above the
ground, particularly the back wall, the more readily to give slope to the glazed frame.
A pit in which no artificial heat is supplied is called a <-<>'d />it; but when forcing is
intended, tiued pits are often used. Artificial heat is sometimes also given by nu'ans of
fermenting matter. The ventilation of pits, as much as the weather will permit, is of the
greatest importance.
PITA-HEMP, one of the names of the agave or aloe fiber. See AGAVE.
PIT'AKA (literally "basket") is, with the Buddhists, a term denoting a division of
their sacred literature, and occurs especially in combination with tri," three;" tripit'aka,
meaning the three great divisions of their canonical works, the -cinaya (discipline), abhid-
hurma (metaphysics), and sutm (aphorisms in prose), and collect! vely, therefore, the
whole Buddhistic code. The term "basket" was applied to these divisions, because the
palm-leaves on which these works were written were kept in baskets, which thus became
a part of the professional utensils of a bhikshu, or religious mendicant.
PITAVAL, FRAMJOIS GAYOT DE, 1673-1743; b. France; entered the army, but after-
ward studied jurisprudence, and became an advocate at Paris. His chief work is tin-
compilation called Causes Celebres et Inter essaates (20 vols., 1734-43).
PITCAIRN, Jonx, d. 1775; b. Scotland; the only British officer who was accounted
fair in his dealings with the people of Boston in their altercations with the British
soldiers. He was commissioned capt. of marines, 1765; major, 1771. He was promi-
nent in the battle of Lexington, conducting the expedition to that town, April 19, 1775,
and commenced the attack on the militia collected there; but he denied that he ordered
the first shot to be fired. He was shot at the battle of Bunker Hill when about to enter
the redoubt. His son David, a distinguished physician in London, died 1809.
PITCAIRN ISLAND, a solitary island in the Pacific ocean, lying at the south-eastern
earner of the great Polynesian archipelago, in lat. 25° 3' 6" s., and long. 1303 6' west.
Its length (2£ m.) is about twice its breadth, and the total content is approximately
1£ sq. m. ; so that, except from its being the only station (with the exception of the Gam-
bier islands) between the South American coast and Otaheite at which fresh water can
be procured, it would be too insignificant to deserve notice, were it not for the manner
in which it was colonized. The island is wholly surrounded by rocks; it has no harbor,
and its soil is not very fertile. It was occupied in 1790 by the mutineers of the !>•
(see BLIGH, WILLIAM), who after touching at Toobouai sailed for Tahiti, where they
remained for some time. Christian, the leader of the mutineers, however, fearing pur-
suit, hastened their departure; and after leaving a number of their comrades who pre-
ferred to stay on the island, they brought off with them 18 natives and sailed eastward,
reaching Pitcairn island, where they took up their residence and burned the B»>ntf>,.
They numbered then 9 British sailors— for 16 of the sailors had prewired to remain at
Tahiti, and of these 14 were subsequently captured, and (Sept., 1792) three of them
executed — and 6 Tahitian men, with 12 women. It was impossible for concord to sub-
sist in a band of such desperate character; and in the course of the next ten years all the
Tahitian men, all the sailors, with the exception of Alexander Smith (who subsequently
changed his name to John Adams), and several of the svomen, had died by violence or
disease. From the time of their leaving Tahiti nothing had been heard of them, and
. their fate was only known when au American, capt. Folger, touched at Pitcairn island
iu 1808, and on his return reported his discovery to the British government; but no
appear to have been taken by the latter. On Sept. 17, 1814, a British vessel, the Britain,
called at the island and found old Adams stili alive, commanding the respect and admira-
tion of the whole little colony by his exemplary conduct and fatherly care of them.
Solitude had wrought a powerful change in Adams; and his endeavors to instill into the
young minds of his old companions' descendants a correct sense of religion had been
crowned with complete success, for a more virtuous, amiable, and religious community
than these islanders had never been seen. They were visited by British vessels in 1825
and 1830, and the reports transmitted concerning them were fully corroborative of the
previous accounts; but in 1831 their numbers (87) had become too great for the island,
and at their own request they were transported to Tahiti in the Lucy Ann by the British
government. But, disgusted at the immorality of their Tahitian friends and relatives.
they chartered a vessel, defraying the cost of it in great part with the copper bolts of the
Bounty, and most of them returned to Pitcairn island at the end of nine months. In
1839, being visited by capt. Elliot of H.M.S. Fiy, they besought to be taken under the
protection of Britain, on account of the annoyances to which they had been subjected
by the lawless crews of some whale-ships which had called at the island; and, accord-
ingly, capt. Elliot took possession of it in the name of her majesty, gave them a union
jack, and recognized their self-elected magistrate as the responsible governor. He also
drew up for them a code of laws, some of which are amusing from the subjects of which
they treat, but the code was of great use to the simple islanders. From this time they
were frequently visited by European ships; and in 1855, finding their numbers again too
Pitcher.
great for the island, they petitioned government to grant them the much more product-
ive Norfolk island, to which they were accordingly removed in 1856. In 1859, however,
two families, numbering in all 17, returned to Pitcairn island, reducing the number on
[Norfolk island to 202, and others have since followed. From their frequent intercourse
YI ita Europeans, the Pitcairn islanders have, while still retaining their virtuous sim-
plicity of character and cheerful, hospitable disposition, acquired the manners and polish
of c .vilized life, with its education and taste. They are passionately fond of music and
itaucing. the latter evidently a legacy from their maternal ancestry. The men are
< ugaged in whaling and herding cattle, or in cultivating their gardens and plantations;
while the women (who seem to be the more industrious class) attend to their families,
maunge the dairies, and take an occasional part in field-labor.
Pitcairn island was first discovered by Carteret in 1767, and was named by him after
one of hi» officers; but it was never visited by Europeans till taken possession of by the
mutineers. When admiral de Horsey visited Pitcairn island in 1877, there were in all
10 men, 19 women, 25 boys, and 30 girls on the island. See the account published by
him in 1878.
PITCH. The common kind of pitch is the black residue which remains after distill-
ing wood-tar. See TAR. It is made extensively in Russia, Norway, and North
America. It is a most useful material for protecting wood from the action of water,
hence it is used for calking the seams and coating the outsides of ships and boats; it is
also applied to the inside of water-casks, and many similar uses. A variety of pitch
is now obtained from the distillation of coal-tar, and another from bone-tar; the latter is
said to be nearly equal in value to that from wood, but coal-pitch wants the toughness
which is one of the more valuable qualities of wood-pitch. It is, however, much used
in making artificial asphalt for building and paving purposes, and for the black varnish
used for coating iron-work to keep it from rusting. Pitch is solid at the ordinary tem-
perature of our climate, but softens and melts with a small accession of heat.
PITCH, the degree of acuteness of musical sounds. A musical sound is produced by
a series of vibrations recurring on the ear at precisely equal interval'?; the greater the
number of vibrations in a given time, the more acute or higher is the pitch. In stringed
instruments the pitch is dependent on the length, the thickness, and the degree of tension
of the strings; the shorter and thinner a string is, and the greater its tension, the higher
is the pitch of the note. In wind instruments, where the notes are produced by the
vibration of a column of air, as in the mouth-pipes of an organ, the pitch is dependent
on the length of the column set in motion; the shorter the column of air, the higher the
pitch becomes.
The pitch of musical instruments is adjusted by means of a tuning-fork, consisting
of two- prongs springing out of a handle, so adjusted as to length that when struck a
particular note is produced, that note being C FjjmEirElE in Britain, and A
in Germany. It is obviously important to have a recognized standard of pitch by which
instruments and voices are to be regulated; but there is. unfortunately, not the uniform-
ity that might be desired in the pitch in actual use. For a long time prior to 1859 con-
cert-pitch had been gradually rising, to the detriment of the voices of public singers.
The C tuning-fork, in use in 1699, made 489 vibrations per second, while in 1859 the
number of vibrations had increased to 538. Mr. Hullah, in 1842, in the numerous classes
instituted by him under the sanction of the committee of council on education, found it
necessary to secure a uniform standard of pilch, and adopted 512, which has an especial
convenience as being a power of 2. The French imperial government, in 1858, fixed on
532. In 1859 a committee of the society of arts was appointed to Consider the subject
of a uniform musical pitch. Their deliberations lasted 12 months. Sir John Herschel,
in a letter to the committee, strongly recommended the number 512. It was agreed on
all hands that the then existing opera-pitch of 546 was too high and painful to the singera
of soprano music. The instrumental performers stated that they could lower the pitch
to 528, but if they had to lower it to 512 some of them would have to purchase new
instruments; and, in consequence apparently of their representation, the committee
reported in favor of 528.
PITCH, BURGUNDY. See BURGUNDY PITCH.
PITCHBLENDE, a mineral which is essentially oxide of uranium (q.v.), with slight
mixtures of other substances. Its color is grayish-black or brownish-black. It is infu-
siMe before the blow-pipe, without the addition of borax, with which it fuses into a dull
yellow glass.
PITCHER, THOMAS G., b. Ind., 1824; graduated at West Point, and was appointed
to the infantry in 1845. He served through the Mexican war, and was promoted capt.
in 1858. He was made brig. gen. of volunteers in 18G2, and was afterwards assistant
provost-marshal-gen. He was appointed col. of the 44th infantry in 1866, and was super-
intendent of West Point, 1866-73.
PITCHEE PLANT. See NEPENTHES.
Pitchstone.
Pitt.
PITCHSTONE, a name sometimes given to a variety of common opal (q.v.), brown,
black, gray, red, or of mixed colors; the luster more resinous than in opal, and the frac-
ture less perfectly conchoidal. It occurs in several localities in the British islands, in
Saxony, etc. — The same name is given to another mineral (Ger. pechstein), a variety of
felspar (q.v.), occurring as a rock in dikes which traverse strata or in overlying ma.-W- ;
compact, slaty, or in concentric slaty concretions. It exhibits great variety of color,
aud has a somewhat resinous appearance. It often contains numerous imbedded cry-
tals of felspar, aud is then called P. porphyry.
PITCHURIM BEANS, or SASSAFRAS NUTS, an occasional article of importation from
South America, are the seed-lobes of neetandra puchury, a tree of the same genus with
the greenheart (q.v.), growing on the banks of the Rio Negro and elsewhere in the rich
alluvial parts of the basin of the Amazon. They are about 1| iu. long, and half an inch
broad. They are much in request among chocolate manufacturers for flavoring choco-
late, as a substitute for vanilla. They are sometimes called wild nutmegs, because of a
resemblance to nutmeg in flavor. The name sassafras nuts is also due to the flavor,
which approaches that of sassafras bark; and the tree belongs to the same natural order
with the sassafras tree.
PITEA, or NORTH BOTHNIA. See NORRBOTTEN.
PITH, Medulla, the light cellular substance which occupies the center of the stem
and branches in exogenous plants (q.v.). In the earliest stage of a young stem or branch,
it is entirely composed of pith and bark, by which alone, therefore, young buds are
nourished; the vascular bundles or woody fiber appearing afterwards, and, in trees and
shrubs, generally increasing, so as to constitute the greater part of the substance of the
stem and branches, whilst the pith is ultimately reduced to a very small column in the
center. The pith, however, exists even in the most mature woody stem, aud maintains its
connection with the bark by means of medullary rays, analogous in their character to the
pith itself, and which exist even in the most compact wood, although much compn-»< d
by the woody layers, and in a transverse section appearing as mere lines. The medul-
lary rays convey to the central parts of the stem the secretions of the bark necessary for
their nourishment. Pith is in general entirely composed of cellular tissue; vessels occur-
ring in it only in a few plants. Its cells diminish in size from the center towards the
circumference. In a few plants it exhibits cavities which have a regular arrangement;
in many herbaceous plants of rank growth large irregular cavities occur in it. The pith
is immediately surrounded by a thin vascular layer called the medullary sheath, consist-
ing chiefly of spiral vessels, which continue to exercise their functions during the life of
the plant.
PITHECIA. See SAKI.
PITHECUS. See ORANG.
PITKIN, TIMOTHY, LL.D., 1766-1847, b. Conn.; educated at Yale college, and
admitted to the bar. He was for 5 years speaker of the lower house of the state legisla-
ture, and a member of congress 1806-20. Rewrote A Statistical View of the Commerce of
tJie United States (1816); and Politicaland Civil History of the United States from 1763 to the
Close of Washington's Administration, 2 vols. 1828.
PITMAN, ISAAC, b. England, 1813; educated at the Normal college of the British
and foreign school society of London;- in 1832 began to teach school at Barton-on-Hum-
ber, and was afterwards master of several other schools. He was the inventor of the
system of phonetic writing, or short-hand. His first work on the subject was printed in
1837, Stenographic Sound-hand. He has since devoted himself entirely to teaching his
system, publishing many manuals and treatises, acting as editor of the Phonetic Journal,
a weekly paper, and printing in short-hand character a number of books, including the
Bible. For many years he has been greatly interested in the subject of a reform in Eng-
lish spelling, and has issued a number of pamphlets advocating radical measures. For
a; description of his system see SHORT-HAND. The phonetic society was organized by
Pitman in 1843.
PITON PARK. See CARIBBEE BARK.
PITRA, JEAN BAPTISTE, b. France, 1812, educated at Autun, entered the priest-
hood, and after teaching rhetoric at the Autun seminary became a monk in the Benedic-
tine abbey of Solesme. There he studied ecclesiastical antiquities, and wrote a ///.*/«/ //
of St. Leger, Bishop of Autun, 1846; and Sjncilegium Soksmense, 5 vols., 1852-60, a col-
lection of hitherto unpublished documents in regard to church history. To collect tlic
materials for this work, he visited all the principal European libraries. In 1858 Pius
IX. called him to Rome, and directed him to study the ancient and modern canons of the
oriental churches. The fruits of this study are found in his Juris Ecdesiastici Orceconnn
Historic et Monumenta. He was appointed a member of the sacred college of the propa-
ganda in 1862, and the next year was created cardinal priest with the title of S. Tom-
maso in Parione. He is now (1881) librarian of the holy Roman church.
PITRI' (a Sanskrit word literally meaning father = Latin-pater, in the plural pitara*,
but in English translations from the Sanskrit usually Anglicized to pitris), a name which,
in a general sense, means the deceased ancestors of a man, but in the special sense in
Pitchstone.
Pitt.
which it occurs in Hindu mythology, denotes an order of divine beings inhabiting celes-
tial regions of their own, and receiving into their society the spirits of those mortals for
whom the funeral rites (see SRADDHA) have been duly performed. They include, there-
fore, collectively the names of the deceased ancestors; but the principal members of this
order are beings of a different nature and origin. According to Manu, they were the
sons of Matichi, Atri Angiras, and the other rishis or saints produced by Manu, the son
of Brahma; and from them issued the gods, demons, and men. According to several
Puranas (q.v.), however, the first pitris were the sons of the gods; and to reconcile this
discrepancy, a legend relates that the gods having offended Brahma" by neglecting to
worship him, were cursed by him to become fools; but, upon their repentance, he
directed them to apply to their sons for instruction. Being taught accordingly the rites
of expiation and penance by their sons, they addressed the latter as fathers, whence the
sons of the gods were the first pitris (fathers). See Wilson's Vishnu-Purdna. Manu
enumerates various classes of pitris, in defining those who were the ancestors of the gods,
those who were the ancestors of the demons, and those from whom proceeded the four
castes severally; but he adds, at the same time, that these are merely the principal
classes, as their sons and grandsons indefinitely must likewise be considered as pitris.
The Puranas divide them generally into seven classes, three of which are without form,
or composed of intellectual, not elementary substance, and assuming what forms they
please, while the four other classes are corporeal. In the enumeration, however, of
these classes the Pura"nas differ. The pitris reside in a world of their own, called Pitri-
loka, which is sometimes supposed to be the moon; according to the Puranas, it is below
the paradise of Indra, and is also the abode of the souls of devout Brahmans. The time
at which the pitris are to be worshiped, the libations which they are to receive, the
benefit which they derive from them, and the boons which they confer on the wor-
shiper, are all minutely described in the Puranas. See SRADDHA. A song of the
pitris, as given by the Vishnu-Purdna, may convey an idea of the importance attributed
to this worship, and of the manner in which the Brahmans turn it to their profit. It
runs as follows: "That enlightened individual who begrudges not his wealth, but pre-
sents us with cakes, shall be born in a distinguished family. Prosperous and affluent
shall that man ever be who, in honor of us, gives to the Brahmans, if he is wealthy,
jewels, clothes, lands, conveyances, wealth, or any valuable presents; or who, with
faith and humility, entertains them with food, according to his means, at proper seasons.
If he cannot afford to give them dressed food, he must, in proportion to his ability, pre-
sent them with unboiled grain, or such gifts, however tritiing, as he can bestow. Should
he be utterly unable even to do this, he must give to some eminent Brahman, bowing at
the same time before him, sesamum seeds adhering to the tips of his fingers, and sprin-
kle water to us, from the palms of his hands, upon the ground; or he must gather, as
he may, fodder for a day, and give it to a cow; by which he will, if firm in faith, yield
us satisfaction. If nothing of this kind is practicable, he must go to a forest, and lift
up his arms to the sun and other regents of the spheres, and say aloud, ' I have no
money, nor property, nor grain, nor anything whatever fit for an ancestral offering;
bowing therefore to my ancestors, I hope the progenitors will be satisfied with these
arms tossed up in the air in devotion.' " See Wilson's Vishnu-Purdna.
PITT, a co. in e. North Carolina, drained by the Tar river, Grindle creek, and the
Neuse river; 700 sq.m. ; pop. '70, 17,276. The surface is level, and well wooded, and
the soil fertile. The principal productions are corn, potatoes, and cotton. Co. seat,
Greenville.
PITT, WILLIAM, the second son of the earl of Chatham and of lady Hester Grenvil'e,
daughter of the countess Temple, was born on May 28, 1759. His genius and ambition
displayed themselves with an almost unexampled precocity. " The fineness of William's
mind," his mother writes of him, when he was but twelve years old, " makes him enjoy
with the greatest pleasure what would be above the reach of any other creature of his
small age." Owing to the excessive delicacy of his constitution, it was found impos-
sible to educate him at a public school. His studies were, however, prosecuted at home
with vigor and success. In 1773 he was sent to the university of Cambridge, where his
knowledge of the classics seems to have astonished veteran critics. To modern literature
he appears to have been utterly indifferent — he knew no continental language except
French, and that very imperfectly. Among English poets, he liked Milton best; the
debate in pandemonium being his favorite passage. In 1780 Pitt was called to the bar.
He took chambers in Lincoln's Inn, and joined the western circuit. A general election
having taken place in the autumn of the same year, he stood for the university of Cam-
bridge; but he was at the bottom of the poll. Through the influence, however, of the
duke of Rutland, he obtained a seat in parliament as member for Appleby, Lord North
was now prime-minister. The opposition consisted of two parties; one being led by
Rockingham and Fox, the other by lord Shelburne. The latter consisted chiefly of the
old followers of Chatham; and to this party Pitt naturally became attached. On Feb.
26, 1781, he made his first speech in parliament. It was in favor of Burke's plan of eco-
nomical reform, and was a splendid success. " It is not a chip of the old block," said
Burke, " it is the old block himself." Shortly before the meeting of parliament, in the
autumn of 1781, the news arrived of the surrender of Cornwallis and his army. In the
Pitt. 741
1'ittsburg.
debate on the address, Pitt spoke with even more energy and brilliancy than on any
former occasion. No one was so loud in eulogy us Henry Dundas, lord advocate of
Scotland; and from this night dates a connection between him and Pitt, which wa> only
broken by death. After several defeats, the ministry resigned, and Korkingham wa's
called on to construct a cabinet. Pitt was offered the vice-treasurership of Ireland : but
he declined to accept a position which did not confer a seat in the cabinet. On May ?,
1782, he made his first motion for a reform in the representation of the people; v.hirh
motion was lost by only 20 votes in a house of more than i)00 members. The reformers
never again had so good a division till 1831. At the end of three months after his acces-
sion to office, Kockingham died; lord Shelburue succeeded to the head of the treasury;
and Pitt, at the age of 23, became chancellor of the exchequer. In opposition to the
government, there was then formed a coalition emphatically known as " the coali-
tion." On lord Shelburne's resignation in 1783, the king himself, who hated the coali-
tion, tried to persuade Pitt to take the helm of affairs; but he resolutely declined. The
duke of Portland succeeded, with Fox and North as secretaries of state. Pitt from the
opposition benches, brought for a second time the question of parliamentary reform
before the house. His motion was lost by 293 votes to 149. On the prorogation, he
visited the continent for the first and last time. In 1783, the ministry having
defeated on a motion for transferring the government of India to parliament, Pitt became
first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer. But parliament was dead
against him: between Dec. 17, 1783, and March 8, 1784, he was beaten in sixteen divisions.
The nation, however, was in his favor; both on account of his policy, and from admira-
tion of his private character. Pecuniary disinterestedness is what all can comprehend;
and even when known to be overwhelmed with debt, when millions were passing
through his hands, when the greatest men in the land were soliciting him for honors, no
one ever dared to accuse him of touching unlawful gain. At the general election iu
1784, 160 supporters of the coalition lost their seats, Pitt himself heading the poll for the
university of Cambridge. He was now, at 25 jears old, the most powerful subject that
England had seen for many generations. He ruled absolutely over the cabinet, and wa> at
once the favorite of the sovereign, of the parliament, and of the nation; and from this
date, the life of Pitt becomes the history of England and of the world. For seventeen
eventful years he held his great position without a break. In 1784 he established a new
constitution for the East India company. In 1786 he carried through a commercial treaty
with France on liberal principles. In the same year he established a new sinking fund;
a scheme which experience has shown to be wrong in principle, though it was long
viewed with favor by the nation. To exertions which were now begun for the abolition
of the slave trade, he gave the help of his eloquence and power. In 1788-89 he main-
tained against Fox the right of parliament to supply the temporary defect of royal
authority occasioned by the incapacity of the king. The year 1793 saw the beginning
of the great war with France. Authorities differ as to the cause. It is, however, cer-
tain that Pitt's military administration was eminently unsuccessful. But no disaster
could daunt his spirit. When a new French victory, a rebellion in Ireland, a mutiny in
the fleet, and a panic in the city had spread dismay through the nation, Pitt from his
place in parliament poured forth the language of inextinguishable hope and inflexible
resolution. Disaster abroad was regularly followed by triumph at home, until at last he
had no longer an opposition to cncounte . In 1799 he effected the union with Ireland.
It was part of his scheme to relieve the Roman Catholic laity from civil disabilities, and
to grant a public maintenance to their clergy; but the obstinacy of the king frustrated
this design. Chagrined by this failure, Pitt resigned office in 1801. He was succeeded
by Mr. Addington, to whom for a while he gave his support. In 1804 he returned again
to the head of the treasury, which position he continued to hold till his death on Jan. 23,
1806. This event was doubtless hastened by the stupendous success of Napoleon. The
peculiar look which he wore during the last ten days of his life was pathetically termed
by Wilberforce "the Austerlitz look." The impeachment also of his friend lord Mel-
ville is supposed greatly to have hastened his end. It gave him, he said in parliament,
a deep pang. His voice quivered as he uttered the word ; and it seemed as if the man of
iron were about to shed tears. " He was," says Macaulay, "a minister of great talents;
honest intentions, and liberal opinions, .... but unequal to surprising and terrible
emergencies, and liable in such emergencies to err grievously, both on the side of weak-
ness and on the side of violence." But what man ever lived, we may ask, who, placed
in such circumstances as Pitt, would not often have greatly erred? , His policy was liberal
beyond his age, at least he wished it to be so, although he was often obliged to yield to
the prejudices of his sovereign. He resigned office because lie could not carry Catholic
emancipation. He laid before the king unanswerable reasons for abolishing the test act.
He was more deeply imbued with the doctrines of free-trade than either Fox or Grey. It
cannot indeed be denied that he was addicted to port-wine, and that he died ever whelmed
with debts; parliament voting £40,000 to his creditors. High as his character stands, it
would have stood even higher had he united the virtue of frugality to that of disinter-
estedness. See Life of Pitt, by lord Stanhope (Lond. 1861); also lord Macaul:'y's /'
phies (Edin. 1860). In the former work, vol. ii., p. 185, will be found a valuabk criticism
on Macaulay 's memoir.
PITT, WILLIAM, Earl of Chatham. See CHATHAM, EARL OF, ante
Pitt-
Pittsburg.
PITTA, Vicillot's name for a genus of remarkable birds placed by Mr. Swainson
among the ant-thrushes, or myiotherince. Cuvier united the brews of Buffon and the
typical ant-thrushes. The breves are remarkable for their livid plumage, their long legs,
and their very short tail. They are found in the Malay islands, while the ant-thrushes
belong to America as well as to the old world. The genus pitta is of remarkable beauty;
they have the gradually curved bill of the true thrushes, but much stronger. P. ffifftu,
or giant pitta, is about the size of a magpie, with a short square tail, which is cota-
pKady covered by the wings. The back, rump, and tops of the wings are of a brill-
iant azure blue; the quills are black, with azure towards the tips; top of head and collar
buck; front aud side of head, breast, and belly ashy brown; throat, whitish; feet very
long, and of a horny, ashy color. Total length from beak to end of tail, 9 inches.
Inhabits Sumatra. A sub-genus, chlorisoma (green-bodied), is clothed principally in a
brilliant celadon-green, with velvety black bands springing from the angle of the bill,
passing behind the eye and across the back of the head; tail, deep green; wings, red-
dish; but the three or four secondary feathers nearest the body are of an opaline bluish-
ash color; iris, bill, and feet are colored a very bright vermilion. The males and
females have a close resemblance. The young, however, have black feet, rusty-red
wings, with all the rest of the plumage a light clear blue. This light blue, as the bird
grows older, becomes darker blue, andf then passes into a celadon-green. These birds
are natives of Java and Sumatra. The sub-genus grallaria is a native of South America,
especially Brazil and Guiana. It is the king-thrush (grallaria rex), and is brown on the
back, inclining to red on the sides; lighter beneath; back of head, lead-color; forehead
varied with black and white; thighs short, tibia long.
PIT'TACTJS, one of the "seven wise men" of ancient Greece, was b. at Mitylene, in
the island of Lesbos, about the middle of the 7th c. B.C. The incidents of his life do
not perhaps rest on a very secure historical basis, but he is by no means to be regarded
as a merely traditionary personage. We may feel quite certain that his career and char-
acter were substantially what later history represents them. About 612 B.C., in conjunc-
tion with the brothers of Alcseus the poet, he overthrew the " tyrant" Melanchrus, and
put him to death. He next figures in the contest between the Lesbians and the Athe-
nians for the possession of Sigeum in the Troad, and displayed as much valor on the
battle field as Alcaeus did cowardice. His townsmen, the Aiitylenseans, were so pleased
with his deeds of prowess that they gave him a portion of the city territory, which he
dedicated to sacred uses, and which was known long after as the "Pittaceian laud."
Meanwhile the civic struggles did not cease; the democratic party, however, roughly
represented by a series of "popular " tyrants," were in the ascendant, and the oligarchic
aristocrats, at the head of whom was Alcseus, were finally banished. Pittacus was sub-
sequently chosen dictator, 589 B.C., to prevent the turbulent exiles from returning to
Mitylene, and ruled absolutely with great success for ten years, after which he volunta-
rily resigned his power, and withdrew into honored retirement. He died in 569 B.C.
Many of the anecdotes preserved by tradition concerning Pittacus are probably apocry-
phal; but they all attribute to him the same characteristics — great moral sagacity, a con-
tempt of outward pomp, and a plain practical understanding. His favorite maxim,
Cfndthi kaif&n ("Know the fitting moment"), may be recommended to all statesmen and
politicians. To Pittacus is also ascribed the saying which has so often been verified in
actual history, Cliakpbn estldbn emmenai (" It is a misfortune to be eminent"). Of his
600 didactic verses, only four are extant, and these prove that he was strongly impressed
with the falsehood and insincerity of men. See Schneidewin's Delectus Poesin Grcecwum
Elegiafte, etc. (Gott. 1839).
PITTOSPORA CEJE, a natural order of exogenous plants, allied to vitacea (the vine,
etc.), and containing nearly 100 known species of trees and shrubs, chiefly Australian,
although a few are natives of different parts of Asia, Africa, and the islands of the Paci-
fic. To this order belongs the genus billardiera (q.v.). The genus sollya also deserves
notice, as containing some of our most beautiful green-house climbers.
PITTSBUBGr, a city of Pennsylvania, at the confluence of the Alleghany and
Monongahela rivers, at the head of the Ohio, lat. 40° 26' 34" n., long. 80° 2' 38"
west. It is situated among some of the richest deposits of bituminous coal
and iron in America, supplying, in 1874, coal to the amount of 135,215,250 bushels.
The city possesses 60 iron-foundries, 42 iron and steel works, nearly 600 furnaces, exten-
sive machine-shops, and manufactures of steam-boilers, engines, nails, etc. The annual
value of the iron manufactures is about $30,000,000. There are also copper-smelting
and rolling mills, 6 cotton-mills, oil-refining works, white-lead and glass words. The
numerous foundries and factories fill the atmosphere with smoke, and have given Pitts-
burg the name of the Birmingham of America. It is connected by steamboats with the
whole Mississippi valley, and by railways and canals with Philadelphia and Cleveland.
Among its public buildings are a fine court-house, the largest Roman Catholic cathedral
in the country, 141 churches, railway, aqueduct, and other bridges, U. S. arsenal,
schools and colleges, western state penitentiary, etc. .Nine railways center at this bus-
tling city. It occupies the site of fort Pitt, and the older French fort Duquesne, in an
expedition against which the British gen. Braddock was defeated in 1755 by an allied
force of French and Indians. It was taken, on a third attempt, by gen. Forbes in 1758.
Pittsburg;.
Piuii.
The city was chartered in 1816; in 1845 it was nearly destroyed by fire. Pop. '40, 21,115;
'60, 49,220; '70, 86,076. The annexation of adjacent boroughs and townships raised the
population to about 140,000 in 1875.
PITTSBURG (ante) is the second city in population and importance in Penn-
sylvania aud the county seat of Alleghuny county. Its history dates from about 1754,
when a portion of its present limits was taken by the English, and a stockade was built
at the junction of the Ohio and Monongahela rivers. Alter three or four severe struggles
with the French and Indians, permanent occupation was established, and about 17."iy the
place began to be an important trading post. A new fort was built and called fort Pitt
in honor of William Pitt, then at the head of the British ministry, from which eventu-
ally the town derived the name Pittsburg. The site of the original town was surveyed
in 1773, or the following year, by members of the Penn family, aud the lower part of the
city still retains the streets and general conformation given it by them. In 1816, when
the town became a city, the limits were confined to a peninsula of level ground between
the two rivers; but these limits have gradually been extended until they now embrace
territory far over the adjoining hills and seven miles up both rivers. The city is sub-
stantially und compactly built, contains many fins residences in the easiern part, and a
large number of the principal avenues are graded and paved. Of the population in 1H70
the majority were of foreign birth and chiefly Irish, German, and English, mosi of
whom were engaged in trade, manufactures, and manual labor. The busine>-s of manu-
facturing, which IB a distinguishing characteristic of the city, began at a very early
period, and the establishment of rolling mills and foundries began shortly after the HOM;
of the second war with Great Britain, and has been going on steadily ever since. The
capital invested in 1875 in manufactures was estimated at $60,000,000, and the annual
export of manufactured goods at $150,000,000. There were at that time within the city
43 iron mills, using 570 puddling furnaces and 520 nail-machines; 12 blast furnaces for
the production of pig metal; 75 foundries and machine shops; 70 glass-factories, employ-
ing 5,000 men; together with manufactories of malt liquors, white lead, leather, tob.-nvo,
cotton and woolen goods, pottery, carriages, and brushes. The city is also largely
identified with the production of petroleum, and contains numerous refineries. The
number of men employed in all these various establishments is usually between thirty
and forty thousand. Besides these great interests Pittsburg also has facilities for traffic
in its three rivers, and it is a port of delivery in the district of New Orleans. In 1874
the number of vessels belonging to the port was 467, with an aggregate tonnage of 104,-
040. The Pennsylvania, the Alleghany Valley, and the Pittsburg, Washington and
Baltimore railroads afford direct connection with the eastern cities and with nearly
every part of Pennsylvania; the Pittsburg, Fort Wayne and Chicago railroad and
tributary lines connect the city with the west and northwest; and the Pittsburg. Cin-
cinnati and St. Louis line furnishes communication with the southwest. There are 16
national banks, with a capital of $9,000,000; 23 savings banks, with a capital of $3.2."i().-
000; and 19 home insurance companies. The assessed value of property was in 1870
$172,000,000, and the city debt amounted to about $13,000,000. The number of
graded schools was, in 1870, 53, one of which was a high school ; and the western
university of Pennsylvania and the Pittsburg female college (Methodist) are also located
within the city. At present the number of daily newspapers published is 10. and
of weeklies, 20. The religious denominations are represented as follows: 4 African
Methodist Episcopal; 8 Baptists; 1 Church of God ; 1 Congregational; 17 Presbyterian;
10 Episcopal; 1 German Evangelical; 2 Jewish; 9 Lutheran; 6 Methodist; 21 Methodist
Episcopal; 34 Roman Catholic; 1 Unitarian; 1 Universalist. The city is divided into
37 wards, and is governed by a mayor, a select council of 74 members, and a common
council of 44 members. It has a police force and a fire department.
PITTSBURG LANDING, BATTLE OF. See SHILOH.
PITTSFIELD. a city in Massachusetts, on the Boston and Albany railway, 151 m. w.
»f Boston, and the terminus of the Housatonic and the Pittsfield and North Adams rail-
ways. It has manufactures of cotton and woolen goods, etc. ; a medical college, 9
ihurches, etc. Pop. '70, 11,112.
PITTSFIELD (ante) a city in w. Massachusetts, incorporated 1761, named in honor
*f William Pitt, 50 m. s.e. of Albany by rail, and 53 m. n.w. of Springfield; pop. '80.
13,400. It is on the Boston and Albany railroad, at the terminus of the Pittsticid aud
.Korth Adams and the Housatonic railroads. The town site is at an elevation of 1000 ft..
surrounded by high hills. The Housatonic river, fed by 6 lakes in the vicinity, is
divided by this plateau, one branch flowing past it on the e. side, the other on the w.,
uniting at the s. limit of the town. Pittsfield has the county court-house, built of marble
at a cost of $400,000, overlooking a park in the center of the city, containing a .soldier*'
monument. There are 11 churches several of considerable beauty, notably the stone
church of the First Congregational society, the marble church of St. Joseph, and St.
Stephen's (Episcopal). Among other buildings is that of the Berkshire life insurance
company. The Berkshire atheueum has a library of 7,000 vols. ; aud there is a mercan-
tile library. The town has 2 seminaries, one the Maplewood institute for young women,
situated on a large estate. Among the charitable institutions is one for the disabli d by
accident or disease. It has 3 banks, 2 of them national, with an aggregate capital of
mPittsburg.
Pius.
$700.000. and a savings bank with deposits amounting: to $2,000,000. It is lighted by
gas, is furnished with water from lake Ashley (the lakes also supplying water-power).
Among the manufactures are paper, machinery, silk, tacks, etc.
PITTSTON, a borough in Pittston township Luzerne co. , Penn., at the mouth of the
Lackawauua river, on the e. bank of the Susquehanna, on the Lehigh Valley, Lacka-
wunna and Bloomsburg and the Lehigh and Susqueluuma railroads; pop. '70, 6,760. The
chief business is the mining and exportation of coal. It has a bank and two newspapers.
PITTSYLVANIA, a co. in s. Virginia, adjoining North Carolina, bounded on the
n. by the Staunton river; drained by the Dan and Bannister rivers: traversed by the
Richmond and Danville railroad; about 900 sq.m.; pop. '80, 52,589 — 27,199 colored.
The surface is somewhat hilly. The soil is fertile. It raises more tobacco than any other
county in the state. Corn, "oats, and live stock are the other principal productions.
Co. seat, Chatham.
PITU ITABY BODY, a small reddish-gray mass of an oval form, weighing from six
to ten grains, and situated on the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone, on the floor of the
cavity of the skull. It is very vascular, and in its structure it resembles the ductless
glands. In the fetus, it is relatively larger than in the adult, and contains a cavity
which subsequently disappears. It derives its name from its having been formerly sup-
posed to secrete the fluid which (as we now know) is yielded by the Schneideriau or
pituitary membrane of the nostrils. Its function is not known.
PITYRI ASIS (from the Greek word pityron, bran) is the term given to one of the
squamous or scaly deseases of the skin, in which there is a continual throwing off of
bran-like scales of epidermis, which are renewed as fast as they are lost. It may occur
upon any part of the body, giving rise to brown patches, in which there are sensations
of itching, tingling, or pricking. It is more easily cured than the other scaly diseases, and
its removal can generally be effected by the frequent use of the warm bath; or, if it fails,
recourse may be had to alkaline or sulphur baths; due attention being at the same time
paid to the general health. It sometimes occurs on the scalp, when it is known as dan-
driff, and must be treated with weak alkaline lotions, or, if these fail, with tar ointment,
provided there is no inflammation. There is a variety known as p&grieuu versicolor,
which is probably due to the presence of a parasitic fungus, the microsporon furfitratis;
but whether the fungus is the positive cause of the disease, or only an attendant on it,
finding a suitable nidus in the diseased epidermis, is not certain. This variety may be
detected by a microscopic examination of the exfoliated scales, when the spores and
filaments of the fungus will be detected. The treatment of this affection must be solely
local. Dr. Watson mentions a case which yielded at once to a cbuple of sulphur baths.
Probably the best remed\- is the application of a saturated watery solution of sulphurous
acid gas, or of one of the sulphites dissolved in diluted vinegar.
PITT (in Ital. more), as a musical term, when prefixed to another word, intensifies its
meaning — e.g., piu mosso, with more movement.
PIURA, a city in Peru, founded by Pizarro, 1531 ; the first city in Peru founded by
Europeans, and called originally San Miguel. It is the capital of a province of the same
ur.me, on the left bank of the river Piura; pop. about 15,000. It is the largest town in
11. Peru, and is built with more regard to permanency than beauty, on a level plain, 20
m. from Payta, and 523 m. n.w. of Lima. Its climate is warm and mild, with a limited
rain-fall, and the agricultural products include tobacco, cotton, sugar-cane, and live stock;
its mules being considered the best in the country. Sulphur, iron, lead, lime, magnesia,
sulphate of soda, and potroleum constitute its mineral wealth. Its leading industries
are the manufacture of soap and leather, and it has an extensive transit trade.
PIUS I.. SAINT, Pope 90-157; b. Italy; pastor of the Roman Christians 117-42. when he
succeeded Hyginus as pontiff. He opposed the heresies of Marcion and Valentinus, and
the keeping of the feast of the resurrection on Sunday is said to have been ordered by
him. His father's name was Rufinns, and the name Pius was given him by the Christians
at Rome. The Latin church gives him the title of martyr, but it is not known that he
was actually put to death. His anniversary is kept July 11.
PI'US, the name of nine among the Roman pontiffs, of whom the following only
appear to call for particular notice. — Pius II., originally known as ^neas Sylvius, was
a member of the noble family of Piccolomini, and was b. (1405) at Corsignano, in the
duchy of Sienna. His early life was not free from serious irregularities, but he made
amends by his subsequent decorous conduct ; and his eminent abilities as a canonist led
to his being employed, when but 26 years of. age, as secretary of the cardinal of Fermo,
in a post of the highest confidence at" the council of Basel (q.v.-). He was intrusted by
that council — the views of which, in its conflict with the pope, he fully shared — in sev-
eral commissions of great importance; and on the election of the antipope Felix V.,
^Eneas Sylvius was chosen as his secretary. But having been sent by him as ambassa-
dor to the emperor Frederick III., he was induced to accept office in the imperial court,
and served on several embassies and other missions of importance on behalf of the
emperor. In the difficulties between Frederick and the pope Eugenius IV., which arose
after the council of Florence, ./Eneas conducted so skillfully a negotiation with which he
was intrusted that the pope was induced to retain him in his own court, in the capacity
Pius.
748
of secretary. His views of church matters having undergone a considerable change, he
couiiiiued in equal favor under the successor of Lugcnius, ^Nicholas V.. 1447; and under
Calli.itus III. he was elevated to the cardinalate. On the death of Callistus in 1458, he
was elected pope, and took the name of Pius II. His pontificate was embarrassed by
some contests oil German affairs, but it is chiefly rendered memorable by the sustained
efforts which Pius — the first in this policy of a long line of pontiffs, to whom the public
security of Europe owes a deep obligation — made to organize an armed confederation of
Christian princes to resist the progress of the Turkish arms. This organization, how-
ever, for a long time did not lead to any considerable results. Pius died Aug. 14, 1464.
The literary reputation of the scholar tineas Sylvius has partially eclipsed the histori-
cal fame of the pope Pius. He was one of the most eminent scholars of his nge. His
works were published at Basel (1 vol. fol., 1551), but many of his works are not included
in that edition. They consist chiefly of histories, or historical disscr:atiuns and mate-
rials of history; but the most interesting portion of his collected works are his letters,
which are very numerous, and full of details, characteristic as Avell of the writer as of the
age. The same may be said of a biographical commentary, which is in truth an auto-
biography, being chiefly written from his own dictation, by his secretary, John Gobel-
linus, published at Frankfort in 1614. See Voight's Life of Pn/s (Berl. 1856).— Pius IV.,
Giovanni Angelo Medici, uncle of saint Carlo Borromeo, deserves to be noticed from his
connection with the celebrated creed known under his name. He was eleeted in 1560;
and his pontificate is chiefly memorable as that in which the protracted deliberations of
the council of Trent (q.v.) were brought to a close. Pius had the duty, in Dec., 1563,
of issuing the bull confirmatory of its decrees. The well-known creed called the creed
of Pius IV., and sometimes the Tridentine creed, was issued by Pins IV. as an embodi-
ment of all the doctrines defined in that council. Pius died Dec. 8, 1505, in the arms of
his nephew, Carlo Borromeo. — Pics V., a saint of the Roman Catholic church, originally
named Michele Ghisleri, wasb. of poor parents, in the village of Bosco, near Aiosandriu,
in 1504, and at the age of 14 entered the Dominican order. His eminent merits were
recognized by Paul IV., who named him bishop of Satri in 1556. and cardinal in tl>e
following year. Of austere and mortified habits, he carried into his administration the
same rigor which distinguished his personal conduct; and when appointed inquisitor-
geueral for Lombardy he employed the most rigorous measures in repressing the pr<
of the reformation, which had begun to effect an entrance. He was aiter.vanls trans-
lated to the see of Mondovi; and immediately after the death of Pius IV. he was chosen
unanimously as his successor, Jan. 8, 1566. Pius carried into his pontifical life the .-amu
personal austerity and administrative rigor which he had evinced as a bishop. Apply-
ing to others the same rules which he enforced upon himself, he enacted a number of
severe laws for the regulation of public morals, prohibiting bull-fights, suppn-sing pros-
titution, and proscribing a variety of popular but demoralizing exhibitions. The Roman
inquisition, too, under his government, exercised a severity of which no other pontificate
has shown any example. He endeavored to en force every where the disciplinary derm s
of the council of Trent; and the whole spirit of his pontificate is most strikingly exhib-
ited in the decree by which he ordered the yearly publication of the celebrated bull,
In Ccena Domini (q.v.). It was an application to the 16th c. of the principles and the
legislation of the Hildebrandine epoch. But the most momentous event of the pontifi-
cate of Pius was the expedition winch he organized, with Spnin and Venice, against the
Turks, and which resulted in the great naval engagement of the gulf of Lepanto. on
Oct. 7, 1571. Pius died in the following May, 1572. He was canonized by Clement XI.
in 1712. — Prus VI., originally named Angelo Braschi, was b. at Cesena, Dee. 27, 1717.
He was selected by Benedict XIV. as his secretary; and under Clement XIII. he was
named to several important appointments, which led finally, under Clement XIV.. to
his elevation to the cardmalate. On the death of Clement XIV. cardinal Braschi
was chosen to succeed him, Feb. 15, 1775. The conflict with the civil po\vcr in the
various states of Europe, in which, from the days of Innocent XL, the Roman see had
been almost unceasingly involved to a greater or iess degree, assumed under Pi>:s what
may be called its complete and scientific development. His relations to the emperor
Joseph of Austria and the grand duke Leopold of Tuscany, who persisted in the refor-
mation of the religious orders, etc., were far from amicable. The internal adminis-
tration of Pius, however, was enlightened and judicious. To him Rome owes the
drainage of the Pontine marsh, tl e improvement of the port of Ancona. the completion
of the church of St. Peter's, the foundation of the new museum of the Vatican, and the
general improvement and embellishment of the city. These and other similar projects
were interrupted by the outbreak of the French revolution. In 1793 a popular tumult
at Rome, which was caused by the imprudence of a French political agent named De
Basseville, and which resulted in his death, gave the French directory an opportunity
of hostile demonstrations against the pope. In 1796 Bonaparte took possession of the
legations, and afterwards of the march of Ancona, and by a threatened advance upon
Rome extorted from Pius, in the treaty of Tolentino, the surrender of these provinces to
the Cisalpine republic, together with a heavy war contribution. The year 1797 was marked
by a continuance of the same vexatious measures; and at length the directory ordered the
invasion of Rome; Berthier entered the city. Feb. 10, 1798, and took possession of the
castle of St. Angelo. Pius was called on to renounce his temporal sovereignty, and on
749
Pius.
his refusal was seized, Feb. 20, and carried away to Sienna, and afterwards to the cele-
brated Certosa, or Carthusian monastery of Florence. On the threatened advance of the
Austro-Russian army in the following year, he was transferred to Grenoble, and finally
to Valence on the Rlnnc. where, worn out by age and by the rigor of confinement, he died
in Aug., 1799, in the 82d year of his age and the 24th of his pontificate. — Pius VII.,
originally Gregory Barnabas Chiaramonte, was b. at Ceseua in 1742. He entered the Ben-
edictine order at an early age, and was employed in teaching philosophy and theology at
Parma, and afterwards at Rome. He was appointed bishop of Tivoli; and afterwards,
being created cardinal, was translated to the see of Imola. After the death of Pius VI.,
cardinal Chiarainonte was chosen his successor (Mar. 14, 1800). Rome, which, up to this
time, had been in the occupation of the French, was now restored to the papal authority,
and in the July of that year Pius VII. entered into his capital; and in the following
year the French troops were definitively withdrawn from the papal territory, with the
exception of the legations. From this time forward Pius, ably seconded by his secretary
of state, cardinal Consalvi, was destined to occupy a prominent place in the political as
well as the ecclesiastical affairs of Europe. Bonaparte had resolved to restore religion
in France on the ancient basis of connection with Rome. With this view, he entered
into negotiations with Pius VII. for the establishment of a concordat suited to the new
order of things which had arisen. These negotiations were conducted at Paris, and
were attended with many difficulties and delays, until at length cardinal Consalvi repaired
in person to the conference, and, by his eiu-rgy and decision, disentangled the compli-
cated embarrassments in which it was involved. It was agreed to at Paris, July 15,
1801; ratified in Rome, Aug. 14; and published in Notre-Dame on Easter Sunday, 1802.
But, simultaneously with the concordat, and as if forming part of the same arrangement,
was published a code of what were called "organic laws," seriously affecting the disci-
pline of the church on marriage, on th<.> clergy, and on public worship, which had never
been submitted to Pius, and to which he not only had not consented, but to which he
found himself compelled to offer every opposition. For the first year which succeeded
the publication of the concordat, no occasion of difficulty arose; but conflict of principles
was in the end inevitable. In 1804, Bonaparte having resolved on assuming the imperial
crown, invited Pius to come to Paris for the purpose of crowning him, and the pope,
although with much hesitation, consented. He took advantage of his visit to demand
the recall or modification of the articles, but without success; and although, during his
vi.>it to Paris, he was treated with great distinction and reverence, his relations with
Napoleon from that date began to assume a less friendly character. The French emperor
now proceeded from one petty outrage to another, until finally, in Feb., 1808, the French
troops, under gen. Miollis, entered Rome, and took possession of the castle of St. Angelo;
and on the 2d of April, a decree was issued annexing the provinces of Ancona, Fermo,
Urhino, and Macerata to the kingdom of Italy. Pius, besides protesting against the usur-
pation, declared himself a prisoner in the French hands, and confined himself to his
palace. The papers of the cardinal secretary were violently seized, and the pope was
compelled to appoint a pro-secretary; and finally (May 17, 1809), the usurpation was con-
summated by a decree annexing Rome and all the remaining papal territory to the
French empire. This was the signal for the pope abandoning his lengthened policy of
forbearance. On June 10, Pius issued a bull of excommunication, "directed (without
naming Napoleon) against the perpetrators and abettors of the invasion of the rights and
the territory of the holy see. Soon afterwards, the French general ordered the removal
of the pope from Rome; and Pius, without offering any reststance beyond the declara-
tion that he yielded to force, was removed, first to Florence, then to Grenoble, thence
for a longer time to Savona, whence, in June, 1812, he was finally transferred to Fon-
tainebleau. During this prolonged captivity Pius firmly but quietly resisted every effort
to compel or seduce him from his policy. At Fontainebleau he was treated with much
external respect; and on Napoleon's return from the Russian campaign, in Dec., 1812,
orders were given that the cardinals, with certain exceptions, should be admitted to the
presence of the pope. Under much pressure, both from the emperor himself — who is
alleged by some to have acted with great rudeness, and even with personal violence — and
from the ecclesiastics to whom the emperor confided his plans, Pius was induced to sign
a new concordat, an important provision of which was the recognition of the annexation
of the Roman states to the empire. Having obtained the concession, Napoleon at once
permitted the absent cardinals to return, and of these many remonstrated so earnestly
against the concordat, that, on March 24, Pius wrote to revoke his consent. Napoleon
took no notice of the revocation; nor was it till after the disasters of 1813 that he began
to seek an accommodation. Pius refused to treat until he should be restored to Rome;
and on Jan. 22, 1814, orders were sent for his immediate return to his capital. Unat-
tended by his cardinals, he was escorted to Italy, and remained at Cesena until the fatal
campaign of the spring of 1814 placed Paris in the hands of the allies, when Pius re-en-
tered Rome amidst the gratulations of the people on May 24, 1814 — a day since that time
held sacred in the Roman calendar. During the Hundred Days, he was again compelled
to leave Rome ; but, after the campaign of Waterloo, he finally resumed possession,
which was undisturbed for the rest of his life, and which extended to the whole of the
ancient territory, including the Legations.
The last years of his pontificate were devoted to measures of internal administration ,
pins.
Pizarro.
and under the enlightened government of cardinal Consalvi, were marked by much wis-
dom and moderation. But the administration chiefly by ecclesiastics and the secrecy of
law procedure were resumed. Pius repressed, too, with great vigor the disorder and
brigandage which the long wars had introduced, and a whole village of notorious and
incorrigible criminality, that of Somma, was razed to the ground in 1819. He was
equally vigorous in repressing secret societies, especially that of the Carbonari (q.v.).
The ecclesiastical measures of his later period were also of much importance. In 1814
he formally restored the suppressed order of the Jesuits (q.v.). In 1817 and the follow-
ing years he concluded concordats with Naples, with Russia, Wt'irtemberg, and other
courts of Germany. In this and every other period of his life Pius was a model of
gentleness, simplicity, benevolence, and Christian charity. In July, 1823, having readied
the patriarchal age of 81, he fell accidentally and broke his thigh. He sank gradually,
and died Aug. 20, 1823.
PIUS IX., GIOVANNI MARIA MASTAI FERRETTI, occupant of the papal chair during
one of the most eventful periods in the history of the papacy, was born at Sinigaglia,
May 13, 1792. He was originally destined for the military profession — the noble guard;
but symptoms of an epileptic tendency led to his abandoning his intended profession. He
received holy orders, and after exercising his ministry for a time in Rome, was sent as
"auditor" of the vicar-apostolic to Chili. Having been successively archbishop of
Spoleto and of Imola, nuncio, and cardinal, he was, on the death of Gregory XVI. in
1846, elected " by acclamation" to succeed him. He took the name of Pius IX., and
entered at once on a course of reforms, by which he hoped to establish the papal govern-
ment on a popular, but yet on a firm basis. He resolved to extirpate all abuses of
administration, to withdraw the restrictions of personal liberty, to secularize the local
administration, and to extend the rights of self-government. His first step to this end
was to grant an amnesty; and this measure, however humane and necessary, had the
result of drawing together into the Roman states a body of men whom an unhappy
experience of foreign exile had imbittered against the existing order of things. For a
time, the reforming policy of Pius carried with it the affections of the people; but he
soon fell short of the expectations which he had created. The outbreak of the French
revolution of Feb., 1848, precipitated the crisis of popular discontent. In November of
that year, count Rossi, whom the pope had appointed his minister, was assassinated; and
violent demonstrations were daily employed to compel the pope's assent to measures
which he repudiated. Having at first confined himself to the Quirinal. he at length fled
secretly from Rome to Gaeta, a Neapolitan sea-port near the Roman frontier. AVepub-
lic was proclaimed in Rome, the provisional heads of which proceeded to a complete and
radical remodeling of the civil government of the state. Pius from his exile addressed
a remonstrance to the various sovereigns. In April, 1849, a French expedition was sent
to Civita Vecchia, which eventually advanced upon Rome, and, after a siege of about
thirty days, took possession of the city, and established a French army of occupation
within the Roman state. The pope's government was re-established, but he himself did
not return till 18oO, when he again entered upon the administration. In consequence of
the unsettled condition of Italy and the failure of many of his early measures of improve-
ment, he declared Hmself unable to proceed with the reformations which he had con-
templated. After that time his authority was maintained without interruption, but the
discontent continued. After the war for the unification of Italy, the Legations, Aucona,
and a considerable part of the papal territory southward in the direction of Rome, were
annexed to the kingdom of Italy, but Pius persistently refused to cede any portion or to
enter into any compromise. His ecclesiastical administration continued very active, and
proceeded upon the strongest assumption of the right of independent action on the part
of the church. In this view he re-established the hierarchy in England, lie sanctioned
the establishment in Ireland of a Catholic university, and condemned the principles upon
which the queen's colleges in that country were constituted. He concluded with Austria
a concordat much more favorable to church authority than the existing ecclesiastical
laws had permitted. See CONCORDAT. In 1854 he issued a decree propounding as a
doctrine of the church the faith of the Immaculate Conception of the blessed virgin
Mary (q.v.). In the internal administration of his states, notwithstanding the embar-
rassed condition of finances produced by the curtailment of his territory, he introduced
many ameliorations, and did much for the advancement and improvement of the city
of Rome and of its institutions. In this he was aided by the voluntary contributions of
thy several churches, as well in special gifts as in the organization of the permanent
'ri'mte called Peter-pence (q.v.). In 1864, on occasion of the centenary of the martyr-
dom of St. Peter, he brought together at Rome a large assemblage of bishops, and subse-
quently, on occasion of the canonization of the Jesuit martyrs of Japan. But the most
important event of his pontificate was the convocation of the Vatican council (see
COUNCIL), at which bishops from all parts of the Catholic world assembled in Dec., 1869.
For the discussions of this council, see POPE. It was adjourned in July, 1870, after it had
proclaimed the celebrated decree of the infallibility of the pope, when on a subject of
faith or morals he issues a decree ex cathedra to the universal church. Soon after the
adjournment, the Italian army occupied Rome, and declared it the capital of the kingdom
of Italy. Pius renewed with all solemnity his oft-repeated protest, and refusing an
Pins.
Pizarro.
offered donation, and all other proposals of accommodation, from that date declared him-
self a captive iu the Vatican, to which he strictly confined himself. In June, 1871, he
completed the 25th year of his pontificate, thus exceeding the term of all previous pon-
tificates except that assigned to St. Peter, and falsifying in his own person the tradi-
tional prediction that no pontiff would ever " see the days of Peter.'1 His health was for
some years precarious; but, with the exception of occasional interruptions, he continued
to attend personally to ail the public affairs, civil as well as ecclesiastical, of his office,
lie died Feb. 7, 1878.
PIUTE, a co. in Utah, adjoining Colorado, drained by the Grand, Green, and Colo-
rado rivers; about 6,000 sq. m. ; pop., '80, 1651 — 1387 of American birth. The Wahsatch
mountains traverse the w. part. The soil is sterile. Co. scat. Junction.
PI-UTES, an Indian tribe of the Shoshone family. They arc a migratory tribe of
hunters, wandering about ]STew Mexico, Nevada, Utah, and Colorado. They are divided
into several tribes and number some 15,000.
PIVOT, the point on which a body revolves, has a like signification in milijary
affairs — the pivotman being that soldier who marks the center while a line is wheeling.
PIYADASI, one of the names of the celebrated king Asoka. See BUDDHISM, India.
He is often designated by this name in inscriptions.
FIZARRO, FKANCISCO, the conqueror of Peru, was an illegitimate son of Gonzalo
Pizarro, a col. of infantry, and a soldier of some distinction. He was born at Truxillo,
in Estremadura, Spain, about 1471. Of his youth, little is known, but it appears that he
•was, wholly neglected by his parents, was taught neither to read nor write, and that in
his youth his principal occupation was that of a swineherd. Abandoning this uncon-
gcr.ial employment, he sought the port of Seville, and there embarked to seek fortune in
i he new world. He was in Hispaniola in 1510; later, he joined Balboa, and was with
that cavalier when he crossed the isthmus of Panama, and discovered the Pacific. In
1515 he was engaged in traffic with the natives on the shores of the newly discovered
ocean, but was afterward chiefly employed in military service, in which he showed
great bravery, resource, and power of endurance. About this time, when a fresh and
powerful impulse was given to adventure by the splendid achievement of Cortes, rumors
of a country far s., in which gold and silver were said to be as abundant as iron in
Spain, reached Panama, and kindled Pizarro's ambition. He formed a sort of copart-
nery with Diego dc Almagro, an adventurer and a foundling like himself, and Hernando
Lnque, an ecclesiastic; and with the funds which the three friends amassed, they were
enabled to fit out a small expedition, of which Pizarro took command. In Nov., 1524,
he set sail southward, but went no further than Quemada point. Making an agreement
(dated Mar. 1, 1526), that all lands, treasures, vassals, etc.. that should be discovered,
were to be equally divided between them, the three friends, Pizarro, Almagro, and
Luque, organized a second expedition, consisting of two ships, which set snil for the
south seas. Having reached the port of Santa, lat. about 9° s., and having really discov-
ered Peru, Pizarro returned to Panama, carrying with him, however, n.any beautiful
and valuable ornaments in gold, and silver, which he had obtained from the friendly and
generous natives, as well as specimens of woolen cloths of silky texture and brilliant
hue, and some llamas or alpacas. Unable to find in Panama a sufficient number of vol-
unteers for the invasion of the newly discovered country, the indomitable adventurer
returned to Spain in 1528, narrated the story of his discoveries before Charles V. and his
ministers, described the wealth of the territories, and showed, as proof the gold orna-
ments and utensils, the manufactures, etc., which he had brought with him. The result
of his representations was, that the right of the discovery and conquest of Peru was
secured to him. and honorable titles — among others, those of governor and capt.gen.
of Peru — were conferred on him. On his side, he agreed to raise a certain number of
followers, and to send to the crown of Spain a fifth of all the treasures he should obtain.
Returning to Panama, he set sail for Peru for the third and last time, with a well
equipped but small force, the number being not more than 180 men, of whom 27 were
cavalry. The chief events of the conquest of Peru are detailed at sufficient length in the
article PEKU, and also the articles ALMAGRO and ATAHUALPA. Within 10 years the
great conquistador made the empire cf Peru his own; but he who had surmounted so
many stupendous difficulties, who had broken through the lofty barrier of the Andes, and,
with his group of followers, been a victor in so many fields, fell a victim to a con-
spiracy, June 26, 1541.
Pizarro was a soldier of the most undoubted courage, inflexible constancy of purpose,
and infinite resource; yet his success in Peru appears to have been more the result of
chance than of calculation. His boldest stroke was the seizure of the Inca Atahualpa
(q.v.), when surrounded by thousands of his followers; but in doing so, he deserved
credit neither for originality nor policy, because the idea was borrowed from Cortes,
and the step itself was so foolhardy and desperate, that its success can be regarded only
as luck. Although on many occasions he appears to have Ix-en guided by noble and gen
erous impulses, he was eminently selfish, perfidious, and relentless. His conquest of
Peru is a drama in every act of which there is bloodshed: but the drama is at least con-
•istent to the end. Pizarro lived a life ef violence, and died a violent and bloody death.
Plzarro.
Placenta.
PIZARRO, GOXZALO, threw in his fortunes -with those of his brother Francisco, on the
occasion when that leader returned to Spain in 1528. He was, like the great conqueror,
illegitimate. He became a soldier at an early age, distinguished himself, before he
joined his brother's expedition, by his skill in martial exercises, and when he reached
IVru, was esteemed the best lance in the Spanish troop. The territory of Quito was
assigned to him by Francisco, and he was enjoined to undertake an exploring expedition
to the e., where a land, reputed to be extremely rich in "-pices, was said to lie. At the
head of 350 Spaniards and a great concourse c~f Indians, Pizarro set out on his famous
journey in the beginning of 1540. Marching e., they reached a country traversed Tby
lofty branches of the Andes. Here the icy winds benumbed the limbs of the adventur-
ers as they rose to the higher plateaux, and, rendered helpless by the cold, many of them
sank and died. Descending the eastern slopes of the Andes, they readied the "land of
cinnamon;" but as they could not transport the trees across the mountains, their di.-cov-
ery was almost valueless. Hearing of a land abounding in gold at the distance of ten
days' journey, the leader resolved to reach it. Pushing forward, the Spaniards entered
great forests, where often they had to hew a passage with their axes. Their clothes
were now torn to shreds, and their provisions had been long exhausted. They killed
and ate the dogs they had brought with them, after which thejr lived on the herbs and
dangerous roots of the forest. "At length they struck the broad but desolate waters of
the ^apo, an important affluent of the Amazon. On the surface of this broad river no
vesssel floated,. and it ran amid gloomy woods, the silence of which was undisturbed save
by the sound of the rushing waters. Here Pizarro caused a rude bark to be constructed
for the transport of the baggage and of the weaker travelers. Francisco de Orellana
was intrusted with the command of the vessel. Pizarro, hearing of a populous nation at
the distance of a few days' journey, who dwelt near the confluence of the Napo with A
larger river, sent forward Orellana to obtain and bring back supplies for the starving
travelers, who had eaten the last of their horses, and were now reduced to the leather
of their saddles and belts. Orellana reached the Amazon; but, unable either to obtain
supplies, or to return against the current of the river, abandoned the expedition, and
with his fifty followers resolved to sail down the Amazon, reach the Atlantic, and make
for Spain. This wonderful design was successfully carried out. Pizarro, after waiting
in vain for the return of the bark, resolved to return to Quito, which, after enduring
terrible sufferings, and seeking fruitlessly for the rich regions of which he had heard so
much, he readied in June, 1542, after an absence of more than two years. The fatal
character of this expedition may be inferred from the appearance the travelers presented
on their return. Half of the 4,000 Indians had perished, and of the Spaniards, only M>
remained: and these, clad in skins, blackened by the sun, and wasted by hunger and
fatigue, with long matted locks, seemed like a troop of spectral savages. This expedi-
tion stands unmatched in the annals of American discovery for its dangers and suffer-
ings, for the length of their duration, and for the heroic fortitude with which they were
endured. For the fate of Gouzalo Pizarro, see article PERU.
PIZZICA'TO (Ital. twitched), abbreviated pizz., a phrc.se used in music for the violin
or violoncello, to denote that the strings, instead of being played as usual by the bow,
are to be twitched with the fingers in the manner of a harp or guitar. The pizzicato is
much used in accompaniments, as sounds thus produced do not cover the voice; it is
also used in symphonic effects. The ordinary mode of playing is restored by the letters
c. a. (col arco, with the bow).
PIZZO, a sea-port of south Italy, in the province of Catanzaro, 24 m. w.s.w. from
Catanzaro, on the gulf of Santa Eufcmia. It was at Pizzo that Murat (q.v.), the ox-king
of Naples, was taken, tried, and shot. He was buried in one of the common vaults of a
church to the erection of which he had largely contributed. Pop. 6,402.
PLACENTA, or AFTER-BIRTH, a temporary organ that is developed within the uterus
during pregnancy, and is, as its popular name implies, expelled from the maternal
organism shortly after the birth of the child or young animal. It is a spongy vascu.ar
mass, existing in some form or other in all mammals, excepting the Marsvpialia and
Monotremata, as an appendage to the fetal membrane called the chorion. In the human
subject, it is of considerable size at the period of delivery, being of a rounded or oval
form, with a diameter of 6 or 8 in., and a thickness of somewhat more than an inch.
Its outer surface, which, till the period of its detachment and expulsion, is attached to
the walls of the uterus, is uniform and level (unless it has been morbidly adherent), being
covered by a membrane, shortly to be noticed, called the decidrta serotina; and on peel-
ing off this membrane, the various lobes of which the placenta is composed are apparent.
The internal or free surface is smooth and shining, and gives attachment to the umbili
cal cord or navel-string, which connects it with the fetus. To render the mode of for-
mation of the placenta clear, we must premise that the impregnated ovum, when it
reaches the uterus, is invested with an outer membrane, the chorion, which forms a shut
sac, externally covered with short villi. As the ovum advances in age, these villi dimin-
ish in number, until few remain, except at that part of the chorion which is in contact
with the uterus; and here, about the second month (in the human subject), they divide
into branches. While these changes are going on in the membrane of the ovum, the
uterus is also undergoing modification; and it is on the nature and extent of these uterine
Pizarro.
Placeuta.
changes that the character or type of the placenta depends. There are two such types,
the first of which is best represented by the human placenta, and the latter by that of the
pig.
In animals exhibiting the first type of placental structure, the mucous membrane
lining the uterus undergoes a rapid growth and modification of texture, becoming con-
nected with the membrana decidua, which is so called from its being thrown off at each
parturition. For brevity, it is usually termed the decidua. This decidua is from an
early period separable into three portions — the decidua vera, or decidua uteri, which lines
Ate general cavity of the uterus: the decidua reflexa, which immediately invests the
ovum; and the decidua serotina, which is merely a special development of a part of the
decidua vera at the part where the villi of the chorion are becoming converted into the
fetal portion of the placenta. At first, the villi of uic chorion lie loosely in the corre-
sponding depressions of the decidua; but subsequently, the fetal and maternal structures
(the villi and the decidua vera) become closely united, so as to form one inseparable
mass, by the following means: the deeper substance of the uterine mucous membrane in
the region of the placenta is traversed by vessels which enlarge into what, in the case of
the veins, are termed Minuses, dip down between the villi, "and at last swell round and
between them, so that finally the villi are completely bound up or covered by the mem-
brane which constitutes the walls of the vessels, this membrane following the contour of
all the villi, and even passing, to a certain extent, over the branches and stems of the
tufts." — Goodsir's Anatomical and Pathological Observations, p. 60.
The pure maternal blood is conveyed to the placenta by what are termed, from their
tortuous course, "the curling arteries" of the uterus, and is returned by the large veins
termed sinuses. " The fetal vessels," says Dr. Carpenter, " being bathed in this blood,
as the branchiae of aquatic animals are in the water that surrounds them, not only enable
the fetal blood to exchange its venous character for the arterial, by parting with its
carbonic acid to the maternal blood, and receiving oxygen from it, but they also serve
as rootlets, by which certain nutritious elements of the maternal blood (probably those
composing the liquor sanguinis) are taken into the system of the fetus. It is probable,
too, that the placenta is to be regarded as an excretory organ, serving for the removal,
through the maternal blood, of excrementitious matter, whose continued circulation
through the blood of the fetus would be prejudicial to the latter." — Human Physiology,
3d ed., pp. 1013, 1014. Moreover, the recent investigations of Bernard show that the
placenta secretes, like the liver, the saccharine matter known as glycogen (q.v.), which
probably takes part in keeping up the animal heat. The vascular connection between
the fetus and the placenta is effected by the umbilical vein (containing arterial blood)
and the two umbilical arteries (containing venous blood), all of which lie in the umbili-
cal cord which connects the fetus (q.v.) with the placenta. The placenta may be formed
at any. point of the uterus, but is most commonly on the left side. Occasionally (in 11
cases out of 600, according to Naegele), it is situated partially or entirely over the
mouth of the womb (on uteri), in which case dangerous flooding takes place previous to
or at the period of labor. This condition is known as placenta prcevia, and under ordi-
nary management, "one in three of the mothers are lost, and more than 65 per cent of
the children." — Churchill, Theory and Practice of Midwifery, 3ded., p. 473. By substi-
tuting the detachment and extraction of the placenta for the old method of turning the
child in uiero, prof. Simpson finds that the mortality sinks to 1 in 14 of the mothers, but
slightly rises (to 69 per cent) in the case of the children.
Another difficulty in midwifery practice, but far less serious than the preceding, is
undue retention of the placenta. In ordinary cases, the average interval between the
birth of the child and the expulsion of the after-birth is a quarter of an hour. When
the expulsion does not take place within an hour or an hour and a lulf, the case ia
regarded as coming under the head of "retained placenta." It occurs in about 1 case
in 400, and in these cases is fatal to about one mother in five; the cause of death being
hemorrhage. The principal causes of retention are either imperfect and insufficient, or
irregular contraction of the womb after the birth of the child. In the first of these
cases, if the uterus cannot be excited to sufficient action, the placenta must be with-
drawn by steady traction of the umbilical cord, and if it fail, extraction by the intro-
duction of the hand (an operation always to be avoided if possible) must be resorted to;
in the latter case, manual extraction is commonly necessary. Sometimes, in conse-
quence of inflammatory or other affections of the placenta, there may be adhesion
between its outer surface and the inner surface of the womb. This is the most danger-
ous form of retention, there being usually excessive flooding, and additionally the peril
arising from the decomposition of any portion that cannot be removed without undue
violence.
The placenta acquires its proper character, in the human subject, during the third'
month, and it subsequently goes on increasing to the full period of gestation. At about
the fourth month, the blood, moving through the enlarged uterine vessels, produces a
peculiar murmur, which is known as the placental bruit, resembling the sound made by
blowing gently over the lip of a wide-mouthed phial, and increasing in intensity and
strength as pregnancy (of which it is one of the characteristic signs) advances.
in animals exhibiting the second type of placental structure — ns, for example, the
pig — the placenta is comparatively simple- in its structure. "No decidua is developed;
U. K. XI.— 48
Placenta. '7K-1
league.
the elevations and depressions of the unimpregnnted uterus simply acquire a greater
si/.e and vascularity during pregnancy, and cohere close'/ -vith tlic chorionic villi.
which do not become restricted to one spot, but are developed from all parts of the
chorion, except its poles, and remain persistent in the broad /one thus formed through-
out fetal life. The cohesion of the fetal and maternal placenta', however, is overcome
by slight maceration or post-mortem change; and at parturition, the fetal vilii are sim-
ply drawn out like lingers from a glove, no TtBCUiar sub-tan. -e of the mother being
thrown off." Prof. Huxley, from whose /;''< <//< nix >/f ('<'/,,/'ii/>iti>-c An«t,,ti,i/ <1S(54. p.
103) the preceding extract is borrowed, follows the opinion adopted by I)e Blainville.
Vou Baer, Eschricht, Milne-Edwards, Gervais. and Yogi in regarding "the features of
the placenta as affording the best characters which have yet been proposed for el
ing the monodelphous [or placenta!] mammals." He proposes to apply the term <hi-idn-
ate to those animals whose placenta presents the human type, and which throw off a
decidua; and to term those animals nmi-ili-i-iilihit,' in which the placenta i< constructed
on the same plan as that of the pig. "Thus." he observes, "man; the apes, or so-call« d
guild rinnana; the innef-tiporft; the ehe ir»i>ttr<i ; the rwlenlin, to which the lowest apes
present so many remarkable approximations; and the carnirorn, are all as closely con-
nected by their placeutal structure as they are by their general affinities. With the
pig, on the other hand, the ungulate quadrupeds, and the i;(,n;,i which have been stud-
ied, agree in developing no decidua, or, in other words, in the fact that no vaseuh':
maternal parts are thrown off during parturition. But considerable differences -ire
observed in the details of the disposition of the foetal villi, and of the parts of the uterus
which receive them. Thus, in the horse, camel, and cetucea, the villi are scattered a> in
the pig, and the placenta is said to be diffuse; while in almost all true /•»/////*"///.» the
fo?tal villi are gathered into bundles or cotyledons, which in the sheep are convex, and
are received into cups of the mucous membrane of the uterus: while in the cow. on the
contrary, they are concave, and fit upon corresponding convexities of the uterus."
The remarks which have been made on the functions of the human placenta, are
equally applicable to all placenta! mammals generally.
The diseases of the human placenta had not been studied with any accuracy, until the
subject was taken up by prof. Simpson. This distinguished physician and Mibscqucnt
observers have ascertained that the placenta is liable to (1) congestion, ending in the
effusion of blood into the substance of the organ upon its surfaces, or between the mem-
branes; (2) inflammation, giving rise to adhesions, or terminating in suppuration, which
may occasion very serious constitutional disturbances; (3) partial or entire hypertrophy
or atrophy; and (4), fatty degeneration, affecting its small ve-sels. "Whatever be the
form of disease by which the placenta is attacked, the result is usually fatal to the
fetus.
PLACENTA, in botany, a membrane of the interior of the germen (q.v.) or ovary, to
which the ovules are attached either immediately or by umbilical cords (q.v.). The pla-
centa sometimes appears as a mere thickening of the walls of the germen. In many
cases, it is a more decided projection from the walls of the germei:. AVhen thus con-
nected with the walls of the germen, the placenta; are described as parietal (Lat. /
a wall). But in some plants, the placentae of the different cells of the germen are united
together in a column in its axis, and they are then described as <i.n't<>. This distinction is
of great importance as characterizing different natural orders. Parietal placenta1 are
formed where the edges of carpellnry leaves unite; but great difficulty has been experi-
enced by vegetable physiologists in explaining the formation of axile placenta1; some
regarding them as also originally formed in this manner, and others as formed in a quite
different manner from the axis itself; nor is it impossible that both theories may be cor-
rect as to different orders of plants. It is certain that in mar.y cases in which the placenta
appear as axile, they are formed from the edges of the cnrpellary leaves \\hich fold in to
meet in the axis, and form dissepiment* (q.v.) between the cells of the germen. The
number of placenta; corresponds with the number of carpels in the germen, or appears
to be the double of it, each carpel producing two rows of ovules instead of one. See
article PISTIL.
} PLACENZA. See PIACENZA.
PLACER, a co. in e. California, adjoining Xcvads, bounded on the e. by lake Tahoe,
on the s. by the middle fork of the American river, on the n.w. by Hear river, drained
by the n. fork of the American river, traversed by the Central Pacific, and the Oregon
division of that railroad: about 1500 sq.m.; pop. '80, 14.226—9.015 of American birth.
The surface is uneven, crossed in the e. by the Sierra Nevada, and covered with great
forests of pine. The rivers flow :n deep, narrow canyons. The valicy soil is fertile.
The principal productions are barley, wool, wheat, and wine. Quart/., slate, granite,
and serpentine are found. Placer-mining is extensively carried on, and gold is the
principal export. Co. seat, Auburn.
PLACETUM REGIUM, called also PLACET. EXEVUATITR, LKTTHES PATENTED is nn act
or instrument executed in virtue of the privilege claimed by the government in certain
kingdoms to exercise a supervision over the communications of the Roman pontiff with
the clergy and people of those kingdoms, and to suspend or prevent the publication of any
brief, bull, or other papal instrument which may appear to contravene the laws of the
'rr, ,•: Placenta.
* Plu"u<'.
kingdom, or to compromise the public interest. The early Christian emperors, it is well
kno.vn, freely stretched their legislation into the affairs of the church; and one constant
can Mi of conflict between church and state in the mediaeval period was the attempt, on the
part of the sovereigns, to control the free intercourse of the pope with the several churches.
In the pragmatic sanction in France, and in the similar legislation of Spain, Portugal, Sicily,
and the Low Countries during the 15th c., the claims of the state on the same head arc more
1 iian once asserted ; and among the so-called "liberties" of the later Gallican church w; s a
(•••:tain though not a complete subjection to the state in this particular; but it was in the
< J : i.ian states that this claim was most distinctly asserted, and most formally embodied in
tae constitutional law. The principle upon which the peace of Westphalia, so far as regards
its religious provisions, is based, is that the will of the sovereign of the state is supreme
and final in all the concerns of religion. Cujun regio illius et rclit/'io (" Whose the territory,
his also the religion") became the maxim of church government; and, of course, within
certain limits, the Catholic sovereigns acted as freely upon it as the Protestant. This
intermixture' of the spiritual and the temporal prevailed especially in the mixed govern-
ments of the ecclesiastical sovereigns of Germany, the prince-bishops of the Rhine; but
;:t tiie saint; foundation, the system was carried to its height in Austria under Joseph
II. (see FEBKONIAXISM, Pius VI.), the excessive minuteness of whose ecclesiastical ordi-
nances procured for him the sobriquet of "The Sacristan." Under him all pontifical
bulls, briefs, and constitutions, and ail the ordinances of the local bishops, were made
subject to the imperial censorship, and it was forbidden to publish any of them without
its receiving the placet of the emperor. The only exception, in the case of pontifical
decrees, regarded those emanating from the Roman penitentiaiy (q.v.), which, as being
of their nature secret, were not held subject to revision. In Prus-ria the same law was
enforced, as also in Baden and Saxony, no less than in the Protestant governments of
Wllrtemberg, Saxe Gotha, Saxe- Weimar, etc. These claims of the state had always
be -n the subject of protest on the part of the Roman see, but the church, nevertheless,
had been compelled to acquiesce silently in the enforcement. In many cases, however,
they have led to serious disputes, of which the mixed-marriage question in Prussia
furnished a few years ago a very remarkable example. And since the ascendency
obtained by Prussia in the German empire at the close of the Franco-German war, the
.n of church legislation has undergone a complete change, the details of church
irovernment being largely taken into the control of the state, and obedience to the new
co le of church laws being exacted from the clergy under penalty of forfeiture of income,
of deprivation of ollice, and in some cases of exile.
PLA COID FISHES, an order of fishes, in the classification proposed by Agassiz. char-
acterize! by having placoid (Gr. p'ax, a broad plate) scales, irregular plates of hard bone,
not imbricated, but placed near together in the skin. These scales or plates are »f con-
siderable si/.e in some fishes, but in others they are very small tubercles, as in the dog-
fish, of which the skin forms fine-grained shagreen. Agassi/ includes among the placoid
those cartilaginous fishes w'hich have no scales. The order is exclusively com-
posed of cartilaginous fishes (q.v.). The existing placoid fishes are few in comparison
with the fossil genera and species. Placoid scales are often elevated in the middle, the
center sometimes rising into a strongly projecting point or spine. They exhibit great
variety of forms, sometimes even in different parts of the same fish.
PLAGAL, a musical term, principally applicable to canto fonno and signifying col-
lateral. Gregory the great, in revising the labors of Ambrose, and remodeling the
plain-song (q v.) of the church, added to the scales of Ambrose, which he distinguished
as authentic, certain other collateral scales, which he called plagal, possessinj; the pecul-
iarity of having the octave so divided that the fourth was above the fifth. Melodies are
now known as plagal which have their principal notes contained between the fifih of the
k( .y and its octave or twelfth. The cadence, consisting of the subdominaut harmony
followed by the tonic, is called the plagal cadence —
PLA'GIOSTOMI (Gr. transverse mouthed), an order of fishes, in the system of Muller,
containing the cartilaginous fishes with placoid (q.v.) scales, and divided into two sub-
orders, one containing sharks, and the other rays. The plagiostomi have five or six
more gill-openings. They have no air-bladder. Impregnation takes place before the
eggs are deposited, and the males are furnished with clasper*.
PLAGUE, a very malignant kind of contagious fever prevailing at certain times and
places epidemically, characterized by buboes, or swellings of the lymphatic glands, by
carbuncles and petechia?. and not apparently furnishing any security against its recur-
rence in the same individual. For a history of the origin of the plague in the far east
(China), and its gradual spread, under the name of the black death (q.v.), through Asia
and Europe, in the 14th c., the reader is referred to Hecker's Kpidcniksof lie. MW!?.
Age* (1844, published by the Sydenham society). Its true and permanent home seems to
be in the regions bordering upon the eastern extremity of the Mediterranean. At differ-
ent periods of the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries, it visited western Europe. It last
attacked London and almost nil England in the years 1663-65; while so late as 1720, it
destroyed nearly half the population of Marseilles; and seventy years afterwards, pre-
vailed in Russia and Poland, since which time it has been almost unknown in western
Europe. It is now limited chiefly to Kirypt, Syria, Anatolia, Greece, and Turkey, occa-
sionally extending northward towards Ru>. ia. ami westward as far as Malta.
The disease usually commences with a sensation of intense weariness and fatigue,
slight shivering, nausea and sickness, confusion of ideas, giddiness, and pain in the
loins. These symptoms are rapidly followed by increased mental disturbance, with
occasional stupor and delirium, by alternate pallor and Hushing of the face, by suffusion
of the eyes, and a feeling of intense constriction in the region of the heart. Darting
pains arc felt in the groins, armpits, and other parts of the body, which are soon fol-
lowed by enlargements of the lymphatic glands, or buboca (which sometimes appear on
the first and second day, sometimes not till near the close of the disease, and sometimes
are altogether absent), and by the formation of carbmtdrx on various parts of the body.
As the disease advances, the tongue becomes dry and brown, while the gums, teeth, and
lips are covered with a dark: fur; the bowels, at first constipated, become relaxed, the
stools being dark, offensive, and sometimes bloody. The power of the will on the
muscles is much impaired; and altogether the patient resembles a person under the
influence of intoxication. Throughout the disease, there is more or less tendency to
faiutness; and usually about the second or third day, petechial spots, livid patches like
bruises, and dark stripes (called vibices), appear upon the skin, esp-ciaily in severe c
These discolorations are owing to the extravasation of blood, and are often accompanied
with hemorrhagic discharges from the mucous membranes cases, the pulse gradually
sinks, the surface becomes cold and clammy, blood oozes from the mucous surface-;.
there is coma, or low delirium: and death occurs usually in five or six days, either with-
out a struggle, or preceded by convulsions.
Great difference of opinion exists as to the cause of plague. Some maintain that it is
propagated exclusively by a peculiar contagion; others, while admitting its contagious
nature, maintain that it may also be spontaneously engendered by endemic or epidemic
influences; while others, again, reject the contagion view altogether, and assert th;.t it,
originates exclusively in local causes or epidemic influences. Of these three views, the
great mass of evidence goes to show that the second is the correct one. "Whatever may
be the cause of the disease, temperature appears to exert a considerable influence over it.
In tropical climates, the disease is unknown, and the cold weather of northern climates
has been observed to check its ravages. In Europe, it has always been most fatal in
the summer and autumn, especially in September. Thus, in the plague of London in
1665, the deaths from the plague were, in June, 590; in July, 4,129; in August, 20.046;
in September 26,230; in October, 14,373; in November, 3,449; while in December, they
were less than 1000.
The exact nature of the disease is unknown. A poison whose characters evade all
chemical and microscopical examination is absorbed and alters at once, or after a short
stage of incubation, the composition of the blood and the condition of the tissues.
With respect to treatment, little can be done to arrest the progress of the disease in
any individual case. The patient should, if possible, be removed at once from the
source of the disease: he should be exposed freely to fresh air: his secretions should be
duly regulated, and his strength supported as far as possible. Friction with olive oil
has been strongly recommended, but subsequent experience has not confirmed the first
reports in its favor. But although treatment is comparatively valueless, much may be
done toward guarding against the attacks of the disease. There can be little doubt that
it is in consequence of the free external use of cold water, perfect cleanliness, moderate
habits of life, and superior ventilation that European (especially English) residents in
the infected cities of the Levant are comparatively exempt from this disease. It is very
possible that inunction of the body with olive oil may be (as has been asserted) a useful
prophylactic agent, alfhougli it fails to cure the disease. It is almost needless to add
that all unnecessary communication with the sick, or contact with clothes or other matter
that may have been infected with the poison, should be as much as possible avoided.
PLAGUE, SOUTHERN CATTLE. See TEXAS CATTLE DISEASE.
PLAICE, Plfttcxxa r>i!(;aris, a species of flounder (q.v.), much resembling the common
flounder, but rather broader in proportion to its length: the upper surface of the body
and the fins olive-brown, marked with large bright orange spots; a row of similar spots
on the dorsal fin and on the anal fin; no tubercular asperities on any part of the body,
but a curved row of bony tubercles on the eye-side of the head. The plaice inhabits
sandy and muddy banks, not in very deep water, and is very abundant on most parts of
the British coasts, as well as on those of continental Europe. Like the common flounder,
it often ascends slow rivers to some* distance from the sea, and it has even been found to
thrive well when transferred to fresh-water ponds. It feeds on worms, mollusks, small
crustanceans, and young fishes. It has been known to attain the weight of fifteen
pounds, but a plaice of seven or eight pounds is accounted large. It is taken both by
lines and trawl-nets. It is in considerable esteem for the table, although so plentiful in
the British markets that it is in general very cheap.
To 7 Plague.
• " * i>i<.r.
Plaua.
PLAID, a woolen garment, in the form of a large scarf, to wrap round the body, and
used chiefly among the rural population of Scotland. See TAKTAN.
PLAIN, in geography, is an extensive tract of country which, on the whole, preserves
a nearly uniform elevation. When referred to the level of the sea, plains may be dis-
tinguished into low plains or lowlands, and elevated plains called plateaux or tabie-fandt
(q.v.). Plains differ much in appearance, according to the nature of their soil and
climate, from the fri
American
, er so an
m the frightful sandy wastes of Africa, to the luxuriant fertility of the South
silvas. They are occasionally crossed by hills of moderate altitude, which,
confined to the plains of western Europe; those of other parts of the world receiving
special designations, and differing from each other in many important points; thus, we
have the steles (q.v.) of eastern Europe and Asia; the deserts (q.v.) of Arabia and Africa;
the savannahs (q.v.) and prairies (q.v.) of North America; and the llanos (q.v.), pavi].as
(q.v.), and silvan (q.v.) of South America. The chief plains of Europe are, the country
stretching from the foot of the Carpathians in Galicia to the Ural mountains (including
Poland and Russia, the drainage-area of the Danube in Hungary, and the portion of
Europe which is bounded by the Elbe, the Harz mountains, France, and the sea. Plains
of comparatively small extent, but presenting the necessary characteristics in perfection,
are found m almost all countries.
. PLAINFIELD, a city in n.e. New Jersey incorporated 1869; on the Central railroad
of New Jersey in Union co. ; pop. '80, 8,126. It is 24 m. from New York, 11 m. from
New Brunswick, and 12 m. from Elizabeth. It has many costly residences, chiefly
occupied by persons doing business in New York. 9 churches, public schools, an insti-
tute, and a seminary for young ladies. It supports 3 weekly newspapers, a hotei, and
has 4 national banks. Its industries include the manufacture of clothing, hats, ma-
chinery, etc.
PLAIH -SONG, or CANTO FERMO (Ital.), a name given by the church of Rome to the
ecclesiastical chant, It is an extremely simple melody, admitting only notes of equal
value, rarely extending beyond the compass of an octave, and never exceeding nine notes,
the staff on which the notes are placed consisting of only four lines. The clefs are C
and F. St. Ambrose is considered to have been the inventor or systematize!' of plain-song.
II is labors consisted in selecting from the extremely complicated system of the Greeks a
set of scales sufficiently few and simple for a very rude people. During the two cen-
turies succeeding the death of Ambrose, his institutions fell into utter confusion. Greg-
ory the great revived and perfected them, recasting them into an antiphony, or author-
ized body of ecclesiastical music, and brought plain-song into the state in which it is y*t
used in the Roman church. See AMBROSIAN CHANT and GREGORIAN CHANT.
PLAIN TIFF, in English and Irish law, is the name given to the person who institutes
and maintains a civil action or suit against another, who is called the defendant. In
Scotland a plaintiff is called a pursuer. But in both countries many proceedings and
applications of a civil nature are commenced by petition ; and hence the party taking the
initiative is called the petitioner.
PLAINTIFF (ante) corresponds to the complainant in equity proceedings, the libel-
ant in admiralty suits, and the complainant in the old "real actions." A distinction
exists at common law between the legal and equitable plaintiff; the former is the man
in whom the leiral right of action is vested; the latter he who is equitably entitled to the
relief or damages sued for. Thus if A brings an action for the use or benefit of H, A is
the legal and B the equitable plaintiff. In the system of pleading and procedure now
in use in most states, the name of the party really interested is inserted in the declaration
and the old distinction abolished. The p'lantiff in error is the party suing out a writ of
error for the purpose of appealing to a higher court and may be either the plaintiff or
defendant in the original suit. A plaintiff ad litem is one appointed to represent an
insane person or minor for the purpose of prosecuting the suit.
PLAN, a word frequently applied to all kinds of architectural drawings, but which
ought to be limited to those which represent the horizontal sections of the various floors
of buildings. Plans showrthe disposition of the apartments and walls, with the situation
of the fire-places, cupboards, doors, etc.; they, in fact, represent the different stories as
they actually appear as seen from above, \vhen the walls are built two or three feet
above the level of each floor.
PLANA. GIOVANNI ANTONIO AMADEO DE, Baron 1781-1864; b. Italy; educated at the
Paris polytechnic school. He held the chair of mathematics at the Alessandria artillery
school 1803-11, when he became professor of astronomy at the university of Turin. In
1813 he was made director of the Turin observatory. His most important works are a
treatise On the Theory of the Attraction of Elliptical Spheroids, 1810: and Theory of the
M'ocfmcnt of the Moon, 1832. He was made baron and senator, ami elected to the French
academy
ri".n:iria. *--o
Planetarium. too
PLANA RIA, a genus of worms placed by Cuvicr among fntnzort. although not para-
sites, but ioliabittmta of stagnant waters, because of their groat resemblance to some of
the enlo/oic parasites, and particularly to flukes. The species are numerous. Some
inhabit frcsli. and others salt water; they feed on r.mall annelids, mollusks, etc. They
are generally found creeping among conferva', or on the steins of plants. Many of the
larger marine species are able to swim freely by flappings of the broad margins of their
bodies. The body of a planaria seems to be entirely gelatinous; but M. de Quatrcf'ages
has detected under the skin an arrangement of muscular fibers. Two red specks in the
fore-part of the body of many species have been supposed to beeves: but there is no ,
proof of it. Planariae are hermaphrodite, but copulate for mutual impregnation. Their '.
power of multiplication by division is very great; if an individual be cut in pieces, each
piece continues to live and feel, and "even if it be the end of the tail, as soon as the first
moment of pain and irritation has passed, begins to move in the same direction as that
in which the entire animal was advancing, as if the body was actuated throughout by
the same impulse; and, moreover, every division, even if it is not more than the eighth
or tenth part of the creature, will become complete and perfect in all its organs." — lit/mt >•
Jones.
PLANCHE. JAMES ROBINSON, 1796-1880; b. London; was successful ns a writer of
more than 2UO pieces for the stage; some of which were translations from the French.
His first work was a burlesque called Amoroso, King of Little Britain. In D-^li. having
traveled on the continent, he published Lays and Legends of the Rhine; 1827, 1 )<,•«•<• /it /*/'
the Danube.; 18.28. Charles XII.. one of his best works. In 18«X) he was chosen a member
of the antiquarian society; and appointed Somerset herald, 1866. Among his numerous
publications are: History of British Costume; Regal Records; The Pursuivant of A /•//<••<,
or Heraldry founded upon Truth; King Nut-Cracker, a Fairy Tale; Popular Fairy 7'<i''<*
Illustrated; Recollections and Reflections, a Professional Autobiography ; The Conqueror and
his Companions.
PLANCHE, JEAN BAPTISTE GCSTAVE, 1808-57; b. Paris; educated at the Bourbon
college. He was a contributor to the Revue, des Deux Mondes, an associate of Balzac on
the Ghronique de Paris, and a writer on Italian art.
PLANCHETTE (a little board) is, as the name implies, a French invention, but it.^
popularity in America has induced the belief of its being of American origin. It con-
sists of a heart-shaped board seven or eight inches at its greatest breadth and length,
mounted on two pentagraph wheels, about two inches high, at its Avidest part, while a
pencil fastened at, the apex forms its third support. Placed upon a table with a sheet of
paper under it, and one or two persons with the necessary qualifications having their
hands upon its tablet, setting it in motion, it is found to return answers to questions
sometimes of a puzzling character. These answers are asserted by believers in spiritual-
ism to he communications from the spirit-world.
PLANCUS, Lucius MUNATIUS, b. at Tibur near Rome; in youth one of Cicero's
pupils and later an officer of Caesar in the Gallic wars. After the assassination of C;esar,
Plancus at first favored Brutus, but soon went over with four legions to Antony. In i; c.
42 he was consul with Lepidus. In the contest between Antony and Octavius, he sided
with the latter, and proposed in the senate the title of Augustus. Plancus was a man
of some literary taste and to him one of Horace's odes is addressed.
PLANE, in geometry, is a surface without curvature, and the test of it is, that any
two points whatever being taken in the surface, the straight line which joins them lies
wholly in the surface. When two planes cross or intersect one another, their common
section is a straight line; and the inclination of the planes to each other is measured by
taking any point in their common section, and drawing from it two straight lines, one
in each plane, perpendicular to the common section; the angle contained by these lines
is the angle of inclination of the planes. When the angle is a right angle, the planes are
perpendicular to each other.
PLANE, Plfttanttn, the sole genus of trees of the natural order platanacea, regarded !
by many as a suborder of amentucea; (q.v.). The flowers are in globose, small, pendu- j
lous, long stalked catkins, which give the tree a peculiar appearance in winter; the ovary
is one-celled, and contains one or two pendulous ovules. The species of plane are very
few; natives of temperate climates in the northern hemisphere; tall trees, with deciduous
large palmate leaves, and smooth whitish bark, which annually scales off in large pieces.
The ORIENTAL PLANE (P. orwntalix), a native of Greece and the east, was planted by t he-
Greeks and the Romans as an ornamental tree; no other tree, indeed, commanding equal
admiration; and, for centuries, the youth of Greece assembled under its shade, in the
groves of Academus, to receive lessons in philosophy. The plane is still planted for shade
and ornament in the south of Europe. Many fine trees exist in England, but they were
at one time miK-h more numerous, great part having died in the end of last century. The
spring frosts, and the insufficient duration of the summer for the proper ripening of the
wood, render Scotland less suitable for its cultivation; yet there is a tree at Gordon cas-
tle 66 ft. high. No tree better endures the atmosphere of a large city, and there are no
finer trees within the precincts of London than its plane trees. In the east the plane
Planaria.
Planetarium.
attains an immense size. One tree, in the meadow of Buyukdere on the banks of the
Bosporus, is 141 ft. in circumference at the base, extends its brunches 45 ft. from the
trunk, and is believed to be more than 2.000 years old. The wood of the plane, when
young, is yellowish-white; when old, it is brownish, fine grained, takes a high polish,
and is esteemed for cabinet-making. A rich alluvial soil and the vicinity of water are
most suitable to this tree. — The NOKTH AMERICAN PLANE, or BUTTON WOOD (P. occiden-
tal!*), is a very similar tree. It is the largest deciduous tree of the United States, and
abounds on the banks of the great rivers of the middle states. Its timber is not very
valuable, and is very liable to decay. A tree of this species on the bank of the Thames,
in Chelsea hospital gardens, is 115ft. high, with a trunk five ft. in diameter. The name
plane-tree is commonly given in Scotland to the sycamore (acer pseudo-platanus), which
resembles the true planes in its foliage.
PLANE, a tool used for rendering the surface of wood smooth and level. It consists
of an oblong block of wood or metal (the latter has only recently come into use), with an
opening through the center; this opening is square on the upper side, and is always large
enough to admit the cutting instrument; it diminishes down to a mere slit on the under
side, just wide enough to allow the cutting edge of the plane-iron and the shaving of
wood which it cuts olf to pass through. The essential part of the tool is the plane-iron,
a piece of steel with a chisel-shaped edge, and a slot in its center for a large-headed
screw to work and to attach to it a strengthening plate. They are held in place by the
hard-wood wedge. By driving in the wedge, the irons are held very firmly in their place,
and they are so adjusted that only the fine sharp chisel-edge of the cutting-tool projects
through the slit in the bottom of the body of the plane, so that when the tool is pushed
forward b}' the force of the hand, the cutting edge pares off all irregularities, until the
wood is as smooth as the under surface of the plane. There are many modifications iu
this tool, which can have its cutting edge and under surface made to almost any contour,
so that moldings of all kinds may be made. The two commonest are the jack-plane
for rough work, and the smoothing-plane for finishing off plane surfaces.
PLANINO-MACHINES have lately been much in use, by which both wood and metal are
planed. Iu the case of those intended for wood, the cutting instruments are moved for-
ward over the wood by machinery in the same manner as in the hand-plane. The
precision and rapidity with which these machines work have given great facilities for
building, as one machine will do as much work as sixty men. The planing-machines
u>ed for metal are different in principle. A well-tempered, chisel-edged steel cutter is
held in a fixed position, pressing downwards upon the metal plate, which is moved for-
ward by powerful machinery. The action of this movement is that a groove is plowed
into the metal of the size of the steel cutter; when the metal has traveled its full length,
and has made the groove complete, the downward pressure of the tool is removed, and
by the action of the double screw which has carried it forward, it is returned, and
readjusted for another groove to be formed by the side of the first; and this is repeated
until the whole surface of the plate is reduced to the required level. However tedious
this process may appear, it offers such facilities for metal working as were previously
unknown.
PLANER THEE, found on swampy lands in the southern states, is like the elm in
general appearance, but has a different flower and fruit; of moderate size, and supplies
hard timber, useful for various purposes. A sp " ies found in the Levant has aromatic
wood — the Cretan false sandal-wood mentioned by old writers. A third species, a native
of Persia and the Caucasus, has been introduced into Europe; it is tall and handsome,
and furnishes excellent timber.
PLANE TA, the Greek name of the vestment called by the Latins cas\ila, and in Eng-
lish "chasuble," which is worn by priests in the celebration of mass. The form of this
vestment in the modern Roman church differs both from the ancient form and
from that in use 5a the Greek church. The change appears to date from the 9th c. , but
has been gradual. A certain modification of the Roman planeta was recently introduced
in England under the inspiration of the late Mr. Pugin, the great reviver of Gothic
architecture and ecclesiastical costume and decoration. But its use has been only partial
even in England.
PLANETA'RIUM, a machine much employed by astronomers in the 17th and 18th c.,
and first constructed by Huyghens and Romer, for the purpose of exhibiting clearly the
motion of the heavenly bodies in conformity with the Copernican doctrine. The plan-
etarium exhibited only the orbital motions of the planets about the sun, either in circles
or ellipses, and with constant or varying motions, according to the perfection of the
machine. It was subsequently supplemented by the combined tellurian and lunarian.
which exhibited at one and the same time the motion of the moon about the earth and
that of the latter round the sun, with the principal phenomena (such as the succession
of day and night, the varying length of each, eclipses, and the motion of the moon's
apogee and nodes) which accompany these motions. A satellite machine was also
invented to illustrate the motions of Jupiter's satellites. All these machines are now
combined in the Orrery (q.v.), which exhibits in the best, manner possible the varied
motions and phenomena of the bodies in the solar system.
Planetoids
Planets.
TOO
PLANETOIDS, or ASTEROIDS, the name given to that numerous group of very small
planeis which arc situated in the soiar system between Mar- and Jupiter. Till the
present century they remained undiscovered; but for some years before, their existence
had been suspected, mainly owing to the remarkable hiatus i'n the series of the planetary
distances when compared with the law of liode (q.v.). On the first day of the present
century the first of them was delected by Pia/xi of Palermo, and his success roused his
brother astronomers to search for more planets. Their search was successful, for Olhers
(q.v.) discovered two in 1802 and 1807, and Harding one in 1804; but as all researches
for some time subsequent to 1807 were unavailing, astronomers gradually allowed them-
selves to settle down into the belief that no more planetoids remained to be di.-envered,
when the detection of a fifth by Ilencke in IMo revived the hope of fresh di>coverics.
and from this period no year (excepting 184G) has passed without adding to the list. The
number now known is more than 170. This remarkable success of the astronomers of
our time is due to the systematic manner in which the /odiacal belt has been explored,
and the place and apparent size of every star of this region distinctly determined ; >o
that the nreiencc of a wandering body can at once be detected.
The magnitudes of these celestial bodies have not been accurately ascertained, but it is
certain that they are exceedingly small as compared even with Mercury, lite least of the
other planets; the diameter of the largest among them being generally believed no? to
exceed 450 miles, while most of the oriiers are very much smaller than this. They also
differ, generally speaking, from the rest of the planets in other respects; their orbits are
of greater eccentricity, are inclined to the ecliptic at a greater angle, and are interlaced
in a most intricate manner, crossing each other so frequently as to form, when viewed
perpendicularly, a kind of net-work. The consequence of tins is that a planetoid which
is nearest the sun at one part of its orbit is, when at another part of its orbit, further
from it than are several of the others, and a mutual eclipsing of the sun at different
periods by two planetoids must be of very frequent occurrence. Of the planetoids, of
which the elements had in 1876 been satisfactorily calculated, Flora has the >i
period of revolution, 1193 days, and Sylvia the longest, 2,374 days. The conespomiiiig
mean distances from the sun, expressed in parts of the earth's mean distance, are
respectively 2.201 and 3.484. [But it is now known that Hilda has a period of 2,868
days and a mean distance of 3.947.] The nearest approach to the sun is made by 1'lnu ea
(perihelion distance, 1.787). Freia recedes furthest from him (aphelion distance. 4.002).
Polyhymnia's orbit has the greatest excentricity, amounting to 0.33998; Lomia's, the
least, 0.2176. Massalia's orbit makes a smaller angle— only 41' 7" — with the ecliptic
than that of any other planet in the solar system, while the inclination of the orbit of
Pallas is no less than 34° 42' 41". After the first two or three of these bodies had been
discovered, the opinion was propounded by Gibers that they were but the fragments of
some large planet; and this hypothesis received corroboration from the intimate COMICC
tiou which was shown to subsist among them; but of late years it has fallen out of favor
with astronomers. Some infer that the planetoids are best accounted for by the nebular
hypothesis. It has been calculated that»the combined mass of all the planetoids cannot
exceed one-fourth of the earth's mass. The number of planetoids discovered now
amounts to 200; the following is a table of those known in Feb., 1877:
Name.
D£coeve°r>. Discoverer.
Name.
D?^ove0rV. Discoverer.
1 Ceres
1801, Jan. l|Piazzi, Palermo.
1802, Mar. 28,Olbers, Bremen.
18ftl, Sept. 1 Harding, Bremen.
1807, Mar. 29 Olbers. [(Prussia).
87 Svlvia...
1866, May 16 Pogson, Madras.
" June 16 Peter*.
" Aug. 6 Stephun, Marseille.
" Oct. 1 Luiher.
" Nov. 4 Su'phan.
1867, July • Peters.
" Aug. 2-> Watson.
" Sept. 2(i Watson.
" Nov. 23 Luther.
1868, Feb. 17 Coggia. Marseille.
" Feb. 17Tempel.
" Apr. 18 Peters.
" May 29 Borelly, Marseille
" July 11 Watson.
" Aug. 16 Watson.
" Aug. 22 Peters.
'• Sept. 7 Watson.
" Sept. 13 Watson.
"• Sept. 16 Watson.
" Oct. 10 Watson.
" Nov. 17 Pop-von, Madras.
1869. Apr. 2 Luther.
" Oct. 9 Per ITS.
1870, Apr. 1!) Borelly.
" Aug. 14 Pel «•!•*.
" Sept. 19 Pt-tel-u.
:sTl,M. r. 12 Luther.
" July 24 Peters.
" Aug. 6 Watson.
2. Pallas ....
88. T'hisbe
89. Julia
4. Vesta
90. Antiope
91. JEgina.
5. Astraea
6. Hebe
7. Iris
1845, Pec. 8 Hencke, Driesen
1847, July 1 Hencke.
" Aug. 13' Hind, London.
" Oct. 18 Hind.
1848, Apr. 25 Graham. Sligo.
1849, Apr. 12 De Gasparis, Naples.
1850, May 11 De Gasparis.
" Sept. 13 Hind.
" Nov. 2 De Gasparis.
1851, May 19 Hind.
" July 29 De Gasparis.
1852, Mar. 17 De Gnsparis. [dorfX
" Apr. 17 Luther, Bilk (DUssel-
" June 24 Hind.
" Aug. 22;Hind.
" Sept. 19 De Gasparis.
" Nov. 15 Goldschmidt, Paris.
" Nov. 1(1 Hind.
" Dec. ISHind.
1853, Apr. 5 De Gasparis.
" Apr. 7 Chai-ornae, Marseille
" Mav 5 Luther.
" Nov. 8 Hind.
1854, Mar. 1 Luther.
" Mar. 1 Marth, London.
!)2. Undina
93. Minerva
!U. Aurora
95. Arethusa
96. ^Egle
97. Clotho
98. lanthe
8. Flora
9. Metis
10. Hygieia
11. Parthenope.
12. Victoria
13. Esrerta
'.!'.». Dike
100. Hecate ....
101. Helena
I H2. Miriam
103 Hera
15. Eunomia. .. .
16. Psvche
17. Thetis . . . .
IS. Melpomene.
19. Fortuna
20. Massalia
21. Lutetia
22. Calliope
23. Thalia
24. Themis
25. Phocea
26. Proserpine .
27. Euterpe
2S. Bellona
99. Amphitrite .
104. Clymene ....
105. Artemis
106. Dione
107. Camilla
10S. Hecuba
H>'.). Felicitas
nil l.vdia
111. Ate
112. Iphigenia .. .
113. Amalthea....
114. Cassandra...
115. Thyra
761
Planetoids.
Planets.
Name.
Date of
Discovery.
Discoverer.
Name.
Date of
Discovery.
Discoverer.
1854, July 22
4L Sept. 1
" Oct. 26
" Oct. 28
1855, Apr. 6
" Apr. 19
" Oct. 5
" Oct. 5
1856, Jan. 12
" Feb. 8
" Mar. 31
" May 22
" May 23
1857, Apr. 15
" May 27
' June 27
' Aug. lli
' Sept. 9
' Sept. 15
4 Sept. 19
' Sept. 19
" Oct. 4
1858, Jan. 22
" Feb. 6
" Apr. 4
" Sept. 10
" Sept. 10
1859, Sept. 22
ISOO, Mar. 24
" Sept. 12
" Sept, 15
" Sept. 19
" Sept. 14
1861, Feb. 10
" Mar. 4
" Mar. 8
" Apr. 9
'' Apr. 17
" Apr. 29
" Apr. 29
" May 5
" Aug. 13
1862, Feb. 12
" Apr. 7
" Aug. 29
" Sept. 22
" Oct. 21
" Nov. 12
1863, Mar. 15
" Sept. 19
1864, May 3
" Sept. 30
" Nov. 27
1805, Apr. 26
" Aug. 25
" Sept. 19
1866, Jan. 6
Hind. [ton.
Ferguson, Washing-
Goldschmiclt.
Chacornac, Paris.
Chacornac.
Luther.
Goldschmidt.
Luther.
Chacornac.
Ciiacornac.
Goldschmidt.
Goldschmidt.
Pogson, Oxford.
Pogson.
Goldschmidt.
Goldschmidt.
Pogson.
Goldschmidt.
Luther.
Goldschmidt.
Goldschmidt.
Ferguson.
Laurent, Nimes (Fr.)
Goldschmidt.
Luther.
Goldschmidt.
Searle, Albany, N.Y.
Luther.
Luther.
Chacornac.
Ferguson.
Goldschmidt.
Forster. Berlin.
De Gasparis.
Tempel, Marseille.
Tempjl.
T uttle, Cambridge.
Pogson, Madras.
Schiaparelli, Milan.
Luther.
Goldschmidt.
Luther.
Peters, Clinton, N.Y.
Tuttle, U. S.
Tempel.
Peters.
D' Arrest, Copenh'g'n
Peters.
Luther.
Watson, Ann Arbor.
Pogson, Madras.
Tempel.
Luther.
De Gasparis.
Luther.
Peters.
Tietjen, Berlin.
:116. Sirona
1871, Sept. 8
" Sept. 1'.'
1872, Mar. 15
4 Apr. 3
' Apr. 10
4 May 12
' July 31
' July 31
" Aug. 23
" Sept. 11
" Nov. 5
' Nov. 5
' Nov. 25
1873, Feb. 5
' Feb. 17
' May 26
' June 13
" Aug. 16
14 Sept. 2r
1874, Feb. 18
14 Mar. 18
44 Apr. 21
'• May 19
44 Oct. 10
" Oct. 13
1875, Jan. 13
" Jan. 28
44 Feb. 23
14 June 3
' June 3
4 June 8
4 July 11
4 Aug. 7
4 Sept. 21
44 Oct. 18
44 Nov. 1
44 Nov. 2
' Nov. 2
' Nov. 4
4 Nov. 8
4 Nov. 22
4 Dec. 1
1876, Jan. 4
4 Jan. 26
4 Feb. 21
' Apr. 28
4 Apr. 21
4 Apr. 26
4 July 12
4 Aug. 10
4 Aug. 17
' Aug. 29
' Sept. 28
' Sept. 28
1877, Jan. 10
4 Jan. 13
4 Feb. 5
Peters.
Borelly.
Luther.
Watson.
Borelly.
Watson.
Peters.
Peters.
Peters.
Prosp. Henry, Pans.
Paul Henry, Paris.
Prosper Henry.
Watson.
Peters.
Peters.
Peters.
Watson.
Watson.
Luther.
Peters.
Palisa, Pola.
Palisa.
Perrotin, Toulouse.
Watson, Peking.
Palisa.
Paul Henry.
Palisa.
Palisa.
Peters.
Peters.
Borelly.
Schulhof , Vienna.
Prosper Henry.
Perrotin.
Watson.
Palisa.
Paul Henry.
Palisa.
Prosper Henry.
Palisa.
Palisa.
Borelly.
Knorre, Berlin.
Paul Henry.
Peters.
Watson.
Prosper Henry.
PeiTot n.
Paul Henry.
Peters.
Peters.
Peters.
Watson.
Prosper Henry.
Perrotin.
Borelly.
Borelly.
31. Euphrosyne
32. Pomona
33. Polyhymnia
34 Circe
'118 Peitho
,119. Althea
J120. Lachesis ....
121. Hermione .. .
122. Gervia
123. Bruiihilda...
12 1. Alcesl is
125. Liberatrix. . .
126. Velleda
127. Johanna
128. Nemesis ....
129. Antigone ....
130. Electra
131. Vala
35. Leucothea. .
36. Atalanta....
37 Fides . .
38 Leda
39. Lastitia
40. Harmonia . .
41. Daphne
42 Isis
43. Ariadne
44 Nysa
45. Eugenia ....
46 Hestia
132. ^Ethra
47 Melete
|l33. Cyrene
; 134. Sophrosyne..
j 135. Hertha
48. Agliia
49 Doris
50 Pales. *..
I3o. Austria
51. Virginia
52. Neinausa —
53. Europa
137. Meliboea
138 Tolosa
1 139. Juewa ....
140. Siwa
54. Calypso . . .
55. Alexandra . .
56. Pandora
57. Mnemosyne.
58. Concordia . .
59. Olympia
60 Echo . . .
141 Lumen
142. Polana
143. Adria
144. Vibilia
:146 Lucina
61. Danae
62 Erato . . .
147. Protogeiieia.
148 Gallia
63. Ausonia
64. Angelina
65. Maxirniliaiia
66 Mai a . .
149. Medusa
150. Nuwa
!151. Abuiidantia.
-152 Atala
67. Asia
153. Hilda
68. Hesperia —
69. Leto
154. Bertha
155. Scylla
156. Xanthippe . .
;157. Dejanira
158. Coronis
il59 .(Emilia
70. Panopea
72. Feronia
73. Clytie
74. Galatea
75. Eurydice
76. Freya
160 Una
161. Athor
:162. Laurentia ...
1C3. Erigone
77. Frigga
78. Dir.ua
104 Eva
79. Eurynome. .
80. Sappho
165. Loreley
166. Rhodope
107 Urda
81. Terpsichore.
82. Alcmene
83. Beatrix
84. Clio
108. Sibylla
169. Zelia
'170 Maria
85 lo
171. Ophelia
1 172. Baucis
86. Semele
PLANETS (Gr. planetes, "a wanderer") are those heavenly bodies (including the
earth) which belong to our solar system, and revolve in elliptic orbits round the sun.
They are often denominated primary planets, to distinguish them from their moons or
satellites, which are called secondary planets. The name planet is of considerable antiq-
uity, and was applied to these dependants of the sun to distinguish them from the
myriads of luminous bodies which stud the sky, and which present to the naked eye no
indication of change of place (see STARS). The planets at present known are, in the
order of their distance from the sun, Mercury, Venus, the earth, Mars, the planetoids
(q.v.), Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Six of these, Mercury, Venus, the earth
(which was not, however, then reckoned a planet). Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, were
known to the ancients; Uranus was discovered by sir William Herschel (q.v.) in 1781;
and Neptune, after having its position and elements determined theoretically by Lever-
rier and Adams, was discovered by M. Challis, and afterwards by Dr. Galle, 'in 1846.
The planetoids, of which more than 180 are now known, have all been discovered during
the present century. Five of the planets, the earth. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Nep-
tune, are attended by one or more satellites; Uranus (generally), Neptune, almost the
whole of the planetoids, and all the satellites except the moon, are invisible to the naked
eye. The visible planets can be at once distinguished from the fixed stars by their clear
steady light, while the latter have a sparkling or twinkling appearance. The compara-
tive proximity of the planets may be proved by examining them through a telescope
of moderate power, when they appear as round luminous disks, while the fixed stars
exhibit no increase of magnitude. The planets, as observed from the earth, move some-
Planets.
762
times from w. to e., sometimes from e. to w., and for some time remain stationary at the
point where progression ends and rein ^-res-ion Commences. This irregularity in their
movements was very pu/./.ling to the ancient astronomers, who invented various liypoth-
eses to account for it. See PTOLEMAIC SYSTKM and EPICYCLE. The system of Coper-
nicus, by r.ssuining the sun, and not the earth, as the center of the system, explained
with admirable simplicity what seemed before a maze of confusion.
The planetary orbits differ considerably in their degrees of eccentricity, the planet-
oids, Mars, and Mercury being most, and the larger planets least eccentric. No two
planets move exactly in the same plane, though, as a general rule, the planes of the
larger planets most nearly coincide with that of the ecliptic. The latter are consequently
always to be found within a small strip of the heavens extending on both sides of the
ecliptic; while the others have a far wider range, Pallas, one of them, having the angu-
lar elevation of its orbit no less than 34° 42" above the ecliptic. According to Kc pier's
laws (q.v.), the nearer a planet is to the sun the shorter is the time of its revoluti'>n. The
arrangement of the planets in the solar system bears no known relation to their relative
siztt or weight, for though Mercury, Venus, and the earth follow the same order in size
and distance from the sun, yet Mars, which is further from the sun, is much less than
either the earth or Venus, and the planetoids, which are still further off, are the lea-t
of all. Jupiter, which is next in order, is by far the largest, being about H times as
large as all the others together; and as we proceed further outwards, the placets become
smaller and smaller, Saturn being less than Jupiter, Uranus than Saturn, and Neptune,
than Uranus.
With reference to their distance from the sun, as compared with that of the earth,
the planets are divided into superior and inferior; Mercury and Venus are consequently
the only "inferior" planets, all the others being "superior." The inferior planets must
always he 011 the same side of the earth as the sun is, and can never be above the horizon
of any place (not in a very high latitude) at midnight; they are always invisible at their
superior and inferior conjunctions, except when, at the latter, a transit (see MS) takes
place. The superior planets are likewise invisible at conjunction, but when in oppo-i-
tion they are seen with the greatest distinctness, being then due south at midnight. The
time which elapses from one conjunction to its corresponding conjunction is called. the
synodic period of a planet, and in the case of the inferior planets must always be greater
than the true period of revolution.
Mercury, the planet which is nearest the sun, is also, with the exception of the planet-
oids, the smallest (being only 3 times the size of the moon), and performs its revolution
round the sun in the shortest time. Its greatest elongation is never more than :> i"> .
and consequently it is never above the horizon more than two hours after sunset, or the
same time before sunrise; on this account, and from its small apparent size (5" to 12"). it
is seldom distinctly observable by the naked eye. It shines with a peculiarly vivid
white or rose-colored light, and exhibits no spots.
Venus, the next in order of distance and period, is to us the most brilliant of nil the
planets. Its orbit is more nearly a circle than any of the others, and when at its inferior
conjunction, it approaches nearer the earth that any other planet. Its apparent angular
dimensions thence vary from 10" at the superior, to 70" at the inferior conjunction. Its
greatest elongation varies from 45° to 47° 12', and therefore it can never be above the
horizon for much more than three hours after sunset, or the same time before sunrise.
While moving from the inferior to the superior conjunction, Venus is a monn'iif/ xfur;
and during the other half of its synodic period, an evening star. When this phnet is at
an elongation of 40°, its brilliancy is greatest, far surpassing that of the other pi-
and rendering a minute examination through the telescope impossible. At this period it
sometimes becomes visible in the day-time, and after sunset is so bright as to throw a
distinct shadow. Astronomers have repeatedly attempted to ascertain the nature and
characteristics of its surface, but its brightness so dazzles the eyes as to render the cor-
rectness of their observations at best doubtful. From the changes in the position of
dusky patches on its surface, which have been frequently noticed, it is concluded that it
revolves on its axis, and that its equator is inclined to the plane of its orbit at an amrle
of 75°; but many astronomers (sir John Herschel included) profess to doubt these con-
clusions. Both Venus and Mercury necessarily exhibit phases like the moon.
The Earth, the next planet in order, will be found under its own name; it has a single
satellite, the moon (q.v.).
Mars, the first of the superior planets, is much inferior in size to the two previous, its
volume being about | of the earth's, and, after Mercury, its orbit is much more eccen-
tric than those of the other planets. When it is nearest to the earth (i.e., in opposition).
its apparent angular diameter is 30"; but when furthest from it (i.e., in conjunction), its
diameter is not more than 4". Mars is less known than the rest of the superior planets.
owing to its not possessing a satellite, by the motions of which its attractive force (and
hence its mass and density) could be estimated. It shines with a fiery red light, and is a
brilliant object in the heavens at midnight when near opposition ; when seen through the
telescope its surface appears to be covered with irregular blotches, some of them of a red-
dish, others of a greenish color, while at each pole is a spot of dazzling white. The red
spots are surmised to be land; the green, water; while the white spots at the poles are
763
Planets.
Vvith some reason supposed to be snow, since they decrease when most exposed to the
snu, and increase under the contrary circumstances. The phases (q.v.) of Mars range
between full, half, full (in conjunction, if visible), and half.
The Planetoid?. — After Mars in order come the planetoids (q.v.), formerly but improp-
erly called asteroids.
' ' Jupiter, the next in order, is the largest of all the planets, its bulk being more than
1400 times that of the earth, though, from its small density, its mass is only 838 times
more. After Venus it is the brightest of the planets and tlie largest in apparent size, its
angular diameter varying from 80" to 4.V. When looked at through a telescope, it is seen
to be considerably flattened at the poles, owing to its rapid revolution on its own axis;
and its surface is crossed in a direction parallel to its equator !>}• three or four distinct
and strongly-marked belts, and a few others of a varying nature. Spots also appear and
remain for some time on its surface, by means of which its revolution on its axis has been
ascertained. This planet is attended by four satellites, which are easily observable
through an ordinary telescope, and which have rendered immense service in the deter-
mination of longitudes at sea, and of the motion and velocity of light. The satellites,
which were discovered by Galileo, were proved by sir William Herschel to revolve on
their own axes in the same time that they revolve round their primary. The smallest is
about the same size as our moon, the others are considerably larger.
Saturn, next in position, is about 735 times larger in volume, though only about 100
times greater in mass than the earth. Its apparent diameter when in opposition is 18",
and there is a considerable flattening toward the poles. Its surface is traversed by dusky
belts much less distinctly marked than those of Jupiter, owing doubtless in great part to
its inferior brightness: its general color is a dull white or yellowish, but the shaded por-
tions, when seen distinctly, are of a glaucous color. The most remarkable peculiarity
of Saturn is its ring, or series of concentric rings, each one parallel and in the same plane
with the others and with the planet's equator; the rings are at present supposed to be
three in number, the two outermost are bright like the planet itself, while the innermost
is of a purplish color, and is only discernible through a powerful telescope. The rings
are not always visible when Saturn is in the " opposite" half of its orbit, for when the
plane of the rings is intermediate between that of the earth's orbit and of the ecliptic,
their dark surface is turned toward us, and Avhen the sun is in their plane only the nar-
row edge is illumined; in both of these cases the ring is invisible from the earth. Its
plane being inclined at an angle of 28° to the ecliptic, we seethe two surfaces of the ring
alternately for periods of 15 years at a time; and at the middle of each period, the rings
attain their maximum obliquity to the ecliptic, and are then best seen from the earth.
It is hardly necessary to remark that at the end of each period they become invisible.
Saturn has also no less than eight satellites, seven of which revolve round it in orbits
little removed from the pliR'e of the ring, while the eighth, which is the second in size,
is considerably inclined to it. Two of the satellites were discovered by Herschel in 1787
and 1789, four by Cassini in 1672-84, one by Huyghens in 1655, one by Mr. Lassell in
England and prof. Bond in America in 1848. The satellites are all situated outside of
the ring, and the largest of them is nearly equal to the planet Mars in size.
Ifrdmm, the next planet in position, was discovered accidentally by the elder Her-
schel on Mar. 13, 1781, and was named "the Georgium Sidus " and "Herschel," but
these names soon fell into disuse. It is about 96 (sonic astronomers say 82) times greater
than the earth in volume, and 20 (according to others, 15) times in mass; but though so
lanre, its distance is so much greater in proportion that astronomers have been unable to
gain much information concerning it. No spots or belts have hitherto been discovered
on its surface, and consequently its time of rotation and the position of its axis {ire
unknown. It is attended by a number of satellites, but so minute do these bodies appear,
that astronomers hitherto have been unable to agree as to their exact number; sir Wil-
liam Herschel reckoned six, while other astronomers believe in the existence of four,
five, and eight respectively. That there are at least four is without doubt.
Ncptnnr is the next and outermost member of the solar system, and, at a distance of
nearly 3.000 millions of miles from the center of the system, slowly performs its revolu-
tion found the sun, accomplishing the complete circuit in about 165 solar years. It is
about 84 times larger than the earth, but from its extreme remoteness is of almost inap-
preciable magnitude when seen throagh an ordinary telescope. It was the disturbance
in the motion of Uranus caused by the attractive force of this planet which led Leverrier
and Adams to a calculation of its size and position, on the supposition of its existence;
and the directions which were given by the former to Dr. Galle of Berlin, specifying its
exact position in the heaveus.^led that astronomer to its discovery on Sept. 23, 1846.
Mr. Lassell of Liverpool has discovered that Neptune is attended by one satellite. The
satellites of Uranus and Neptune differ from the other planets, primary and secondary, in
the direction of their motion, which is from e. to w., and in the case of the former, in
planes nearly perpendicular to the. ecliptic. Both Uranus and Neptune were observed
long before the times of Herschel and Leverrier, but they were always supposed to be
stars. Uranus is known to have been observed by Flamsteed between 1690 and 1715,
and Neptune by Lalande in 1795.
In astronomical tables, almanacs, etc. , the planets are for convenience denoted by
Plant. H(\\
Flan tagenot.
symbols instead of their names, as follows: Mercury, £ ; Venus, 9 ; earth, $ ; Mars, $ ;
the planetoids, in the order of their discovery, ©, ©, ®, etc.; Jupiter, 11; Saturn, *> or
i ; Uranus, 1$: Neptune, f ; the sun, 0 ; tlic moon, d .
For a TABLE of the periods, distances, size, density, etc., of the planets, sec SOLAH
SYSTEM.
PLANT, a living organic being, destitute of any indication of mind or feeling, and
sometimes defined as essentially differing from an animal in the want of voluntary
motion. Plants are the organising which form the vojituhlc /•////•/</<>,/<; the science which
treats of them is botany (q.v.). Plants of higher organization can never be mistaken for
animals, nor animals of higher organization for plains, lint there is no regular amend-
ing and descending scale of organisms, from the highest animal to the lowest plant;
instead we find a widely extended base from which the ascent seems to begin at once in
both the organic kingdoms, with many ramilicr.tions in each; and in the case, of the low-
est groups of either kingdom, it is sometimes difficult to discern the difference between
plants and animals. The difficulty may be owing to our ignorance and incapacity of
proper observation.
Something which resembles the voluntary motion of animals is to be seen in s unc
plants, in various phenomena of irritability (q.v.); and there is even locomotion in the
vegetable kingdom wonderfully simulating voluntary locomotion, a provision of nature
for the diffusion of some of the lower vegetable organisms; the (/uiti<li<i (q.v.) of alg;u
and the spennatozoldia (q.v.) of some other cryptogamous orders moving in a surrounding
fluid by means of cilia, so that they have often been mistaken for animalcules. But no
motion which can really be deemed voluntary takes place in the vegetable kingdom; and
no animal, certainly to be pronounced such, fails to exhibit it — even when there i> no
power whatever of locomotion — in the prehension of food, or for some of the purposes
of life.
The general laws which govern life prevail In plants as in animals. There are organs
of nutrition and organs of reproduction; the whole being made up of organs, and e«ery
organ destined to maintain the existence either of the individual or of the r.-'cc. Hut
there is nothing in plants corresponding to the mouth, stomach, and a!imc!ii;i"y canal of
animals. Nutrition takes place in a different manner; assimilation being effected by a
process very unlike that of digestion in animals. There are, however, animals destitute
of a mo'uth, stomach, and alimentary canal; so that the distinction between plants and
animals cannot be stated so absolutely in this respect as in respect to voluntary motion;
and as there arc many plants which have no roots, nutritnn by means of roots, although
peculiar to the vegetable kingdom, is not its distinguishing characteristic. The nutri-
ment of plants is derived either by their roots from the soil (see ROOT), or through the
integuments of their other parts from the air or water in which they live; and ail their
nutriment is either liquid or gaseous, being taken up in the former case by endosmose
(q.v.), and in the latter case through stomata (q.v.). Many plants, and among them the
greater number of phanerogamous plants, owe their nourishment both to the soil and to
the atmosphere, their roots deriving it from the former, and the leaves (q.v.) of plants
that have leaves being the principal organs by which they derive it from the latter.
When leaves are wanting, the integument of the parts exposed to the air performs the
functions ordinarily assigned to them. Solid matter cannot be appropriated by plants
until it has been dissolved in water, or decomposed. See MAN CHIC and SOIL. — The nutri-
ment appropriated by the plant is not assimilated until it has undergone chemical
changes, which sometimes take place entirely within the very cell through the int ru-
ment of which it has entered, some of the lowest kinds of plants consisting altogether
only of a single cell, but which, in other plants of higher and more complex organization,
depend upon a circulation of the sap (q.v.), and a very various action of many different
organs, each formed of a multitude of cells. These processes are still very imperfectly
understood. By them, not only is the plant nourished, but vegetable products of every
kind are elaborated, in which, throughout the wide domains of the vegetable kingdom,
there is such wonderful variety, and often great diversity in different parts of the. same
plant.
Whatever the source from which plants derive their nutriment, no organic substance
is appropriated by them; but in order to their use, it must first undergo decompr
Their food consists wholly of inorganic matter, and the value of organic subsiancc- as
manures depends not only on the abundance which they contain of th6 proper elements.
but of the readiness with which they undergo decomposition so as to presei.t these ele-
ments in the most suitable form; which is not, however, as elements uncombined. but in
various combinations with each other. Thus carbon and oxygen enter plants together in
the form of carbonic acid, oxygen and hydrogen together in the form of water, hydro-
gen and nitrogen in the form of ammonia. Carbonic acid absorbed by the leaves fn in
the air is decomposed within the plant, under the influence of light, and particularly of
the direct rays of the sun, and its carbon enters into new combinations to form vegetable
substances, whilst its oxygen is exhaled again into the atmosphere, which is thus main
tained in a state fit for the support both of vegetable and animal life by the opposite and
balanced action of animals and plants. Of the elements which enter into the composi-
tion of vegetable substances, carbon is the most abundant; and, along with it, oxygen,
Plant.
Plaiitagenet.
hydrogen, and nitrogen constitute the chief part of every plant. Other elements, both
metallic and non-metallic, are found in comparatively small quantity, although some of
them are very generally present in plants, as calcium, potassium, sodium, sulphur, phos-
phorus, silicon, iron, aluminium, magnesium, chlorine, and iodine. Among the ele-
ments found in plants are also to be enumerated bromine, manganese, and copper, which
occur only in minute quantities, and copper very rarely.
There 'is no circulation in plants like that of the blood in animals, nor any organ at
all analogous to a heart: although there is a constant motion or circulation ot their
juices, both throughout the whole organism and within individual cells. And although
the term respiration has been often employed with reference to plants, and particularly
to leaves, yet there is not only no action analogous to that of lungs, but no oxygenation
of the juices by their being brought into contact with the air; carbonic acid and ammo-
nia— not oxygen — being imbibed from it for nutrtio^. And there is nothing in the vegeta-
ble kingdom having the slightest resemblance to a brain or a nervous system. In the
possession of sexual organs, however, there is a wonderful agreement, where it might
least have been expected, between plants — or at least all phanerogamous plants — and
animals. As to this and other important points concerning the life of plants, see VEG-
ETABLE PHYSIOLOGY. See also the article FLOWER, and those on the different organs of
which the flower is made up; the articles FKUIT, SI^ED, SPOKE; CELLS, CELLULAR TIS-
SUE, VASCULAR TISSUE; METAMORPHOSIS OF ORGANS; LEAVES, STEM, etc. The great
divisions of the vegetable kingdom are noticed in the article BOTANY, in connection with
the subject of classification, and in separate articles. The GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
OF PLANTS, and the DISEASES OF PLANTS, are noticed under these heads.
Besides the relations of the animal and vegetable kingdoms already noticed in this
article, in their joint and balanced action, keeping the constitution of the atmosphere
such as is tit both for animal and vegetable life, reference may be here made, in conclu-
sion, to similar relations subsisting in plants and animals as to temperature and as to
their mutually providing food for one another. " It would almost seem as if plants
possessed a power of producing cold analogous to that exhibited by animals in producing
heat, and of this beneticent arrangement man enjoys the benefit in the luxurious coolness
of the fruit which nature lavishes on the tropics" (sir J. E. Tenuent). Flowers indeed
produce heat; but the juices of plants are colder than the soil or surrounding atmosphere
during the time of active vegetation: and the coolness of groves is owing not only to
shade, but to the transpiration of moisture by the innumerable leaves. — Inorganic sub-
stances are appropriated by plants, a.s food, and converted by a "high and mysterious"
chemistry into organic substances of many kinds, many of them suitable food for ani-
mals, which feed on organic substances alone. But the excrements of animals again
furnish food for plants; and when animals die, their bodies undergo a series of changes
by decomposition, which terminate in the production of the substances most suitable for
the nourishment of plants. There is, moreover, not only this conversion of the same
matter into animal and vegetable substances alternately; but there is also a continual
transformation of matter which has remained inorganic throughout long geologic periods
into organic substances, and in this some of the lowest kinds of plants are particularly
employed, as lichens, which decompose and feed upon the very rocks on which they
grow; whilst, on the other hand, the fossil remains of remote periods, and all the
products of decomposition, exhibit matter which once formed part of living organisms
returned to an inorganic state.
PIANTAGENET, the surname of the French family of Anjou, which, in 1154, suc-
ceeded to the throne of England on the extinction of the Norman dynasty in the male
line, and reigned till 1483, when it was supplanted by the family of TUDOR (q.v.). The
name Plantagenet belonged originally to the house of Anjou, and is said by antiquarians
to linvo been derived from the circumstance of the first count of this house having caused
himself to be scourged with branches of broom (planta-geniiita). as a penance for some
crime he had committed. On the extinction of the male line of the Norman dynasty in
the person of Henry I., the crown of England was claimed by Stephen, count *of Blois,
the son of Henry's sister Adela, or Adeliza, and by Henry's own daughter Matilda ("the
empress Maud"), then the wife of Geoffrey Plantagenet, count of Anjou, for her son
Henry Plantagenet. Stephen, by favor of the nobles, was the successful competitor, on
male line— viz.. Henry III., Edward I., Edward II., Edward III., and (Edward Ill's
eldest son, the Black Prince, having died before his father, leaving an only son, who as)
Richard II. — succeeded without interruption. The eldest male line now became extinct,
and it was necessary to choose the rightful heir to the throne from among the descend-
ants of Edward III.'s other sons. His second son had died without heirs, but Lionel,
duke of Clarence; John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster; and Edmund Langley, duke of
York, his third, fourth, and fifth sons respectively, were still represented by legitimate
issue. Of these, Edmund Mortimer, earl of March, and Anne Mortimer, the wife of
Richard, earl of Cambridge (who was the eldest son and heir of Edmund Langley, duke
of York), the lineal descendants of Lionel of Clarence, possessed the prior claim to the
Flanta<rmeno. 'TAfi
Fmntaiii. < u
throne; but Edmund was put in prison by Henry TV., the eldest son of John of Gaunt,
di'.ke of Lancaster, who usurped the crown in 13U9, and transmitted it to his 'meal
descendants Henry V. and Henry VI. By this time Edmund Mortimer had died with-
out heirs, and the descendants of the marriage of his sister Anne (the heiress of Clarence)
with Richard, earl of Cambridge (the heir of York), uniting the claims of the Uiir/l and
Jffth sons, had, through their maternal ancestress, a superior claim to the throne ovet
Henry VI. the Lancastrian monarch, who only represented \\\K J'<m rth son of Edward III.
Richard, duke of York, the son of Richard of Cambridge, and Anne Mortimer, attempted
to obtain the crown, but he was taken and executed, leaving to his sons the task of aveng-
ing his death, and asserting the claims of the combined house of York and Clarence to
the throne, in which they were ably a^-isied by Richard Neville, earl of Warwick ("the
king-maker"). The result was a long and desolating civil war (14"j.~> >."» between the
partisans of York and Lancaster, which is known in history as the " \Y;,rs of the Roses"
(the Lancastrians having chosen for their emblem a r<d and the Yorkists a white r<
which more than 100,000 persons perished, and many noble families were either extir-
pated on the field and the scaffold, or completely ruined. During this dreadful contest,
in which the Yorkists generally had the advantage, Edward IV.' (the eUiist son of the
duke of York who had been executed), his son Edward V., and his brother Richard III.
(q.v.) successively swayed the scepter. But Richard's cruel and tyrannical government
added new vigor to the reviving Lancastrians, and Henry Tudor (see HINKV VII.), the
representative of their claims, defeated the Yorkist tyrant on the licid of Bosworih; and
then, by his marriage with Elizabeth, the eldest daughter of Edward IV , and the repre-
sentative of the Yorkist claims, reunited in his family the conflicting pretensions to the
throne, which he transmitted in peace to his descendants. See TUDOU; and, for the
events of this contest, see ROSES, WARS OF THE.
PLANTAGINE2E, or PLAKTAGINA'CE^:, a natural order of exogemis plants, mostly
herbaceous and without stems; the leaves forming rosettes, flat and ribbed, or tape'.' and
fleshy; the flowers generally in spikes, and generally hermaphrodite; the calyx 4-partcd,
persistent; the corolla hypogynous, membranous, persistent, its limb 4-parted; the sta-
mens four, inserted into the corolla, with long filaments; the ovary free, of a single car-
pel, 1 to 4-celled ; the cells containing one, two, or many ovules; the fruit, a membran-
ous capsule with a lid. Th,e testa of the seeds abounds in mucilage, which is
extracted by boiling water. The order is allied to plumbaginea and primvlaccce. Then?
are about 120 known species, diffused over all parts of the globe, but most abundant in
temperate and cold countries. The most important genus is plantuyo, the species of
which often receive the English name PLANTAIN. Five of this genus are found in the
United Kingdom, the chief of which are the following: the GKKATKR PLANTAIN, or
WAYISUKAD (P. major), one of the most common of British plants; a perennial, v, Mi
broad ovate-stalked leaves and long cylindrical spikes, growing in pastures, waysides, etc.
It is very widely diffused over the world. Its seeds are a favorite food of birds, and the;
gathering of the spikes to feed cage-birds is familiar to every one. The leave -. ,-,]•<• applied
to wounds by the peasantry in many districts. They are said also to be a useful appli-
cation to ulcers and indolent scrofulous tumors. — The RIBWORT PLANTAIN, or Ri;
(P. lanceolft-ta), is another very common British plant, forming no small part of the herb-
age of many meadows and pastures, and sometimes sown by fanners, because its foliage
is produced early in the season, and is then acceptable to oxen, sheep, and horses; but
deemed most suitable for poor soils, as its spreading leaves occupy too much of the
ground, and choke better grasses in rich land. Its leaves are lanceolate, and tai i r at
both ends; its spikes are short, ovate, or cylindrical, and placed on long angular stalks.
Its seed is acceptable to cage-birds. This is the plant, commonly know n as " bullies,"
or "sofigers," the striking off the heads (or spikes) of which is such a favorite amusement
of children. — The mucilage of the seeds of plantago ispaghula and of P. > - much
used in India in catarrhs and other complaints; and P.psyUium — called FLKAY>OI:T, and
its seed FLKASEKD — is cultivated in France for the sake of this mucilage, which i-
by paper-stainers in preference to thai obtained from linseed, and is also extensively
used by muslin manufacturers for stiffening their goods. The plant has a branched
spreading stem, and recurved leaves.
PLANTAIN, Mima paradi*aic«, a most important food plant of tropical countries,
and one of the largest of herbaceous plants, belongs to the natural order •ntitsncc.ee (q.v.),
and is a native of the East Indies, where numberless varieties of it have been cultivated
for thousands of years. It is now diffused over all the tropical and subtropical regions
of the globe. It must have been carried to America soon after or during the da\s of
Columbus, for its fruit was a principal article of food there in the first half of the 16th
c. ; but there is nothing to support the conjecture of Humboidt that there may be differ-
ent species cultivated under the name of plantain, and some of them natives of America.
The plaintain is now. however, cultivated to the furthest depths of the primeval Ameri-
can forests, accompanies the Indians in their frequent changes of residence, forms the
•wealth of many occupiers of land in the vicinity of great towns, where large plantations
of it are made, and is a true staff of life to the population of all colors and clas:c^ in
tropical countries. In many regions it is the principal article of food.
In the genus musa there arise from the midst of the leaves — or apparently from the
77 anaffnene.
Plantain.
top of the stem, the sheathing bases of the leaves forming a tree-like false stem— stalks
which bear great spikes of flowers, each inclosed in a large bract or spathe; the flowers,
and afterwards the fruit, are arranged in clusters or almost in whorls on the stalk; the
flowers have a perianth of six segments, five of which cohere as a tube slit at the back,
and the sixth is sm-illand concave; there are six stamens, one or more of them imperfect;
the germen is inferior, 3-celled, with two rows of ovules in each cell ; the fruit is fleshy,
and has many seeds imbedded in its pulp. The- name mum is from the Arabic moz,' &
plantain: the plantain seems to be described by Pliny under the name paid, a name prob-
ably derived from an eastern root, from which also comes the name plantain. The
specific name paradisaica alludes either to a fancy that the plantain was the forbidden
fruit of Eden, or to a legend that the aprons which our first parents made for themselves
were of plantain leaves.
The stem of the plantain is usually 15 or 20 ft. high, although there are varieties hav-
ing a stem of only 6 feet. The leaves are very large, the blade being sometimes 10 ft.
loni' and three ft. broad, undivided, of a beautiful. shining green; the midrib strong and
fleshy. The fruit is oblong, varying from its usual long shape to an almost spherical
one, obscurely angular, 8 in. to a foot long in the varieties commonly known by the name
plantain, of which the fruit is usually cooked or prepared in some way in order to be
eaten, and very often forms a substitute for bread; whilst the smaller fruited varieties,
of which the fruit is eaten raw, are generally known by the name banana (q.v.), these
names, however, being somewhat variously used.
The plantain is generally propagated by suckers; and a sucker attains maturity in
about eight months or a year after being planted. The stem is cut down after fruiting,
but the plantation does not require renewal for 15 or 20 years. Plantains ought to be at
least 10 ft. apart in plantations of them, or 6 ft. in single rows around fields or gardens.
The plantain has been sometimes cultivated with success in hot-houses.
With the exception of two or three palms, it would not be easy to name, in the whole
vegetable kingdom, any plant which is applied to a greater number of uses than the plan-
tain. The fruit is sometimes eaten raw, although more generally — except that of
the banana — boiled or roasted, and variously prepared. It is both farinaceous and sac-
charine. In most of the varieties it has a sweetish taste, in some it is mealy, and in some
it is sub-acid or austere. It is as much used before being perfectly ripe as when it is so.
In the West Indies the plaintain boiled and beaten in a mortar is a common food of the
negroc-s. Plantains baked in their skins, or fried in slices with butter and powdered over
with sugar, are favorite dishes in some tropical countries. They are preserved by drying
in the sun or in ovens, and pressed into masses, in which state they keep for years, and
furnish a wholesome article of food. The unripe fruit, peeled, sliced, dried, and pow-
dered, is called P. meal, and in Guiana eongtttn-tayj it is whitish with dark-red specks, a
fragnmcc like orris-root, and a taste like wheat-flour; and is made into excellent and
nourishing dishes. A good and wholesome starch is obtained from the plantain by rasp-
ing and washing. — A decoction of the fruit is a common .beverage, and a kind of wine is
obtained from it by fermentation. — The top of the stalk is a good boiled vegetable. — The
leaves are much used for packing, and many other purposes; the fiber of their stalks U
used for textile purposes and for cordage, and it is probable that it might be used for
paper-making; but hitherto the leaves and stemsof plantains have been generally burned
or left to rot.
So great is the food produce o' the plantain, that, according to Humboldt's calcula-
tion, it is to that of the potato as 44 to 1, and to that of wheat as 133 to 1. The plantain
requires little attention.
The name plantain is frequently extended to the whole genus mum. Wild species,
with austere fruit, are found in many parts of the east. One ascends the Himalayas to
an elevation of 6,. "500 feet. A species found in the South sea islands (M. troglodyiarum) is
remarkable for bearing its clusters of fruit erect, not pendent like the other species. Its
fruit is eatable, as is that of M. Cmendiishii and of M. chinemis, species or varieties smaller
than the common plantain. — The musa, which is extensively cultivated in the Philippine
islands for its fiber, abaca or Manilla hemp, is very similar to the common plantain, but
has a green, hard, and austere fruit. It is generally cut when about a year and a half
<>id, before flowering. The outer layers of the stem yield the coarsest fiber; that of the
inner is so fine that a garment made 'of it may be inclosed in the hollow of the hand. —
The young stems of M. ensete, the ENSETE of Abyssinia, are used in that country as a
boiled esculent.
PLANTAIN-EATER, Muxophaga, a genus of birds of the family muzophagidcp, to the
whole of which the same English name is often extended. The mitsophagidce are trop-
ical birds, African and South American, of the order imessores, and tribe conirostres, allied
to finches, but many of them large, and more like gallinaceous birds than finches. They
are birds of beautiful plumage. They have strong thick bills, more or less curved on the
top, the cutting edges jagged or finely serrated, so as to render them very efficient instru-
ments for cutting soft vegetable substances, on which they feed, as the plantain and other
fruits, and for dividing the succulent stems of plants, which they cut off close to the
ground. They live much among the boughs of trees, and are active and wary birds.
The true plantain-eaters (mvnophnjfi) have the base of the bill extending upon the fore-
head; the TOURACOS (coryfhaix) hr.vc a smaller bill, and the head crested.
Plantation. 'TAQ
Plasters.
PLANTATION, n torm sometimes applied to places where timber trees have been
planted. In that sense, as a general rule, whoever is the owner of the soil, is entitk-d to
the trees which are planted in such soil. AVheu land is let by lease to a tenant, the ten-
ant does not become the owner of the trees, and cannot cut them dowu. But he is in
England and Ireland entitled to reasonable estovers; that is, to cut sufficient wood to
repair or build the houses, or make implements of husbandry. The common law of Eng-
land was very defective in protecting plantations, for it was held that, as the trees were
part of the realty, or soil, and nobody could steal the soil, hence nobody could be pnn-
ished for larceny of trees. But this defect was cured by statute. \\ Imcvrr cuts, breaks,
roots up, or otherwise destroys or damages, with intent to steal, the whole or any part
of a tree, sapling, or shrub, if the damage is of the amount of one shilling, may be con-
victed summarily, before justices of the peace, and lined £5; for a second oiien>c, ho-
rn ay be committed to the house of correction for 12 mouths or less; and fora third
offense, he is guilty of felony, and may be punished as for larceny. So, whoever steals
or damages a live fence, may be fined. by justices a sum of I'.'); and for a second offense,
may be committed to the house of correction for 12 months. Moreover, if any person is
found in possession of a piece of a tree or live fence, and do not give i proper account
of his coming into lawful possession of the same, he may be fined £2. — In Scotland, vari-
ous acts of the Scotch parliament were diiected against offenses of damaging
which are punishable as malicious mischief; the penalty being £10 Scots for each tree
less than 10 years old, and £20 Scots for each older tree. Tenants may also be lined for
such offenses. In case of injuries to fences, old Scotch statutes also provide a punish-
ment.
PLANTATION AND PLANTING OF TREES. See ARBORICUI/TUKE.
PLANT CUTTER, Phytoma ram, a conirostral bird nearly related to the finches
In the single genus phytoma the bill is of the conirostral type, short, strong, conical, with
lateral margins finely serrated. The intestine is short, an unusual condition in vegetable-
eating birds. They live in pairs or in small flocks and commit depredations in orchards
by cutting off plants, buds, and fruits. They also catch insects. The best-known speci-vs
is phytotoma mm, of Chili, of the size of the common thrush; back brown, each leather
having a lighter edge. The top of the head is of a reddish-brown color; breast a dull
reddish-white, rather more deeply colored on the belly and thighs. The wings ar« dark
brown, the primaries having a white bar, the wing coverts also edged with white. The
tail is brownish-red with a terminal dark brown bar. It has a short low llight, and a,
disagreeable rough note.
PLANTIGRA'DA, in Cuvier's zoological system, a tribe of carnir.irft (q.v.). charac-
terized by placing the whole sole of the foot on the ground in walking. The sole is
generally destitute of hair. Both fore and hind feet are five-toed in all the plantigrade.
The plantigrada arc generally more or less nocturnal in their mode of life, and their
movements are slower and their gait more clumsy than those of the clifiitiiimtlii. They
are also, in general, less carnivorous; many of them feed in part or occasionally on vege-
table food. "The conformation of their limbs and feet gives them a power of standing
erect on their hind feet, which none of the digitif/rntln naturally possess, and of which
advantage is taken in tame bears for the amusement of spectators.
PLANTIN, CHRISTOPHE, an eminent printer, was b. at St. Avcrtin. near Tours, in
1514, and set up a printing-establishment at Antwerp in 1550, which soon became the
greatest and most celebrated of the time. He had often 20 presses or more in active
operation. Guicciardini mentions his printing-establishment as the finest ornament of
the city of Antwerp, and as one of the wonders of Europe, and the learned agreed in
regarding him as the first printer of his time, although he was the con temporary of Aldus
uud Estiennc (Stephens); but this is true only as regards the number of works which
issued from his establishment, and the beauty of their typography; for the services which
the others have rendered to classic literature are far beyond those of Phntin. Plnntin
was nevertheless himself a man of varied, though probably not very profound learning.
He superintended the publication of works in several languages, and was extremely
careful of their accuracy, employing able and learned correctors of the press, whom he
remunerated liberally, and publicly offering rewards for the discovery of errors. The
most noted of all 'his publications is the B'Mia Polyglotta (8 vols. 1569-72), which was
printed under the personal superintendence of Arias Montanus, the court chaplain of
Philip II. of Spain, and towards which Philip gave 6.000 ducats for the purchase of
paper. But the oldest book known to have proceeded from the press of Plantin is the
Institution (Vane Fillede Noble Mnison, traduite de Langite Toscane en Francois, by Jean
Beller (Ant. 1555). Plantin died at Antwerp in 1589. He had set up printing-establish-
ments in Leyden and Paris, and these, with that in Antwerp, were carried on by the
husbands of his three daughters.
Pi ANT LOUSE. See APHIS, ante.
PLANTS, in point of law, when put in a garden or other ground let to a tenant, belong
to the landlord, and not to the tenant, for they become part of the soil. Hence, a tenant
cannot dig them up and remove them at the termination of his lease. This right of the
landlord, however, is seldom enforced with much strictness, partly because the tenant
>7AQ Plantation.
x * Ui7 Plasters.
may niter and remove the plants at discretion during his lease, and thus can evade the
rule of law. In the case of nursery-grounds, however, the above rule docs not apply, a&
between landlord and tenant, for the plants are considered the stock-in-trade of the nur-
seryman, who puts them in the ground, not with a view to let them grow permanently,
but as a convenient mode of keeping them for sale. Hence, at the termination of his
lease, the tenant can remove them all.
PLANU DES, MAXIMUS. See ANTHOLOGY.
PLAQUEMINES, a parish in s.e. Louisiana, on the gulf of Mexico, drained by the
Mississippi: about 1,000 sq.m. ; pop. 80, 11.575 — 7,324 colored. The surface is regular
and low, including part of the delta of the Mississippi. The soil is fertile. The princi
pal productions are molasses, sugar, and rice. The county produces the most rice of
any in the state. Co. seat, Point tl la Hache.
PLASEN CIA, an ancient and much-decayed, but most picturesque t of Spain, in
Estremadura, 43 m. n.n.e. of Caceres, stands on a steep hill, with beautiful and fertile
valleys extending on the n.w. and s.e. sides. It is almost wholly girdled by the clear
waters of the Jerte; and the surrounding scenery, embracing city, castle, river, rock, and
mountain, and overarched by a sunny and unclouded sky, is remarkably beautiful. The
city contains tiie picturesque remains of an ancient castle, and is surrounded by crum-
bling walls, surmounted by 68 towers, and pierced by 6 gates. Water is brought to the
town by an aqueduct of 80 arches. There are 7 Gothic churches, an episcopal and sereral
other palaces, and the cathedral, an ornate Gothic edifice, begun in 1498. and some por-
tions of which are still unfinished, while others have been altered and disfigured. The
cathedral contains many noble tombs, with effigies. Plasencia once a flourishing and
important city, was founded in 1190. It nowcarries on some minor manufactures of
cotton., woolen, and hemp fabrics, and of hats and leather. Pop. about 6,000.
PLASMA, a silicious mineral, a variety of quartz or chalcedony, of a dark -green color,
black when unpolished and seen by reflected light, but very translucent when held
between the eye and the light. It is very nearly allied to heliotrope or bloodstone, but
has no red spots, is more translucent, and is not susceptible of so brilliant a polish. It is
never'found crystallized. It is a rare mineral, and the finest specimens are brought from
India and China. It was highly prized by the ancient Romans, who wrought it into
ornaments of various kinds; and very fine engraved specimens have been found among
the ruins of ancient Rome. The ancients are said to have obtained their plasma from
Mount Olympus, in- Asia Minor. The name plasma is supposed to be identical with the
Greek prawn, a leek, the r having passed into I.
PLAS'SEY, a small t. of British India, in the presidency and province of Bengal, and
in the district of Nuddea, 84 m. n. from Calcutta, on the left bank of the Bhaglmitti, a
river. which derives its -waters from the Ganges, and pours them into the Hooghly, or
rather may be said to become the Hooghly. Plassey is celebrated in the history of India
for the great victory gained by Clive (q.v.) over Suraja Dowlah, subahdar of Bengal,
June 23^ 1757, a victory the immediate effect of which was to transfer the subahdarship
to Meer .Tattler, but which really laid the foundation of British supremacy in India. The
British force at the battle of Plassey consisted of not much more than 3,000 men; and
the only British troops were about 650 foot and 150. artillerymen, the remainder being
sepoys. The subahdar's force consisted of 18,000 cavalry and 50,000 infantry, with 40
or 50 French artillerymen, 50 large cannon, and 4 pieces of light artillery. On the even-
ing before the battle, Clive held a council of war, at Avhich it was resolved to decline
battle, on account of inferiority offeree; but Clive himself afterwards adopting a dif-
ferent resolution, crossed the river, and won a most brilliant victory.
PLASTEEING, the art of covering walls, partitions, ceilings, etc., with a composition
of lime mixed with sand and hair, "it is usually done in three coats. The first coat is
the solid foundation on which the rest is placed; it is therefore of a good thickness, and
is hatched or crossed with lines, so as to give a bond for the next coat. The first coat is
allowed to dry thoroughly; then the second coat is floated over the first, and rubbed well
in with a flat board, about 12 in. sq., so as to bring it all to a fair and equal surface On
Scotland this is called the "straightening"); and before the second coat has thoroughly
dried, the third or finishing coat is applied in finer materials, and in a more liquid state.
In the case of ceiling cornices, moldings, etc., plaster of Paris or stucco is generally
used. This sets or hardens more rapidly than lime, and has a finer and whiter surface.
Ornaments (called enrichments) are generally composed of plaster of Paris, and cast in
molds. They are then set in their places after the cornice has been made, or run.
PLASTER OF PARIS. See GYPSUM.
PLASTEES are a class of medicinal agents which are employed externally with var-
ious objects. They are solid and tenacious compounds, adhesive at ordinary tempera-
ture of the body, and owing their consistency — 1. To the chemical combination of oxide
of lead, with one or more fatty acids; or 2, to a due admixture of wax, or fat, and resin ; or
8, to the chemical action of the component parts of the plaster on each other. Strictly
speaking, the term plaster should be restricted to the first class of compounds; viz., to
combination of oxide of lead with fatty acids. In the British Pharmacopoeia, there are
directions for making 12 plasters, viz., ammoniac and mercury plaster, belladonna
U. K. XI.— 49'
Plat*.
riatmg.
plaster, cnntharides piaster, chalybeate plaster, galbanum plaster, litharge (or le:ul) plas
t.-r, mercurial plaster, opium plaster, pitch plaster, resin plaster, soap plaster, and warm
plaster. The litharge (or lead) plaster, directly or indirectly, enters into the composition of
ail the twelve officinal plasters, excepting those of ammoniac and mercury, cantharides,
a:i:l pitch. Lead plaster, which is uoually sold under -the name of diachylon, in com-
bination with resin, coustituies the ordinary adhesive plaster. The best plaster of this
kind for strapping is composed of a mixture of six drams of resin with a pound of
lead plaster. The at ntluiridcx plaster ai:d the ammoniac and mercury plaster, are examples
of the second and third varieties.
Plasters are generally kept in rolls; and wben they are to be used, they are melted af
a temperature of not more than 212°, and spi-eat' on soi> leather. They are employed te
answer two distinct, indications, namely, to act mechanically, as by affording artificial
support to weak muscular structures, by preventing tiiTatened or tedious excoriations,
by protecting parts already excoriated from the actieu ot Ihe air, etc.; and to act medicin-
liliy as stimulant, discuticnt, alterative, anodyne, etc.
PLA TA, LA. See ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.
PLATA, Rio DE LA, a wide estuary of South America, between Uruguay on the n.
Mid the Argentine Confederation on the s., forms the mouth of the Parana (q".v.)aml the
Uruguay (q.v.). It is 200 m. long, 29 m. broad at Buenos Ayres, and 140 m. broad atils
mouth, between Maldonado and cape San Antonio. At its mouth it is, on an average,
only about 10 fathoms deep; at Montevideo it is only 3 fathoms; and at Buenos Ayre«
about 16 ft. deep. Some conception of the vast volume of water which this estuary
carries to the Atlantic may be had when it is remembered that with its affluents :t drains
an area of 1,250,000 sq. miles. The strong and irregular currents, and the s:id<.'c« tem-
pests of the La Plata, render its navigation extremely dangerous. It is esiniuMed that
through this estuary about one-fourth of the produce of South America is brought to
market. For the navigation of its affluents, see PARAGUAY, PARANA, and URUGUAY.
PLATJE'A, or PLAT/K/E, a city in the western part of Beotia, on the borders of Atlica,
:\--<\ at the foot of Mount, Cithaeron. It was about 6£ m. from Thebes. In 480 »o., it
A as destroyed by the Persians because the inhabitants had taken part with Athens in the
battle of Marathon; but in the following year, it was the scene of the glorious victory
won by the Lacedaemonian Greeks, underPausanias and Aristides, over the Persian ho riles
commanded by Mardonius — a victory that finally delivered Greece from the threatened
yoke of the invader. In the third year of the Peloponnesian war (429 B.C.), it was
attacked byaTheban-Lacedsemonian force — for the Plateaus were firm friends of Athens
— and heroically defended itself for more than two years, until it was starved into .sur-
render. The little garrison of about 200 men were put to the sword, and the city was
razed to the ground. Such of the Platreans as escaped were hospitably received at
Athens. By the treaty of Antalcidas (387 B.C.), their children were allowed to go back
again, and rebuild their city, after an exile of 40 years; but they were again driven out
by their implacable enemies, the Thebans; and half a century elapsed before the victory
of Philip of Macedon at Chstroneia enabled the Platoeansto finally return to their homes.
After this, the city remained inhabited, probably till the latest days of the empire. It is
mentioned in the Oth c. A.D. Some ruins of Plataia are still visible near the village of
PLATA'LEA. See SPOONBILL.
PLAT-BAND, in architecture, a flat fascia or band, with less projection than breadth.
PLATE, in heraldry, a roundle (q.v.) argent. It is represented flat, and inthe heraldry
of Scotland is known as a bezant argent.
PLATE-MASKS are legal impressions made on articles of gold or silver at the various
assay offices, for the purpose of indicating the true value of the metal of which the
articles are made. The marks are a series of symbols, which are embossed in a line of
about three-quarters of an in. in length, and usually on every separate piece of which an
article is composed. These symbols are — 1. The maker's own mark or initials. 2. The
standard or assay mark; viz.,/0/1 gold, a crown, and figures denoting the number of
earats fine. This means that pure gold is reckoned at 24 carats, and every part of alloy
added reduces that standard number (see CARAT); so that if a piece of gold-plate jewelry
is marked with a crown and 18, it indicates that it consists of 18 parts of pure gold,
and 6 parts of some other metal alloyed with it. Gold of nine carats is no\v legal, but
as it is marked by the assay office, there can be no deception, if the public understand
the plate-marks. If not, they may pay for pure gold, relying upon the hall-mark, when
they only receive about a third part gold. For silver — England, a lion passant: Ireland,
a harp crowned; Edinburgh, a thistle; Glasgow, a lion rampant. 3. The hall-mark of
the district office — London, a leopard's head crowned; York, three lions and a eros<:
Exeter, a castle with two wings; Chester, three wheat-sheaves or a dagger; Newcastle.
three castles; Birmingham, an anchor; Sheffield, a crown; Edinburgh, a castle and lion;
Glasgow, a tree, salmon, and ring; Dublin, the figure of Hibernia. 4. The duty-mark,
indicating the payment of duty, viz , the head of the reigning sovereign. 5. Each
office has also its alphabetical date-mark. In London, the assay year, which commence*
Tti
on May 30, is indicated by one of the first twenty letters of the alphabet. The Gold-
smithy' company of London have marked thus:
From 1716 to 1756, Roman capital letters.
'•' 1756 " 1776, Roman small letters.
1776 ' 1796, Old English letters.
1796 ' 1816, Roman capital letters A to U.
1816 ' 1836, Roman small letters a to u.
1836 ' 1850, Old English letters 3. to (3.
1856 ' 1876, Small black letters <t to u.
1876 onwards, Roman capitals, distinguished from former
series by shape of shield on which they are imprinted.
Thus, H f^ $• $ s would represent the mark of Elkingtou's plate made in the year
1874.
PLAT-EN-HALLERMUN'DE vox, AUGUST, Count, 1796-1835; b. Germany. After
participating as Bavarian lieutenant in the war against Napoleon I., he studied at
Wiirzburg and Erlangen, devoting himself to philology and philosophy. In 1826 he went
to Italy, only returning to Germany for a short time in 1832 and in 1833. In 1835 he
tied to Sicily to escape the cholera which was raging in Naples, but succumbed to a
violent fever in Syracuse the same year. He is best known by his Polenlieder and by
his dramas Die ver/iangnm voile Gabel and Der romantiaclie Oedipus. A complete edition
of his works was published at Stuttgart in 1847, and his PoetiscJier und Litterarischer
Nnchlass, edited by Minckwitz. appeared in 1852.
PLATE-POWDER, a composition used for cleaning gold and silver plate and plated
articles. If is also called rouge-powder (see ROUGE). It is made by levigating rouge
with three times its weight of prepared chalk, until they are thoroughly mixed into an
almost impalpable powder. Sometimes putty-powder (q.v.) is used instead of rouge,
and a little rose-pink added to color it. A plate-powder is also sometimes made by
levigating quicksilver with twelve times its weight of prepared chalk, until it is
thoroughly incorporated, and forms a gray powder. It puts a remarkable brilliancy on
silver-plate, but is very injurious to it.
PLATER, GEORGE, 1736-92; b. Md. ; graduated at William and Mary college, 1753;
studied and practiced law, and eventually became one of the judges of the Maryland
court of appeals. In 1778 he Was president of the Maryland state convention which
ratified the constitution of the United States; and from that year until 1781 he repre-
sented the state in congress. During the year of his death he was governor of Maryland.
PLATING signifies the covering of an inferior metal with one of the precious metals,
the object being to give the appearance of silver or gold to articles chiefly intended for
table use. At present the articles are generally made of German silver, or some of
the similar white-metal alloys; but formerly, copper, or an alloy of that metal with
brass, was used; the disadvantage of which was that, as the coating of silver wore off,
the red color of the copper became disagreeably apparent through the thin covering of
silver. Gold is rarely plated on any other metal than .silver, except for purposes of
deception. Previous to the introduction of electro-plating, the method generally pur-
sued was that which has acquired the name of Sheffield-plating, from the large extent to
which it was carried on in that town. It consists in soldering on to one or both sides of
an ingot of the baser metal a thin plate of silver. The ingot is always of an oblong
shape, and is most carefully prepared on the surfaces which are to receive the silver, so
that nothing shall prevent the complete union of the two. The soldering is a process
requiring much care and nicety; the plates of silver are thinly coated with a concen-
trated solution of borax, and are then applied to the prepared surfaces of the ingot, to
which they are firmly bound with iron wire, and then placed in the plating-furnace, and
subjected to a strong heat. This furnace is so arranged that the interior can be con-
stauily watched, and when the proper temperature is attained the workman knows the
exact instant to withdraw it. The act of soldering is almost instantaneous, and fusion
would immediately follow if the ingot was not quickly withdrawn. When cooled, the
wire is taken off, and the ingot is taken to the rolling-mill, where it is passed backwards
and forwards, of course with the silver above and below, until it is rolled out into a
sheet of the exact thickness required. However- thin it may be made, it is found that
the relative thickness between the ingot and its layers of silver is always the same. As
usual in all cases of rolling or striking 'metal, annealing from time to time is necessary,
to remove the brittleness which these operations cause.
This method does not admit of the manufacture of an}r portions such as ornamental
molded borders, etc.; these had, therefore, to be formed separately of copper, ar^d were
coated by the process called silvering (q.v.). Now, however, it is found better to make
them of silver'rolled thin, and fill them inside with lead, to give them solidity; by this
plan is avoided the annoyance of the silver rubbing off, and exposing the copper. Shef-
field-plating is still made extensively, but the manufacture is rapidly declining in pres-
ence of the newer art of electro-plating. See GALVANISM.
Within a very recent period, and since the subject of electro-plating was treated
under the article GALVANISM, some very remarkable applications of the process have
Platinum.
I'lato.
77*2
been discovered; for instance, it is no longer confined to the deposit of silver and gold;
aluminium, silicium, titanium, tungsten, molybdenum, tin, cadmium, lead, bismuth,
palladium, rhodium, indium, and the alloys, brass and bron/e, arc all now deposited
under patent processes. Of all these, by far the most important is the deposit of the
alloys, and a very large trade has sprung up in manufactures of iron coated with brass.
The importance of being able to cover a metal so cheap, yet so easily corroded us cast
iron, with so ornamental an alloy as brass or bron/e. can hardly be overrated. Conse-
quently the process is carried on very extensively and satisfactorily.
PLATINUM (symb. Pt, equiv. 99— new system, 198 — sp. gr. 21.5) is 'one of the
"noble metals," which may be obtained in more forms than one. It is only found in
the native state, usually occurring in small glistening granules of a steel gray color,
which always conjain an admixture, in varying proportions, of several metals, most of
which are rarely found except in association with platinum. Sometimes, however, it is
found in masses of the size of a pigeon's egg, and pieces weighing ten or even twenty
pounds have occasionally been found. The following table shows the composition of
crude platinum ore as obtained from different parts of the globe. The analyses were
conducted by Messrs. Deville and Debray :
Columbia.
California.
Oregon.
Spain.
Australia.
Russia.
Platinum
80.00
79.85>r
51.45
45.70
59.80
77.50
1 55
4 20
0 40
0 95
2 20
1 45
Rhodium
2 50
0 65
0 65
2 65
1.50
2.80
Palladium
1 00
1 95
0 15
0.85
1.50
0.85
Gold
1 50
0 55
0 85
3 15
2 40
Copper
0 65
0 75
2 15
1.05
1 10
2.15
Iron
7 20
4 45
4.30
6.80
4.30
9.60
Osmide of iridium
1 40
4 95
37 30
2 85
25 00
2 35
Sand
4 35
2 60
3 00
35. !I5
1.30
1.00
Osmium and loss
0 05
0.05
0.80
2.30
Ruthenium is also almost always present, and in the above analysis is probably includ* d
with the iridium, which it closely resembles.
There are two modes of obtaining platinum in the form of ingots from the ore, both
of which require notice. The method which has been universally employed, till within
the last live years, was that discovered by Wollaston, the leading steps of ^ Inch wore
as follows: After the removal of the metals associated with the platinum, by the surer*
sive action of nitric and hydrochloric acids, the platinum itself is dissolved in aqua •
from which it is precipitated by a solution of sal ammoniac in the form of a sp.M
soluble double salt, the chloride of ammonium and platinum, reprc •-• • ;ed by the formula
H4XCl,PtCla. This salt is washed and heated to redness, by vh'. < .neans the chlorine
and ammonia are expelled, leaving the metal in the form of a gray, spongy, .-oft mass,
known to chemists as spongy platinum. In this form it is very finely powdered under
water, is next shaped by intense pressure into a mass, and is then exposed to an i1
heat in a wind-furnace, the ingot being formed by hammering it upon its two ends. (If
hammered on its sides, it splits.) This heating and forging must be repeated till the
metal becomes homogeneous and ductile.
Deville and Debray have introduced an entirely new method for the extraction of
platinum from its ores. 'They first form a fusible alloy of this metal with lead, by
exposing the platinum ore — 2 cwt. being used in a single experiment, with equal weights
of galena and litharge gradually added, and a little glass to act as a flux — to full n
in a reverberatory furnace lined with clay. The sulphur of the galena is oxidi/ed and
expelled, and the liquid alloy of lead and* platinum is allowed to rest for some time, to
allow the osmide of iridium, which is not affected by the preceding operations, to sink
to the bottom. The upper portions of the alloy are then decanted, and cast into ingot-
molds, which are submitted to cupellation; and the metallic platinum which is left after
the cupellation is melted and refined in a furnace of lime — which is employed in <•
quence of it. being a very bad conductor of heat — by means of the oxyhydrogen blow-
pipe. The );atinum obtained in this manner is nearly pure, and very ductil'
malleable. i?or details regarding this process, which has been patented both in France,
and in this country, the reader is referred to the memoir "On Platinum and the Metals
which accompany it," in the Annnles de Chimie et de Physique for August, 1859.
Platinum, as obtained by either of the above processes, exhibits a bluish-white
metallic luster; it is exceedingly malleable and ductile, and is very infusible, melting
only before the oxyhydrogen blow-pipe, or in a very powerful blast-furnace, such as
that used by Deville and Debray. It expands less by heat than any other metal, and it
is usuaHy regarded as the heaviest form of matter yet known; but, according to Deville
and Debray, osmium and iridium are about equally dense. It is unaffected by atnin--
pheric action, and does not undergo oxidization in the air"at even the highest tempera-
tures. It is not acted on by nitric, hydrochloric, sulphuric, or hydrofluoric acid, or in
short, by any single acid; but in aqua regia it slowly dissolves, and forms a soluble
bicinoride. In consequence of its power of resisting the action of acids, it is of great
service in experimental and manufacturing chemical processes, platinum spatulas, cap-
m Platinum.
Plato.
sules, crucibles, etc., being employed in every laboratory; while platinum stills, weigh-
ing sometimes as much as 1000 ounces, are frequently used for concentrating oil of
vitriol. Platinum is, however, corroded if heated with the alkalies or alkaline earths,
and especially with a mixture of nitmu, of potash and hydrated potash, an oxide being
formed which combines with the alkaline bases.
The form of the metal known us xpuu'jy platinum has been already noticed. The
metal may, however, be obtained in a stale of subdivision much finer than that in which
it is. left on heating the double chloride of platinum and ammonium — namely, in tha
state known as platinum black. In this form it resembles soot. It may be prepared in
various ways, of which one of the simplest is to boil a solution of bichloride of platinum,
to which an excess of carbonate of soda and a quantity of sugar have been added, until the
precipitate formed after a little time becomes perfectly black, and the supernatant liquid
colorless. The black powder is then collected on a filter, washed, and dried by a gentle
heat. In its finely comminuted state, either as spongy platinum or platinum black, it
possesses a remarkable power of condensing and absorbing gasses, one volume of plat-
inum black being able to absorb more than 100 volumes of oxygen. This absorption
appears to be accompanied by a conversion of some or all of the oxygen into the modifi-
cation known as ozone (q.v.), since the metal becomes capable of exerting the most ener-
getic oxidizing action, even at ordinary temperatures. For example, it can cause the
combustion of a jet of hydrogen, can oxidize sulphurous acid into sulphuric acid,
ammonia into nitric acid, and alcohol into acetic acid, the rise of temperature in the last
case being often sufficiently great to cause inflammation. Platinum in the compact
form, as foil or wire, possesses similar powers, but in a far lower degree.
Platinum may be easily alloyed with most of the metals, the alloys being in general
much more fusible than pure platinum. Hence care must be taken not to heat the oxides
of metals of easy reduction, such as lead and bismuth, in platinum crucibles, as, if any
reduction took place, the crucible would be destroyed by the fusion of the resulting alloy.
An alloy of platinum, indium, and rhodium is found, by the investigations of Deville
and Debray. to be harder, and capable of resisting a higher temperature than the pure
metal; ami hence is admirably adapted for the formation of crucibles, etc.
There are 2 oxides of platinum, a protoxides PtO, and a binoxide, PtO2> neither of
which can be formed by the direct union of the elements. Excepting that the change
which platinum vessels undergo when containing the caustic alkalies, etc., and exposed
to a red heat, is due to the formation of a superficial layer of oxide (probably binoxide),
these compounds are of little interest. The sulphides and chlorides correspond in number
and composition to the oxides. Of these compounds, the bichloride (PtCl2) alone
requires notice. It is formed by dissolving platinum in aqua regia, and evaporating the
solution to dryness; and it is obtained as a deliquescent, reddish-brown mass, which
forms an orange-colored solution in water, from which, on evaporation, it crystallizes
in prisms. It is also freely soluble in alcohol and ether. A solution of this salt is much
used for the recognition and determination of potash and ammonia.
By the action of ammonia on protochloride of platinum (which is obtained by heating
a solution of the bichloride to a temperature of 450°), several remarkable compounds are
formed, which possess strong basic characters, and are of great interest in a theoretical
point of view, such as platosamiue (PtH3NO), platinamine (PtH3NO2), etc.
PLATO, who, along with Aristotle, represents to modern Europe the whole compass
of Greek speculation, was born at Athens in the year 429 B.C., shortly after the com-
mencement of the Pelopounesiau war, and the same year in which Pericles died. He
was of a good family — being connected on the mother's side with Solon, and on the
father's side with Codrus, one of the ancient kings of Athens. He received a good
education, according to the common practice of the Greeks, in music, gymnastics, and
literature-. His rich and gorgeous imagination is said at first to have essayed its powers
in poetry; but when about 20 years of age, having become acquainted with Socrates, he
threw all his verses into the fire, and consecrated his great intellect to philosophy. When
he was 20 years old the political troubles, of which the death of Socrates was only one
terrible symptom, forced him to leave Athens for a season, and he resided at Megara,
with Euclid, the founder of the Megaric sect. The disturbed state of his native country,
doubtless. ai..o was one cause of the frequent travels which he is reported to have made.
Of these, his three visits to Sicily, during the time of the elder and younger Dionysius,
are the most celebrated and the best authenticated. That he visited Italy is extremely
probable: at all events, he was most closely connected with Archytas and the Pythago-
rean philosophers; though, as Aristotle (Mctaph. i. 6) justly remarks, he borrowed from
Heracleitus as well as from Pythagoras, and put a stamp of freshness and originality on
all that he borrowed. After returning from his first visit to Sicily, being then in his for-
tieth year, he commenced teaching philosophy publicly, in the Academia, a pleasant gar-
den in the most beautiful suburb of Athens, and there gathered around him a large school
of distinguished followers, who maintained a regular succession after his death, under
the name of the philosophers of the academy. He lived to the age of 82; was never
married, and must have possessed some independent property, as he expresses himself
strongly against teaching philosophy for fees, and we nowhere read of his having held
any public office from which lie could have derived emolument. Such are the few
reliable facts known as to the life of Plato.
Plato.
774
The principles of his philosophy ;irc happily better known ; for nil his great works have
been preserved, and have always been extensively read wherever the Greek language
was known. The only danger to which the students of his philosophy have been exposed
is the confusion of the doctrines distinctly taught by him with the exaggeration of thc.se
as afterwards worked out by the Neoplatonists of Alexandria: but this is a danger which
the exact critical scholarship of modern times has put out of the way for all persons who
exercise common precaution in the acquisition of knowledge. The 'distinctive character
of the Platonic philosophy is expressed by the word idealism, as opposed to realism,
materialism, or sensationalism, u>ing these words in their most genera! and least technical
sense, the capacity of forming and using ideas being taken as ;m c.-sential virtue or qual-
ity of mind, as contrasted with matter: of thought as contrasted with sensation, of the
internal forces of individuals and of the universe, as contrasted with the external forms
by which these forces are manifested. As such, the ideal philosophy stands generally
opposed to that kind of mental action which draws its stores principally from without,
and is not strongly determined to mold the materials thus received by any type of thought
or hue of emotion derived from within. In other words, the philosophy of Plato isessen-
tially a poetical and an artist ical philosophy; for poetry, painting, and music all grow out
of idealism, or those lofty inborn conceptions by which genius is distinguished from tal-
ent. It is also, at the same time, a scientific philosophy, for the purest science, as ma: he-
matics— on which Plato is well known to have; placed the highest value — is a science of
mere ideas or forms conditioned by the intellect which deduces their laws; and, abo\e
all, it is essentially a moral and a theological philosophy; for practice, or action is the
highest aim of man, and morality is the ideal of action; and God. as cause of all. is the
ideal of ideals, the supreme power, virtue, and excellence to which all contemplation
recurs, and from which all action and original energy proceed. The distinctive excel-
lence of the Platonic philosophy is identical witli its distinctive character, and consist.-*
in that grand union of abstract thought, imaginative decoration, emotional purity, and
noble activity, which is the model of a complete and richly endowed humanity. The
poetical element in Plato, so wonderfully combined with the analytical, shows itself not
only in those gorgeous, myths which form the peroration of some of hisprofoundesi dia-
logues, but in that very dialogic form itself, of which the situation is often extremely
dramatic; though this 'form of philosophic discussion perhaps owes ils existence more to
the lively temper and out-of-door habits of the Greeks, than to the special dramatic tal-
ent of Plato. On the other hand, the defects of the Platonic philosophy arise from its
essential one-sidedness, as a polemical assertion of the rights of thought against the claims
of the mere senses, of the stability of the eternal type against the constant change that
characterizes the ephemeral form. In his zeal to submit all that is external to the imper-
atorial power of internal conception, the philosopher of ideas is apt to forget the obsti-
nate and unpliable nature of that external world which he would regulate, and after pro-
tecting a grand new scheme of society, according to what appears a perfect model, shows
like the architect who, after drawing out the model of a marble temple, finds lie has
only bricks ;o build it with. For this reason, extremely practical men, and those who
are compelled to reason chiefly by an extensive induction from external facts, hav
felt an instinctive aversion to the Platonic philosophy; and Plato himself, by some of
the strange and startling conclusions, in matters of social science, to which his ideal
philosophy led, has, it must be confessed, put into the hands of his adversaries the most
efficient weapons by which his ideal system may be combated.
The starting-point of the Platonic philosophy, as, indeed, it must he of all philosophy,
properly so called, is the theory of knowledge. This is set forth in the T/i<ietetux, the
Sophistes, and the Parmenides; and in the Cratylns, the foundations are laid for as.
of language, as the necessary product of a creature energizing by ideas. The Platonic
theory of knowledge, as developed in the Thecetetva, will be most readily understood by
imagining the very reverse of that which is vulgarly attributed to Locke; viz., by draw-
ing a strong and well-marked line between the province of thought and thato
in the production of ideas, and taking care that, in the process of forming conceptions,
the mind shall always stand out as the dominant factor. In other words, the hack-
neyed simile of the sheet of blank paper, applied to the mind by extreme sensational
philosophers, must either be thrown away altogether or inverted; the more active part of
the operation must always be assigned to the mind. The formation of knowledge.
according to Plato, may be looked on as the gradual and systematic elimination of the
accidental and fleeting in the phenomenon from the necessary and permanent; and the
process by which the mind performs this elimination — and it can be penormcd only by
mind — is called dialectic*. This word, from dialegonwi, originally signifies only conver-
sational discussion; thence, that discussion conducted in such scientific fashion as to l»»d
to reliable results, i.e., strictly logical. The product of dialectics is ideas, and these
ideas being the eirfe, forms or types of things which are common to all the individuals of
a species, all the species of a genus, all the genera of a family, and all the families of a
class, generate classification — that is, knowledge of the permanent in phenomena — and
definition, which is merely the articulate verbal expression of this permanency. The
construction of the confused results of observation into the orderly array of clear con-
crptions, by a sort of cross examination of the phenomena, performed by minds impas-
sioned for truth, is exhibited as the great characteristic of the teaching of Socrates, in the
775
Plato.
Memorabilia of Xenophon. In the dialogues of Plato, the same purification of the reason,
so to .speak, from the clouds of indistinct sensuousness, is exhibited on a higher platform,
and with more comprehensive results. For between Socrates and Plato, notwithstand-
ing a deep internal identity, there was this striking difference in outward attitude — that
the one used logic as a practical instrument in the hands of a great social missionary and
preacher of virtue; while the other used it as the architect of a great intellectual system
of the universe, tirst and chiefly for his own time and his own place; but, as the event
has proved, in some fashion also for all times and all places.
We should err greatly, however, if we looked on Plato as a man of mere speculation,
and a writer of metaphysical books, like certain German professors. Neither Plato nor
any of the great Greeks looked on their intellectual exercises and recreations as an end in
themselves. With them, philosophy did not mean mere knowledge or mere speculation, but
it meant wisdom, and wisdom meant wise action, and wise action meant virtue. The
philosophy of Plato, therefore, with all its transcendental flights, of which we hear so
much, was essentially a practical philosophy; all his discussions on the theory of knowl-
edge and l he nature of ideas are undertaken mainly that a system of eternal divine types,
as the only reliable knowledge, may serve as a foundation for a virtuous life, as '.be only
consistent course of action. Virtue, with Socrates and Plato, is only practical reason. As
in the Proverbs of Solomon, all vice is folly, so in the philosophy of Plato, the imperial
virtue is phronesis — i.e., " wisdom" or practical "insight." The other two great Greek
and Platonic virtues — sophrosyne, "moderation" or "sound-mmdedness,"and(///iY<z«?#;/<?,
"justice." or the assigning to every act and every function its proper place — are equally
exemplifications of a reasonable order applied to action — such an order as alone and
everywhere testifies the presence of mind. The theory of morals as worked out from
such principles is, of course, as certain as the necessary laws of the reason which it
expresses; and accordingly, the Platonic morality, like the Christian, is of that high
order which admits of no compromise with ephemeral prejudice or local usage. The
contrast between the low moral standard of local respectability and that which is con-
gruous with the universal laws of pure reason, stands out as strikingly in Plato as the
morality of the Sermon on the Mount in the Gospels does against the morality of the
Scribes and Pharisees. Splendid passages to this effect occurs in various parts of Plato's
writings, particularly in the Republic and the (jorgias. In perfect harmony with the
Platonic theory of noble action, is his doctrine with regard to pure emotion and elevated
passion. Love with Plato is a transcendental admiration of excellence — an admiration
of which the soul is capable by its own high origination and the germs of god-like excel-
lence, which are implanted inio it from above. The philosophy of love is set forth with
imaginative grandeur in the Pitied run, and with rich dramatic variety in the Banquet, of
which dialogue there is an English translation by Shelley. The philosophy of beauty
and .the theory of pleasure are set forth with great analytic acuteness in the Philebus.
With Plato, the foundation of beauty is a reasonable order, addressed to the imagination
through the senses — i.e., symmetry in form, and harmony in sounds, the principles of
which are as certain as the laws of logic, mathematics, and morals — all qqually neces-
sary products of eternal intellect, acting by the creation and by the comprehension of
well-ordered forms, and well-harmonized forces, in rich and various play through the.
living frame of the universe; and the ultimate ground of this lofty and coherent doctrine
of intellectual, moral, and aesthetical harmonies lies with Plato, where alone it can lie,
in the unity of a supreme, reasonable, self-existent intelligence, whom we call God, the
fountain of nil force, and the creator of all order in the universe; the sum of whose
most exalted attributes, and the substantial essence of whose perfection may, as con-
trasted with our finite and partial aspects of things, be expressed by the simple term ti>
agatlibn — the Good. From this supreme and all-excellent intelligence, human souls are
oflsboptd, emanations, or sparks, in such a fashion that they partake essentially of the
essential nature of the source from which they proceed, and accordingly possess unity
as their most characteristic quality, attest their presence everywhere by a unifying force
which acts by impressing a type on whatever materials are submitted to it, nnd is filled
with a native joy in the perception of such types, the product of the same divine prin-
ciple of unity, wheresoever presented. The undivided unity and unifying force which
we call the soul is immortal, being from its nature altogether unaffected by the changes
of decay and dissolution to which the complex structure of the material human body is
exposed. The doctrine of the immortality of the sou) is most fully set forth in the
Pfimlo, a dialogue which combines with the abstract philosophical discussion a graphic
narrative of the last hours of Socrates, which, for simple athos and unaffected dignity ,
is unsurpassed by any human composition.
The most complete and systematic exhibition of the o| nions of Plato will be found
in the Republic, or ideal commonwealth, of which an exc llent English translation has
been recently made by Davies and Vaughan. The Republic is not, as the title would
lead us to suppose, a political work, like the Politics of Aristotle. It is, as baron Bimsen
well remarked, not so much a state as a church with which this great work has to do;
or at least, both a state and a church; and the church is the superior and dominating
element. In the Republic, accordingly, we find the necessity of virtue to. the very idi'U
of social life proved in the first book; then the whole process of a complete moral and
scientific education is set forth with such fullness as to throw the strictly political part
Platoff.
Flatt&burg.
of the book, including the germs of what is now called political economy, very much
iulo the shade The principles uuu government of an ideal moral organism, of which
the rulers shall be types of fully developed and perfectly educated men, is the real
subject of the licjinhlic, which accordingly forms a remarkable contrast to the inductive
results of the thoroughly practical work of Arist'otle on the same subject. Plato's com-
monwealth is a theoretical construction of a perfect ideal state of society; Aristotle's is
a practical discussion on the best form of political government possible under existing
conditions. Of the value of Plato's work, both suggestively in the world of politics,
and dogmatically in I he region of moral and religious speculation, there can be uo doubt ;
but as a practical treatise on politics, it is vitiated throughout, both by its original
scheme and by an inherent vice in the author's mind, which prevented him from recog-
nizing the force of the actua: in that degree which necessarily belongs to .such a complex
an as human government. Of this fault, the author was himself sufficiently conscious,
and has accordingly, in another large political treatise, the Laws, endeavored, for prac-
tical purposes, to make some sort of compromise between the transcendental scheme of
his Commonwealth and the conditions of existing society. But, however he might modify
individual opinions, there was a oue-sidedness about Plato's mind which rendered it
impossible for him to struggle successfully with the difficulties of complex practical
politics. He was too much possessed with the idea of order, and, moreover, had planted
himself with too manifest a polemical attitude against Athenian democracy, to give due
weight to the opposite principle of freedom, proved by experience to be so indispensable
to every healthy and vigorous political development.
Physical science, in the days of Plato, stood on no basis sufficiently sure or broad to
authorize a philosophy of the material universe with any prospect of success. Never-
theless, in his Timmis, the great philosopher of ideas has attempted this; and it is a
work which, however valueless in the face of the grand results of modern chemical and
kinetical research, will ever be consulted with advantage, as a grand constructive sum-
mary of the most important facts and theories of nature, known to the Greeks, before
the accurate observations of Aristotle, and the extended mathematics of the, Alexandrian
school. The great question as to what matter is, and whence, Plato nowhere seems to
settle very clearly; but the general tendency of ancient thought was towards a dualism.
which recognized the independent existence of a not very tractable element called mat-,
ter, in which Plato seems to have acquiesced.
The works of Plato were extensively studied by the church fathers, one of whom
joyfully recognizes, in the great teacher of the academy, the schoolmaster who, in the
fullness of time, was destined to educate the heathen for Christ, as Moses did the .lews.
A lofty passion for Plato likewise seized the literary circle of the Medici at the period of
the revival of letters in Italy. Since that time, the tyrannous sway of Aristotle, charac-
teristic of the middle ages, has always been kept in check by a strong band of enthusi-
astic Platouists in various parts of Europe. Since the French revolution particularly,
the study of Plato has been pursued with renewed vigor in Germany, France, and Kng-
land; and many of our distinguished authors, without expressly professing Plutonian) —
as Coleridge, Wordsworth, Mrs. Browning, Ruskin, etc. — havp formed a strong and a
growing party of adherents, who could find no common banner under which they could
at once so conveniently and so honorably muster as that of Plato. The amount of
learned labor expended on the text of Plato during the present century, has been in pro-
portion; and in this department the names of Bekker, Ast, and Stallbaum stand pre-emi-
nent. Prof. Jowett also, in Oxford, has made Plato his standard author for many years;
from his hand we had, in 1871, his translation of the Dialogue* of Plato. Mr. Grote, the
historian of Greece, published his Plate and the other Companions of Socrates in 1864.
One of the best accounts of the Platonic philosophy is given in Zeller's Phil, der Griechen,
of which the part on Plato and the Older Academy was translated in 1876.
PLATOFF, MATVEI IVANOVITCH, Count, the hetman of the Cossacks of the Don, and
a Russian cavalry gen., was b. on the banks of the Don. Aug. 6. 1757, and was descended
from an ancient and noble family, which hail emigrated from Greece. Having acquired
a considerable* reputation for wisdom and bravery, he was appointed by the czar Alex-
ander I. hetman of the Cossacks; and subsequently, as a lieut.gen. in the Russian army.
and afterwards as commander of the Russian irregular cavalry, he took a prominent
part in the wars both with France and Turkey. After the French had evacuated Mos-
cow, and retreated, Platoff hu g upon their rear with the utmost pertinacity, wearying
them out by incessant attacks cutting off straggling parties, capturing their convoy « of
provisions, and keeping them in a state of continual terror and apprehension. The
French historians state that 1 >naparte's army suffered more loss from the attacks of
Platoff' s Cossacks than from p ivation and exhaustion. He defeated Lefebvre at Alten-
burg. After the rout of the French at Leipzig, he inflicted great loss upon them in their
retreat, and subsequently gained a victory over them at Laon. The inhabitants of Seine-
et-Marne will long remember him by the devastations and pillage committed by his
undisciplined bands. He was enthusiastically welcomed by the Parisians (to their
shame), and also by the English, who presented him with a sword of honor on the occa-
sion of his vi«:t to London in company with marshal Blucher. The allied monarchs
loaded him witii honors and decorations, and the czar gave him the title of count. Ha
f? >7 f Platoff.
1'iattsburg.
retired to his own country, there to mourn the death of his only son, who had been
killed in the campaign of 1812, and died near Tcherkask in 1818. No other Russian
gen. ever exercised such an influence over the men under his command; and their awe
of him was not greater than their affection; but this was doubtless owing to the inflexi-
ble and speedy justice which he administered to them, and to the freedom with which
he left them to rob and pillage.
PLATONIC LOVE, the name given to an affection subsisting between two persons of
different sex, which is presumed to be unaccompanied by any sensuous emotions, and to
be based on moral or intellectual affinities. The expression has originated in the view
of Plato, who held that the common sexual love of the race, harassed and afllicted with
fleshly longings, is only a subordinate form of that perfect and ideal love of truth which
the soul should cultivate. Whether such a sentiment as Platonic love can really subsist
between persons of different sex has been frequently disputed; but without pronounc-
ing positively on a point so delicate, and depending so much on differences in our spirit-
ual organization, it may be safely affirmed that wherever a feeling calling itself by this
name exists, it lias undoubtedly a tendency to develop into something more definite and
dangerous.
PLAT001T (probably from the French pcloton) was a term formerly used to designate
a body of troops who fired together. A battalion was commonly divided into 16 pla-
toons, and each company into two platoons, the platodn thus corresponding to the pres-
ent subdivision. The word is obsolete in this its original sense; but it survives in the
expression "platoon exercise," which is the course of motions in connection with hand-
ling, loading, and firing the musket or rifle.
PLATT, THOMAS C., b. N. Y., 1833; educated at the Owego academy; a member of
the class of 1853 in Yale college, withdrawing in his junior year on account of ill health.
He went into mercantile business, became president of the Tioga national bank, and
was heavily engaged in lumbering in Michigan. Pie was clerk of Tioga co. 1859-61,
and a member of congress from the 29th district for two terms, 1872-76. In 1879 Mr.
Platt was made general manager, secretary, and director of the U. S. express company;
and in 1880 was appointed a quarantine commissioner at the port of New York. Jan.
13, 1881, after a serious struggle, he was nominated for U. S. senator from the state of
w York, and took his seat at the opening of the session.
PLATTE. Sec NEBRASKA.
PLATTE, a co. in n.w. Missouri, adjoining Kansas, bounded on the s.w. and s. by
the Missouri, drained also by Platte river, and Smith's fork of the Platte; traversed by
the s.w. branch of the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific, and the Kansas City, St.
Joseph and Council Bluffs railroads; about 400 sq.m. ; pop. '70, 17,352 — 16,359 of Ameri*
can birth. The surface is rolling and heavily wooded, the soil fertile; principal pro-
ductions, corn, wheat, oats, and live stock Co. seat, Platte City.
PLATTE, a -co. in e. Nebraska, bounded on the s. by the Platte river, drained by
Shell creek and the Loup fork of the Platte, traversed by the Union Pacific railroad;
about 675 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 9,511 — 5,690 of American birth. The surface is rolling, and
the soil f'citile. Corn, hay, oats, and wheat are the principal productions. Co. seat,
Columbus.
PLATTEN-SEE. See BALATOX.
PLATTE RIVER is formed by its n. and s. forks, which rise in Colorado among the
Rocky mountains, and join in Lincoln co. , Nebraska. Its general course is e., and it
empties into the Missouri in lat. 41° 3' u. after a course of about 450 miles. Including
the n. fork, its length is 1250 m., and it drains an area estimated by prof. Hayden at
300,000 sq. miles. It is very shallow and unuavigable even for small vessels.
PL AT TS BURG, a village of New York, on the w. shore of lake Champlain, at the
mouth of the river Saranac, which furnishes water-power t.o several mills and factories.
It has a custom-house, academy, and six churches. In Plattsburg bay was fought the
naval battle of Champlain, in which the British flotilla, under commodore D.ownie, was
defeated by the American commodore McDonough, Sept. 11, 1814; while the land forces,
amounting to 14,000 men, under sir George Prevost, were defeated by gen. Macomb.
Pop. '70, 5,139.
PLATTSBURG (nntf), the capital of Clinton co., N. Y., and port of entry for the
Champlain district; on the w. shore of lake Champlain, at the mouth of the Saranac river;
pop. '70, town 8,414; village. 5,139. One of the first naval battles of the revolutionary war
was fought here Oct. 11, 1776, the American vessels being commanded by Benedict Arnold.
During the second war with Great Britain it was the United States headquarters for the
northern frontier and the scene of the brilliant naval and land battles in botli of which the
Americans were victorious. The town was settled in 1785 chiefly by emigrants from Dutch-
ess co. and Long Island. In 1849 and 1867 it was visited by disastrous fires that destroyed
the chief business portion of the town. It now contains numerous mills and manufactories,
several banks, 5 public schools and a high school, 6 churches, a library, court-house and
jail, custom-house and post-office, and barracks for United States soldiers. It is lighted
with gas, has a well-organized fire department, and draws its water supply from springs
Platypus.
1>1«!»:
7 in. distant. It is on the line of the New York and Canada railroad, a branch of which,
ex:eiiuing 20 in. s.w. to Au Sable forks, gives a-.:cess to the Adirondack region, and to
the remarkable An Sable chasm, Large quantities of logs arc floated down the Saranac
river, producing annually about 05,000.000 ft. of lumber; and the product of more than
50 iron bloom forges is brought to the town for shipment. The annual aggregate of
entrances and clearances in the commerce with Canada is nearly 4,000; and of clearances
in the coast-wise trade about 1000. Nearly 1000 vessels, the larger part of which are
canal buaiS, are owned in the district.
PLATYPUS. See DucK-UiM,.
PLATYS TOMA (Gr. broad-month), a genus of fishes of the family fihirida, having a
very Hat (depressed) snout, and a very large mouth with six long barbels; the .-kin quite
destitute of scales; two dorsal fins; the eyes lateral, level with the nostrils. The species
are numerous, some of them attaining a large si/.e, many of them notable for their difr
tinct and conspicuous markings. Several are natives of the rivers of the n.e. of Smith
America; and among these are some of the most beautiful and delicious of fresh water
fishes, as P. tit/riuu/n, known among different tribes of Indians by various names —
corutto, colite, oronni, etc., which has au elongated body, light blue, trans\ei>ely streaked
with black and white, and a spreading forked tail. It is both taken by baited honks and
shot with arrows by Indians, as are several other species, some of which are found as
far s. as Buenos Ayres.
PLAU EN, an important manufacturing t. of Saxony, in a beautiful valley on the
White Elster, 74 m. s. of Leipsic by railway. It was the chief town of the Saxon Voigt-
land, and its castle was at one time the residence of the voigt, or imperial commissioner.
but is now used as the seat of justice and other courts. Plauen contains a gymnasium,
a royal palace, and numerous educational and benevolent institutions. It carries on
extensive manufactures of muslin, cambric, and jaconet goods, as well as embroidered
fabrics and cotton goods. In Sept. 1844, 150 buildings were destroyed by lire, and after
that event, the town was almost wholly rebuilt. Pop. '75, 28,75ft.
PLAU TUS, M. Accius, or, more correctly, T. MACCIUS, the great comic poet of Rome,
was b. about 254 B.C. at Sarsina, a village of Umbria. We have no knowledge of his
early life and education; but it is probable that he came to Rome while still a youth, and
there acquired a complete mastery of the Latin language in iuv mo^l idiomatic form, as well
as an extensive familiarity with Greek literature. It is uncertain whether he ever obtained
the Roman franchise. His first employment was with the actors, in whose service lie
saved an amount of money sufficient to enable him to leave Rome and commence In
on his own account. What the nature of this business was, or where he carried it on, we
are not informed: we know, however, that he failed in it, and returned to Rome, where
he had to earn his livelihood in the service of a baker, with whom he was (imaged in
turning a hand-mill. At this time — a few years before the outbreak of the second Punic
war — lie was probably about 30 years of age; and while employed in his humble occu-
pation, he composed three plays, which he sold to the managers of the'public games, and
from the proceeds of which he was enabled to leave the mill, and turn his hand to more
congenial work. The commencement of his literary career may, therefore, be fixed about
224 B.C., from which date he continued to produce comedies with wonderful fertility,
till 184, when he died in his 70th year. He was at first contemporary with Livius
Andronicus and Naevius: subsequently with Ennius and ( a'cilius.
Of his numerous plays — 180 of which bore his name in the last century of the repub-
lic— only 20 have come down to us. Many of them, however, were regardc d as spurious
by the Roman critics, among whom Varro in his treatise (Qvastiones PUmttna) limits tic
genuine comedies of the poet to 21. With the exception of the 21st, these Vanoni; n
comedies are the same as those we now possess. Their titles, arranged (with the exci ;>-
tiou of the Bacchides) in alphabetical order, are as follows: 1, AmjJtifryo; 2, Afiimrin ;
3, Aulnlaria; 4, Captivi; 5, Oirculio; 6, Casina; 7, Cistellaria; 8, Ejridicvs; 9. Baccltiih .- ,•
10, Mostelian'a; 11, Mencechmi; 12, Miles; 13, Mercator; 13, Pseudohts; 15. /'<
10, Perm; 17, lindens; 18, Stichus; 19, Trinummus; 20, Trucvlentv*; 21. Vidularin.
As a comic? writer, Plautus enjoyed immense popularity nmong the Romans, ;>r,d held
possession of the stage down to'the time of Diocletian. The vivacity, the hmr.or. aid
the rapid action of his plays, as well as his skill in constructing plots, commanded the
rdmiration of the educated no lesi than of the unlettered Romans; while the fact that
IKS was a national poet prepossessed his audiences in his favor. Although he laid 'be
Greek comic drama under heavy contributions, and "adapted" the plots of Mcnaiulcr.
Diphilus, and Philemon with all the license of a modern playwright, he always pr< served
the style and character native to the Romans, and reproduced the life and iuicl!'
tone of the people in a way that at once conciliated their sympathies. The admiration
in which he was held by his contemporaries descended to Cicero and St. Jerome; while
he has found imitators in Shakespeare, Moliere, Dryden, Addison, and Lessing, i.i'.d
translators in most European countries. The only complete translation of his woika
into English is that by Thornton and Warner (5 vols., 1767-74). Unfortunately the
text of his plays, as they have come down to us, is in such a very corrupt state, so defec-
tive from lacunae, and so filled with interpolations, that much yet remains to be dom by
the grammarian and the commentator before they can l>e read with full appreciation or
m Platypus.
Plea.
comfort. The editio princeps was printed at Venice in 1742. "Weisc and Fleckeisen have
given us pond modern editions; but that of Ilitschl (1st e<l. 1848-54; 2d cd. 1871) shows
S'ich admirable acuteness and learning as to Lave superseded all others.
PLAYrAIS, JOHX, a Scottish mathematician and natural philosopher, was b. at Ben-
vie in Forfarshirc, March 10, 1748. His father, \vho was minister of the united parishes
of Liff and Benvie, sent him to the university of St. Andrews at the age of 14, to study
with a view to the ministry; and here Playfair gained great reputation as a diligent and
successful student, especially in mathematics and natural philosophy; so much so that,
while a student, he for some time discharged the duties of the natural philosophy chair
during the illness of the professor. In 1773 he entered the ministry, and succeeded his
father in the parish of Liff and Benvie. During his leisure hours, he still prosecuted his
favorite studies, the fruits of these labors being two memoirs, On the Arithmetic of Impos-
&i>)le Quantities and Account of the Lithological Survey of Schihailion, which were commu-
nicated to the royal society of London. In 1782 he resigned his parochial charge to
superintend the education of the sons of Mr. Ferguson of liaith; and in 1785 he became
joint-professor of mathematics along with Adam Ferguson in the university of Edin-
burgh; but exchanged his chair for that of natural philosophy in Is05. lie took the
part of Mr. (afterwards sir John) Leslie (q.v.), his successor in the mathematical chair,
and published a pamphlet full of biting satire against the " new-sprung zeal for ortho-
doxy." lie became a strenuous supporter of the " Huttonian theory" in geology, and
after publishing his Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth (Edin. 1802), ho
made many journeys for the sake of more extensive observations, particularly in 1815,
when he visited France, Switzerland, and Italy. He died at Edinburgh, July 19, 1819.
Playfair, according to Jeffrey (Annual Biography, 1820), " possessed in the highest
degree all the characteristics both of a fine and a powerful understanding; at once pene-
trating and vigilant, but more distinguished, perhaps, by the caution and success of its
maivh, than by the brilliancy or rapidity of its movements." Playfair was, during the
later part of his life, secretary to the ro}'al society of Edinburgh. From 1804 he was a
frequent contributor to the Edinburgh Review, criticising the works of Laplace, Zach,
and Katcr, and the great trigonometrical surveys, both French and English, which had
just been completed. He also wrote the articles "JSpinus" and " Physical Astronomy,"
and an incomplete " Dissertation on the Progress of Mathematical and Physical Science"
for the Encyclopedia T>ritannica. His contributions to the Transactions of Hie Royal
X'H-iciy "f Edinburgh are numerous and exceedingly varied, a treatise on " Naval Tactics"
even appearing among them. His separate works are the Elements of Geometry (Ediu
1795), containing the first six books of Euclid, with supplementary articles on trigonom-
etry, solid geometry, and the quadrature of the circle; and his Outline* of Nat ami Phil-
osophy (Edin. 1812 and 1816), being the heads of his lectures delivered in the university
on that subject. A third volumes of the Outlines, completing the work, was promised,
but never appeared.
PL.VYFAIR, LYON, LL.D. ; b. Bengal, India, 1819; educated at St. Andrews college; at
an early age (iu 1834) took a course in chemistry at Glasgow. In 1837 he revisited India
for his health; returned the next year, and after studying under the celebrated German
chemist Lie-big, became the manager of large calico mills at Clitheroc, Scotland. In 1843
lie was appointed professor of chemistry at the Manchester royal institution. In the
world's exhibition in London he was at the head of the department of juries, and for his
valuable services was made a companion of the Bath. At the exhibition of 1856 he
held the same position. The chemical society of London elected him president in 1857,
and in 1858 he was appointed to the chair of chemistry in Edinburgh university. He
has been a member of several royal commissions for examining into questions concern-
ing science or health. In 1868 Dr. Playfair was returned to parliament as a liberal from
the Scotch universities, and has since been prominent in political matters. In 1873 he
was appointed postmaster-general and became a privy-councilor. He has been made
the recipient of several foreign orders. Dr. Playfair has edited and written many trea-
tises on scientific and technical topics, and has published several lectures and addresses
on universities and education and one on the progress of sanitary reform.
PLEA is a technical term in the law of the United Kingdom. In England it had a
very restricted meaning, being confined to the pleading of a defendant to an action at
common law. Now in all actions in the high court it is called the "statement of
defense." — In Scotland it is not used in the same sense, but denotes the short legal
ground on which a party, whether pursuer or defender, bases his case or pleading.
Hence the pleas in law are only short propositions of law. Pleas are subdivided accord-
ing to their subject-matter, into pleas dilatory and peremptory, pleas of abatement,
pleas to the jurisdiction. Pleas in bar are the same as peremptory pleas; but in crimi-
nal cases in England, special pleas in bar are pleas stating some ground for not proceed-
ing with the indictment, such as a plea of formal acquittal or autrefois acquit; or of
conviction, or autrefois convict; or a plea of pardon. — In Scotland a "plea of panel"
means a plea of guilty or not guilty. Pleas of the crown was an expression anciently
used to denote the divisions of criminal offenses generally, as in the well-known
work called Pleas of the Crown, by sir Matthew Hale and other writers. The phrase
was so used because the sovereign was supposed in law to be the person injured by
Plead Inc.
VlectotjnatM.
every wrong done to the community, and therefore was the prosecutor for every such
offense.
PLEADING, as a legal term, lias two meanings — a restricted and a general meaning.
In the former sense, it is a generic term to denote the written formula containing the sub-
ject-matter of a litigant's demand, or claim, or of his defense or answer thereto. In its
general sense, it denotes that s}'stem of rules on which the particular pleadings of liti-
gants are framed. In the practice of English common law, the pleadings in an action
were called the declaration, plea, replication, rejoinder, surrejoinder, rebutter, surrebut-
ter, etc. — the first being a statement of the plaintiff's demand; the second, the defense
thereto, and so on, each alternately answering the other, until the parties arrive at a
stop, called an issue, which means a proposition of fact, which the one affirms, and the
other denies. When an is-ue is arrived at, the parties can go no further; and the next
step is to send the issue before a jury, that they may decide it. When the parties differ,
not on a question of fact, but on one of law, it is called a demurrer, which must be
decided by the court. These technical names have, however, been recently much
changed. In the high court of justice, the plaintiff's pleading is called his "statement
of claim;" then follow the "statement of defense,'' the reply, etc., there being no fur-
ther pleadings. — In Scotland, the pleadings of the parties are called the summons
(including the condescendeuce), the defenses or answers, tiie revised condcsceudcuce, the
revised answers, etc. The peculiar technical rules to which the pleadings of parties
must conform are capable of. being understood only by lawyers.
PLEADING (ante), in the common-law system until recently followed in most of the
states, differed greatly from the equity pleading and that employed in the admiralty
courts. In the last the " libei" of the complainant or " libelaut" corresponds to the
" declaration" in common law and to the "bill" in equity proceedings, and each sub-
sequent step was set forth in an "allegation." In equity, the plea responding to the bill
is called the "answer," and subsequent pleadings were less formal and technical than in
common law. • At common law pleas subsequent to the declaration were either of the
nature of a traverse, direcilv contradicting the allegations of the plea next preceding,
and thus offering an opportunity to close the issue; or in the nature of confession and
avoidance, not denying the f^uth of the facts claimed by the declaration, but setting up
new matter to show the ^.aiutiff not entitled to his action, and to avoid the effect of his
allegations. Pleas may be peremptory or dilatory; the former altogether denies a right
of action; the latter sets out that the suit has been brought in improper form, or against
the wrong party, or before a court lacking jurisdiction. A special pica in bar differs from
the general -issue in that the latter denies all the material allegations of the preceding plea ;
and from a special issue, which does not set up new matter but denies some part which, it
is claimed, goes to the gist of the action. The issue finally reached may be either one of
law, raised by a demurrer; or of fact, as on the acceptance of a traverse. ApIeajTUtb
darrein continuance sets out that new matter of defense has come to the knowledge of
the parly presenting the plea, since the last continuance of the case, or the last stage of
the suit, The system of common-law pleading was extremely technical and formal,
required great accuracy and precision, and the pleas were cumbered with obsolete and
redundant phraseology. In England the old system has been greatly improved by acts of
parliament, and in the United States the codes of procedure of a majority of the states
nave abolished the common-law pleadings, and have done away with the distinction
between legal and equitable suits, admitting equitable defenses in all suits. The "com-
plaint" usually takes the place of the declaration, the demurrer is retained, the response
of the defendant, is termed the "answer," and the pleadings never extend beyond the
plaintiff's " reply" to the answer. The one point insisted upon is that the conflicting
claims of the parties shall be clearly and distinctly set out, and the points in dispute,
brought within the jurisdiction and cognizance of the court. The rules of pleading in
criminal practice are similar to those in civil practice. The pleas are of five kinds: plea
of guilty; to the jurisdiction; in abatement; in demurrer, and pleas in bar. Pleas in bar
(in criminal cases) may be of four kinds: former conviction; former acquittal; pardon;
and "not guilty." On refusal of an accused to plead, the court may order a plea of
"not guilty" to be entered. A plea of " nolo contendere" allows an inferior court to
give verdict on an e.r-par1e hearing, and is made for the purpose of at once taking the
case to a higher court. In England a prisoner accused of felony who refused to plead,
was formerly subjected to the pressure of heavy weights until he yielded or died. The
last application of this peine forte et dure was in 1741.
PLEASONTOiSr, ALFRED, b. in the district of Columbia, 1823; graduated at West
Point, 1844, and brevetted 2d lieut. 1st dragoons; mnj. 3d cavalry, 1862; served in the
Mexican war and brevetted 1st Jieut. for bravery at Palo Alto and Hesaca de la Palma;
afterward on frontier duty as acting assistant adj. gen. ; in the war of the rebellion
commanded his regiment from Utah to Washington and served with it through the pen-
insular campaign, 18G2; during which he was appointed brig. gen. of volunteers; com-
manded a division of cavalry in the army of the Potomac that followed Lee's army into
Maryland; was engaged at Boonsboro', South Mountain, Antictam, and in the pursuit
afterward; at Frederieksburg steadily engaged the enemy's cavalry; at Chaucellorsville
Pleading.
PlectoguathL.
arrested the advance of Stonewall Jackson's corps when it seemed about lo drive all
before it. Having been made maj.geu. he took part in numerous actions preceding the
battle of Gettysburg, in which also he was commandcr-in-chief of the cavalry: transferred
to Missouri, 1864, lie drove gan. Price out of the state; was mustered out of the volun-
teer service, 1866; resigned Ms commission in the regular army, lb'68; and for several
years afterward was a collector of internal revenue.
PLEASANTS, a co. in n.w. West Virginia, bounded on the n.w. by the Ohio; about
225 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 6,255 — 25 colored. The surface is rolling or hilly, and heavily
wooded. The soil is fairly fertile. The principal productions are corn, wheat, oats,
potatoes, and grass. Much petroleum is exported. Co. seat, St. Mary's.
PLEBEIANS (Lat. plebs. from the same root as Lat. impleo, to fill: and Gr. pletJws,
multitude), the common people of Rome; one of the two elements of which the Roman
nation consisted. Their origin, as a separate class, is to be traced partly to natural, and
i>artly to artificial causes. The foundation of Rome, probably as a frontier-emporium of
.•aim traffic (according to Mommsen's suggestion), would bring abeut the place a number
of inferior employees, clients, or hangers-on, of the enterprising commercial agriculturists
who laid the primitive basis of the material and moral prosperity of the city. These
hangers-on were the original plebeians, or non-burgesses of Rome, whose numbers were
constantly increased by the subjugation of the surrounding cities and states. Thus,
tradition states that, on the capture of Alba, while the most distinguished citizens of that
town were received among the Roman patricians, the greater part of the inhabitants,
likewise transferred to Rome, were kept in submission to the populus or patricians of
Rome — in other words, swelled the ranks of the plebeians. Similar transfers of some
of the inhabitants of conquered towns are assigned to the reign of Ancus Martius. The
order of plebeians thus gradually formed soon exceeded the patricians in numbers, partly
inhabiting Rome, and partly the adjoining country. Though citizens, they were neither
comprehended in the three tribes, nor in the cu-rim, nor in the patrician gentcs, and were
therefore excluded from the comitia, the senate, and all the civil and priestly offices of
The state. They could not intermarry with the patricians.
The first step (according to traditionary belief) towards breaking down the barrier
between the two classes was the admission, under Tarquinius Priscus, of some of the
more considerable plebeian families into the three tribes. Servius Tullius divided the part
of the city and the adjacent country which was inhabited by plebeians, into regions or
local tribes, assigning lan.l to those plebeians who were yet without it. The plebeian
tribes, with tribunes at their head, formed an organization similar tc that of the patri-
cians. The same king further extended the rights of the plebeians by dividing the whole
body of citizens, patrician and plebeian, into five classes, according to their wealth, and
forming a great national assembly called the comilia cenluriata, in which the plebeians met
the patricians on a footing of equality; but the patricians continued to be alone eligible
to the senate, the highest magistracy, and the priestly offices. These newly acquired
privileges were lost in the reign of Tarquinius Superbus, but restored on the establish-
ment of the republic. Soon afterwards, the vacancies which had occurred in the
senate during the reign of the last king, were filled up by the most distinguished of the
plebeian cquilcs, and the plebeians acquired a variety of 'new privileges by the laws of
Valerius Publicola. The encroachments on those privileges on the part of the patri-
cians, bognn the long-continued struggle between the two orders, which eventually led
to the plebeians gaining access to all the civil and religious offices, acquiring for their
decrees (plebiscite) the force of law. Under the Hortensian law (286 B.C.), the two hostile
classes were at last amalgamated in one general body of Roman citizens with equal
rights. Henceforth, the term populus is sometimes applied to the plebeians alone, some-
times to the whole body of citizens assembled in the comitia centuriata or tributa, and
plebs is occasionally used in a loose way for the multitude or populace, in opposition to
the senatorial party. See PATRICIAN.
PLEBISCITE, the name given, in the political phraseology of modern France, to a
decree of the nation obtained by an appeal to universal suffrage. Thus, Louis Napoleon,
for example, was chosen president, and subsequently emperor, by a plebiscite. The
word is borrowed from the Latin; but the plcbiscitum of the Romans properly meant
only a law passed at the comitia tributa, i.e., assembly of the plebs, or "commons," as
distinguished from the populus, or the " nobles;" and although it was ultimately obliga-
tory on both classes of the community, it, of course, could only refer to such matters as
it was within the province of the comitia tributa to legislate upon, and could not funda-
mentally alter or destroy the constitution.
PLECTOG NATHI, in the system of Cuvier, and also in that of Mliller, an order of
osseous fishes, but having the" skeleton less perfect!}- ossified than osseous fishes gener-
ally; the skin furnished with ganoid scales or spines; and particularly characterized by
having the maxillary and premaxillary bones anchylosed or soldered together. The
gill-lid and rays are concealed under the thick skin, with only a small opening. Tho
ribs are very short, and there are no distinctly developed ventral fins. The fishes
belonging to this order are not many. They are regarded as a connecting link between
the osseous and the cartilaginous fishes.
Plciljje. >roc>
Pleistocene.
PLEDGE is the depositing of a chattel or movable with a creditor in security of *
debt, anil is a contract between the parties that the pledgee, shall keep the chattel till the
debt is j aid. In England when A pledges property with H for a di-ut. and other debts
ai-e in.'urred. I> cannot retain the pledge: for the additional debts; but in Scotland this can
lie done. When chattels are pledged in England for debt tlie pledgee may sell I he goods
if the debt is not paid at the time agreed, or within a reasonable time after notice given;
but in Scotland this can only be done by getting the authority of the sheriff and a war-
rant to sell the. goods. Owing to the frequent occasions of poor and needy persons to
pledge their goods in order to procure advances of money for temporary purposes, the
1\ "."islature has enacted a code of special laws to regulate these contracts. See PAWN
PLE IADES, in Greek mythology, were, according to the most general account, the
seven daughters of Atlas and Pleione, the daughter of Oceanus. Their history is differ-
ently related by the Greek mythologists: according to some authorities they committed
suicide from grief, either at the death of their sisters, the Hyades, or at the fate of their
father, Atlas (q.v.); according to others they were companions of Artemis (Diana), and
being pursued by Orion (q.v.), were rescued from him by the gods by being translated
to the sky; all authorities, however, agree that, after their death or translation, they were
transformed into stars. Only six of these stars are visible to the naked eye, and the
its believed that the seventh hid herself from shame that she alone of the lji
had married a mortal, while her six sisters were the spouses of different gods. Their
names are Electra, Maia, Taygete, Alcyone, Celaeiio, Sterope (the invisible one), and
Merope.
In astronomy a group or constellation of six stars placed on the shoulder of Taurus,
the second sign of the Zodiac, and forming, with the pole-star and the twin Castor and
Pollux, the three angular points of a figure which is nearly an equilateral triangle.
Many believe, from the uniform agreement that the Pleiades were "seven" in number,
that the constellation at an early period contained "seven'' stars, but that one has since
disappeared; not a very uncommon occurrence.
The name Poetical Pleiades is frequently applietl to reunions of poets in septenary
guups; and this use of the word dales from the time of 'the Ptolemies — the originator of
the first being Ptolemy Philadelphia, who, from the number of the Gn'< k poet- thai
flocked to Alexandria, chose out seven, whom he treated with special distinction, and
denominated his plci/id. His example was followed by Charlemagne; and the same
system was kept up by the " Compaguie des Sept Mantenadors del vay Saber," or the
'• Compaguie des Sept Troubadours de Toulouse," clown till the l?ih century, i
ciatkms were valuable as promoting an interchange of ideas and opinions by the most
eminent in the same department of letters, and creating a kind of ta/irit il>ic<>ri>s among
them.
PLEISTOCENE (Gr. most recent), or NEWER PLETOCEXE, terms introduced by sir
Charles Lyell to designate the most recent tertiary deposits, the organic remains of which
belong almost exclusively to existing species. Within the last few years, no section of
tiic earth's crust has received so much attention as the strata included under this name.
The obscurity arising from great antiquity and metamorphic changes in deposits, and
the consequent necessity of calling to some extent on the imagination in investigations
into the older strata, have always thrown a peculiar charm round geology, but the ex-
amination of tiie little-changed newer deposits, containing animals scarcely differing in
genera from, and many of them the same even in species a«, those now livin.:, being
based on simple observation, has been overlooked, although the best method in ali ob
inquiries is that which starts from the known, and gradually proceeds to the unknown.
The paleozoic rocks have been carefully grouped and classified, and the ft, -sils described
and figured; while the order and contents of the pleistocene deposits are little known.
Their isolated nature to some extent accounts for this: but, on the other hand, as they
exhibit the changes that have immediately preceded the present order of thin.
give us the first sure footing in our progress downward, they deserve the most careful
attention.
Not only in organic contents, but in physical conditions under which they were
deposited, the pleistocene strata show that the earth, as regards <ts general temperature,
•was, at the time of their deposition, in a condition nearly approaching to its pre-ent.
There is consequently a considerable difference in the deposits and fossils of this period
iu the different regions of the world. The alluvial pampas of South America and the
gravels of Australia exhibit, by their structure and contents, a- temperature of some
warmth; while corresponding deposits of Britain and the continent show a state of cold
that is scarcely conceivable at so recent a period. The whole of northern Europe must
have been under ice like the interior of Greenland at the present day. Perhms the best
classification of the deposits is one based on the relation which they bear to the tempera-
ture of the period when they were formed. The oldest pleistocene deposits represent a
time of intense cold. They were formed at the bottom of a «:a into which immense
glaciers forced their way. The fine mud in which the organic remains are buried was
obtained from the melting glaciers. All the shells belong to species now living in arctic
or boreal seas. The Bridlington beds, near Flamborough Head, consisting of saud, clay,
>7QQ Pledpe.
' °° Pleistocene.
find pebbles, with numerous marine shells, belong to this period. Of the (58 species
determined by Dr. Woodward, one-half are at present living only in sens u. of Britain.
The clay deposits on the e. of Scotland, at Elie and Errol, lately described by the rev.
Thomas Brown, contain fossils that have a similar arctic facies. The shells of the
Bridlington, Elie, and Errol deposits differ from those of the other pleistocene strata in
being much more arctic, and they consequently show that the cold had reached its climax
at the time of their formation. To this period most probably belongs the boulder-clay
(if the s. of England, which contains erratics from Scandinavia. Both the clay and the
boulders seem to have been transported to their present position by floating icebergs.
The temperature, however, after a time improved, reducing the extent of the ice-
covering, and driving the arctic fauna northward from our shores. In the Norwich
(./rag we find a larger proportion of southern species, only one-sixth of these being truly
Arctic. This deposit, found in the neighborhood of Norwich, consists of beds of sand
and gravel which contain fresh-water and marine shells, and the bones of large mamma-
lia. Contemporaneous with the Norwich Crag are the marine deposits of the Clyde, at
least the older of them, for though the fossils of all the beds have hitherto been grouped
together, they certainly represent two periods, which differ from each other by reason of
the increasing temperature. While" these beds were being deposited around the shores,
the ice was disappearing from the land. The glaciers were gradual!}' creeping inward,
leaving an ever-increasing margin of bare land between the glaciers and the sea, which
they covered with a continuous layer of mud and rubbed stones — the materials taken up
hi their progress over the surface — and so forming the boulder-clay of Scotland and the
n. of England. This is a remarkable deposit of unstratilied mud, the character and
folor of which is influenced by the rocks on which it rests, and from which it WHS
derived. It contains numerous rounded and polished blocks of stone of various sizes,
promiscuously scattered through it, the whole seeming to be the result of an irregular
pell-mell hurrying forward anil deposition of the materials. It has been always a puzzle
to geologists (see BOCLDEK-CLAY): but Mr. Geikie, in his recently published memoir, by
showing it to be the terminal moraine formed by the slowly retreating sheet of glacier-
ice, has given an explanation which meets all the singular phenomena connected with it.
Connected with the disappearance of glaciers, arc the lateral moraines which exist on
many hillsides; and perhaps a little later, the long ridges of gravel which are called
kames in Scotland, andeskcrs in Ireland. The loamy deposits of the valleys of the Rhine
and the Danube, known as the loess, were formed at this time by the fine mud from the
glaciers, with which every torrent rushing from the icy caverns at the termination of a
gla< ier is charged, and which is now forming a similar deposit in some places on the
coa-t of Greenland.
U" hen the glaciers began to disapear, mammalia again occupied the land ; their remains,
we have already seen, occur in the Norwich Crag. They continued to increase as the
conditions for their existence improved. The caves of the British islands and the con-
tinent were inhabited by hyenas, bears, and other wild beasts, which have left .their
remains buried in the mud at the bottom of the caves. The raised sea-beaches of this
period contain the shells of mollusca now living in the neighboring seas. In many
places around the shores of Britain and Ireland, submarine forests are met with dipping
down under low water, and exhibiting the stumps and roots of trees, in the position of
growth belonging to species now living in Britain. Some of the older peat-bogs require
to be placed also among the later pleistocene deposits.
The classification, then, of these strata, which we propose, from the light thrown pn
them by recent observation, maybe put into the/ following tabular form. The sub-
divisions arc the names of recognized deposits, and though arranged in tabular scries, the
ord'T is not one of strict sequence, representing the superposition of the different beds;
they are all very local deposits, and many of them, though differing in character, were
formed contemporaneously :
Peat- bogs.
Post-glacial.
Glacial Boulder-clav.
Submarine forests.
Modern raised sea-beeches.
Cave deposits.
Loess.
Kames and eskers.
Lateral moraines.
Newer Clyde beds. ,
Older Clyde beds.
. .. j Elie, Enrol, and Tirie clay beds.
1 ' | Bridlington beds.
Many speculations have been made as to the cause of the remarkable change of tem-
perature, from the comparatively warm period of the pleiocene deposits, to the extreme
cold of the early pleistocene strata, and the subsequent gradual return to the warmer
temperature of the present period. The most probable is that it resulted from an exten-
sive depression of the land of the northern hemisphere in some parts, and its elevation in
others during the period. Deposits of glacial shells have been found more than 1000 ft.
ri<-nishingf.
Plethora.
above the" sea-lcvcl in Wales. A depression much less than this, in the isthmus of
Panama, would give a different direction to the gulf stream, and so deprive western
Europe of its benignant influences. It would also put the immense sandy Sahara under
.water; and that it has been so at a comparatively recent period has been clearly estab-
lished by the discovery lately of existing marine shells (including eardium edule) over an
extensive district of the desert. "Without the Sahara the s. of Europe would have no burning
. dry sirocco, which now melts the glaciers of the Alps; but instead, a comparatively cold
sea-breexe, laden with moisture, which would to a large extent feed them. The exist-
ence of a greater quantity and a higher elevation of land near the north pole would als«
depress the temperature. These and similar causes would do much, if they were not in
themselves sufficient, to produce the extreme cold of the arctic period.
The classification of the British strata will suit, in a general way, the whole of the north
temperate zone, for throughout the whole of the northern regions of Europe, Asia, and
America similar conditions existed, producing similar physical changes, and the whole
region formed one zoological province inhabited by the mammoth, mastodon, and their
contemporaries. A warmer climate prevailed at this period in South America, and the
fossil animals there belong to types still peculiar to that continent, though of a size
immensely greater than their living representatives.1 The megatherium, inylodon, and
megalonyx were the gigantic forerunners of the living sloth; and the small armadilloea
were anticipated by the glyptodon. The llamas, opossums, tapirs, and prehensile-tailed
monkeys are the diminutive representatives of similar forms in the pleistocene period.
The peculiar marsupial fauna of Australia had also its gigantic forerunners during this
period. The skull of one species (diprotodon, an animal between the kangaroo and the
wombat), now in the British museum, measures 3 ft. in length. The huge wingless
diuornis, and its allies of New Zealand, were nearly allied to the small wingless apteryx,
now living in that island.
The question of the antiquity of man is intimately associated with the pleistocene
(it-posits. "Whatever be the age'of the beds in which either the remains of man or
works of art have been found, it is certain that none of them pass the horizon of the
boulder-clay. It is, however, equally certain that undoubted evidences of his existence
contemporaneously with the mammoth and woolly rhinoceros, with the cave lion and
hyena, have been found in Britain; and setting aside the various French and Belgian
caves and gravel deposits about which geologists are, with good cause, so divided, there
is evidence in the knives, pins, etc.. manufactured from the bones of the large reindeer,
found in caves at Bruniquel and elsewhere, that man hunted this huge extinct animal.
Its contemporaries, as far as .the associated remains from these caves have been deter-
mined, yet survive: these were the chamois, ibex, horse, fox, wolf, hare, raven, partridge,
and salmon. However far. when r ensured by years, this carries back the Jir.-t appear-
ance of man on the globe, geologically speaking, the time is insignificant as rom pared
with the vast lapse of ages represented by even a single formation; still it represents
a period in which many remarkable changes have taken place, both in the chmatal con-
dition of Europe and in its animal inhabitants.
PLENISHING, in the law of Scotland, denotes the furniture of a house or stocking of
a farm. The term is now seldom used, except in the law relating to heirship mov-
ables (q.v.).
PLEONASM (Gr. pleon, more), a term employed in rhetoric to denote superfluity of
expression.
PLESIOSATI BUS (Gr. near to a lizard), a remarkable genus of fossil sea-reptiles, the
species of winch are found in the lias, oolite, and cretaceous measures. Its remains are
so abundant and so perfectly preserved, that we are as well acquainted with skeletons of
many of its species as we are with those of any living animals. These represent a
strange animal, the structure of which Cuvier considers to be the most singular, and its
character the most anomalous, that had been discovered 'mid the ruins of former worlds.
In the words of Buckland, " To the head of a lizard, it united the teeth of a crocodile
a neck of enormous length, resembling the body of a serpent, o, trunk and tail having
the proportions of an ordinary quadruped, the ribs of a chameleon, and the paddles of a
whale."
The skull is small and depressed. From the nostrils backward, it is quadrate; it
suddenly contracts at the nostrils, and is continued into a parallel-sided apex, which is
sometimes slightly swollen at the point. No sclerotic plates have been found in the
orbits. The fami of the lower jaw are remarkably expanded at their anterior anchylosed
extremity. No intervening vacuity separates the angular and surangular pieces, as in
the crocodiles, but they are joined throughout, as in the lizards. The teeth occupy dis-
tinct cavities; they are sharp-pointed, long, slender, circular in cross-section, and with
fine longitudinal ridges on the enamel. The most striking peculiarity of the vertebrae is
the great length of the neck-portion, which is composed of from 20 to 40 vertebrae. The
articular surfaces of the bodies of the vertebrae are cither flat or slightly convex in the
center, with a concavity round the periphery. The cervical vertebrae consist of a
centrum, neural arch, and two ribs, which articulate into two pits on the sides of the
centrum. In the dorsal vertebra;, the ribs are articulated to diapophyses from the neural
arch; and in the tail, they gradually descend again to the sides of the centrum. The
>7Q^ Plenishing.
• ° J Plethora.
tail is much shorter than in the ichthyosaur. In the abdominal region the extremities
of each pair of ribs are connected below by the development of the haemal spine.
The two pair of limbs were equal in size and shape, with probably a single exception.
The bones of the hind-limbs closely correspond in number, arrangement, and form with
those of the fore-limbs, so that the descriptions of the one set answer to the correspond-
ing bones of the other. The hurnerus is a stout and moderately long bone, curved
slightly backwards, rounded at its proximal extremity, and flattened as it approaches the
elbow joints. The radius and ulna are short and flat bones — the former straight, the
latter reniform, with the concavity towards the radius. The carpus consists of six to
eight flat round bones in a double row. The five metacarpals are long, slender, and
Slightly expanded at both ends. The numerous phalanges are alike in form, but pro-
gressively decrease in size. The radial digit has generally three; the second from five to
seven; the third, eight or nine; the fourth, eight; and the fifth, five or six phalanges.
The limbs were covered with integument, so as to form simple undivided paddles, as in
the turtle.
The supposed habits of the plesiosaur are thus described by Conybeare: " That it was
an aquatic, is evident from the form of its paddles; that it was marine, is almost
equally so, from the remains with which it is universally associated; that it may
have occasionally visited the shore, the resemblance of its extremities to those .of the
turtle may lead us to conjecture; its motion must have, however, been very awkward on
land; its long neck must have impeded its progress through the water, presenting a
striking contrast to the organization which so admirably fits the ichthyosaur to cut
through the waves. May it not, therefore, by concluded — since, in addition to these cir-
cumstances, its respiration must have required frequent access to the air — that it swam
upon or near the surface, arching back its long neck like the swan, and occasionally
darting it down at the fish which happened to float within its reach? It may perhaps
have lurked in shoal- water along the coast, concealed among the sea-weed, and, raising
its nostrils to the surface from a considerable depth, may have found a secure retreat
from the assaults of dangerous enemies; while the length and flexibility of its neck may
have compensated for the want of strength in its jaws, and its incapacity for swift
motion through the water, by the suddenness and agility of the attack which they
enabled it to make on every animal fitted for its prey which came within its reach."
The first remains of this animal were discovered at Lyme Regis in 1822. Since then
22 species have been described, the specific differences chiefly resting on peculiarities iu
the form and structure of the vertebrae.
PLESKOV. See PSKOV, ante.
PLESS1S, JOSEPH OCTAVE, 1762-1825; b. Montreal; entered the priesthood, and
was appointed rector of Quebec cathedral, and secretary to the bishop. In 1797" he was
chosen cbadjutor to bishop Denaud, but the death of Pius VI. prevented the ratification
of the election till 1800. He was then given the title of bishop of Canada. His election
caused a dispute with the British government, which claimed the right of presentation
to all bishoprics: but its claim was successfully contested by the bishop. He founded
America made one ecclesiastical district, with an archbishop at Quebec, and suffragan
bishops in the other dioceses.
PLETH ORA (Gr. "fullness" or "excess"), designates a general excess of blood in the
system. It may arise either from too much blood being made, or from too little being
expended. The persons who become plethoric are usually those in thorough health, who
eat heartily and digest readily, but who do not take sufficient bodily exercise, and do not
duly attend to the action of the- excreting organs. With them the process of blood-
making is always on the increase, and the vessels become more and more filled, a^ is
seen in the red face, distended veins, and full pulse. The heart is excited and over-
worked, and hence palpitation, shortness of breath, and probably a sleepy feeling, may
arise; but these symptoms, instead of acting as a warning, too often cause the abandon-
ment of all exercise, by which the morbid condition is aggravated. The state of plethora
thus gradually induced may be extreme without any functions materially failing, and
yet the subject is on the verge of some dangerous malady, such as apoplexy, or struct-
ural disease of the heart or great vessels, or of the lungs, kidneys, or liver.
Plethora is said to be sthenicvfhcn the strength amf irritability of the muscular fibers
(especially of the heart and arteries) are fully or excessively developed. This form
rnonly affects the young and active, and those of sanguineous nature. The blood is rich in
red cells and fibrine; and there is a tendency to general febrile excitement, active hem-
orrhages, flux"-;. and inflammation. A natural cure is thus often effected by the super-
vention of an aUaek of bleeding from the nostrils or from piles, or mucous or bilious
diarrhea. Th: plethora is said to be atfhmw (Gr. a, not, and asthenos, strength) when
there is a deficiency of contractility and tone in the muscular fiber. In this case, the
heart and vessels, instead of being excited (as in sthenic plethora) by the augmented
quantity of blood, are oppressed by its load, and cannot duly expel their accumulated
contents. The face is purple instead of red; the extremities cold, and the excreting
U. K. XI.— 50
Plerrre. 7QA
Pleuroiieotltlae. • °
organs sluggish. This form affects persons weakened by ngr\ excesses, or previous disease.
It tends to produce congestions and passive hemorrhages. llu.v-s. and dropsies; and, if
continued, structural changes, such as dilatation of the heart, en.arged liver, varicose
veins, etc.
In x/he»ic plethora, blood-letting is the first remedy, and this, with the. continued use
of aperient medicine and a sparing diet, is often sufficient, to complete the cure. If theso
meaus fail, recourse Huist be liad to antimonials. salines, dL'iiaiis, and sometimes mer-
cury or colchicum. In the asthcnic form, Dr. Williams (to whose article on "plethora."
in his Principles of».M> -n'lri/t, -, we refer our readers for further dHaiK) ob-erves that
"the continued use of alterative aperients and diuretics, sue!, us miid m'T< -urials, wish
rhubarb, aloes, or senna, salines and taraxacum, nitric acid, iodide of po;a*>ium, etc.,
may prepare the way for various tonics, such as ealumba, bark, and iron." He also
recommends the use of the Cheltenham. Leamingion, j.nd I.Iamlrindoii waters; first
the saline, which are aperient and diuretic; and afterward the chalybeate. wh:;-:i,
although tonic, usually contain enough of saline matter to keep the secretions free. Koo I
may be taken more freely than in the sthenic form; and in both v;r in u-h e.v-r-
cise in the open air should be takeu as can be borne without causing exhaustion.
PLEU'R^E. Each lung is invested externally by a very delicate serous membran~
termed the pleura, which, after inclosing the whole organ, except at its root, where the
great vessels enter it, is reflected upon the inner surface of the thorax or che^t. That
portion of the pleura which is in contact with the surface of the lung is called the
plcnra piilmonalls, or visceral layer; whilst that which lines the interior of the chest is
called the plenrn costali*, or parietal layer; while the space intervening between these
two layers is called the cavity of the pleura. Each plelira is a closed sac. and quite inde-
pendent of the other. The interspace between the pleura- on the right and lei't. side is
termed the -mediastinum, and contains all the viscera of the thorax c\cc;>iing the I'ungs.
The inner surface of each pleura is smooth, glistening, and moistened b, a serous lluid;
the outer surface is closely adherent to the surface of the lung, to the roots of the pul-
monary vessels as they enter the lung, to the upper surface of the diaphragm, and to the
walls of the chest. The lobes of the lungs are separated from one anoihi-r by involutions
or in-1'oldings of the visceral layer. The use of these >en>us sacs is much the same asthat
of Hie peritoneum (q.v.); each pleura retains the lung and, to a cerain extent, the greater
vessels in position, while it at the same time facilitate-, within eeriain Limits, the move-
ments of those parts which are essential to the due performance of iiie act of respiration.
PLETJ'RISY, or inflammation of the investing membrane of the lun?, is OTIC of the most
serious diseases of the chest. It is very often, but by no means invariably, as-..
with inflammation of the substance of the lung, commonly known as pneumonia (q.v.).
Pleurisy without pneumonia is much more common than pneumonia without pleurisy.
When both are present, but pneumonia preponderates, the correct t"rm for the affect ion
is pleit ro-pneumoma, although it is frequently spoken of simply as pneumonia, probably
in consequence of the remedies being applied mainly to it, as the more important of tlie
two elements in the compound malady.
The pleura being a serous membrane, its inflammation is attended with the same
course of events as have been nlrendy described in our remarks on the two a'lii d di->
pericarditis 'An<\ peritonitis. The inflammation is of the adhesive kind, and is accom-
panied by pain, and by the effusion of serum, of fibrinous exudation (the cf<it/nltthlA
lymph of the older writers), or of pus, into the pleura! cavity. In cons queue" of the
anatomical relations of the pleura — one part of the membrane (the parietal) lining the
firm walls of the chest, while the other part (the visceral) envelops thesc.ft and compres-*
sible Irmg; and these opposed surfaces being freely movable on one another — it follows
that veiy different effects may be produced by its inflammation. For example, the
visceral layer may be glued to the parietal layer, so as to prevent all gliding movement
between them, and to obliterate the pleural cavity (similarly to whal <.f;en happens in
•perintrdittx, q.v.); or the two surf aces which are naturally in contact, may be abnormally
separated by an infusion of serum between them; or from a combination of tli< nMilt..
the opposite surfaces of the pleurae may be abnormally united at some points, and
abnormally separated at others.
The general symptoms of pleurisy are rigors, pain in the side, fever, difficult}' and
rapidity of breathing, cough, and an impossibility of assuming certain positions: a'nd of
these the most marked is the pain or stitch in the .tide, the •]!""'' ^'' •'<' •« °f '"•' French
writers. From the prominence of this pain, which occupies a single spot, and is of a
sharp, stabbing character, the Latin writers term pleurisy nimbiix luli-ria. This spot is
usually about the center of the mamma of the affected side, or just IHow it: but why
the pain should be usually restricted to that one small spot, when the inflamma-
tion pervades a considerable extent of surface, is a question that has never received
any satisfactory answer. The pain is. however, occasionally felt h, o.lur parts— as in the
shoulders, in the hollow of the armpit, beneath the collar bone, along the breast-bone,
etc. Cnivcilhier observes that the pain sometimes affects the loins, arc! simulates lum-
bago; while Ar.dral and Dr. Watson have directed attention to the fact that the pain
often affects the hypochondrium, and may be readily mistaken for a sympton of peri-
tonitis, or (-if occurring on the right side) of hepatitis. The pain is increased by p*ercu»-
787 Pleurae.
• ° ' Fleuronecticlae.
sion. bjr pressure between the ribs, byTUfcep inspiration, by cough, etc. ; and the patient
is often observed to suppress a natural desire to cough, or never to draw more than a short
and imperfect inspiration The cough is not invariably present, although it is an ordi-
nary symptom. It is small, suppressed as far as possible by the patient, and is either
dry, or accompanied by the expectoration of slight catarrh. If much frothy mucus is
brought up, it is a sign that bronchitis (q.v.) is also present, and the appearance of rust-
colored sputa indicates the co existence of pneumonia. Although the above-named
symptoms, especially when most of them occur together, afford almost certain evidence
of the existence of pleurisy, yet to the physician the physical signs are still more valu-
able, especially those furnished by percussion and auscultation.
Pleurisy far more commonly arises from exposure to cold than from any other cause,
especially if a poisoned condition of the blood, predisposing to inflammation of the serous
membrane, is present; but it may be occasioned by mechanical violence (as by a penetrat-
ing wound of the thorax by the splintered ends of a broken rib. etc.), or by the acci-
dental extension of disease from adjacent parts. The disease may terminate in resolu-
tion and complete recovery; or in adhesion, which often only causes slight embarrass-
ment of preathing: or it may end with such a retraction of one side of the chest as to ren-
der the corresponding lung almost or totally useless: or it may cause death either directly
. by actual suffocation, if the effusion is very copious, and is not removed by tapping;
or indirectly, by exhaustion. It is seldom, however, that simple pleurisy proves fatal.
In acute pleurisy, occurring in a robust and previously healthy subject, free blood-
letting should be at once resorted to. If there is a sharp stitch in the side, and the respi-
ration is short, quick, and restrained, the patient should be bled, in the upright position,
from a large orifice in the vein, until the pain is relieved, and lie can draw a full breath
•without discomfort, or until he is about to faint; and if the pain and difficult breathing
should return, and the pulse continue firm and hard, either the venesection must be
repeated, or leeches must be freely applied to the painful side. The bowels should be
freely evacuated, after which calomel should be given, guarded with a little opium, to
the extent of producing xU</ht mercurialization, with the view of checking the effusion
of fluid. The more rapidly the system can be thus affected, the better, and hence it
has been recommended (by Dr. Walsh) that during the first six hours a grain and a half
of calomel combined with a sixth of a grain of opium (or more, if the pain continues
acute), should be given every half-hour; while mercurial ointment is rubbed into the
skin of the affected' side, near the armpit, every fourth hour. Care must be taken that
neither decided saliva! ion nor narcotism is induced: and as soon as there is any evidence
from the breath, or from the appearance of the gums, that the mercurial action has
been established, the further administration of the calomel and the ointment must be
suspended. After the pain and fever have ceased, we must facilitate the absorption of
the fluid by diuretics. A pill composed of half a grain of digitalis, a grain of squills,
and three grains of blue pill taken twice a day, usually acts efficiently; and the com-
pound tincture of iodine of the London (nut the British) Pharmacopoeia, in doses of
twenty minims, taken; largely diluted, three times a day, has been strongly recommended.
There has been considerable discussion of late years as to how far the operation of
tapping the chest, and letting out the fluid, is justifiable in this disease. The best
authorities are of opinion that in simple pleurisy it ought never to be performed unless
(1) the life of the patient is in immediate danger from the continued pressure of the
fluid in the sack; (2) unless all other means of getting rid of the fluid having failed, the
patient is evidently losing strength daily; and (3) unless there is good reason to believe
that the fluid consists of pus, in which case it should be let out. In all cases in which
the operation is contemplated, a grooved needle should be introduced into the pleura.
By this means, we not only ascertain the actual presence of fluid, but we discover its
nature. If it be serious, it will flow readily along the groove, and trickle down the
parent's side; if it be purulent and thick, a drop or two will probably be visible at the
external orifice, and when the needle is withdrawn, its groove will be found to contain
pus. The puncture thus made is quite harmless, and inflicts very little pain.
PLEURISY EOOT. See BUTTERFLY WEED.
PLEUSODY NIA is a rheumatic affection of the intercostal muscles, and is character-
ized by acute pain in the side upon taking a full breath or coughing, and by great ten-
derness OM pressure. If it happens to be attended b.y slight febrile excitement, or by a
cough, it is impossible to distinguish it from pleurisy, except by attending to the physi-
cal signs which characterize the latter disease. Cruveilhier maintains that "pleurody-
nia is nothing more than adhesive pleurisy:" and in many cases of assumed pleuroch nia,
there is little doubt that the pain is due to old adhesions. The disease generally yields
to local measures, such as blistering, or counter-irritation in a milder form by rubefa-
cient liniments. A mixture of soap-liniment and chloroform rubbed over the affected
part two or three times a day, often gives relief. In the more persistent cases, leeches
may be applied with benefit.
PLET7BONECTID.E, a family of fishes included in Cuvier's malacopterygii, but belong,
ing to the order anticanthini ol Mailer's system (see MALACOPTERYGII), and remarkable
for a character to which there is nothing similar in any other vertebrate animals, a want
of symmetry in the he^d, and for swimming not with the back uppermost, like other
Pl«uro.
IMica.
fishes, but with one side upppennost. The fProliar structure of the head adapts It to
this mode of swimming, both eyes being on tfTat side which is uppermost. Some of the
bones of the head are distorted to a very considerable derive, but there is no want of
symmetry in those of the body. The sides of the mouth are unequal. The body is
extremely compressed, whence the pleuronectida? are popularly tewed Jlat foh, the back
and belly being mere edges fringed by the dorsal and anal tins. The pectoral fins are
generally unequal, also the ventral tins, those of the lower side being smaller than those
of the upper. The upper side is often brown, or of some darkish color, and variously
marked; the lower side whitish The color of the upper side generally corresponds so
much with that of the bottom, close to which these tHies swim, that they readily escape
observation; and on this they seem chiefly to depend for safety, although, when hard
pressed, tliev raise themselves in a vertical position, and suddenly throw themselves
upward and forward to some distance, but then, resume their ordinary posture, and HS
close to the bottom as possible. Their ordinary swimming is by a kind of undulating
movement. They swim with great activity. They have no air-bladder. They abound
chiefly where the bottom is smooth, either muddy or .•-andy. All of them are sea-fishes,
but some are very common in brackish water, ascend rivers, and can be kept in fresh-
water ponds. Many of them are in great esteem for the table. The turbot, halibut,
brill, plaice, and flounder are examples of this family.
PLEU'EO-PNEUMO NIA, in an epizootic form, first appeared amongst the horned cat
tie of Great. Britain and Ireland in 1841. From time immemorial it had, however, been
known in the great cattle-breeding plains of centra.1, and northern Europe. It consists in
a sub-acuie inflammation of the structure of the lungs and their investing membrane,
ghows a great tendency to early exudation, and is accompanied by low fever. It is con-
tagious, but, like many other contagious disorders, it occasionally occurs independently
of contagion, and is fostered by overcrowding, exposure to cold and wet. damp, dirty
hovels, and other such causes, which depress the vital powers. The symptoms come on
insidiously, appetite and rumination are irregular, there is fever, dullness, a short, half-
involuntary cough, with quickened breathing and pulse. In cows, the yield of milk is
early diminished. After three or four days, large portions of the lungs become filled
with the products of inflammation, hence the labored breathing, quick indistinct pulse,
wasting, and fatal weakness. Death generally occurs in frcm ten to twenty days. When
pleuro-pneumonia first appeared in this country, it was greatly more fatal than it has
since become, and fully four-fifths of the cattle attacked died; with prompt and rational
treatment, more than one-half of the affected cases now recover. But as a favorable
result is uncertain, and much flesh is lost even during a slight attack, it is still advisa-
ble, when pleuro-pneumonia breaks out in a herd, to consign to the shambles any of the
ca'tle in good condition that have mixed with those diseased. The best treatment con-
sists in avoiding bleeding and all reducing remedies, supporting the strength, and keep-
ing up the action of the skin, bowels, and kidneys, in order that the poisonous products
of the disease may be rapidly got rid of. For this end, the patieut should be provided
•with a cool comfortable house, clothing to the body, bandages to the legs, a daily dose
of two ounces each of niter and common salt given in treacle an.l water. When the
bowels are costive, gentle laxatives are required. By the second or third day. counter-
irritants may be applied to one or both sides, which should first be bathed with hot
water and thin mustard paste, or a mixture of cantharides and euphorbium ointments
well rubbed in. By the third or fourth day, or earlier, if there is weakness, arrested
secretion, and coldness of the skin, give several times daily some stimulant, such as a
quart of warm ale, with an ounce or two of ginger or other stomachic, some good whisky-
toddy, three-ounce doses of sweet spirit of niter, or of spirit of ammonia. Whilst the
disease continues, and even during early convalescence, all food requiring rumination
must be interdicted, and mashes, flour and treacle, bruised grain, or any light, digestible
articles substituted ."or the ordinary hay, straw, or roots. As pleuro-pneumonia is in
many cases propagated by contagion, the sick shoulc1: be separated from the sound -Mock ;
and any premises they have occupied carefully cleansed by whitewashing, and the use
of McDougall's, Condy's, or other effectual disinfectants. When pleuro-pneumonia
prevails in a neighborhood, all fresh purchases should be placed in quarantine, and kept
perfectly away from the home-stock for at least three weeks. Attention to this simple
precaution has preserved many farmers from pleuro-pneumonia, even while it has raged
all around them.
PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. (ante). Prof, James Law, of Cornell university, in a recent
work gives much valuable information on the pleuro-pneumonia of cattle, or, as he
thinks it should be called, contagious lung plague of cattle, which answers to the (Jer-
man name lunrjenseuche (lung contagion). He gives as a definition of the malady, a
specific contagious disease, peculiar to cattle, and manifested by a long period of incu-
bation—ten days to throe months — by a slow, insidious onset, by a low type of fever,
and by the occurrence of inflammation in the air passages, lungs, and their coverings,
with an extensive exudation into the lungs and pleurre. lie says that the nature of
tiic disease has been misapprehended by many authorities, especially among English
veterinarians, and that there is no proof that, like other inflammations of the organs
within the chest, it is caused by exposure, inclement weather, changes of climate and
7CQ Pleuro.
' °y Plica.
season, imperfect ventilation, overcrowding, etc. He says that the malady " is always
and only the result of contagion or infection," therefore he proposes the name
aliove given. He has, however, no objection to the old name, pulmonary mur-
rain. After giving an account of the disease as it has appeared on the eastern
continent, in winch he makes the statement that Great Britain alone has, since
1842, lost not less than $10,000,000 per annum by the ravages of the disease, ho
gives a brief notice of its introduction into the United States. It was brought into
Brooklyn in 1843, by means of a ship cow, bought by Peter Dunn of the capt. of ail
English vessel. From this cow it spread rapidly over the whole w. end of Long Island.
The plague was introduced into Massachusetts in 1859, by four Dutch cows, imported
by Mr. Chenery, of Belmont, near Boston. They were brought from the infected
port of Rotterdam, and were forty-seven days at sea, during the last twenty of which
they were sick, one of them being unable to stand. On landing, two walked to
the' farm, while the other two had to be carried. One recovered, and three died, the
last one the 10th of June. On August 20, another cow of the herd took the disease and
died in a few days. Several others followed in rapid succession. Then Mr. Chenery
became convinced that he was dealing with the bovine plague of Europe. He had
unfortunately sold some calves to a neighbor on the 23d of June. The disease spread,
and during the next four years infected many counties. Ill 1860 a state act \\as passed
to provide for the extirpation of the disease, which empowered the commissioners to
cause all cattle in herds where the disease was known or suspected to exist to be killed.
The commission was kept in existence six years, when the last member resigned, the disease
having been exterminated. The malady was imported into New Jersey in 1847. by Mr.
Richardson, who, as soon as he ascertained the fact, had his whole herd, valued at $10,000,
slaughtered. But others who had diseased cattle were not so public-spirited, and the pest
was carried into Pennsylvania and Delaware, spreading into Maryland and Virginia, where
it still prevails. The disease may be communicated by immediate contact, through the
atmosphere for a considerable distance, by the inhalation of pulmonary exudaliou when
placed in the nostrils, from the impregnated clothing of attendants, infected buildings,
infected manure, pastures, fodder, etc. Pastures grazed three months previously have
communicated the infection, and it has been spread by the flesh of diseased animals. In
. buildings which contain piles of lumber, litter, and hay, the virus may be preserved some
I considerable time. The distance through which the infection will pass between separated
1 cattle varies. Herds separated not more than 15 yards, with a tight board fence 7 ft.
high between them, have been known to be unaffected for over six months, while the
infection has been conveyed much greater distances. The disease is confined to the
bovine genus, and all its members, irrespective of age or sex, appear to be equally liable
to its attacks, and, as in many other contagious diseases, those animals which have once-
had the disease are exempt from future attacks. The period of incubation is variable,
ranging, according to authorities, from five days to three months; and it is this insidi-
ousness which renders the disease so dangerous. It, however, develops much more
rapidly in hot than in cool weather, and in the s. than in the north. The work of
exterminating the disease in New York by gen. Patrick and prof. Law was. at the com-
mencement of 1880. as follows: In the preceding ten months the inspectors in New York
liad examined 40, 000 head of cattle, many of them several times. They had paid the owners
i or 500 head of slaughtered cattle, which nearly eradicated the disease from seven
counties. At that time the center of the plague was in Kings co., and the adjacent border
of Queens county. In all the country districts where the cattle were kept on inclosed
farms, the work of exterminating the disease was comparatively easy. In the suburbs
of cities, where cattle were allowed to graze on open lots, the greatest difficulties were
met. More difficulty was found in Brooklyn than in New York, because of the greater
opposition to the work of the inspectors/ In Putnam co, where the disease had been,
smoldering for more than a year, the county authorities authorized the extermination of
every herd known to be infected.
PLEXIM ETEB. See PERCUSSION.
PLEYEL, I«NAZ, a musical composer of some note, b in 1757 at Rupperstahl. near
Vienna. He studied music under Vanhall and Haydn, and made in early life an exten-
sive tour in Italy, to hear the works of the best composers. In 1783 he was made
cape.Umewter of Straslmrg cathedral, and during the succeeding ten years composed
most of the works on which his popularity rests. In 1791 he visited London, and com-
posed there three symphonies. Two years afterward, during the frenzy of the French
revolution, he fell under suspicion, and in proof of his acquiescence in the new order of
things, had to compose a musical drama for the anniversary of the 10th of August,
which saved his life. After a long career in Paris as a publisher of music and pianoforte
manufacturer he retired to an estate which he had purchased near Paris, and died in
1831. His compositions, consisting of quartettes, concertantes, and sonatas, are full of
agreeable melodies, sometimes light and trivial, but occasionally vigorous.
PLICA POLONICA is the name given to a disease of the scalp, in which the hairs
become matted together, by an adhesive and often fetid secretion, and which is espe-
cially prevalent in Poland, although it occasionally occurs in other countries. The hair is
found, on microscopic investigation, to be infested with a fungus of the genus trichophyton.
Plinlimmon.
1'lioveue.
The only treatment that is beneficial is the removal of the hair, and strict attention to
cleanliness; but, as it is popularly believed in Poland that this affection affords a security
from all other sickness and misfortune, it is often dillicuk to persuade patient to have
recourse to these means. For an account of the parasitic fungus that attacks the hair
in this disease, and of the changes of structure which it induces, see Kuchenmei.-ter's
Manual of Parasite*, vol. ii. pp. 148-152.
PLINLIMMON, or PI,YNMMMON. a mountain of Wales, on the boundary between the
counties of Montgomery and Cardigan. 11 in. n.w. from Llunidloes. It is 2,481 ft. in
height. The name Plinlimmon is said to be a corruption of the Celtic puinln /nun, HIT
nifying live rivers, and to lie due to the fact that rive rivers have their source in this
mountain: one of them is the Severn, and another the Wye. Plinlimmon is a huge
mountain mass with three chief summits. Although not above 12 m. from the coast.
it is in the midst of a wide waste of muir and bog. Spurs or subordinate mountain-
ranges spread out from it in all directions. The view from the summit is very exten-
sive. It was in the fastnesses of riinlimrnon that Owen Glendower took his stand, in
1401, at the outset of his eare'T, issuing thence with a few determined followers to make
inroads on the English borders.
PLINTH, the square member at the bottom of the base of a column. Also the plain
projecting band forming u base of a wall.
PLINY, C. PLINIUS SECUNDUS, often called Pliny the elder, and author of the cele-
brated Jlixtoria Katuralis, was b. in the n. of Italy, either at Novum Comum (Coino) or
Verona, 23 A.D. "Whether it was his birthplace or not the former town was cer';.iuly
his family's place of residence, since he had estates in its neighborhood; his nephew,
the younger Pliny, was born there, and inscriptions relating to members of his family
have been found near it. While still young he was sent to Home, where his ample
means aud high connections secured him the best education. At the age of 2','> he
entered the army, and served in Germany as commander of a troop of cavalry under L.
Pomponius Secundus, of whom, in later life, he wrote a memoir. He travclrd over
nearly all the frontier of that extensive province, visited the Cauci and the sources of the
Danube, composed during the intervals of military duty his treatise De Jamlatiinte
Eqvextri, and commenced a history (afterward completed in twenty hooks) of the Ger-
manic war3. On his return to Rome in 52 with Pomponius, he entered on the study of
Jurisprudence; but his practice as a pleader proved him to have no great capacity for the
egal profession; and, accordingly, heretfnd to his native place, where lie spent the
greater part of the reign of Nero in miscellaneous authorship. It was during this period
that he wrote his Studiovus, a treatise in three books on the training of u young orator
from the nursery to his entrance on public life, and apparently intended to guide the
education of his nephew ; also his grammatical work, Dubius Sermo, in eight books.
Shortly before Nero's death we rind him a procurator in Spain, where, in 71. he heard
of his brother-in-law's decease, and of his being intrusted with the guardianship of his
nephew, Pliny the younger, whom he adopted on his return to Rome before 78. \ "< •>-
pasian, the reigning emperor, whom he had known while serving in Germany, received
him as one of nip most intimate friends; and it was at this period that he completed, in
81 books, and brought down to his own time the Roman history of Autidius Bassus.
His mode of study at this time was a model of systematic assiduity. When living in
the busy world of Rome, he would begin his studies by candle light in autumn at a late
hour of the night, and in winter at one or two in the morning. Before daybreak he
would call on the emperor, for whom he would proceed to execute various commissions;
this done he would return home and resume his studies. A slender meal would follow ;
after which he would, in summer weather, lie in the sunshine, and take notes or extracts
from the books which were read to him. The practice of jotting down important facts
or observations was habitual with him, and he was often heard to say that there was no
book, however bad, from which some good could not be pot. A cold bath, followed by
a light meal and a short sleep occupied another interval, after which he would study till
the ccena, or dinner-time. Even at this meal some book was read to him on which
he would make comments. When in his country residence he studied nearly all the
time, except when in the bath; and even then, while his attendants were performing
the duties incident to that luxury, he would be listening to some one who read to him.
or he would be dictating to his amenuensis. When on a journey, again, he was never
without a secretary at his elbow, provided with a book and tablets. By this mode of
life he collected an immense mass of materials, from which he compiled his great J/i#
toria Naturali*. published about 77. No fewer than 160 volumina of notes were found
at his death, two years afterward. The great eruption which, in 79. submerged Ilercu-
laneum and Pompeii was at its height when he was stationed off Misenum. in command
of the Roman fleet. Eager to examine the phenomenon more closely, he landed at
Stahia?, where he was suffocated by the vapors caused by the eruption. He was, as his
nephew tells us. corpulent and asthmatic, and sank the more readily. None of hia
attendants shared his fate.
Of all his works, only his Hwtoria Naturalis has come down to us. It comprehends
a greater variety of subjects than we now regard as included under that title. Astrou
m PI i ill im moil.
Pliocene.
omy, meteorologjr, geography, mineralogy, zoology, botany, cverylhing, in short, which
is a natural or non-artificial product, finds a place in Pliny's Natural History. Even to
this elastic interpretation of the term lie by no means rigidly adheres, the work being
interspersed with digressions on such subjects as human institutions and inventions, and
the history of the fine arts. It is divided into 37 books — the first of them being a dedica-
tory epistle to Titus, with a table of contents of the remaining books, and embraces, as
we are told in the preface, 20,000 matters of importance, extracted from about 2,000.
volumes. Its scientific merit is not great. There is little attempt at philosophical
arrangement; the observations lire nearly all taken at second-hand, and show small dis-
crimination in separating the true from the false, or the probable from the marvelous.
His meaning is often obscure, from his writing of things with which he was personally
unacquainted, and from his having missed the true sense of the authors whom he cites or
translates. But it cannot be denied that the work is a great monument of industry and
research — most praiseworthy as having been constricted and completed amid the labor
of other onerous undertakings, and amid the distractions of a life engaged in an active
official employment; and most valuable as supplying us with details on a great variety
of subjects, as to which we have no other means of information. The best critical
edition's of the text are those of Sillig (8 vols., 1851-57), Ian (1854-63; new ed., 1875), and
Detlefsen (1867-75). There are several editions of the text with French notes, one by
Grandsagne, with notes by Ouvier and others (1829), and one by Littre (1848-50). Pliny's
work lias been translated into almost all European languages.
PLINY, C. PLINIUS C.^CILIUS SECUNDTJS, nephew of the preceding, and son of C.
Cu'cilius, frequently called Pliny the younger, was b. at Novum Comum, 61 A.D. lie
was still young when he lost his'father, and was adopted by his uncle, under whose care,
and that of his mother, Piiuia, and his tutor, Yirgiuius Kufiis, his education was prose-
cuted. Passionately devoted to literature, he wrote a Greek tragedy at the age of 13;
studied eloquence under Quintilian, and became so famous for his literary accomplish-
ments that lie acquired the reputation of being one of the most learned men of the age.
His oratorical powers were also considerable; in his 19th year he began to speak in the
forum, and his services as an advocate before the court of the centumviri and the
Roman senate were in frequent request. He held numerous official appointments;
served, while a young man, as Iribunus militiuii in Syria, where he listened to the teach-
ing of Euphrates the stoic, and Artemidorus, was afterwards quwstor C(Ksaria; was
prtetor about 93, and consul in 100, when he wrote his Panegyricus, an adulatory eulo-
gium of the emperor Trajan, and containing little information as to the author and hii
times. He was appointed, in 103, proprietor of the province Pontica, an office which he
vacated in less than two years; and he also discharged the function of curator of the
banks and channel of the Tiber. He was twice married, his second wife being Calpur-
nia, granddaughter of Calpurnius Fabatus, and considerably younger than her husband,
by whom she was much beloved for her accomplishments and amiability. He had no
issue by either marriage.
Our knowledge of Pliny the younger is mainly derived from his letters or Epistolw, of
which there are 10 books. He collected them himself, and probably wrote many of
them with a view to publication. They hold a high place in epistolary literature, and
give us many interesting glimpses into the life of their author and his contemporaries.
Pliny himself appears in them to considerable advantage, J»s a genial and philanthropic
man, enamored of literary studies, and fond of improving his estates by architectural
ornament. His ample fortune was liberally bestowed, and his slaves always found in
him an indulgent master. Infirm health impaired throughout life "his constitution, which
was naturally weak; but of the time or cause of his death we know nothing. Of the
facts contained in his letters, however, the most interesting to us are those relating to the
punishment of the Christians. Death appears to have been the penalty attached even to
the confession of being a Christian; although the adherents of the faith admitted no
other acts, on examination, than those of meeting on-a fixed day before dawn, when a
hymn to Christ was sung, and taking an oath to avoid theft, adultery, breach of faith,
and denial of a deposit. Nothing more unfavorable to them .than this could be
extorted by Pliny from two female slaves, reputed to be deaconesses, whom he put to
the torture. Pliny having asked Trajan how he was to stop the spreading superstition,
tlie emperor replied that no general rule could be laid down; that he ought not to insti-
tute a search after persons supposed to be Christians; but if any were brought before
him, and the charge was proved, such were to be punished, if still impenitent. The best
edition of Pliny's Panegyricua and Epistolw together is that of Schaefer; of the Epistold
alone, that of Gierig.
PLIOCENE (Gr. more recent), the nnme given by sir Charles Lyell to a section of the
upper tertiaries, because the organic remains found in it contain between 60 and 70 per
cent of living species; a greater proportion than exists in the older mioceiie, but not so
great as that found in the succeeding pleistocene.
The beds belonging to this period are very local. They have been nolired in several
places in Europe, but have been chiefly studied in Suffolk, the only locality in which
they occur in Brrtain. Here they cover the upper beds of the London clay; and being
composed of shelly sand, they have, like similar deposits, been used for fertilizing luiula
Fliosaurns. 'TQO
riotiuus. « v->
deficient in calcareous matter, and have received tlie local name of "crag." They nre
divided into the (1) red crag, 50 i't. ; (2) coralline crag, 50 ft.
The red crag consists of beds of t,uarty.osc sands and gravel with a mixture of shells,
for the most part rolled, and sometimes broken up into >and. The whole deposit, with
the contained fossils, has a deep ferruginous or ocherous color. It seems to have been
formed in shallow water, the currents of which have given it a very variable character,
and frequently confused the stratification, as in some modern sandbanks. The fossils
have a somewhat boreal character. They consist chiefly of inollusca; but there have
been also found the bones and teeth of large sharks, skates, and other fish, and the ear-
bones of one or more true whales.
The coralline crag is generally calcareous and marly, consisting of a mass of shells
and polyzoa, separated in t-ome places by thiu layers of hard limestone, and coral-like
niasses, which occupy the position in which they lived. It is easily separated from the
red crag by its white color. It has been foimcd' at a greater depth and in more tranquil
water than the newer deposit. The fossils have a more southern i'acies than those of the
red crag, and indicate that they lived in an ocean with a higher temperature. Among
these southern forms may be mentioned species of the genera conus, oliva, mi Ira, voluta,
aiid pyrula. The calcareous poly/oa are abundant and very beautiful; and several inter-
esting forms of echini have been described. A few fossils of the same species as those
occurring in the London clay have been found in this and the red crag, but these are
belicvcu to have oecu washed out of the inferior deposits.
Mr. Searles Wood has obtained 345 species of testacca from the coralline crag, and 230
from the red crag, of which about 150 are common to both; about 70 per cent of the
newer division are also recent, and about GO per cent of the older.
Pliocene deposits have been observed in the neighborhood of Antwerp and on the
banks of the Scheldt, from which 200 species of shells have been obtained, two-thirds of
which were already known from Suffolk. More than a half are recent species found in
the northern seas, and a few are still living in the Mediterranean. Similar deposits occur
in Normandy. The low nills between the Apennines and the sea on each side of Italy
nre formed to a considerable extent of beds belonging to this period; and the marine
strata of the seven hills of Rome are of the same age. Beds of a brackish-water origin,
observed on the shores of the Caspian, Aral, Azof, and Black seas, have been referred to
this period.
PLIOSAU'ETJS (Gr. literally "more a lizard," i.e., than the plcsiomnn/s), a genus of
fossil sea-reptiles nearly alliecLto the plesiosaurus, but having a very short neck, and
comparatively a larger head. The jaws also are furnished with stronger teeth, which are
subtrihedral in cross section, with one side flattened, and bounded by prominent lateral
ridges on the more convex sides. Three species have been described. They are peculiar
to the Oxford and Kimmeridgc clays of the upper oolite period.
PLOCA EIA, a genus of nlgm, of the order or suborder ceram>fi-rere, having a cartilagi-
I'ous frond, composed of large cells, as if jointed, and dividing into slender, tufted, and
densely aggregated branches. P. hdminmochorton is the CORSICAN Moss of the apothe-
caries' shops, once of some reputation as a vermifuge, but now little used, and believed
to be of little efficacy. It is a small plant with a filiform entangled frond, and grows on
the shores of the Mediterranean. It has a strong marine odor and a salt ia-'te. It con-
sists in great part of a vegetable jelly or mucilage, which renders it nutritious, and con-
tains much chloride of sodium, sulphate of lime, and carbonate of lime. As sold in the
shops, it is always much mixed with other algae. — P. ten ax is a small plant with filiform,
branched, and somewhat gelatinous frond, much used by the Chinese as a glue. It is
also used in China as an article cf food. — P. Candida is used to a considerable extent as
an article of food in the east. It is popularly called CEYLON Moss. The frond is whitish
and much branched, the branches long and somewhat clustered. It is exported to China
from the islands of the Indian archipelago, forming a portion of the cargo of almost
every junk. The Chinese make it into a jelly with sugar, and use it as a sweetmeat. It
consists in great part of a Tegetable jelly, with a considerable quantity of starch. It has
been introduced into Britain as a light and nourish in<r food for children and invalids,
and is found particularly suitable in cases of irritation of the mucous surfaces.
FLOCE TJS. See WEAVER BIRD.
FLOCK (Russ. Plotzk). a government in the n. of Poland, bounded on the n. by Prus-
sia, and on the s.w. by Warsaw. Area, 3,520 sq.m. ; pop. '70. 471.938, 80 per cent of
whom are Poles. Hills occur in the n. and on the banks of the Narew and Vistula, which
with the Bug are the chief rivers. One-third of the surface is covered with forests, ami
there are many marshes and lakes. The inhabitants are engaged chiefly in agriculture,
and in cattle and sheep breeding.
FLOCK (Russ. Plotzk). a t. of Poland, capital of the government of the same name,
occupies an elevation on the right bank of the river Vistula, 78 m. w.n.w. of Warsaw.
Its principal buildings are the cathedral, built in 961, the bishop's palace, theater, etc.
Agriculture, and the export of grain to Dantzic and other ports, are tfle chief employ-
ments. Pop. '67, 21,823.
mPliosr.nrtis.
• Plotiiius.
PLOJE'SHTI, or PLOYESTI, a t. of Walhchia, 35 m. n. by e. from Bucharest, on the
Pimbow, a feeder of the Jalomnitza. It is a place of considerable trade, aud has a great
annual wool-fair. Pop. '70, 26,468.
PLOMBIERES, a t. and watering' place in the department of Vosges in France: pop.
1750. It has for ages been celebrated for its medicinal springs of three sorts, viz., ferru-
ginous, soapy, and thermal. The former are cold, the second tepid, the latter hot.
Each possesses peculiar mineral properties. Bathers make principal use of the two latter,
and the former is used to drink. Superb accommodations for those who take ihe baths
or drink the waters were made during the reign of Louis Napoleon, in addition to ;ill
which had previously been done to make the place attractive. The waters, as drink or
in baths, are considered good for the cure of dyspepsia, gout, urinary affections, paral-
ysis, and diseases of the skin. The baths were improved lay the Romans. In 1292 the
duke of Lorraine built a chateau there "to defend the bathers against the bad," accord-
ing to the Chronicles. Montaigne was a visitor there in 1580; in 1682 it was shaken by
an earthquake; about 1722 king Stanislaus of Poland and the duke of Lorraine built the
palais royal, founded a hospital there, and made beautiful promenades. Royal treasures
have since flowed in constant streams to decorate the classic grounds, but most of all
under the orders of Louis Napoleon, whose engineers made it one of the most admirable
health resorts in the world, with all the conveniences and comforts of modern art. Among
recent works on the baths are Eatix de Plambieres, diniqne medicate dn R^euinnHsme et de
son Traitement, by L. Heritier, 1857; Emsai aitr Its Sains Tiede, by Turck, 1861; and
Trait e* Geiiercaux, et Guides des EUU.V, by Hutin, Bourdon, etc.
PLONGEE, in artillery and fortification, means a slope toward the front. Thus, in
speaking of the course of a shell through the air, i'.s piongee is from the point of greatest
altitude to tho point at which it strikes the earth. So, in fortification, the piongee is the
top of the parapet sloping gently toward the front. This slope is ordinarily 1 in 6; but a
deviation is permissible of from 1 in 9 to 1 in 4: the sharper the slope, however, the more
liable is the crest of the parapet to lie destroyed by an enemy's fire. Moreover, as flat a
piongee as possible is desirable, that sandbags may, when required, be laid upon it to
form a cover for rinen.en. See FORTIFICATION.
PLOTDTUS, the rncst original and important philosopher of the Neoplatonic school,
was born at Lycopohs in Eg\-pt 205 A.D. ; but such was his utter indifference to things
human, "being ashamed almost to live in a body, "that he never would divulge even his
parentage. lie would never allow his birthday to be celebrated, although he gave feasts
on those of Socrates and Plato; nor would he ever permit a painter or sculptor to per-
petuate his features, or, as he called it, to produce the image of an image — the body
being to him only a faint image of existence. He deemed it tedious enough already to
have to drag about this image whithersoever he went in this life. His body was alto-
gether contemptible in his eyes; he would see no physician in his illness, and was very
.sparing in the use of food, refraining from meat, often even from bread. Strangely enough,
his desire for the study of philosophy did not arise within him before his 28th year,
when he repaired to Alexandria, and there, after Imving- s?.t at the feet of the great masters
for some time without feeling satisfied with their teachings, he at last became acquainted
with Ammonius Saccas, and in him found the desired teacher. For 10 years he zealously
attended his lectures, and although he had agreed, with two of his fellow-students, never
to make known aught of Ammonius's teachings to the world, he yet became the chief
representalive and author of that school, le-s as a pupil than as an independent thinker,
who hiking his stand upon its theorems, developed them to their full extent. In 242 he
joined Gordianus's expedition to Persia, in order to devote himself to the philosophy of
India and Persia; but the emperor being murdered in Mesopotamia, he had to repair
hurriedly to Antioch, whence, in 244, he went to Rome. His lectures here were attended
not only by crowds of eager youths, but men and women of the highest circles flocked
to bear him. Not only Platonic wisdom, in Neoplatonic garb, but asceticism and the
charm of a purely contemplative life, were the themes oiuwhich he, in ever-new varia-
tions, and with an extraordinary depth and brilliancy, held forth; and such was the
impression his earnestness made upon his hearers, that several of them really gave up
their fortunes to the poor, set their slaves free, and devoted themselves to a life of study
and ascclic piety. Dying parents intrusted their children and money to him, well know-
ing lhat an honester guardian, and one more anxious for his charges, could not be
found. It is hardly surprising to find that his contemporaries coupled with his rare vir-
tues the gift of working miracles. Sixty 3'ears old. he thought of realizing Plato's
dream, by founding an aristocratical and communistic commonwealth like the hitter's
" republic;" and the emperor Gallienus was ready to grant the site of two cities in Cam-
pania for his " Platonopolis;" but his courtiers prevented the fulfillment of this promise.
Plotiiius died from a complication of diseases, in 270. at Futeoli, 66 years of age.
Although he began to write very late in life, he yet left 54 books of very different
size and contents. His MS. being very carelessly written, he asked his pupil Porphyry
to revise and correct it for him. The latter also divided it into six principal divisions,
each subdivided again into nine books or e nneads. The most important parts are those
which treat of beauty, fate, immortality of soul, the good, or one, the three original sub-
stances, of free will, against gnostics, of providence, of the genesis of ideas, of the iuflu-
Plotus.
794
once of Hie stars, of the supreme good, etc. The language is very unequal in (lie differ-
ent portions, according to the mood and circumstances i<> which ihey individually owe
their existence; hut it always is original, compact, and graphic in ihc cxlrcmc.
Plotinus's system was l>:i.>cd chiefly on Plato's theorem of the ideas; only that while
Plato assumed the ideas to be the link between the visible and the invisible, or between
the supreme Deity and the world, Plotinu.s held the doctrine of emanation, that is,
the constant transmission of powers from the absolute to the creation, through several
agencies, the first of which is " pure intelligence," whence Hows the " soul of the world,"
whence, again, the souls of " men " and "animals," ami finally " matter " itself. (For
a fuller account of this part of Plotinus's system in its historical connection, see -Ni:o
PLATONISTS.) Men thus belong to two worlds, that of the scn-o and that of pure intel-
ligence. It depends upon ourselves, however, to which of tlie two worlds we direct our
thoughts most and belong to finally. The ordinary virtue-, as justice, modi-ration,
valor, and the like, are only the beginning and very first preparation to our elevation
into the spiritual realm; purification, or the exercise of purming virtues, is a further
step, to which we attain parily through mathematics and dialectic; and the abandon-
ment of all earthly interests for those of intellectual meditation is the nearest approach
to the goal. The higher our soul rises in this sphere of intellect, the deeper it sinks into
the ocean of the good and the pure, until at last its union with God is complete, and it in
no longer thought but vision and ecstasies which pervade it. These are a lew snatches
of Plotinus's philosophical rhapsodies, to which may be further added his mysterious
belief in a kind of metempsychosis, by which souls, not sufficiently purified during life,
return after death, and inhabit, according to their bent, men, animals, and even punts.
He further held views of his own respect ing gods and demons, whom he divide 1 inio dif-
ferent classes, according to their degrees; and professed faith in mantic. astrology, and
magic, tlie convictiqn of the truth of which sciences he derived from his theory of tho
harmony in the intellectual world reflected by the material world. Yet it is clear from
his dicta on these subjects that he did not believe i.i these so-called sciences in the gross
sense of the herd, hut that he had a vague knowledge of those mysterious laws of attrac-
tion and ropuMou which go through nature. Plolinus's philosophy, which, as it wen;,
tried to combine all the systems of Anaxagoras, Parmenides, the Pythagoreans, Plato,
and Socrates, and the Stoa into one, was the last and boldest attempt of the ancient Givek
world to explain the inysterv of the creation and of existence. Its influence upon modern
philosophy is remarkable. tYom Spinoza to Schelling, the reminiscences of Plolinus,
irrespective of the drift of particular parts of their systems, recur constantly.
Plotinus's works were well-nigh forgotten, when Marsilius Ficinus first published a
Latin paraphrase of them (Florence, 1492), which was followed by the A'7. /V. of tho
original (Basel, 1380 and 1615). Tlie first critical edition, however, is due to CIVII/..-T
(Oxford, 1835, 3 vols.). Others are those of Diibner (Paris, 1855) and Kirchhoff (tsr,!')).
Parts of liis works were translated into German by Engelhard (1830); into English by
Taylor (1794 and 1817); into French by Bouillet (1861, 3' vols.). See Kirclmer, Die P'lil-
osopltie des Plotinus (1854).
PLOTUS. See DARTER.
PLOVEE, Charadrius, a genus of birds of the family cJtararfriadfe (q v.), having a
straight compressed bill; the upper mandible alone slightly inflated and slightly bent at
the point; the nasal groove extending about two-thirds of the length of the hill, the nos-
trils longitudinally cleft near the base; the legs not very long, naked a little above the
tarsal joint; no hinder toe; the wings rather long and pointed, the first quill-feather the
longest. The species are numerous, and are found in every quarter of the globe: many
of them are birds of passage. They chiefly frequent low moist ground-;, where they
congregate in large flocks, and feed on worms, mollusks, insects, etc. ; but some of them
visit mountainous regions in the breeding-season. They fly with great strength and
rapidity, and run with much swiftness. Tne flesh and eggs of many of them are
esteemed delicacies. One of the British species is the dotterel (q. v.). Another is the
GOLDKN or YELLOW PLOVER (C. plitridlin), a rather larger bird, of a blackish color,
speckled with yellow at the tips and edges of the feathers; the throat, breast, and belly
black in summer, whitish in winter. The golden plover is a bird of passage, visiting, in
summer, the northern parts of Europe, of the west of Asia, and of North America; and
migrating to the south in winter. It is known in almost all parts of Europe?, and is
common in many parts of Britain, breeding in the northern parts. Great numbers fre-
quent the sandy pastures and shores of the Hebrides and of the Orkney and Shetland
islands. It makes an artless nest, little more than a slight depression of the ground, and
lays four eggs. The parent birds show great anxiety for the protection of their young,
and use various stratagems to divert the attention of an enemy. The golden plover
exhibits great restlessness on the approach of wet and stormy weather, whence its specific
name plueiitllx. — The RINGED PLOVEH (C. hi<iticitld). a much smaller bird, not so large
as a song-thrush, is found at almost all seasons on the shores of the British islands, fre-
quenting sandy and shingly flats, from which the sea retires at ebb-tide. It is often to
be seen also on the banks of large rivers, and not unfrequently of lakes and ponds. It is
found in most of the northern parts of Europe and Asia, and in Iceland and Greenland.
It is grayish-brown above, whitish beneath, with a collar of white round the neck, and
795
Plotus.
Plow.
be.ow it a black — in winter, a brown — collar; the head marked with black and white; a
white bar on the wing. Very similar, but smaller, is the KENTISH PLOVEJI (G'. cant taints);
and also similar and of similar habits is the smallest of the British species, the LITTLE
RINGED PLOVER (G. minor). Both of these are rare in Britain. — North America has a
number of species of plover, one of which, the AMERICAN GOLDEN 'PLOVER (C. Viryiuia-
CUK), very closely resembles the golden plover of Europe; and another, the KILDEEK
PLOVEII (0. TocifeniK), abundant on the great western prairies, and not uni'requent in the
Atlantic states, utters, when approached by man, a querulous or plaintive cry, like the
lapwing. — The name plover is often extended to species of cliamdi-iadui belonging to
other genera, as squatarola, in which the nasal grooves are short, the tip of the bill is
tumid, and there is a rudimentary hinfl-toe. To this genus belongs the GRAY PLOVEU
(8. ci tiered) of Britain, a species rather larger than the golden plover, and chiefly known
as a winter visitant. Its geographic distribution extends over most of the northern parts
of the world.
PLOW, PLOWING. The first in order and importance of agricultural operations is
the breaking tip of the soil, and this is accomplished, in all countries where agriculture
is in an advanced state, by inverting the upper stratum of earth upon which the plants
grow. Such a mode also buries and destroys all weeds, leaving the surface clean and
unencumbered. The inversion of the upper stratum is effected by turning over successive
sods or slices, of the length of the field, and of varying thickness and depth, according
to the nature of the succeeding crop, and the nature of the soil; and the implement
employed for this purpose is the plow. The general form of the plow is known to every one,
and to the unobservant eye it appears to be u very simple and even primitive tool; never-
theless, much mechanical skill and ingenuity have been expended in perfectly adapting
it to its work. It is a combination of instruments (fig. 1) fastened to a beam. GBL; the
coulter, K, is an iron knife-blade for cutting the sod vertically; the share, (JFD, which is
merely a socket fitted on aud not fastened to the body of ihe plow, has a sharp point, C,
and a projecting horizontal edge, CO, on its right-hand side, its part of the work being
to separate the under-surface of the so^l from the subsoil; by means of the mold-board, ri,
the slice, now wholly separated from the firm ground, is raised up and turned over by
the forward motion of the plow; and \\\G stilts, or handles, one of which, BL,.is a continua-
tion of the beam, the other, M, being fastened partly to the former by rods, aud partly
to the lower portion of the frame-
work, are for the purpose of guiding *!&*" M
the implement. The front part of
the beam is formed with an upward
curve; at its extremity is placed
ilia-bridle, N, to which the horses are
attached by means of swing-trees
and chains or traces, and the object
of which is to enable the workman
to elevate or depress the line of
draught, or move it to the right hand or the left, as may be found necessary. The left
sides of the coulter, share, and framework, ADEB, should evidently be in the same ver-
tical plane. The form of the mold-board is of the utmost importance, and has chiefly
attracted the attention of agricultural machinists since the time when improvements on
the plow were first projected. Its office being to raise and turn the sod, it is necessary
that the surface should slope upward and outward from the front, so as to apply a pres-
sure in both directions, and, accordingly, the surface is so shaped that from the' point of
the share, where it is horizontal, it gradually curves upward, till, at the extremity, P, it
inclines over away from the body of the plow. The gradual change produced on the
position of the furrow-slice is seen in n>. 2, where ABCDt on the left-hand side, represents
the slice untouched by the plow, AD
being the line of section by the coulter;
DC. by the share; BC, the open side
from which the previous furrow (E) to
the right-hand side has been separated ;
and the four successive rectangles,
ABCD to the right, illustrate the suc-
cessive changes of position of the furrow
as the mold-board is pushed forward under and on its left side, till it is finally left, as
represented in ABCD, on the right hand: E, F, G are furrows which have previously
been laid in their proper position. The advantages of laying the furrows in the position
shown are these: in the first place, the weedy side of each furrow being closely applied
to the previous furrow7, and kept pressed against it by its own weight and the pressure
of the mold-board, the weeds are completely buried; "secondly, the ridged surface thus
presented affords the means of covering the seed by harrowing; and lastly, the openings
below increase the amount of surface accessible to air, and drain off superfluous water.
The modern plow is wholly formed of iron; the share and the framework of malleable,
and the mold-board of cast iron, or sometimes of steel; while the coulter is frequently
welded with steel on the right-hand side, the better to resist attrition. In most of the
Plow.
796
English (as distinguished from the Scotch) plows, wheels are attached at or ncr.r the
front end of the beam, a contrivance which renders the implement more steads in its
motion, more easily managed, and capable of doing better work in ihc hands <.f ;.n
inferior workman; but it is generally believed, in Scotland at least, that the plow with-
out wheels, or xtri>nj,-i>l<>w, as it is technically termed, is greatly more efficient in the
hands of a thoroughly-skilled plowman. The usual dimensions of the furrow-slice in
lea or hay-stubble are 8 or 9 in. in breadth by 6 in depth; and in land for green crop, 10
in. in breadth, and 7 or 8 in depth. Shallower plowing is not unfreqiicnt'.y adopted,
especially ou thin soils, and in various parts of England. Nor is it uncominou to plow
stubble-land 10 in. or more in depth.
Other kinds of plows are used for special purposes, such as Iraii-ft-jJmrx. which are
made on the same principle as the common plow, but larger and stronger, so as to bring
up a portion of the subsoil to the surface; subxoil- plows which have no mold-board,
and merely stir and break up the subsoil, thus facilitating drainage; double uiolt!-
boanl plows, which are merely common plows with a mold-board on each side, and
are employed for drilling turnip or potato land, for water-furrowing, and for earthing
up potatoes, etc. Of each of these plows there are many varieties, each maker having
generally some peculiar views regarding the form and proportion of some parts of the
instrument. For those who wish to study minutely the best form of plow, it ^ill be
necessary to consult works on agriculture and agricultural implements. Theie is. how-
ever, one very peculiar form of plow sometimes used in various parts of England.
which deserves more particular notice; this is the turn-west plow. Its chief ] -eeuliaiity
is, that instead of one, it has two mold-boaids, one on each side, and these are alter-
nately brought into operation, so that the furrow is always turned over in the s; me
direction. The mold-boards are firmly fastened together in front, and kept at a con-
stant distance from each other behind by means of struts, while the handles are movable
with reference to them; the mold board which is intended to be used being pu>hcd
away from, and the other (which for the time does the same work as the vertical surface
ADEB in Fig. 1) brought nearer to the line of the beam; of course, when the next furrow
is plowed, the mold-boards exchange adjustments. This form of plow is useful in
plowing along a hillside, as by it all the furrows can be turned over towards the hill,
thus preventing the natural tendency of the soiltowoik itself downwards, leaving the.
upper portions bare. Some years ago the dovble-fwrow plow was intrcduca'. It con-
sists of an iron frame, similar in some respects to that of a grubber or cultivator, with
two breast-plates, mold-boards, and shares; the one set a little back from the other, ami
so far distant as it is desired should be the width of the furrow. Two or three wheels
bear the implements — one in front running in the bed of the last excavated furrow, and
the other one or two behind. There is a directing-rod, but no stilts. The double-furrow
Elow was at first singularly popular, and after a few years was found on almost every
win. It was, however, soon found that, generally speaking, the weight was too much
for the draught of a pair of horses, and that, even on light land, three horses were.
required. In fact, the depth of tillage is in practice gradually increasing; so that, unless
for a grain crop after either turnips or potatoes, these plows have been nearly laid
aside.
The operation of plowing can only be briefly referred to. Wherever the soil has
been efficiently drained, the ridges can be made wider and plowed on the flat, high
ridges being no longer necessary for carrying off the water. There are advantages in
plowing the land in uniform ridges of 18 ft. wide, or with an open furrow not more
than 72 ft. apart, made as flat as possible. But the effects of cultivation by steam show-
that the fewer the open furrows the better, particularly when the land is intended for a
grain crop which is to be sown by drill or broadcast with machinery, and when the crop
is to be cut with a reaping-machine, as is now almost universally the case. It is curious
to notice how one improvement in farm practice leads on to another. The most com-
mon mode of plowing with horses is now simply by casting the soil two ridges in and
the next two out, beginning always with the two ridges where last time was left the open
furrow.
The term feering is applied to the commencement of a wide ridge. The process of
feering differs according to the state of the land to be turned over. If there exists an old
furrow or hollow, as is generally the case in lea, two shallow furrows are turned, the on-.-
against the other, and so on; along each side of this commencement the plow moves,
adding furrow after furrow, and increasing in depth until the third or fourth round is
reached. This constitutes what is technically called the gathering system. In newly
cleaned land, or where a hollow does not appear to turn the first furrows into, two fur-
rows are thrown out and then turned lightly in. The most common system, however, is
what is known as casting or clearing. That is, after one feering is accomplished, another
is made at the other side of the ridge, and furrow after furrow is turned towards the
inside of each of these feerings until the whole ridge is plowed, and then in the center
is formed \\\& finish or mida — a furrow or trench into which the feering is turned the next
time the land is plowed.
The plow is one of the most ancient of implements, and is mentioned in the Old
Testament at a very early period, iron shares being also incidentally noticed more than
seven centuries B.C. The ancient Egyptian plow was wholly of wood, and iu some
797
Plow.
instances consisted of little more than a pointed stick, which was forced into the ground
as it \vas drawn forward. In fact, the earliest plows were neither more nor less than
varieties of the ho6(q.v.), worked by pressing the point into the ground instead of by
percussion. The earliest form of the Greek plow, the autoynon, is an example of this;
it was merely the trunk of a small tree, which had two branches opposite to each other,
one branch forming the share and the other the handle, while the trunk formed the pole
or beam. The more improved form, the pekton, in use among the Greeks, was not sub-
stantially different from the modern form in use in Mysia. The ancient Egyptian plow
in one of its early stages, like the two forms above described, is devoid of all apparatus
enabling the laborer to guide it. all that he can do being to press (by his weight applied
to the handle) the share into the earth. The Egyptians, however, gradually improved
the form, till it assumed tlie appearance of a hollow wedge formed by the two handles
joined at the bottom, and with the beam fastened between the handles a little above their
point of junction. The Romans, an essentially practical nation, largely improved on
the plow, adding to it the coulter and mold-board, and occasionally attaching wheels
to the beam to prevent the share from going too deep into the earth. The plow was
almost unknown among the American aborigines, though Prescott describes a mode of
plowing practiced among the Peruvians, which consisted in the dragging forward of a
sharp-pointed stake by six or eight, men, its sharp point, which was in front, being kept
down in the ground by the pressure of the foot of another man who directed it. Britain
and America, and their colonies are the only countries in which the plow has been
brought to a state worthy of being considered effective, and even in Britain the most
important amendments on it are not two centuries old. England took the lead in
improvement by rendering the form more neat and effective, and by attaching wheels to
aid in keeping the plow in a proper upright position. In Scotland, for some time after
this, the plow was extremely rude and cumbrous, and usually drawn by 8 oxen, and
some wooden plows are in use yet in the highlands of Scotland. In the middle of the
18th c., some Dutch plows were imported, and being found more effective, an impetus
was thus given to attempts at improvement. James Small, who may justly be regarded
as the real inventor of the Scotch or swing-plow, made great and important changes in
the form and efficiency of the coulter, share, and mold-board, producing an implement
at once lighter and vastly more efficient. All the swing-plows of successive makers
are founded upon the basis of Small's plow. Wilkie of Uddingston (Lanarkshire)
formed it wholly of iron, and his modification has been universally adopted in the mod-
ern plows. Among the various improvers of this form of cultivator may be mentioned,
besides Wilkie of Uddingston, Gray of the same place, Clarke of Stirling, Cunningham,
Barrowman, Ponton, Sellars, Huntly (who have sent many of the swing-plows, for
which their firm lias long been famous, to Australia). In England, the improvers have
chiefly been Ilansomes of Ipswich (the patentee in 1785 of the cast-iron share), Howard
of Bedford, Hornsbyof Grantham (Lincolnshire), and Busby of Bedale, the last of whom
gained a medal for his mold-boards at the great exhibition of 1851. For further infor-
mation concerning the plow and the mode of using it, see Morton's Cydopadia, of Agri-
culture (185G), Stephens's Book of the Farm, Book of Farm Implements, by Henry Stephens
and R. Scott Burn, and other works.
Steam-plowing. — Although it is riot yet a quarter of a century since cultivation of
the land by steam came into successful operation, it is about two centuries and a half
a 2:0 since it was foreseen to be possible. So long ago as 1618 David Ramsey and Thomas
Wildgosse took out letters-patent for engines a'nd machinery to plow the ground with-
out the aid of oxen or horses; and nine years afterwards, other ingenious men obtained
letters-patent for machines to effect a similar purpose. It is the opinion of Mr. Wood-
croft of the patent office, who compiled the Abridgments of the Specifications Relating to
Steam-culture, that steam was the motive power intended to be employed; but, as the first
patent was taken out nearly 40 years before the Marquis of AVorcester described the
steam-engine in his Century of Inventions, the grounds for such an opinion do not seem
quite satisfactory. In 1769, however, after the steam engine had been applied to other
purposes there was lodged in the patent office a specification for a new machine or
engine, to plow, harrow, and do every other branch of husbandry, without the aid of
horses. The patentee was Francis Moore; and so confident was he of the merits of his
plan, that he sold all his own horses, and persuaded his friends to do the same; " because
the price of that noble and useful animal will be so affected by the new invention, that
its value will not be one-fourth of what it is at present." Moore, however, was much
too sanguine; his method of cultivating the land without the aid of animal power failed,
as those of others before him had done.
The next invention necessary to mention was one by maj. Pratt, patented in 1810.
His plan was to have two engines, one on each headland, drawing, by means of an end-
less rope, an implement between them. In 'order to save the labor and loss of time
in turning the plow at the ends, he attached two plows, back to back, making them
work upon a fulcrum in the center of a frame, so that one could be raised out of the
ground when the other was working. This was the first adoption of the balance-prin-
ciple, now employed in most implements used in steam-cultivation. Maj. Pratt's appa-
ratus, like those of his predecessors, never came into practical operation.
In the interval between 1810 and 1832, when Mr. Heathcoat, M.P., a Tiverton lace-
Plow.
798
merchant, patented tho first stonm plowing machinery that ever wrought successfully
in the field, there were many inventions, but these being of little utilily, need not be
particulari/.ed. Mr. lleathcoiu's nuichinery wa>, principally intended tor drainage and
bracking up of soft or swampy land. It coiiMsted of a locomotive steam-engine, with a
broad, endless, liexible floor or railway attached to the wheels, so as to prevent them
from sinking in the boggy soil. Opposite to this engine an auxiliary carriage \vas
plaecd. and between the two the plow was drawn backward and forward by mi end
Jess chain or band — engine anil carriage moving along as the work proceeded. In is:{<;
this plow worked with tolerable success in red moss in Lancashire, and in 1J-057 it was
tried near Dumfries, under the auspices of the highland and agricultural society of Scot-
land; but here its performance, though in some degree satisfactory, was not suHiciently
so to warrant the judges in awarding to it the prize of £500, which had been oll'ered for
the first successful application of steam-power to the cultivation of the soil by the
society. The apparatus was very cumbersome and expensive to work, the engine being
25 horse-power, and the number of men and boys employed in the operation im less than
ten. The amount of work (lone was at the rale of 8£ acres per day. Mr. lleathcoat
abandoned the machine after having spent about ,£12,000 on it.
After Mr. lleathcoat, the inventors specially worthy of mention an; Alexander
M'Rj'.e, who, arranging his motive-power in the same manner as maj. Pratt, made the
important addition of a barrel to the plow-frame upon which the slack-rope was
to be wound up; Mr. Hannnm of Burcote, who, in 1849, designed an apparatus to be
driven by an ordinary portable engine, to be stationed at the corner of the field, which
was surrounded with wire-ropes in the same way as will be a<'i.erwards described in
Howard's method; and Mr. Tulloh Osborn, who. in 1846, patented a plan for two
engines running opposite each other on the headlands, having two drums lixed to them.
one for the winding of the tight, and the other for letting out the slack, gear. This
apparatus was tried by the marquis of Two ddale for sometime at Tester: but, it was
found, in consequence of the great power required, and other defects in detail, to be
very expensive, and was ultimately given up. To the marquis of Twecddule, therefore,
belongs the honor of being the pioneer of steam-cultivation in Scotland.
In* 1855, the Messrs. Fisken of Stamfordham, NewcftStle-upon-Tyue, lookout a patent
for a much more perfect apparatus for cultivating the land by steam than any that had
previously appeared. The power was transmitted by a stationary engine to a hempen
rope (the Messrs. Fisken being anxious to dispense with wire-ropes), which was worked
n.t a high velocity, and, passing round pulleys on two self-moving anchors. *urncd a
drum upon the plow, whose revolution imparted motion to the iniplemer. upon which
it was fixed. The important features in this system were the self-propelling anchors,
the arrangement of the plows on the balance-principle, and the mode of steerage.
This plow was exhibited at the annual show of the roy.il agricultural society of Kng-
land in the year the patent was taken out, and excited great interest, but failed to obtain
any award. Three years before this, the highland and agricultural society of Scotland
had thought so hopefully of the idea, that a grant was voted out of its funds to assist the
author in maturing his project
In 1854 Mr. Fowler exhibited his patent strain draining apparatus nt the Lincoln
meeting of the royal agricultural society of England; and from this time may be dated
the practical history of cultivation of the land by steam; for the idea that such an
apparatus could be wrought advantageously in other field operations entered the mind
of a practical fanner, Mr. Smith of Woolston. near Bletehley; and. under th" direction
of Mr. Fowler, he got constructed an apparatus, which, with modifications, he worked
successfully.
The inventions since that time need not be enumerated. It maybe stated generally
that they have included plans for engines traveling over the surface of the ground, draw-
ing plows or other cultivating implements along with them; engines working on tram-
ways, and drawing implements after them; engines moving along opposite headlands,
and working implements between them by means of wire-ropes, and stationary engine's
driving implements also by means of wire-ropes. The first two principles have been
mostly abandoned — the one on account of the great consumption .of fuel, and the large
amount of wear and tear occasioned to move the engine over uneven and soft ground;
and the other, on account of the expense necessary to lay down rails over a faun. The
only two systems in practical operation are what are called the direct and round about —
the former where the pull of the implement is directly to and from the engine: and the
latter where the implement is drawn at, right anirles.
The best known of these methods are Fowler's and Howard's, though, perhaps. Smith
should be credited with the round-about system, but Howard's name is now much more
generally given to it,
In Fowler's system the principal elements are an engine, an anchor, a wire-rope, and
a balance-plow. In commencing operations, the engine is placed at the end of one of
the headlands of the field, and directly opposite it on the other headland is placed the
anchor. Beneath the engine there is a large sheave or drum, 5 ft. in diameter, the
groove of which drum is composed of a series of small leaf like pieces of chilled cast
iron, each moving independently upon its own axis. The object of these is to prevent
the rope from slipping (which it is apt to do in a plain groove under great strain), and
799
Plow.
this they do in a very ingenious manner, by closing on the rope as soon sis it takes the
bond — that is, as soon as the rope presses upon them— and they in the same manner open
and release it immediately on the pressure being removed, or, in oilier words, as soon as
the rope resumes the straight on the other side of the sheave. The anchor is a massive
square framework of wood, mounted on six sharp disk wheels, each about 2 ft. in diam-
eter, which cut deep into the ground, and on the lightest land they take such hold as
effectually to resist the pull of the rope which is passed round the sheave beneath. The
anchor has a self acting motion — the power being communicated from the engine
through the medium of the plowing rope — which enables it to move ".long the headland,
and keep opposite to the engine. The plow is a framework of iron, balanced upon two
large wheels. To each side of this framework there are attached four plow-bodies and
coulters, so that four furrows are cut at one " bout," and (he headland on which the
anchor is stationed being reached, the end of the beam that was out of the ground is
depressed (the other, of course, being raised), and the four plow-bodies that were out of
the ground, and which point in the opposite direction, are inserted in the soil, and turn
up the furrows on the way back to the engine. By altering the position of the plow-
bodies along the frame-work, a bioad or a narrow furrow can be cut at pleasure. In
ordinary working, an acre an hour is accomplished. The wire-rope, by which the
plow is dragged through the land, passes round the sheaves on the anchor and the engine,
the ends are attached to two drums upon the plow; and, by a nice mechanical arrange-
ment, the plowman who rides upon the implement is enabled to wind up, or let out
slack if necessary, without loss ol time. The wire-rope is made in lengths, which are
easily disjoined, in order that it may be adjusted to irregularly shaped fields, or rather
to fields tiiat are not exact squares or parallelograms; for Fowler's method is not well
adapted to such irregularities as prevent the engine and anchor being opposite each
oilier. The rope is borne off the ground— a very necessary precaution, without which
the wear and tear would be alike annoying and expensive — by a number of pulleys, or
"rope-porters," as they are called, mounted on frames. The outside ones, that is, those
furthest fro in the work, are moved along by the action of the rope; those hi front of the
plow are removed by boys, and placed behind the implement as it proceeds. The modus
operands will be patent at a glance, from the annexed plan of working (tig. 8). To mau-
}< ta. 3.— Fowler's Anchor, Engine, and Plow at work.
age this npparntus three men and two boys are required — namely, a man at the engine,
Another on the plow, a third at the anchor, and the lads to look after the rope-porters.
The water and coals needed for the ensrine must be brought by other men.
The plow-bodies can be removed from the frame, and in their place " digging-breasts"
be attached, by means of which the land is thrown up in a somewhat similar manner to
that in which it is turned over by the spade. The price of the plowing and cultivating
apparatus is about £900.
At the Newcastle show of Ihe royal agricultural society, in July, 1864, Mr. Fowler
Introduced two engines of 7-horse power, working simultaneously on opposing head-
lands. The expedition with which these engines were set down to and completed their
work was a matter of admirationAp all present, and the subject of special remark by the
judsres. These gentlemen say: ^'The engines worked smoothly; and so far as we
could ascertain, appeared to bear an equal share of work in either direction." They
pot up steam in nearly half an hour less time than the 14-horse engine, and working with
• them, much less time wns required to arrange the tackle. " The engines were masters
of their work; and acting in combination, appeared to possess more power than the
large engine and anchor The advantages of this system appear to be, that horses
are' not required to move tackle; that there is a saving of time in setting down,
taking up, and removing from field to field [no unimportant consideration]; and
that the twq small engines are both available for ordinary farm-work, such as thrashing,
drivimr. barn -work, "etc." The cost of the two engines, with the whole apparatus,
ranires from £1200 to about £1!500, according to the power of the engines, etc. The
number of hands employed is the same as at the large anchor and engine; but -as a
skilled laborer is necessary, where only an unskilled laborer is needed in the latter case,
the cost per day is 2s. more. Fowler has been very successful in gaining prizes for
steam-plows, having won several thousand pounds in this way since 1856.
Hownrd's earliest system consists in a stationary engine driving a windlass, having
two winding drums, w'ith direct and reverse action, "placed in front of it. round which is
coiled about, 1GOO yards of wire-rope. By a simple lever movement, the man can
drop the winding drums out of gear in an instant, a contrivance which enables him to
Plum.
attend to the proper coiling of the rope, and also to arrest, in case of accident, the
plow in a moment, v. ituout stopping the engine. The engine is usually placed at the
corner of the plot to be plowed, 4lie rope is carried round the field on rope-porters,
and fixed at the corners by light anchors. A snatch-block placed in front of the wind-
lass prevents the slack-rope running out too fast, and trailing on the ground. The
plow is composed of two strong iron frames balanced upon four wheels, and crossing
each other at their inner ends, thereby decreasing the length of the plow, and, as a
matter of course, the breadth of the headland. The- frames are raised and lowered in
such a manner that the set of plows out of work is independent of, and has no t--n-
dency to weigh or raise out of the ground the set in work. The frames are made for
two, three, or four furrows, and "diggers " or scarifiers can be attached as in the < a<e
of Fowler's. The latest improvements of ti material character on the Bedford fii-m's steam-
plowing tackle consist of a patent self-coiling windlass and universal joint, 1GOO yards
of steel rope, patent o-tined self-lifting cultivator. '2 self-moving anchors, etc. Two men
and two boys are sufficient to work the set with a TJ-liorse-powcr patent plowing and
traction engine; the cost of the set is £1000. This recently introduced apparatus is very
popular, and- promises to be extensively employed.
Howard's double-engine system is specially adapted for letting out on hire, for large
farms, and for use on the great foreign plains. The engines are placed on opposite head-
lands, and work a plow, grubber, or cultivator between them, similar to the principle
on which Fowler's double-engine system operates. Three men and two boys are
required to the working of this set. The price of a pair" of 12-borse patent plowing
and traction engines, each with winding drum, together with 800 yards of steel wire
rope, and 6 rope-porters, is £1350.
In tlie course of the last few years, the Messrs. Howard have issued several hundred
sets of steam-cultivating tackle. The Messrs. Howard's cultivator was more generally
used for some time than the plow, but the mere digging of much of the land tor corn,
as a substitute for plowing, was attended with disappointment; so the plow ha* been
all but universally adopted for soil intended for grain crops.
The Fiskeu tackle is used to a considerable extent in various parts of the country,
generally with the plow emanating under that name, and sometimes attached to three-
furrow plows made by local manufacturers. Several of the other famed firms dispose
of parts of the complete set separately. In other words, those who buy tho engines and
gearing do not in every case purchase the plow from the same company.
In Coleman's system, the drums upon which the rope is wound are attached to the
sides of the engine, and give out and take on rope alternately. The engine moves along
the headland; and the anchor, upon which there is very little strain, and which is
therefore, a very light, portable article, is shifted opposite to it by a man as the work is
performed; direct action being obtained here, as in the case of Fowler's. The peculiar-
ity of the plan consists in having two implements instead of one at work, the implements
being grubbers, which smash up theground — a practice adopted by some farmers in Eng-
land, in preference to turning the sod over with the plow. On commencing operations
on this plan, the field is divided into two equal parts. The cultivators or grubbers work
only one way — toward the engine. They are attached by the front to each end of a
strong wire-rope, while a smaller wire-rope is fastened to their rear. The one cultivator
is placed at the far side of the field, where its teeth or "tines "are inserted in the
ground; and it is pulled toward the center of the field, tearing up the soil as it co:nes.
the other meanwhile going out empty to meet it. When the latter reaches the middle
of the field, the action of the engine is reversed, and it is dragged back to the engine,
cultivating the land as it travels, while the other goes back to the headland empty. The
pull out empty and working in is, of course, continued until the whole laud has been
tilled.
There are some other systems of steam cultivation4tafore the public, but in various
respects they resemble those already enumerated. With Coleman's method there may
be a slight saving of time at the ends, but there is, on the other hand, a trifling lo>s of
power. In every sense of the term, the systems of the Messrs. Howard, and Fowler and
Co.. arc the most popular. Each of these leading systems has its advocates and its
advantages. It is certainly a much more expensive plan to have two engines, but yet
for letting for hire it may be the best and cheapest, as they take the apparatus from one
place to another, and set to work again more rapidly. It is, however, easy enough to
keep one steam-engine always running at full speed, and there seems little reason to
keep one engine simply to look at the other, seeing the expense is the drawback which
prevents their universal adoption. Besides, the single engine on the round-about sys-
tem is decidedly best for the working up of corners of fields, and as it does not move
along headlands, it docs not destroy them; but can continue working while the locomo-
tive remains idle. On soil where there are many stones, it is better first to grub the
laud thoroughly, and remove the stones, before using the plow.
Where the fields are pretty large, stones not abundant, and the soil heavy, the odds
nrc all in favor of steam cultivation. Not only is the tillage more thorough 'than could
be otherwise accomplished, but there is a greater chance of getting the land worked in
better condition. That is to say, the great sneed by which the soil can be turned — on an
average, about three- fourths of an acre per hour — enables the advantages of weather and
QA1 Plowtlen.
Plum.
seasonable soil to be more extensively embraced. Then every farmer knows, or should
know, the benefits of deep cultivation, where the soil admits; and by steam-power,
more than in any other way, this great desideratum is likely to be obtained. There is a
danger, however, arising from deep plowing, provided the increased depth is not gradu-
ally alfectcd. For instance, if three or four inches of fresh soil is suddenly brought to
the surface, and the manuring applied in the usual way, the succeeding crop, if not
even crops, is often disappointing. The fresh excavation, in short, has not been fertil-
ized unless very special treatment is bestowed. The best time to introduce the deep
furrow is preparatory to the green crop, as with the bulk of the ordinary farming (Scotch
especially) that is the rotation which is accompanied by the heaviest manuring of the
course. Stunted crops do not now follow the introduction of steam-power, or rather deep-
ened cultivation, to any material extent, but when the causes and cures were not so well
known in the earlier days of steam-plowing history, failures for a year or two were
more notable. The high price of horses, lately developed into extravagance, together
with the growing and already high rate of farm-servants' wages, have stimulated consid- .
erably the application of steam-power to the tillage of the soil of Britain. The two
principal firms at Leeds and Bedford, already referred to, have an enormous demand
just now from all quarters for steam-cultivating apparatus. In Britain, it is computed
there are considerably over 1000 steam-tackles at work, aird the exports to the conti-
nent, to .some parts of America, to the East and West Indies, and to Egypt, is considera-
ble and growing.
PLOWDEX, EPMITXD, 1518-85; b. England; at first studied medicine and surgery
at Cambridge and Oxford, and according to Ant hony-a- Wood did uot take up the study
of the common law till his 3Cfh year. Plowden himself, however, says, in the preface
to his Commentaries, that he began to study law in his 20th year, and the 30!h of the
reign of Henry VIII. He was twice a reader of the middle temple, and near the close
of Mary's reign was inr.de sergeaut-at-law. He wrote Commentaries, or Reports of Divers
fiases in Cite Hoignx of tiduxird VI. , etc., in Norman-French; and Queries, or a Moot-
Book of 6'
PLOWGATE OF LAHD, in the law of Scotland, is an expression denoting a quantity
of laud of the extent of 100 acres Scots. No person is qualified to kill game in Scot-
land who has not a plmvgale of land, aud this is still the law. — Paterscm's Game-laws of
United Kingdom, p. 158.
PLUM, Prunvs, a genus of trees and shrubs of the natural order rosaceoe, suborder
amyr/riiiifce (q.v. ) or drupftcece ; the species of which have the stone of the fruit sh:i p-
pointt-d at each end, with a longitudinal furrow parsing all round, and a smooth surface-,
the fruit covered with a fine bloom, and the young leaves rolled up. The common
plum,- the bullace, and the sloe, are generally reckoned by botanists as distinct species,
but with much doubt if they are really distinct, us the plum passes into the bullace, and
the bullace into the sloe by insensible gradations; although there is so wide a difference
in general appearance, size of leaves, and size as well as quality of fruit, between the
best cultivated plums and the sloe, that it is not without an efforfwe can imagine them
to have sprung from a common stock. The COMMON PLUM (P. domestica) appears in a
wild state in woods and hedges in many parts of England and on the continent of
Europe; probably, however, often derived from the seeds of cultivated trees. It is
commonly described as destitute of spines, and as further differing from the bullace in
having the under side of the leaves smooth except when they are very young; but if
these eimnvters are adopted, many of the cultivated plums must be referred to the bul-
lace (P. tn.*it'iiia) as their original; nor does the ovate fruit afford a more certain character,
some of the finest garden plums being globose or nearly so, like the bullace. The varie-
ties called damson (q.v.) are particularly like the buliace, except in the form of the fruit.
Cultivated plums vary greatly in the size, form, color, and flavor of the fruit. The
fruit of some varieties, as the white maynumbonum, is 2 in. long; while damsons of the
same shape are not quite 1 in., and a single fruit of the one is equal to at least 8 or 10 of
the other. The best varieties of plum are among the most delicious dessert fruits;' among
these, the grcf.n gaye (reine daude of the French) is one of the most esteemed both in
Britain and on the continent of Europe, and is unsurpassed both in sweetness and
flavor. The inferior varieties are used in pies, conserves, and sweetmeats. Some of
them are very austere. In moderate quantity plums are wholesome enough; but excess :
in the use of them is very apt. to produce colic, diarrhea, and cholera. The danger is
greater if they are eaten before being perfectly ripe A very pleasant wine is made
from plums; and in some parts of Europe a strong spirit is distilled fro'm them after fer-
mentation ; but for this purpose they are mixed in the s. of France with honey and flour,
and in Hungary with apples. — The dried fruit, variously known as dried plums, or
plum :. and prune* (q.v.), is much used for the dessert; and the somewhat austere
fruit of the St. Julien' plum, cultivated in the s. of France, becomes, when dried, the
medicinal prune, used as a mild laxative. The drying of plums is effected very slowly
in ovens, by a heat which is gradually increased. The process requires great care. The
prunes called Ijrifjnok's are the produce of a variety grown principally near the little town
of Brjo-nole in Provence. The plum has been in cultivation from ancient times, and the
first fine varieties were probably introduced into Europe from the east. The finer
U. K. XI. -51
Plum. QAO
Pluralism.
varieties nre propagated chiefly by budding on slocks of the coarser kinds, which ar«
procured either IVoMi seed or as suckers from the roots of plum-trees. The courser varie-
ties arc propagated by suckers, without budding. A free loamy soil is be.-t for plums.
The}' are grown as standard, espalier, or wall trees. As standards, some of the varieties
uttain a height, of more than 20 ft., with a moderately spreading head. The fruit is
mostly produce-", on spurs, but some of the linest fruit on the shoots of the former year.
Among the varieties of plum arc some which ripen their fruit early, and others which
, ripen :at<- in the season. The blossom of some of the finer kind.s is often protected by
gardeners, like that of peaches and apricots. — The wood of the plum-tree is haul ami
line-grained, and is used in cabinet-work, in turnery, and for making musical instru-
ments.— The CASHMERE Pi, CM (/J. ]>'>l;l«nruxix), cultivated in Cashnu re and Bokhara, is
regarded as a distinct species. — The CIIKUUY I'l.fM. or .MYUOISAI.VN I-'M:M (/'. <vm.* //</•<*
or myrobal.inus), is a bush very similar to the sloe, with pendulous globular red fruit. It
is a native of North America, but is often cultivated for its fruit on the continent of
Europe. In Britain it seldom produces fruit. — P. inaritima is a shrub, indigenous to
sandy soils on the sea-coast of North America from New Jersey to Carolina. It has a
dark purple agreeable fruit, about the size of a pigeon's egg.
The COCOA PLUM or ICACO of the West Indies is the fruit of rhn/sofjaltinttx icnro, a
tree ot the natural order rosOcea1, suborder clin/subalanea>. The fruit resembles a plum,
lias a sweet although slightly austere taste, and is eaten both raw and lire-served. —The
fruit of parinariuin excelsum, another of the chrysobalanece, is called gray plum ut Sierra
Leone.
PLUM, DATE. See DATE PLUM.
PLUMAGE OP BIRDS. See BIRDS AND FEATIIERS.
PLUM AS, a co. in n.e. California, watered by the Middle and North forks of Feather
river, about 2,100 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 6,180 — 8,697 of American birth. The surface consists
of fertile valleys, great forests, and lofty canons. The Sierra Nevada crosses it. The
valleys are adapted to grazing. Slate and marble are found. Much gold is mined.
Co. scat, Quincy.
PLUMATELLA. a genus of zoophytes (polyzoa), having the polypidom fixed, membra-
naceous, conferva-like, and branched; the polypes issuing from the extremities of the
brandies, with a crescent-shaped disk surrounded by a single series of many tentacles.
The species are found in fresh water, attached to stones, etc. P. repti/* is a common
British species, sometimes spreading over a square foot, and having branches 3 in. long,
which adhere to some surface throughout almost their whole length. The tentacles are
beautifully feathered with cilia on two opposite sides.
PLUMB, JOSEPH, 1791-1870, one of the first to settle in the w. part of New York
state. He bought land, acquired a large fortune, and for many years lived in Erie co.
near the Seneca reservation. He owned the land on which the village of Cattaraugus
now stands. In 1840 he was prominent in organizing the " liberty" party, and was can-
didate for lieut.gov. in 1844. Edward L. Plumb, his son, has been consul-general at
Havana, and has occupied several other diplomatic positions.
PLUMBAGINEJE, or PLOIBAGTNACF^E, a natural order of exogenous plants, herba-
ceous or half-shrubby; with leaves somewhat sheathing at the base, and often clustered:
flowers in panicles or in heads; calyx tubular, persistent, plaited; corolla very thin, of
one or five petals; stamens five; ovary superior, one-celled, with a solitary ovule;
generally five; fruit a utricle (q.v.). There are about 160 known species, chiefly found
on the sea-shores and in the salt marshes of tempera'.e regions. Some are found also in
elevated regions, in all zones. Many have flowers of great beauty, and are therefore
favorites in gardens. Some are occasionally used in medicine as tonics and astringents;
others, being exceedingly acrid, as vesicants, particularly species of plumbago. Thrift,
or sea-pink (q.v.), is the most familiar British example of the order.
PLUMBAGO. See BLACK LEAD.
PLUME-BIFD, Epimatfius, a genus of birds of the family upvpidce (see HOOPOE), but
exhibiting poinrs of resemblance both to honey-suckers and to birds of paradise. The
bill is slender and arched. The plumage is magnificent and gorgeous, scarcely excelled
even by that of birds of paradise. The plume-birds are natives of New Guinea and New
Holland. They are variously adorned wit li enormously long tail-feathers, great shoulder-
tufts of broad feathers, loose downy plumes, etc- 0*ne species, E. albus, has remark-
able thread-like prolongations of the shaft of some of its plumes.
PLUMED MOTH, the popular name of a group of " nocturnal lepidoptcra." known to
entomologists as Jissipennat and pterophorites ; remarkable for having at least a pair of
the wings, and often all the wings longitudinally cleft into two or more — sometime?
six— divisions, which are beautifully fringed at the edges. The wings are similar to
those of other moths in their nervures, but the membrane which usually connects the
nervures is interrupted. The plumed moths are extremely beautiful, but often pass
unobserved in cop^eriuence of their small size. Some of them have the power of fold-
ing up the winy; lik • a fan. Although they are ranked among the nocturnal Upidoptera,
some of them fly about during the brightest part of the day.
OAO Plum.
Pluralism.
PLUMER, WILLIAM, 1759-1850 ; b. Mass. ; entered on the practice of law at Epping,
X. II., 1787, and was for many years an active politician. He was elected eight times
to the lower house of the state legislature, of which he was speaker for two years; and
was afterward a member, and for two years president of the senate. In 1792 he was a
member of the convention that revised the constitution of the state; was elected United
States senator 1802; four times governor of the state 1812-18; and presidential
elector 1820. Having a vigorous mind and being very industrious he became learned
in the law and accomplished in general literature. Hewrotemuchfortheperiodic.il
press and left many unpublished manuscripts. His life, written by his son and edited
by rev. A. P. Peabody, was published at Boston, 1856.
PLUMER, WILLIAM SWAX, D.D., LL.D., 1802-80; b. Penn. ; graduated at Washington
college, Va., in 1825; studied theology at Princeton; was licensed to preach in 1827;
organized a Presbyterian church in that year in Danville, Va. ; subsequently organized
another church at Warrenton, X. C., and preached at Raleigh, Washington, and New
Berne in that state; became pastor of a church in Richmond, Va., in 1834, and editor of
the WfiMnwi of the South in 1837-45; removed to Baltimore in 1847, where a church
was built for him. In 1854 he became prof, of theology at the Western seminary, Alle-
gheny, Penn.; and in 1866 was called to the professorship of didactic and polemical
theology in the Presbyterian theological seminary at Columbia, S. C. The circulation
of his numerous volumes and tracts for the American tract society has been more than
5,000,000 copies. Some of the volumes have been printed in foreign languages. A still
larger number of distinct works were published by other houses, and his contributions
to the newspapers were numerous. He was the author of commentaries on the Psalms,
Romans, and Hebrews. He was prominent in the Presbyterian church courts, moderator
of the general assembly, O. S., in 1838; delegate from the southern church to the first
general council held in Edinburgh in 1877.
PLUMMET, a weight of lead hung on a string, and attached to a frame, for the pur-
pose of showing the vertical line.
PLUMPTRE, EDWARD HAYES: b. Eng., 1821; educated at University college, Ox-
ford; became fellow of Brasenose in 1844; was chaplain at King's college, London, in
1847; prof, of pastoral theology there in 1853; prebendary of St. Paul's in 1863; prof,
of the exegesis of the Xew Testament in 1864; assistant preacher at Lincoln's Inn, 1851-
58; Boyle lecturer, 1866-67; rector of Pluckley, 1869, and vicar of Bickley, 1873. He
has been since 1875 one of Old Testament company of revisers appointed by the convo-
cation. He has published Sermons; Lazarus and otlicr Poems; Master and ScJiolar; etc.
(poems); Christ and Christendom; Boyle Lectures; translations of Sophocles and ^Eschy-
lut; Biblical Studies; notes on the Book of Proverbs in the Speaker's Commentary; papers
\\ the Biblical Educator, of which he was editor; and notes on the first three Gospels in
Ellicott's New Testament for English Headers. He has also contributed articles to Dr.
Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, the Quarterly, Edinburgh, and Contemporary Reviews, the
Expositor, Good Words, and the Sunday Magazine.
PLUKULA'RIA, a genus of zoophytes (anthozoa}; plant-like, rooted, simple, or
branched; with feathery shoots and offsets; and having hydra-like polypes in small cells
arranged on one side of the shoot or branch, usually in the axil of a horny spine. The
species are numerous, inhabitants of the sea, some of them very common on the British
coasts, attached to stones, shells, sea-weeds, etc. They are very beautiful objects, even
as seen by the naked eye, and still more when examined by the microscope; combining
great delicacy with the utmost elegance. The polypes in a single plumularia are often
exceedingly numerous; those of P. falcata. a very common British species, often to be
found at low-water mark, have been calculated as 80,000 or 100,000 in number.
PLU'MULE. See SEED.
PLTJ RALISM, in canon law, means the possession by the same person of two or more
ecclesiastical offices, whether of dignity or of emolument. Pluralism has been held unlaw-
ful from the earliest times, and is forbidden by many ancient councils, as Chalcedon, c.
\. (451 A.D.), 2d Nicrea, c. xv. (787 A.D.). This prohibition, however, was not regarded
as absolute and admitting no possible exception; the natural ground of the prohibition
being the impossibility, in ordinary cases, of the same individual adequately discharging
the duties of more than one office. It has been held, therefore, that in cases in which
this impossibilily does not really exist, the union ol two or mere offices in the hands of
one person might, speaking absolutely, be permitted without infringing the divine law.
Canonists therefore distinguish "compatible" and "incompatible" beneficies or dig-
nities. Two benefices may be incompatible in three ways — (1) if each requires residence
(ratwne re#uienlwfy; (2) if the duties of both fall to be discharged at one and the same
time (ratin nc >//•/•/. OYh or (3), if the revenue of either fully suffices for the becoming main-
tenance of the incumbent (ratione sustentationis). In other cases benefices or dignities
are considered compatible, and with the due dispensation may be held by the same per-
son. The rule by which dispensations from the law of residence are to be regulated, as
well as the penalties for its violation, whether on the part of the patron or on that of the
recipient, have formed the subject of frequent legislation, as in the 3d and 4th councils
of the Lateran, in the decretals of Innocent III. and many other popes, and especially in
Plnsh. QflJ.
Pluto.
those of the council of Trent. In general, it may be paid tint the ranon law regards as
incompatible (1) two beneflcee each bavtog the cure of souls; C-) t\\o "dignities;" (:>) a
"dignity" and a euro of souls; (4) a cure of souls and a simple ln-m-lic" n quiring resi-
dcnce. In other cases than these the pope is held to have the power of dispensing. There
is no department of discipline, however, in which _the tendency to relaxation hits been
greater or more persistent; and one of the gravest 'of the abu>es of the church was the
prevalence of pluralism of "incompatible" benefices, ev< n of bishoprics; ;ind although a
constant, effort was made to prevent this abuse, the evasions of the law were not only
frequent, but even screened from punishment. In later times the evil has in great
measure disappeared in the Roman Catholic church.
The English law, before the reformation, in the main coincided with the canon law;
and the legislation of Henry VIII. preserved the same general spirit, only substituting
the dispensing power of the crown for that of the pope.
By 18 and 14 Viet., c. 98, it is provided that no incumbent of a benefice shall take
and hold together with it another benefice, unless the cluin-he-; ::rc within three miles of
one another by the nearest road, and the annual value of one of them doc- not i !
£100. Nor can two benefices be held together if the population, of one exceeds 3,000,
and that of the other exceeds 500. The word benetice in this sense includes any perpet-
ual curacy, endowed public chap;-!, parochial chapelry. or district chapelry. lint a dis-
pensation or license can be obtained from the archbishop, so aslo allow two bencli
DC held together; and if the archbishop refuse bis license, the party may appeal to the
privy council. A special provision is also contained whereby the head ruler of any col-
lege or hall in the universities of Oxford or Cambridge, or warden of Durham university,
is prohibited from taking any cathedral preferment or any other b:-nelice. If any spir-
itual person holding a benefice shall accept another benefice contrary to the statute, the
first benefice shall ipso facto become void. At the same time, provision is made by
statutes for uniting benefices where the aggregate population does not exceed ir>00, and
the aggregate yearly value does not exceed £500. — In Ireland no faculty or dispensation
could be granted to any spiritual person to hold two or more benefices. — In Scotland it
is contrary to an old Scotch statute for a minister of the established church to hold two
or more charges; but the question has arisen almost exclusively with reference to clergy-
men appointed professors before or after an appointment to a country charge, in which
case a resignation is necessary of one of the offices within .a certain time after the
appointment; but this disqualification does not apply to city charges.
PLUSH (Fr. peluclie). a variety of woven cloth, having a long shaggy pile on the upper
surface. Although woven like velvet, it differs from it in the greater length of the pile.
and in its not being clipped or shorn to a uniform length. Formerly it was made of
a double warp, one thread being usually double worsted yarn, the other, intended to form
the pile, of goat's hair, and the weft of worsted; occasionally only worsted was used.
Now it is made very extensively of silk and cotton, the silk taking the place of the
hair to form the pile. This silk plush is the material now almost universally used for
making gentlemen's hats, instead of beaver-hair, as formerly. It is also worked in
colored silks, for many articles of ladies' attire. See "\YKAVING.
PLTI TARCH (Ploutarchos), the biographer and moralist, was b. at Chferoneia in Boeo-
tia. We can only approximate to the year of his birth. He tells us himself that he was
a student of philosophy at Delphi, under Ammonius, when Nero was making his prog-
ress through Greece in 66 A.D. ; and we may safely infer, therefore, that in that year he
was beyond the age of puberty. He lived for some years in Rome, and in othcrtownsof
Italy, where he seems to have been much occupred with public business. ;ind with giv-
ing lessons in philosophy — a circumstance to which' he attributes his having failed to
learn the Latin language in Italy, and his having to postpone his studies in Roman litera-
ture till late in life. During the reign of Domitian he was delivering lectures on philos-
ophy at Rome; but we have not sufficient evidence for the statement that he w:i
cept'or to Trajan, or that that emperor raised him to consular rank. The later years of
his life he spent at Chajroneia. where he discharged the duties of archon and priest of
Apollo. He lived down to 106, the eighth year of the r.-ign of Trajan; but how much
longer is not known. He was married to an amiable wife of the name of Timoxen::, by
whom he had several sons, who reached manhood, and left descendants.
The work by which Plutarch is best known is his Pan tiki Lire* of 46 Greeks and
Romans. These are arranged in pairs, each pair forming one book (biblion), consisting of
the life of a Greek and a Roman, and followed by a comparison between the two men.
In a few cases, the comparison is omitted or lost.' The heroes of these biographi.
the following: 1. Theseus and Romulus; 2. LycurgusanclNuma; 3. Solon and Valerius
Publicola; 4. Themistocles and Camillus; 5. Pericles' and Q. FaUus Maximus: (i.
Alcibiades and Coriolanus; 7. Timoleon and /Emilius Paultis; 8. Pelopidas and Marcel-
lus; 9. Aristides and Cato the elder; 10. Philopccmen and Flamininus; 11. Pyrrhus and
Marius; 12. Lysauder and Sulla; 13. Cimon and Lucullus; 14. Nicias and Cra --us; 15.
Eumenes and Sertorius; 16. Agesilaus and Pompeius; 17. Alexander and Cajsar; 18.
Phocion and Cato the younger; 19. Agis and Cleomcnes, and Tiberius and Caius Grac-
chus; 20. Demosthenes and Cicero; 21. Demetrius Poliorcetcs and M. Autouius; H.
Plush.
Pluto.
Dion and M. Junius Brutus. Tn addition to these arc placed in the editions after the
46th Parallel Lives, the biographies of Artaxerxes Mnemon, Aratus, Galba, and Otho.
Plutarch lias no equal in ancient, and few in modern times, as a writer of "lives." His
power lies in his felicitous grasp of the character as a whole, and his skill in keeping
minor details in subordination. It is not till the reader has seen the portrait in its com-
pleteness that his attention is attracted to accessory points. "There are biographers
(says an admirable writer in the Qnarttrh/ Rcc'n >/•) who deal with the hero, and biog-
raphers who deal with the man. But Plutarch is the representative of ideal biography,
for he delineates both in one." Yet with all their artistic harmony, his lives abound
with anecdotes and bon-mots in such profusion that they form one of our chief authorities
for the table-talk of the Greeks and Romans. Their popularity in ancient, mediaeval, and
modern times, wilh readers of every rank and age, is something extraordinary, and they
have in consequence exerted a very powerful and a very salutary influence on the art of
biography, as subsequently practiced. The other writings of Plutarch, more than 60 in
number, are included under the general title of Moralia, or ethical works. Several of
these are not purely ethical in their tenor; while many of them are probably not by him,
or if they are, do him small credit. Even in the best of the Moralia, there is no philo-
sophical system to be found; .their merits are not speculative, but practical; and their
value consists mainly in their good sense, in the justness of their views on the ordinary
affairs of human life ; and in the benevolence of tone diffused throughout them. The
best text of the lives is that of Imriiauuel Bekker; the best translation in English is that
of Dryden and others, as re-edited by dough. The best edition of the M(rralia is by
U'vltrnbach (Oxford, 179o-1800); and of the entire works, the editions of Keiske (Leip.
1774-S3) aud Hutten (Tubingen, 1791-1805).
PLTTTETIS, in classical architecture, a wall filling \ip the space between two columns.
Also the space between two, orders, placed over one another, as in the amphitheater, etc.
PLU TO (Gr. Phv tun, from Plouteo, to be rich), originally only a surname of HADES, as the
giver or possessor of riches, is. in the mythology of Greece, the third son of Kronos aud
Khea. and the brother of Zeus aud Poseidon. "On the tripartite division of the universe,
he obtained the sovereignty of the under-world — the realm of darkness and ghostly
shades, where he sits enthroned as a "subterranean Zeus" — to use the expression of
Homer, and rules the cp irits of the dead. His dwelling-place, however, is not far from
ihe surface of the earth. Pluto is inexorable in disposition, not to be moved either by
prayers or flatteries. He is borne on a car, drawn by four black steeds, whom he guides
with golden reins. His helmet makes him invisible, whence, according to some scholars.
his name of JIades (from a, priv., and idein. to see); although others, with at least equal
probability, derive Hades from hado or chado, to receive or embrace, and translate the
word the "all-receiver." In Homer, Hades never means a place, but always a peison.
Moreover, it is to be noticed that the poet does not divide the realm of the" shades into
two separate regions. All the souls of the dead — good and bad alike — mingle together.
Subsequently, however, when the ethical conception of future retribution become more
widely developed, the kingdom of the dead was divided into Elysium (q.v.), the abode
of the good, and Tartarus (q.v.), the place of the wicked. This change also exercised an
important influence on the conception of Pluto. The ruler of the under-world not only
acquired additional power and majesty, but the very idea of his character was essen-
tially modifier1 He was now regarded as a beneficent deity, who held the keys of the
earth in his hand, and possessed its metallic treasures (whence his new name Pluto or
/'•'nft'x), and who blessed the year with fruits, for out of (he darkness underground come
all the riches and swelling fullness of the soil. Hence, in later times, mortals prayed to
him before proceeding to dig for the wealth hidden in the bowels of the earth.
Pluto married Persephone (Proserpina), the daughter of Demeter (Ceres), after carry-
ing her off from the plains of Enna. He assisted his brothers— according to the mytho-
logical story— in their war against the Titans, and received from the Cyclops, as a
reward for delivering them from Tartarus, the helmet that makes him invisible, which
he lent to Hermes (Mercury) in the aforesaid war, to Perseus in his combat with the
Gorgons, and which ultimately came to Meriones. The Erinnyes and Charon obey his
behe-'ts. He sits in judgment on every open and secret act, and is assisted by three sub-
ordinate judges. ^Eacus, Minos, and Rhadamauthus. The worship of Pluto was widely
spread both amonsr the Greeks and Romans. Temples were erected to his honor at
Athens. Elis; and Olympia. Among trees and flowers, the cypress, boxwood, 'narcissus,
and maidenhair were" sacred to li>oi; bvils and goats wore also sacrificed to him amid the
shadows of night, and his priests had their brows garlanded with cypress wreaths.
In works of art, he resembles his brothers Zeus and Poseidon; only his hair hangs
down somewhat wildly and fiercely over his brow, and his appearance, though majestic,
as becomes so mighty a god, has something gloomy and terrible about it. There can be
little doubt that he, as well as Pan (q.v ), helped to trick out the conception of the
devil prevalent during the middle ages, and not yet extinct. If it was from Pan that the
devil derived those physical characteristics alluded to in the famous Address to the Df.il
by the poet Burns:
O thon. whatever title suit thee.
Auld Hornie, Katan, Nick, or Clootie,
Plutonic. CflA
Plymouth.
it is no less on-lain that it is to Pluto he owes his position as "king of hell," "his hlnck-
uess," and many of the insignia of his inlVnial royaltx .
PLUTON 1C ROCKS, tiie name given by Lyell to the granitic rocks, from the supposition
that they were formed at considerable depth in the earth, and were cooled and crystallized
slowly under great pressure. '1 'hey were so designated in contradisiinetion to the vol-
canic rocks, wliich, though they have risen up from below, have cooled from a melted
state mpre rapidly upon or near the surface. See GUANITE.
PLUTUS, in ancient mythology, the god of riches, son of Ceres and of lasius. IIo
was reared by the goddess of peace, and in Athens there was a statue of Pax holding
Plutus in her arms. He was represented as blind, and as distributing his gifl.s among
good and bad indiscriminately. A legend assigned the caves of Spain to him as a re.-i-
dence, that country being noted for its deposits of precious metals.
PLYMOUTH, u co. in n.w. Iowa, adjoining Dakota, bounded on the w. by the
Sioux river, drained by Floyd's river and the w. fork of the Little Sioux; on the ^ioux
City and St. Paul, and the Iowa division of the Illinois Central railroads; about s"»o
sq.m. ; pop. '80, 8,567 — 6,122 of American birth. The surface is diversified, and the soil
fertile. Corn, oats, and wheat are the 'principal productions. Co. seat, Lemars.
PLYMOUTH, a co. in s.e. Massachusetts, having the Atlantic ocean and Cape Cod
bay for its e. boundary, Buzzard's bay for its s., and Massachusetts bay for its n.;
drained by the Namasket river and other small streams forming the head-waters of the
Tauuton river; 700 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 74,024—66,081 of American birth, 502 colored. Its
surface is hilly, and wooded with forests of oak, pine, maple, birch, hickory, walnut,
ash, elm, and poplar trees. It is drained by several large inland lakes; Monponsett, in
Halifax, 748 acres; Arsawampsett, in Lakeville, 2,220 acres; Long, 1760 acres; <
Quitticas. 1255 acres; and others of less area. It has many good harbors, and its coast
for the m<jst part is well protected. It i.s intersected by several divisions of the Old
Colony railroad. In the s.e. section a neck of land between Cape Cod JLtay and Buz-
zard's bay connects this co. with the co. of Barustable. Cape Cod district. It is through
this neck of land that it is proposed to cut a canal, to provide safe and rapid transit tor
ships to and from Boston. Its soil is sand}' and rocky in many portions, but in all is
susceptible of cultivation. Much attention is paid to farming and market gardening,
an agricultural fair being held annually in the town of Bridgewaler. Its industries
include the manufacture of boots, shoes, and brogans, boxes, nails, iron in various*
forms, hardware, harnesses, cotton gins, furniture, cotton, woolen, and straw goods,
•shovels, metallic wares, cordage, lumber, rolled zinc, etc. It has always held commer-
cial relations with the extreme south in connection with cotton and its manufacture.
Co. seat Plymouth.
PLYMOUTH, a t. in Massachusetts, on Plymouth bay. 37 m. s.e. of Boston, famous
as the landing-place of the "pilgrim fathers" from the Mayflower, Dec. 11. 1620,
o.s. Plymouth rock is a granite bowlder at the water's edge on which they landed.
It is covered by a handsome granite canopy, and there is also a national mooumenJ to
the pilgrims, completed in 1875. In pilgrim hall are preserved many relies of the first
settlement of the country, among which are gov. Carver's chair and the sword of
Miles Standish. The town has a good harbor and flourishing trade. Pop. '70, 6. .
PLYMOUTH (ante), a t. in s.e. Massachusetts, a port of entry in Cape Cod bay. the
landing-place of the Pilgrim fathers from the Mni/fl/iin-rDcc. 21, 1620, where they founded
the first settlement in New England; pop. '80. 7,094. It is 37 m. s.e. of Boston, at the
terminus of a division of the Old Colony railroad, and stretches along the coast for 18
m., from 5 to 9m. in width. The principal village is built on several hills rising grad-
ually from the beach, the houses standing compactly on beautifully shaded si reels,
with concrete walks. -It has a fine harbor, protected by a beach with a sea-wall 3 m.
long, running n. and s., separating the harbor from Cape Cod bay. The depth of the
water at high tide will admit vessels of 12 ft. draught, at low tide those drawing 6 feel.
The sea-wall was built by the Plymouth beach lottery, the last lottery tolerated in the
state. Adjacent to the breakwater is Clark's island, where the Pilgrim-; spent their first
sabbath; now becoming popular as a summer residence. Near 1 y is the Gurnet light,
and opposite this is Manomet bluff and hills, and the Manomet house, a res.. it
for sportsmen. The Clifford house is at the head of Plymouth beach. The court house
contains the registry of deeds, with the earliest records of the colony, the original patent
to the company granted 1629, from the earl of Warwick, the plan of the town, the order
for the first jury, trial, etc. It has a house of correction, a town hall, 12 churches, a
soldiers' monument, an odd fellows' hall, masonic and good templars lodges, and a
grand army post. It has private schools, public schools, and a public library; 2
national banks with an aggregate capital of $450,000: 2 savings banks with deports
amounting to $2,500,000; and 2 weekly newspapers. The leading industries, besides a
number of vessels employed in the fisheries, and some commercial business, are the"
manufacture of woolen goods, iron, boots and shoes, cotton goods, duck, stoves, iron
and zinc plate, nails and tacks, steel shanks, kegs, boxes, barrels, etc. The manufacto-
ries utilize the extensive water-power which the river affords. The national monument
to the Pilgrims is still unfinished; the corner-stone was laid in 1859, the base placed iu
QA7 Plutonic.
'U < Plymouth.
position, 1876 In 1877 Oliver Ames, of Eastern, Mass., gave $30,000 for the statue of
" Faith," cut out of granite from Halknvdl, Me., by Italian workmen, the largest granite
figure in the world, being 36 ft. in height, and 216 times life-size. The statue of
'•Morality, "given by the state of Massachusetts, costing $10,000, occupies one of the wing
pedestals, and one of "Education" with an appropriate tablet, presented to the Pilgrim
society by a gentlemen of Hartford, is approaching completion. The monument stands
on an eminence surrounded by 9 acres of land, constituting the monument park.
Plymouth has a fire department with 50 hydrants, and water-works, completed 1855;
conveying water from Little South pond 3£ m., having a receiving reservoir capable of
holding 1,500,000 gallons of water; total cost, $175,000. Pilgrim hall contains valuable
relics, books, furniture, pictures, etc. The portion of the rock which, having been acci-
dent ally split off in 1774, was inclosed by an iron railing in front of the hole, in 1834,
has been replaced on the original bowlder beneath the canopy, on the beach, a granite
structure supported by 4 columns, completed in 1867, in the top of which are the bouea
of the original settlers, removed from Coles's hill, now ascended by broad flights of steps,
the site of a battery in 1742, and a fort in 1775, followed by another in 1814. The rail-
ing which once inclosed the fragment of rock, now guards a tablet on which is cut the
compact; the names of the signers having been long inscribed on the " heraldric cur-
tains" at the tops of the iron bars. "Within the hall are Edgar Parker's copy of Weir's
" Embarkation;" "The Landing," by Henry Sargent; and portraits of the early settlers,
among them Ephraim Spoener, town clerk" 51 years, and Alcock's copy of the portrait
of sir Walter Raleigh, 1775. A. recent addition is the gift by lion. A. H. Rice, of a
representation of the ship lying at Delfthaven awaiting the departure on July 22, 1020,
painted by Charles Lucy, 1846, which received in 1848 the pri/e of £1000 given by the
British government at the Westminster exhibition. On Burial hill are the graves of
Carver. Bradford, etc., and the stones which mark the site of the old forts and the brick
watch-tower, 1643.
PLY MOTJ TH, an English sea-port and market t., and a parliamentary and municipal
borough in the s.w. of Devonshire, 246 m. w.s.w. of London. It stands in the bight of
Plymouth sound (q.v.), between the estuaries of the Plym and Tamar. To the w. of it
is Stonehouse (q.v.), a township and coast-guard station, and still further w. is Devon-
port (q.v.), the great naval and military station. The two former places, however, hav-
ing become united by continuous lines of houses, have lost their individuality, and an;
(with Devonport, which is walled, fortified, and surrounded by a moat) now generally
considered as one great town. Of this great center of fashion, trade, and naval and
military preparation, Plymouth proper, which covers an area of 1 sq. m., may be called tine
city,, and Devonport the west end; while Stonehouse is an intermediate district, contain-
ing chiefly factories, barracks, victualing yards, hospitals, and other institutions. Ply-
mouth proper extends from Mill bay on the w. to the mouth of the Plym on the east.
Its site is somewhat rugged and uneven; an eminence f< -lining the suburbs runs along
its n. side, and another eminence, partly occupied by the citadel, fronts the sound. The
chief buildings are the Royal hotel, comprising an immense inn, assembly-rooms, a
theater, and the athenaeum, all partially destroyed by fire in 1862, and rebuilt in 1863;
public, library, containing in its Cotlonian collection 300 sketches by the old Italian
masters; St. Andrew's church, the tower of which dates from 1490; and Charles church
(1640-58). dedicatee' with fervent loyalty, at the restoration, to "St. Charles the Martyr."
There are also several important educational establishments, some of which are endowed,
as well sis many charitable institutions. Mill bay and Button pool are two small inlets
of. the sound, iu which lie all the merchant- vessels bound for Plymouth proper. Between
these inlets, and running along the shore, is the eminence or high plateau of land called
the Hoe. From this ridge, whence the approach of the Spanish Armada is said to have
been first descried, magnificent shore and sea views may be obtained. Its eastern end is
occupied by the citadel, a fortress mounting 150 guns, which commands the entrance of
the Cutwater (the lower estuary of the Plym), and of Suttou pool. Mill bay, on the w.,
is so deep that vessels of 3,000 tons can lie at the pier at low-water. Here are the
important Great Western docks, covering an area of 14 acres, and having a depth of 22
ft., constructed about the years 1855-58. Close to these docks, and connected with them
by a tram-line, are the termini of the South Devon, Tavistock, and Cornwall railways.
In 1877. 6.069 vessels, of 1,213,828 tons, entered and cleared the port. Commerce is
carried on to a considerable extent with the cape of Good Hope, the West Indies, and
the Mediterranean; the coasting trade is also important, and the fisheries are produc-
tive. Pop. 71, 70,091.
Plymouth, described by Leland as being, in the reign of Henry II., "a mene thing,
an inhabitation of fishars," was called by the Saxons Tameorworth (town on the Tamar);
after the conquest it was called Button (south town); and it was not till the reign of
Henry VI. that it received the name of Plymouth (mouth of the Plym). During the
14th and 15th c. it was frequently attacked and set on fire by the French, and in 1512 an
act was passed for the strengthening of its defenses, which since then have greatly
increased, until now the whole shores of the sound are well defended by cannon, and A
cordon of inland forts has been of late years constructed at immense cost, surrounding
the three towns at a distance of from two to three miles.
Plymouth.
1'iieuinatic.
PLYMOUTH BRETHREN, a religious sect which sprang into existence about 1830-35
in Plymouth, Dublin, and other places in the British islands, and which has extended
itself considerably throughout the British dominions and in some parts of the continent
of Europe, particularly among the Protestants of France, Switzerland, and Italy, and
also in the United Slat ess of America. It seems to have originated in a reaction against
exclusive high church principles, as maintained in the church of England, with e\ei\
thing of a kindred nature in oilier churches, and Hgainst a dead formalism
with " une vangelii'iil " doctrine. .Many of the first members of the new religious com-
munities formed in Plymouth and elsewhere were retired Anglo Indian olliccrs, men of
unquestionable zcul and piety; and these communities begun to appear almost siinuhane-
• u>iy in a number of places. Their origin is, however, very much to be ascribed to the
labors and influence of Mr. Darby, from whom the Plymouth brethren on the continent
of Europe are very generally known a? Darlyitt-s. Mr. Darby was a barrister, moving
in the highest circles of society; and under deeply religious imprest in-, became a
clergyman of the church of England, and lived for some time in a mud hovel in the
county Wlcklow, devoting himself to his work; but afterward left the church of
England from conscientious scruples, and became an evangelist unconnected with any
church. In this character, he labored both in England and "on the continent of Europe,
preaching in French, English, and German. He also gave utterance to his opinions iu
numerous pamphlets, and in a quarterly periodical called 7 'lie CltrMlun ]\'iina<st which
for a number of years was the "organ" of the Plymouth. brethren. Ife continues to
visit from time to time the communities or meetings of Plymouth brethren, liis tenets,
and those of the Plymouth brethren in general, are strictly CalviniMic: original sin and
predestination, the efficacy of Christ's sacrifice, the merit "of his obedience, the power of
his intercession, the gracious operations of the Holy Spirit in regeneration and sauclifi-
catiou, are prominent points. Millcnarian views are also generally entertained by the
Plymouth brethren; and they usually practice the baptism of adults without regard to
previous infant baptism. They acknowledge the sacrament of the Lord's supper, and
administer it to one another in their meetings, usually on every Sunday, or "tir-t day of
the week;" in this, as in everything else, refusing to acknowledge any special ministers.
They utterly reject confirmation. Their most distinctive peculiarity, when contrasted
with other Calvinistic churches, is their complete rejection of ecclesiastical orpmi/ation.
They suppose the whole Christian body in the world to have declined from truth and
duty, like Israel of old, and, therefore, to have been "coiporately rejected of G<,d.'' and
believe the true church to consist of themselves and of other chosen ones in .he various
Christian churches. They refuse to recognize any form of church government, or any
office of the ministry; they insist much on the equal right of every unilr member of tli6
church to prophesy or preach ; and in their meet ings, after each hymn or prayer, there
is usually a pause, that any one, moved by the spirit, may undertake this ollice. They
exclude persons known to have been guilty of gross sins from participation with them in
the Lord's- -supper, until proof is afforded of repentance. The Plymouth brethren reject
every distinctive appellation but that of Christians; although a special denomination is
found necessary to designate them; and, in fact, no one hot holding their views could
remain associated with them. A great schism took place among them in consequence of
doctrines preached at Plymouth and Bristol concerning the human nature of Chi ist : Mr.
Darby vigorously opposing what he deemed a dangerous error, and he and his adherents
uttery separating from the fellowship of those who maintained or even refused to eon-
deml it. One of the most noted (if not notable) converts to the principles of tli
was the revivalist Guinness, who was baptized in 1860 by another Plymouth brother.
lord Congleton.
On the continent of Europe, the Plymouth brethren have in many places given great
trouble to the Protestant churches, by their opposition to all ecclesiastical order or organi-
zation. See Mrs. H. Grattan Guinuess's Answer to the Question: Who arc the Plymouth
Brethren? (Philadelphia, 1861.)
PLYMOUTH SOUND, a well-known roadstead on the s.w. of Devonshire, important
ns a naval station, has considerable claims to the distinction of .being call< d. as it fre-
quently has been, the most beautiful estuary on the English coast. Its positional ihe
entrance of the English channel is much in its favor. It is two and a half miles wide,
and extends inland for three miles. It penetrates into the country by mean- of the har-
bors of Hamoaze and Catwater, the estuaries of the Tamar and Plym respectively. On
its w. side is Cawsand bay. The shores, which present many beautiful views, rise in
hills of from 100 to 400 ft., and are dotted Over with woods and wiili villages, and bound
by coasts which are generally rooky and abrupt. Mount Edgecom be park, the beautiful
seat of the earl of Mount Edgecombe, occupies the w. shore of the sound. At the mouth
of the Tamar is the small island of St. Isuholas, or Drake's island, a pyramidal rock
strongly fortified. The sound is open to the s.w., from which direction strong winds
frequently blow, and violent surges arc thrown in from the Atlantic. In order to pro-
tect the shipping in the harbor, a massive stone breakwater, 1700 yards in length, was
constructed at a cost of about £1,500,000, and completed in 1841. Sec BKKAKW.VIKK.
On a sunken rock just inside the breakwater and at its center, a strong stone fort has been
within recent years erected ; and an extensive series of stone batteries has l-ccu erected
CAQ Plymouth. -
Pneumatic.
at Bovisaud and Picklecombe on the mainland, on cither side of the entrance to the har-
bor. Fourteen m. s.s.w. of Plymouth is Eddystooe light-house. See EDDYSTOXE.
PNEUMAT 1C DISPATCH. This name is given to a mocfe of sending parcels, mail-
b;ii:--. or u-kgnim papers through a tube by atmospheric pressure, or by a partial vacuum.
Early in the present century, Mr. Medhurst conceived the idea of some such contrivance.
He proposed to construct air-tight tunnels, with carriages moving through them on rails;
; and these carriages were to be propelled by compressed air from behind, or else by suc-
tion in virtue of a vacuum formed in front of them. Medhurst was laughed at by his
contemporaries as a visionary; but his speculations were called to mind in later years,
and led to the attempts noticed under ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAY.
In 1861 was announced a pneumatic dispatch project, based on a reconsideration of
the causes of failure in the earlier schemes. The conveyance of passengers and of bulky
goods was not here contemplated; parcels and mail-bags were the articles held chiefly in
view. To test the theory, a quarter of a mile of iron tube was experimentally laid down
near Battersea, with a fair average of gradients and curves purposely given" to it. The
tube was about 30 in. in diameter; and it was found easy to propel a train through the
tube consisting of two iron carriages of 7 cwt. each, at a rate of 30 in. an hour.
After many financial discouragements, a pneumatic dispatch company ob'.ained capital
in 186:2, and began operations in 1863. The experimental tube was removed to London,
and laid down beneath the roadway of Seymour street, Euston square, from the Euston
station of the London and North-western railway to the n.w. district post-office in Ever-
sholt street — a distance of one-third of a mile Mail-bags being successfuly transmitted
in this way, the company commenced in 18*54 the construction of a tube on a larger scale,
and this has since been completed. The tube is laid down from Euston square. to St.
Martin's-le-Grnnd, by way of Tottenham court road, Holborn, and Newgate street — a
distance of '2f miles. The tube is of large size, nearly 4£ ft. in diameter, laid down at
as .-mall a depth beneath the carriage-way of the several streets as the water and gas
pipes will permit. It is chiefly of cast-iron; but some portions on a sharp curve are of
prick. There is a large engine-house on the s. side of Holborn, near Lincoln's Inn
Fields, to supply all the power for working the whole tube in both directions. Rarefied
air in one-half of the tube draws a train of iron carriages, laden with parcels and mail-
bags, from Euston station to Holborn; and compressed air drives them through the
oilier length of tube from Hoiborn to the general post-office — there being suction in the
one case, and pressure in the other. A reverse action brings trains in the other direc-
tion. The necessary amount of rarefaction in the one case, and of compression in the
other, was determined by experiment ; but both are produced bjr means of a revolving
fan of peculiar construction and large dimensions worked by a powerful steam-engine at
the Holborn station. If this mode of transmission were to come into general rise, there
Avould be great saving of time in the delivery of letters and parcels, and a material le-srn-
ing of the number of parcels and mail vans and carts in the overcrowded streets of the
metropolis. It is to be regretted that a work so successful in a scientific and engineering
point of view should still remain undeveloped in a commercial sense. The postmaster-
general, the railway companies, and the great carriers, have made no practical working
engagement* with the pneumatic dispatch company; and this costly tube, with the
engine-house in Holborn, has now remained silent and unused for several years. This
of course has checked any extension of the system into other districts. We cannot resist
tne conviction that a better result will present itself sooner or later.
The problem of passenger conveyance within a pneumatic tube wns shown to be
practicable by Mr. Kammell, in an experiment tried at the crystal palace in 1864; but
nothing further has been done in the matter.
More success has attended the introduction of a system for transmitting small rolls
of paper through tubes of a few inches diameter, by pneumatic pressure. Mr. Siemens
introduced it at Berlin; it was next tried with success at Paris; Mr. Latimer Clark con-
structed similar apparatus in London; and the plan is now in regular use in the tele-
fraph department of the new buildings connected with the general post-office in St.
Iartin's-k-Grand, while it is also used in some of the chief provincial cities and towns.
In 1875 the number of tubes in London was 24. with an aggregate length of nearly 18
in.; there were 4 tubes in Liverpool; 3 in Dublin; 5 in Manchester; 3 in Birmingham;
and 1 in Glasgow. Small tubes, two or three inches in diameter, are arranged for the
reception of telegraph forms or papers, made up into a roll, and piit into a felt cylinder.
The purpose is to economize time and expense in conducting the government postal tele-
graph business by blowing along the telegraph forms at a rate of 30 m. an hour, instead of
sending them by street conveyance. Two parallel tubes have been laid down beneath
the pavements of the streets from the general post-office to various parts of London, and
also in some of our large provincial cities and towns; additions being made to the length
of tube according as the system becomes practically developed. One tube in each pair
may be called the down line, the other the up; the two are placed in connection at each
end. and one steam-engine works them both. The felt cylinder very nearly fills up the
tube, but still moves easily along it; this movement is brought about either by the for-
m-nion of a partial vacuum in front of the cylinder, or by compressing the air behind
it; and the .steam power is .so applied as to produce either or bolh of these two results,
rnetimatic*,
Pneumonia.
according ns convenience may suggest. An ingenious plan is adopted for accommodat-
ing one- or more intermediate ollices. just as |oc;il stations are accommodated between
the two termini of a- railway. The cylinder or eorrtw travels from end to end of the
tube, unless a block or cheek action is purposely put in force at an intermediate station;
and the mode of eil'ecting this is one of the ni<>>t beautiful of Mr. tNemeiis's inventions
relating to the subject. Two pieces of pipe, the i\<-tir<r and the tnih.--initt>/\ are made
exactly alike, and are so pivoted together that either may be adjusted into a cavity cut
in the tube, and mad:; temporarily to form part of it. The carrier, we will suppose. i,s
intended to slop at the intermediate stations, to admit of the removal of some telegram
papers and the introduction of others. A click is heard; the carrier strikes against an
ob-li ueliou in the receiver; the cavity is opened; the exchange of papers is made; the
carrier is re-iutrodueed, but into the transmitter instead of the receiver; the cavity is
closed again, imd the carrier resuim s its journey fc All this is the work of a few seconds
merely. If the intermediate station lias nothing to send and nothing to receive, the
transmitter alone is used, and the carrier travels on without stopping. The up-tubc and
the down-tube have; each its apparatus of receiver and transmitter. The felt cylinder
and its contents being very light, a slight rarefaction of the air in front of it, or conden-
sation of the air behind it. is sufficient to produce a speed equal to twenty or thirty m.
mi hour. Practically, there is a cum//! of air maintained, circulating through the two
tubes and their terminal connections; wherever a carrier is placed in this current it is
blown along, aud there maybe two or more carriers traveling at the same time.
PNEUMATICS (Gr. pncnnm, spirit or breath, air) is the science which treats of the
mechanical properties of aeriform lluids, such as their weight, pressure, elasticity,
motiqii. etc. The great representative of the aeriform fluids is the atmosphere. The
atmosphere is very frequently called "air," to distinguish it from the others, which are
known as "gases." The fact of air having weight, and generally exercising pressure
and resistance, was unsuspected by most of the ancients, though they were aware of the
latter property in particular cases, from seeing and feeling the effects of the wind; but
the idea that air in a state of rest exerts pressure on a body immersed in it, never seems
to have occurred to them. Aristotle, however, asserted that air had weight, aud so did
several subsequent philosophers; but the truth of this opinion was i:<>t established till
the time of Torriceili (q.v.), who not only showed that it had weight and exerted pres-
sure, but al,so found the amount of^this weight or pressure. See ATMQqPHEBH. Pascal
(q.v.) completed the investigation, aud invented the barometer (q.v.). The experiments
of these philosophers proved that what, is called " suction" is nothing more than an effect
of the pressure of the air on one side of a body, unbalanced by an equal pressure of air
on the opposite side of it. To this property of air we owe the working of the various
kinds of pumps (q.v.), the barometer (q.v ), the siphon, cupping-glass, etc. But the great
distinguishing feature of aeriform bodies is the repulsive force which their molecules
exercise over each other, and the constant expansion of these bodies when pressure is re-
moved, or compression when pressure is increased. The investigation of the expansibility
and compressibility of air was carried on by means of the air-pump (q.v.), an invention
of Guericke (q.v.), and soon resulted hi the discovery of a law by Boyle (about 1650),
aud Mariotte (1076), called Mariottes law, (q.v.}, which allinns, that "at a given tern
perature the volume of a gas is inversely as the pressure." See GASES. The second
great law of tension and pressure is that of Dalton and Gay-Lus.sic dSOl). which states,
that "when the tension remains the same, the density of a gas varies inversely as tho
temperature" — that is to say, when the temperature is increased by equal increments,
the bulk is increased by equal increments. The motion of eases is subject to the sanio
laws with that of liquids, the laws which regulate the motion of liquids depending for
their efficacy not on the liquidity, but on the fluidity (see FLUID) of these bodies. The
flow of guses in tubes seems to be retarded by friction against the sides, in the same
way as that of water is, and the diminished efflux at au orifice shows that the
contrada exists for gases n« well as for liquids. Abundance of examples and further
explanations of the properties of air will be found under such heads as ATMO8FHEBB,
BALLOON, BAROMETEII, DIVTNG-BELZ*, MAGDEBURG HEMISPHERES, etc.
PNEUMATIC TROUGH is a piece of chemical apparatus originally devised by Prie.-l-
ley. and now in daily requisition in every laboratory. By its me -an be col-
lected in vessels for experiments or examination, and can be decanted from one jar to
another with as much case as if we were dealing with liquids. The pneumatic trough
consists of a vessel of water, provided with a ledge or shelf at the depth of 2 or '.\ in.
from the top. The jars in which the gas is to be collected ure filled with water ;md
placed with their mouths downward upon the shelf, which is kept a little under water,
so as to prevent the entrance of air into the jars. When the edge of the jar is broucht
over the extremity of the tube, carrying the gas, the bubbles of gas rise through the
water, collect in the upper part of the jar, and displace the liquid. As soon as a jar is
filled, it may be removed by sliding under its open mouth while still under water, a plate
or tray containing enough of water to cover the edge of the jar; and oxygen and many
other gases may be thus preserved for hours. Another jar full of water is substituted
for the removed jar. The trough is best constructed of japanned copper, and may be
made of any size corresponding to that of the jars; and in the shelf a groove should be
Pneumatics.
Pneumonia.
made about half an incli in width, and (ho same iu depth, to admit the extremity of the
gas-delivering tube beneath the jar.
PNEUMOGASTEIC NERVE, or Par Viujum. derives the first of its names from its sup-
plying the lungs aud stomach with nervous filaments, and the second from the wander-
ing course which it pursues. It emerges from the medulla oblongata by eight or ten
filaments, which unite and form a flat cord that escapes from the cavity of the cranium
(in association with the glossopharyngeal and spinal accessory nerve) by the jugular
foramen. In this foramen it forms a well-marked ganglionic swelling, while another is
observed immediately after its exit from the skull. The nerve runs straight down the
neck between and in the same sheath as the internal jugular vein and the carotid artery.
Below the root of the neck its course is different on the two sides; the right nerve run-
ning along the back of the oesophagus is distributed to the posterior surface of the
stomach, and finally merges into the solar plexus; while the left nerve runs along the
front of the oesophagus to the stomach, sending branches chiefly over its anterior surface.
From anatomical considerations, based on the distribution of this nerve, and from
the results of experiments on animals, it may be concluded that this is a mixed nerve,
containing filaments both of sensation and motion. The pulmonary branches exercise a
most important influence upon the respiratory acts, for wiien the pneumogflstrks on
both sides have been divided above the giving off of the pulmonary branches, the most
severe dyspnoea comes on, the number of respirations is much diminished, and the ani-
mal breathes as if it were asthmatic; after a short lime the lungs become congested and
dropsical, and the bronchial tubes filled with a frothy serous fluid: and if the cut ends
of the nerves are kept apart, the animal never survives above three days. The gastric
branches influence the movements of the stomach, while their destruction does not.
materially affect the secretion of the gastric juice or the process of chyiification. Loss
of voice and difficulty of breathing have been frequently traced to the pressure of an
aneurism or other tumor on the recurrent or inferior laryngc al. Whooping-cough is
ascribed by many high authorities to an affection of the pneumogastric nerve; and the
violent spasmodic cough which accompanies enlarged bronchial glands is probably due
to the irritation of its pulmonary branches. The sympathy which exists between the
digestive and the respiratory and circulating organs is explained by the anatomical rela-
tions of this nerve. For example, both asthma and palpitation of the heart are often
to be traced to some deranged state of digestion. Vomiting may be excited by irritation
of the central or the distal extremities of the nerve. In disease of the brain the vomit-
ing, which is often an early symptom, is caused by irritation of the central extremity;
jind in sea-sickness it is that extremity also which is irritated by the disturbed state of
the circulation in the cranium; while by introducing emetic substances into the stomach
the vomiting is produced by the irritation of the peripheral (or distal) filaments.
PNEUMONIA, or inflammation of the substance of the lungs, is a disease which is
divided by pathologists into three distinct stages, corresponding to different degrees or
periods of inflammatory action. The first stage is that of eriyo-rgemerJ, in which the lung
or a portion of it is gorged with blood, is of a darker color externally, and crepitates (or
crackles) less under pressure than healthy lung does; the air that ought to exist in the
pulmonary cells being in a great measure replaced by fluid. On cutting the engorged
portion the section is" seen to be redder than natural, and to yield a great quantity of
reddish and frothy serum. The most engorged portions will generally float in water,
although they are heavier than healthy lung. If the inflammation continues, new char-
acters appear. The affected portion of the lung ceases to crepitate under pressure, and
sinks when placed in water, in consequence of its now containing no air. The spongy
character of the lung is gone. It is now solid, and the cut surface so closely resembles
that of liver that the term I:efi(^i~.a1l<>n, first suggested by Laennec, is generally applied
to this stage. On examining with the microscope a torn fragment of thehepatized lung,
it will be seen to be composed of small red granulations pressing upon one another,
which are doubtless the air-cells clogged up, thickened, and made red by the inflamma-
tion. In the third and most advanced stage the pulmonary tissue remains, as in the last
stage, dense, solid, and impervious to air; but its section, in place of being red, is now
of a reddish-yellow, or straw, or drab, or stone color, or is of a grayish tint, and the
little granulations which were red in the second stage are now whitish or gray, from
the presence of pus or matter which permeates through the pulmonary tissue, rendering
it very soft and friable. To this stage, which is in reality one of diffused suppuration,
Laennec appued the terms gray hfpnt-ization, or purulent -infiltration. Besides revealing
to us the above in formation regarding the changes which the pulmonary textures undergo
in the three stages of this disease, morbid anatomy teaches, us that inflammation does
not attack all parts of the lung on both sides indiscriminately. It is much more com-
mon on the right side of the body than the left. Of 210 cases collected by Andrnl, 121
were on the right lung alone, and 58 on the left side alone; while in 25 it was double
(i.e., occurred in both lungs), and in six the seat wa's uncertain; so that pneumonia is
more than twice as common on the right side as on the left, and only occurs on both
sides together as often as once in eight times. According to Grisolle, however, whose
Traite Pratique de la Pneumonic is the standard work on this disease, the relative fre-
To. 010
Vouching.
qucncy with which the right lung is affected is rnthor loss than two to one (11 : 6). More-
over, pneumonia is considerably more common in the lower than in the upper lobes of
tlie lung — a point of great importance in diagnosis. Of ss cases observed by A mini],
the inflammation was found to affect the lower lobe 47 times; the upper lobe, HO; and
the whole lung at once, 11. Inflammation of the bronchial tubes so constantly accom-
panies inflammation of the tissues of the lung, that although bronchitis often ex i.-ts with-
out pneumonia, pneumonia never occurs without bronchitis. Moreover, a >•< -r'-.-in
7, amount of pleurisy or inflammation of the investing membrane accompanies pneumonia
5 in a very large- majority of cases.
\ The 'alterations which take place in the tissue of the lung give rise to important
modifications of the ordinary sounds yielded by auscultation and percussion, the dis-
crimination of which, however, belong to the physician.
The following are the general symptoms, as dis!i:igui>hcd from the pb\ icai sunn, of
pneumonia: The disease generally commences with inflammatory fever; and pain in
the side, due to pleurisy in most cases, soon supervenes. The breath ing it; always more
or less affected, especially when the upper lob:; is inflamed. According 10 proi'. (i-iird-
ner, the dyspncoa of pure pneumonia is a mere ^<v, /,/•////<//< of the respiration, without
any of the heaving or straining respiration observed in bronchitis, or in case-- where the
two di. -eases are combined. Delirium isu very frequent and always a dangerous symptom,
indicating that the due arterialization of the blood is much interfered with, and that the
impure circulating fluid is affecting the brain. The cough is usually dry at fir-t. but in
a few hours it is accompanied by the expectoration of sputa of so characteris; ic a nature
as to afford almost certain evidence of the presence of the disease. On the second «r
third day the expectoration, which previously consisted merely of a little bronchial
mucus, consists of transparent and tawny or rust-colored sputa, which unite in tin
vessel containing them into one gelatinous mass. The color is owing to the complete
blending of the blood and mucus, and in proportion to the quantity of the former the
sputa is more or less deeply tinged. So long as the expectorated matter flows readily
along the side of the vessel when it is tilted, there is reason to believe, unless pi:
signs tell us otherwise, that the inflammation is still in the first stage; but when tho
sputa are so viscid that the vessel maybe inverted and strongly shaken without their
being detached, there is reason to fear that the pneumonia has reached ih •• »
If improvement now commences, the sputa becomes less tenacious, less ru--t •• -olon-d. and
gradually like the expectoration of common catarrh. But if the disease advances, ;he
rust-colored sputa, although in less quantity, may go on to the end; or there m-r.
expectoration,, either on account of its own tenacity or of the patient's want of power
to eject it, in which case the air-passages get gradually filled and death from
occurs; or there may be the expectoration of a fluid of the consistence of gum-wai
of a brownish-red color (resembling prune-juice), which, according to Andral. a
strong evidence that the disease is in its third stage; or, lastly, pure pus may be ev :
during the third stage.
In its first and second stages this disease is tolerably amenable to treatment. Whether
when the lung has reached the third stage it is still susceptible of repair we cannot tell,
because we have no certain sign of the commencement or establishment of t\)\< third
stage during life, although we may guess that it is established if the face has become
very pale and corpse-like : if there is the prune-juice or purulent expectoration ; and if
the disease has lasted for a sufficient time to have advanced so far, although it would be
very difficult to state, with any approach to accurac}r, what the necessary time is. The
average duration of pneumonia may be placed at ten days or a fortnight.
Of the causes of this disease very little need be said. Sometimes no cans." ran be
traced. Very often it is the consequence of exposure to cold, especially when t';e body
was previously heated by exercise; but why such exposure should in onep'T.-on cause
pneumonia, in a second pleurisy, in a third, pericarditis, and in a fourth, peritonitis, we
cannot tell.
The following is a brief outline of the treatment to be adopted, provided the patient
was previously strong and healthy: In the first stage, free venesection, tartari/ed anti-
mony (one-third of a grain to half a wine-glassful of water every hour, and the dose to
be increased to a grain or more hourly, if there is np purging or vomiting, which mav
often be prevented by the addition of a few drops of laudanum to each dose), and anti-
phlogistic regimen generally are "of service. Under this system there are often signs of
improvement in five or six hours, although sometimes there is no change for the better
till 24 hours or more have elapsed. When the disease has reached the second stage, in
preference to continuing the antimony we should as speedily as possible get the -
gently under the influence of mercury, in the mode recommended in the art 'a !i - IV.i;;-
'CAUDITIS and PERITONITIS. If there is great depression of the vital powers, as indicated
by a feeble and irregular pirlse, and the other ordinary signs of sinking, it will be requi-
site to administer stimulants, such as wine and carbonate of ammonia, and to feed the
patient on beef-tea.
There arc few diseases in which it is of greater importance to watch the patient
during convalescence than in pneumonia. The convalcsence is often rather apparent
than real, and, as Dr. Watson truly observes, "a patient can never be pronounced per-
fectly secure so long as any trace of crepitation remains in the affected lung, and this
010 Po.
Poaching.
may often continue long; nay, it not unfrequcntly ceases only on the supervention of
another more sureiy fatal though less rapid disorder, viz., tubercular consumption."
PO (anc. Emlanus and Paditif), the largest river of Italy, ris.es in two springs on the
u. and s. sides of Monte Viso, one of the Cottian Alps, close to the French frontier, and
in lat. aliout 44° 40' north. It flows eastward for upward of 20 m., when, arriving
b'.-fore Saluzzo, it emerges from its rocky defiles and enters upon the plain. From
Saluz/o it flows n.n.e. past Turin, and arriving at the town of Chivasso it changes its
course toward the e., in which direction it flows to its embouchure in the Adriatic.
I' p ward of 50 in. above its mouth it begins to form its delta, the principal branches
being the Po ddla Maestra on the u., and the Pa di Primaro on the south. The unhealthy
marsh of the Valli de Cotnaechio extends immediately u. of the Primaro branch. The
Po receives from the left the Dora Ripai ia, Dora Baltea, Sesia, Ticiuo, Adda, Oglio, and
Mincio; from the right the Tanaro. Bormida, Trebbia, Taro, Parma, Enza, Secchia,
and Panaro. At Turin tlie Po is about 750 ft. broad; at Pavia, 1050 ft.; at Cremona,
2,G50 It.; aiul below Polesella, after throwing off the Po di Primaro branch lo the .=.,
it:i breadth i.-: about 850 feet. It has an entire length of 400 m., is navigable for small
barges 60 m. from its source, and drains an area of nearly 40,000 sq. miles.
POA. See MEADOW GKAS.S.
POACHING, though not strictly a legal term, has so long been appropriated in popu-
lar parlance to describe a well-known legal offense, thai it is now usually adopted in
legal works. It means the unlawfully trespassing on another's lands for the purpose of
catching or pursuing game; and it is likewise extended to the cognate offense of unlaw-
fully catching or pursuing fish in another's waters.
I. A* to poaching game. — The general law as to who is entitled to game, and in what cir-
cumstances, is stated under the head GAMK. As a general rule, whoever is the proprie-
tor of land is the only person exclusively entitled to catch and kill the g-.ime; and where
the land is let to a tenant, then, in England and Ireland, if nothing is said or agreed on
the subject, it is the tenant, and not the landlord, who is entitled exclusively to the
game. In Scotland the rule is the reverse, for the, landlord, and not the tenant, is there
entitled to the game; but generally there is an express stipulation in leases, providing for
this somewhat important right; and of course the parties ma}- agree to anything they
like on lhat head. Whoever, therefore, is entitled to the exclusive privilege of killing
the game can alone give permission to a stranger to go and kill game there; and if this
permission is not obtained, such stranger, whether qualified or not — i.e., whether he pays
the government tax or not — is a poacher, if he go and kill the frame. In England there
is a day-poaching act and a niirht-poachinu: act, imposing penalties on poachers. By the
day-poaching act (1 and 2 Will. IV. c. 82, s. 30). whoever unlawfully goes upon lands
not his own to pursue or kill not only game (q.v.), but also rabbits, woodcocks, snipes,
quails, and land-rails, is liable to a penalty of £2. It has been held that this offence is
committed whenever a stranger has d<> facto gone upon the lands to shoot wilhout In.ving
previously expressly obtained the permission of the part}' entitled to the game, even
though he may have had good reason to believe that suck permission, if asked, would
have been granted as a matter of course, and though, after hearing of the trespass, the
owner quite approved and ratified it. Moreover, any person whatever, whether interested
in the lands or not, may institute the proceedings for the punishment of the poacher;
and the informer is entitled to half the penalty, the other half going to .the poor of the
parish. AVhen a poacher is fo'.;nd trespassing on lands in search of game, the person
entitled to the game there, or the tenant, or a gamekeeper, or servant of either, may
demand the poacher's name and place of abode, and if it is refused, may arrest such
poacher, and take him before a justice of the peace; but the poacher must be taken
within twelve hours before the justice, otherwise he is entitled to go at large. It is only
the persons named (and not any one of the public, or even a constable) who can arrest
the poacher, and it can only be done when he is caught in the act on the very lands; for
if the poacher clear the fence, nnd go on to other lands, he cannot then be arrested at all.
If game is found on the poachers at (he time they are caught, and it appear to have been
newly caught, the party who is entitled to arrest him is entitled to seize the game also.
If the, poacher when convicted do not pay the penalty within the time fixed by the
justices, he may be committed to the house of correction for a period not exceeding two
calendar months. The party may appeal against his conviction to the court \nf quarter
sessions; but he must either remain in custody in the interval or give security for the
costs. The offense of poaching is punished more severely when five or more go out
together, showing thereby an attempt, to intimidate gamekeepers and others, and in such
case each is 'liable to a penally of £'5. Moreover, if any of these five or more persons,
acting in concert, be armed with a gun, and use violence, each is liable to an additional
penalty of £5. As to the night poaching act (9 Geo. IV. c. 69) it is provided that any
person by night — i.e., between the first hour after sunset and the first hour before sun-
rise— unlawfully trespassing in search of game, shall for a first offense be committed by
the justices to the house of correction for three months, or in some cases for six mouths;
for a second offense, shall be committed for six months, or in some cases for twelve
months; and for a third offense shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and be imprisoned for
t\vu years. In case such night-poachers are found on the lands and in the act, the owner
Poaching.
or occupier of the land or his servant; may arrest the poachers and take them before
justices. If the night-poacher, whoa arrested, use lire-arms, sticks, or offensive weapons
he shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and lie punishable In two years' imprisonment in
addition. In ease of three or more night-poachers being armed with guns, bludgeons, or
other offensive weapons, eaeh is guilty of a misdemeanor, and is liable to imprisonment foi
Three years. Poachers have no right to kill game on the highway any more than in fields ot
inelosures, for the owners of the adjoining land are entitled to the game on the h'irln\ay
Under the former law ii was. as already mentioned, incompetent for any person except the
owner or occupier of the lands to apprehend the poacher, and even ibis could only lie
done when tin poacher was caught in the act on the lands themselves; and hence, even
constables had no power to sei/.e the poacher, though seen to be coming from such lands,
lint by the recent poaching prevention act (25 and 26 Viet. c. 114), which applies to the
United Kingdom, if a constable now meet a suspected poacher on the highway, whom
he has reason to suspect of coming from land where he has been poaching, such constable
may stop and search the poacher; and if game, or implements for takimr iranie. are
found on him. may seize and detain them, and summon him before the justices. When
before the justices, if it be proved by circumstantial evidence or otherwise that such
game was procured by poaching, or that the implements were used, the poacher may be
fined in a penalty of £5, besides forfeiture of the game, and guns, nets, and other imple-
ments which he may have so used. The person convicted may appeal if lie cho<
the next quarter sessions, or, in certajn cases, to the court of queen's bench. With
regard to the poacher's property in the game he kills, it is only in those cases v. here he
is caught in the act, and on the spot, that, the game can be taken from him: and this,
for obvious reasons, seldom happens. In all other eases the general rule applies that
whoever first catches (whether legally or illegally) a wild animal, is entitled to the prop-
erty in it; and as game is in the category of wild animals, the poacher is en::.iled to
keep the game, except where it was both started and c^nght on one and the same per-
son's lands. The law of Scotland does not materially differ from that of England as to
poachers; and the night-pouching act applies to it equally as to England. The Scotch
day-trespass act (2 and 3 Will. IV. c. 68) closely agrees with the English act. But it is
singular, that, in the 'case of night-poachers, the game cannot be taken from the ]><
even when caught in the act and on the lands; though it can be so in England. — 1'a'i r-
6on\<t Game-laws of the United Kingdom, p. 172. The act conferring power on constable?
to stop and search poachers on the highway also extends to Scotland. In England
the poaching of hares or rabbits by night in preserves is a misdemeanor; whereas it is
only an offense punishable summarily in Scotland. In Ireland the law as to poaching
is not identical with the law of England, there being distinct statutes, but substantially
the law is the same. — Paterxou 's (jamc-laws, 182. The law of the United Kingdom has
often been described as too severe against poachers, inasmuch as most of the penalties
are cumulative, and the justices who administer the laws are generally game-preservers,
and so inclined to convict on the smallest scintilla of evidence. But. on the other hand,
it is answered that poaching is in reality only stealing under a milder name, and that
the classes who poach are divided by a thin partition from thieves, game being, in every
point of view, as much the fruit of the soil as apples or turnips, and the transition from
habitual poaching to stealing being not only easy but inevitable. — See Pittensons (i<m«-
Inws.
2. Poaching fah is the unlawfully entering on another's fishery in order to catch fish.
The law of fisheries is not uniform in the United Kingdom. In England the general
rule is that any one of the public may fish freely in the sea and in all navigable rivers;
and where he can fish he can catch salmon as well as every other kind of iish. But there
is an exception to this generality, which consists in this, that as the crown could before
Magna Charta (which took away such right) legally grant a several or exclusive fishery in
the sea or a navigable river to an individual, and as this was, in point of fact, often
granted, it follows that it is not uncommon to find, even at the present, day. an individ-
ual, generally the lord of an adjacent manor, still claiming a several fishery in these
places. If he can prove that he has exercised this exclusive right as far back as one
or two centuries, it will he inferred that his right dates from before -Magna Charta,
and therefore will be legal. When such is the case the public have no right to li-:
in a navigable river or the sea at the specified places, the sole fishery being vested in this
individual owner. In streams not navigable the rule is that each riparian owner — i.e.. the
owner of the lands on the bank of the stream — has a right to a several or exclusive fish-
cry up to the middle line of the stream. If he is owner on both sides of the stream, then
he. has the exclusive fishery in the whole of the stream, so far as his lands extend. As to
ponds, whoever is owner of the soil is the owner of a several fishery there, unless he has
let it to another. As to lakes, it is not clearly ascertained how the fishery is to be divided
between the owners of the lands abutting thereon; but much Avill depend on the title to
the lands and the subsequent user. As a general rule, there is no such thing as a right
in the public to fi.sh anywhere, except in a tidal river or the sea, and that is subject to
the exception of an individual claiming a several fishery, as before mentioned. It is often
supposed that, at all events, if a high way adjoins a priva-tc stream, any one may fish in the
stream or angle there; but this is a delusion. Nobody is entitled to use a highway for
the collateral purpose of either fishing or poaching, the use of the highway, so far as the
Poaching
public are concerned, being confined to the purposes of traveling or transport. The gen-
eral rule as to all several — i.e., exclusive — fisheries is that whoever goes and poaches the '
fish commits an offense, for which he may be summoned before justices and fined £5,
over and above the value of the fish taken ; and if the fishery where he poaches is adjoin-
ing the dwelling-house of the owner of the fishery, it is a still higher offense, for it is then
an indictable misdemeanor. It is immaterial what kind of fish is caught by poachers,
whether salmon, or trout, or minnows; and it is immaterial how the fish are caught.
But a milder punishment is awarded to the poaching angler, for even though he poach
in a .fishery adjoining the owner's dwelling-house, he incurs only a penalty of £5; and
where the fishery does not adjoin a dwelling-house, he incurs a penalty of only £2.
Whenever a fish-poacher is caught in the act of poaching, he may be at once appre-
hended, not only by the owner of the fishery, but by anybody; but this can only be done
while he is on the spot or near it, for if he escape to the highway or to other lands
before being arrested, he cannot then be apprehended, but can only be summoned before
justices in the usual way. In this respect a privilege is given to anglers, for in no case
can these be arrested if angling during the day-time; they can only be summoned for the
offense. The poacher, when arrested, must be taken within a reasonable time before a
justice of the peace, and charged with the offense. Though anybody may arrest the fish-
poacher, still it does not follow that the fish poached can be taken from the poacher; on
the contrary, the rule is the same as with reference to game, that whoever first, catches
the fish, whether legally or illegally, is entitled to keep it; and though game can on
certain occasions be taken from the poacher, this is by reason of an express provision in
the game act; but there is no similar provision as to poached fish, .co that the poacher,
whatever other punishment he may incur, does not lose his fish. With regard, however,
to the poaching implements, such as nets, it is provided by an express section of the
larceny act (24 and 25 Viet. c. 96, s. 25), that the owner of the fishery or land where the
poacher is caught, or his servant, may demand, and if refused may seize, the net, rod,
line, hook, or other implement used for taking the fish, but no other person can seize
these. It may also be observed that the English salmon fishery act (24 and 25 Viet. c.
109), though singling out salmon from all other fish for peculiar protection, does not deal
specially with poachers. Its chief object is to restrain the owners of salmon-fisheries
themselves from fishing at certain times and by certain means, for which purpose a clo-e
s?ason is declared, during which no person, whether otherwise entitled or not, can
legally catch salmon. Of course, poachers are prohibited from catching salmon at the
times and by the means forbidden to the owner, and in this sense come within the salmon
acts. Tims, all persons are prohibited from poisoning salmon-rivers, from fishing salmon
with lights, spears, gaffs, stroke, halls, or snatches; using fish-roe as a bait; selling or
buying salmon-roe; using nets having meshes larg-.-r than 2 in.; from using fixed
engines, fishing without a license, etc. See 24 and 25 Viet. c. 109, 28 and 2C Viet. c.
121. 3!) and 37 Viet. c. 71.
The law of Scotland, as to poachers of fish, differs considerably from that of England.
lu Scotland the fundamental rule is that salmon stands on a^ different footing from all
other fish, and primd facie belongs to the crown; so that no person in Scotland iscntitled
to fish salmon (even by angling) unless he can produce a grantor charter from the crown,
conferring upon him such right. But, in point of fact, nearly all the great landed pro-
prietors are in possession of such rights as pertinent to their lands. And the theory of
the crown's original right to the salmon applies not merely to rivers, but to the sea-
coasts all round Scotland. Hence the public have no right to fish with nets even in the
K •:!. except by leave of the crown, or of the grantee of the crown at the spot in question.
Where a salmon-river belongs to several proprietors, Ihe rule is that none can fish by
using iixed engines; but the only legal mode is the mode of fishing by net and coble (or
boat). As regards poachers of salmon, the law is contained in the act 7 and 8 Viet. c. 95.
By that law, whoever poaches salmon in a river, lake, or within a mile of the sea-shore,
incurs a penalty of £5, besides forfeiting the boat, net, or other engine used to catch the
fish. While the law is as above stated with respect to fishing salmon with nets, even a
grant from the crown is required to enable a riparian owner to angle for salmon. Hence
the right of angling for salmon is not a pertinent of the property in the banks, and each
owner is not entitled to angle up to the middle of the stream. Anglers, although riparian
owners, or who have a permission from such, are there-fore all poachers, and incur a pen-
alty. The Scotch salmon acts (25 and 26 Viet. c. 97, 27 and 28 Viet. c. 118. 31 and 32
Viet. c. 128) also forbid owners of fisheries and others fishing salmon by fixed engines,
during close-time, etc. As regards other fish than salmon, Ihe general rule is that the
riparian owner is entitled to catch all the fish he can, provided he do not interfere with
the superior right of some crown grantee of the salmon-fishery. A person who poaches
trout or other fresh-water fish with a net, or by double-rod fishing, or cross-line fishing,
or set-lines, etc., incurs a penalty of i'5, besides forfeiture of the fish caught. And lie
may be arrested if he is net-fishing, but not if lie is fishing in another way." Moreover, a
mere angler of trout, though a poacher, cannot be arrested, nor yet punished by any
penalty; though he is liable :,o an action at law, which, however, is virtually no remedy
at all. So, in the case of all poachers of trout (except nngling po:ichers, who can neither
be arrested, nor yet have their fish or fishing-rod taken from them by force), the owner
of the fishery, or any person authorized by him, may seize the nets, boats, and fishing
Pooivhoiiias. Q1 A
Podrsta. D .
implements, if the poachers are found on the spot. Though angling for trout Is thus
privilig.'d in Scotland (abore whal it is in P^ngland) in this respect, that the poach-
ing angler cannot he arrested or fined by justices of the peace, hut is only liable to
an action, yet the poaching angler of salmon may lie lined. The public have no right to
angle from a lii^lnva;, adjoining a stream "Where a stream runs through a farm, the,
farmer has no riirht lo angle for trout, unless the lease expressly allow it; but lie cannot
lisli for salmon \\ i;h u net, or even by angling, for it interferes \vilh the crown grantee,
if there is one. It has also been held that lie cannot fish for trout with a net, but this
decision is supposed to be doubtful, and would probably be qualiiied if the point were
raised. There are special salmon statutes for the river Tweed and for the Solway. and
the Scotch livers running into these, and for some other rivers; but these statute-; do not
Substantially differ from the general law. In Ireland the law of poachers of Ji-li is ihe
same as in England in all the main points, for the same statute applies. See Paterson's
.-// Lawn of the Unid-d Kingdom.
POCAHONTAS, the legendary "princess Poca'lumtas,"b. about 1595. was the daughter
of an Indian chief of Virginia.. It is due to the vanity of capt. John Smith, a bustling
early settler, that this red Indian woman lias been embalmed in his ligmentary siory as
a heroine of romance, in that she died of love for the said John Smith years after she had
prevented her lather's braves from healing out his brains at the imminent risk of a simi-
lar visitation on her own; a fond imagination perpetuated in sculpture by Capellano, as
may be seen any day over one of the doors of the capitol at Washington. Hut Mr. K. I).
Nuill, United States consul at Dublin, lias recently dispelled the halo from the brow of
this •• blessed Pocahontas and great king's daughter of Virginia." According to evidence
adduced by this gentleman, Pocahontas first appears in history tumbling wheels in the
market-place of the English fort — a prototype of our city Arabs. • Next she is living with
a volunteer capt. called Cookham. Subsequently separate from him. she is betrayed by
her uncle Paiowomek (Potomak?) to capt. Argall. the unscrupulous deputy-governor of
Virginia, and held by him as a hostage for the purpose of extoning from her faihe
terms as he required. In pursuance of this plan John Rolfe, a married Englishman,
marries her. Sir Thomas .Dale, the governor, afterward brings the'1 Virginia- •
to England, as a means of extracting money from the government of James 1. for the
plantation. She created a sensation of curiosity in London and at court, and died at
Gravesend in 1616, aged 21. The son she bore to John Rolfe returned to Virginia.
Richard Randolph, son of an "esteemed and industrious mechanic," is said to have mar-
ried Jane Boiling, the great-grand-daughter of Pocahontas, who is according!}' proudly
referred to as an ancestress of the Randolphs and other distinguished families of Vir-
ginia. See English Colonization of America, by E. D. Neill (1871).
POCAHONTAS, a co. in n.\v. central Iowa, drained by the west fork of the Des
Moines and the Lizard river; traversed by the Dubuque and Sioux City railroad. 575
sq.m.; pop. '80, 3,713 — 2,695 of American birth. The surface is rolling. The soil is
fertile. The principal productions are corn, wheat, oats, barley, and hay. Co. seat,
Pocahontas Center.
POCAHONTAS, a co in e. West Virginia, drained by the Gauley and Greenbrier
rivers, intersected by the A lleghany mountains; about 740 sq.m.; pop. '80, 5.591 — 834
colored. The surface is uneven and heavily wooded, and the soil fertile. The princi-
pal productions are corn, wheat, and oats. Co. seat, Huntersville.
POCHARD, Fti.Jiy.ilft, a genus of ducks, of the oceanic section (see DrcK). having
the bill as long or nearly as long as the head, broad and very flat, a little dilated toward
the tip, the lamellae of the upper mandible not projecting beyond the margin, the •
and tail short, the tail rounded. The windpipe of the male, in all the pochards, tern ;
in a labyrinth composed partly of bone and partly of membrane. There are numer-
ous species, some of them natives of the arctic regions; some found, at least in win'er,
on the coasts of most parts of Europe. Asia, and North America; and some in the
southern hemisphere. — The COMMON POCHARD (F. — or nyroca — -ferina), also kno-
the DUN BIRD, and :\s the red-headed poker vend, red-eyed poker, is a frequent winter visitant
of Britain. It breeds in very northern regions, and is abundant in all of them, but in
winter migrates southward, in America as far as Carolina and Louisiana, whilst in Asia
it has been found even in Bengal. It is smaller than the mallard, but rather larg--r than
the widgeon. The head and neck are bright chestnut, the eyes red, characters which at
once distinguish it from every other British duck. It is highly esteemed for the t-'.blc.
Great numbers arc sold every winter in the London market. — Several other species are
reckoned among British birds. — The TUFTED DUCK (F. cristata)\s a frequent winter
visitant of the bays, estuaries, and lakes of Britain. It is a plump and short bird: black,
with a white bar "on the wing; the breast, belly, and sides white. The occipital feathers
nre elongated. — The CANVAS-BACK DUCK (F. valisnerut) of North America is .1
pochard. It is very like the common pochard, but is much larger, and has the bill
higher at the base, "and less dilated toward the tip. The upper parts are also whiter.
The canvas-back duck breeds in the northern parts of America, and migrates southward
in Hocks in autumn. In winter, it abounds particularly on the Chesapeake and its
tributaries, and is also common southward to New Orleans, often collecting in very large
mPocalioiitas.
Podesta.
flocks, particularly toward evening. It is very shy, but vast numbers are killed, it being
in very high esteem for the excellence of its flesh.
POCO (Ital.), a little, a term much used in music, as poco animato, rather animated;
poco forte, abbreviated^'., rather loud; poco a poco, signifies by degrees, little by little;
poco a poco crescendo, becoming loud by degrees; poco a poco r<illenta,iido, becoming slower
by degrees.
POCOCK, EDWARD, D.D., 1604-91; b. Oxford, Eng., where he graduated, 1622,
having devoted himself chiefly to the Hebrew. Arabic, Chaldee, and Syriac languages,
prepared a Syriac version of the epistles of Jude, I. and II. Peter, and ll. and III. John,
in order to complete the New Testament in that language. These were printed at Ley-
den 1629. Having taken orders in the English church he was appointed chaplain to
the factory at Aleppo 1680, where for six years he prosecuted the study of the oriental
tongues, acquiring great proficiency in the Arabic, and increasing his knowledge of the
Hebrew, Ethiopic, and Syriac; was chosen professor of Arabic nt Oxford 1636, and,
having entered on his duties there, was sent to Constantinople to continue the study of
Arabic, and to collect manuscripts; in 1640 returned home, and edited and translated
into Arabic for circulation among Mohammedans the work of Grotius on the truth of
the Christian religion, published 1G60. The Arabic professorship had been endowed
by archbUhop Laifd, but at his death the revenues he had set apart for that purpose
were seized. Pocock then devoted himself to study in private; was presented by his
college with the living of Chiklrey 1643; by the exertions of his life-long friend, Selden,
v, as reinstated in the Arabic chair 1647; was made professor, also, of Hebrew 1649;
received from the king a rich canonry, which was confirmed to him by the parliament;
but, as it was not the one originally annexed to his professorship, he refused to receive
tl:e revenue. From this canonry he was ejected 1650; but was allowed to retain his
professorships through the unanimous interposition of all the heads of houses, masters,
and scholars at Oxford. In 1655 a plan to deprive him of his living was defeated
through the influence of Dr. John Owen and other enlightened men, who strongly urged
"the infinite contempt and reproach which would result from such treatment of a man
whom all the learned, not of England only, but of all Europe, admired for his vast learn-
ing and accomplishments." All his attainments were devoted supremely to the work of
biblical illustration. He contributed greatly to the completion of Walton's Polyglot;
collated the Arabic Pentateuch; drew up ;:n account of Arabic versions; contributed to
the English Polyglot which appeared 1657; at the restoration he was restored, 1660, to
the canonry of Christ church as originally annexed to the Hebrew" professorship. In
1663 he published his translation of Abul-Faraj's compendium of the general history of
the world from the creation to the end of the 13th c. ; 1674, his Arabic translation of the
church catechism and the English liturgy; 1677, his commentary on Micah and Malachi;
1685, on Hosea; 1691. on Joel. Of his learning, Ilallam says that it was probably equal
to that of any scholar whom Europe had produced. In person he was of middle height
and slender; in conversation, free, affable, and facetious; in temper, modest, humble,
and sincere; in beneficence, equaled by few.
POCOCKE, RICHAKD. J/L.D., 1704-65; b. Southampton, Eng.; graduated at Corpus
Christ! college, Oxford, 1731; traveled in the east in 1737-42; accompanied lord Chester-
field to Ireland as chaplain; was made archbishop of Dublin in 1745, bishop of Ossory
in 1756. and transferred to the see of Meath in 1765. He published, in 1743-45, A
Di*rri)>ti")i of Ihe East and some other Countries, with 179 drawings and maps, in 3
vols., and two years later the second volume of his travels, under the title of Observa-
tions in P<tl-»t!itf, Fyria, Mesopotamia, Cypi"iis, and Candid. He was distinguished as a
traveler for research, learning, and accuracy. He visited ether parts besides the east, and
described some remarkable objects in Scotland and Ireland. A French translation of
his Travel* appeared in Paris in 7 volumes. He contributed some papers to the philo-
sophical Transactions and Archceoloyia.
POD. See LEGCMK.
PODAGRA. See GOUT.
PODARGUS, a genus of birds of the family caprimulgidw, nearly allied to the true
goat-suckers (q.v.), but having no connecting membrane at the base of the toes, and the
middle toe not pectinated. Some interesting species are natives of Australia, strictly
nocturnal in their habits, and remarkable for, the difficulty with which they are roused
from their sleep by day. P. k-umeralis may be pushed off a branch, and seems scarcely
to waken so as to save itself from falling to the ground; and if two are sitting together,
as is usually the case, one may be shot without its mate being much disturbed. But by
night this bird is all activity.— Another species. P. Cuvieri, disturbs the night by a hoarse
cry, resembling the syllables more pork, by which name it is therefore known in New
South Wales.
PODESTA (Lat. potestas, power), an Italian municipal magistrate. The name was
first applied to foreign magistrates with supreme authority, whom the emperor Frederick
Barbtirossa placed over the Italian towns on subjugating them. In the 13th and 14th
centuries an officer bearing the same designation appears, at first occasionally, like the
Roman dictator, afterward in most Italian cities as a permanent magistrate, appointed
U. K. XL— 52
Podgoritza. O1 Q
Foe.
either bj the constituent parliament, or by tho great council; he superseded all the ordi-
nary magistrates, the military officers, and occasionally the judges, The cause of appoint-
ing such an officer was UlC jealousy that subsisted between the richer citizens and the
nobles; the podesta was a stranger, generally belonging to the nobility, and prohibited,
daring bis term of office, from forming any intimate connections in the city which he
governed. His chief duty was the execution of summary justice on the lawlesa barons;
and in the great Lombard towns he generally obtained a predominance for the citizens.
Occasionally, however, the podesta became too strong for both parties, securing his
re-election during a succession of years, and becoming the despotic ruler of the city.
Podesti is tiie name now given in many Italian, towns to au inferior municipal
judge.
PODGORITZA, a t. of Montenegro, in the district ceded to Montenegro by Turkey in
terms of the treaty of Berlin. It is a fortiiied town, and has a population of about 7,oOO.
Podgorit/a is about 35 m. u. of Scutari.
PODICEPS. See GUEBE.
PODIEBRAD AND KUNSTAT, GEORGE BOCZKO OP, son of ITerant of Kunstat and
Podiebrad, a powerful and influential Bohemian noble, of the Hussite party, was born
in 14'20. While still a youth he threw himself, with all the ardor and resolute force of
his nature, into the Hussite struggles. Like the rest of his family, however, he adhered
to the moderate party of the Hussites during the government of king Sigismund; but
when, on the death of that monarch, the Catholic barons (143S) carried the election of
Albrecht V. of Austria (II. of Germany), Podiebrad allied him>elf with the I'traqiiist
orders in Tabor, and offered the sovereignty of Bohemia to Casimir, king of Poland.
Albrecht immediately declared war against, him, and invested Tabor, but. was forced by
Podiebrad to raise the siege and retire to Prague. From this time Podicbrad's intluenc'!
was firmly established among the Utraquists; after Lipa, he was the first man of tho
party. "When Albrecht died in 1439, Lipa was appointed regent during the minority of
the new king Ladislas; but five years later Lipa himself died, and Podiebrad obtained
the government of the country. He, however, was not satisfied. His ambition was to
acquire the royal dignity. In 1449 he one night seized the capital, duve away all the
Catholic barons, and even imprisoned his colleague in the regency, 3Ieinhardt von
Neuhaus. This outrage led to a year or so's fighting — the final result of which was that
Podiebrad was acknowledged governor or regent by the whole of Bohemia. On the
death of Ladislas in 1457, Podiebrad managed to get himself chosen his successor, and
was crowned May 7. 1458. From this period he beiran to display the full power and
strength of his administrative genius. He reorganized the forms of education and
religion, and strove to bring about a peaceful settlement of the religious dissensions that
had desolated the laud. He even went the length of respectfully soliciting the papal
co-operation in his humane endeavors; but his holiness would have no dealing with this
Samaritan ruler, and in Dec., 1463, publicly proclaimed him a heretic. All the
neighboring princes sent letters to Rome, exhorting or imploring the pope to modera-
tion; but the only answer which Pius II. gave them was placing Podiebrad under the
ban of the Vatican. Shortly after, Rudolf, the papal legate, excited the Catholics of
Bohemia to insurrection. Podiebrad tried every means of conciliation, but in vain. In
Sept., 1460, a German Catholic army burst into Bohemia, but this host of pseudo-
crusaders was annihilated at Riesenberg. Once more Pius excommunicated Podiebrad;
and in addition, he induced Mathias (q.v.) of Hungary to invade Moravia. The Bohe-
mian kin£ appealed to a universal council, but he also prepared to meet force with force.
Summoning back from abroad the banished Taborite warriors, he crushed the insurrec-
tion, and compelled his enemies to grant him an advantageous armistice. In 14<i? his
son Victorin, on the renewal of hostilities, invaded and devastated Austria, while the
Hungarians who had invaded Bohemia were surrounded at Vilemov, and forced to ( -ea-e
from hostilities. In spite of the magnanimity shown by Podiebrad on this occasion,
Mathias acted falsely toward him, and in the following year had himself crowned king
of Bohemia and markgraf of Moravia. Podiebrad instantly summoned the Bohemian
diet, and proposed to the assembled orders that they .should take the king of Poland a.-:
his successor, while his own sons should merely retain the family possessions. By this
means he obtained the Poles for allies; the emperor Friedrich also declared in his favor,
while his Catholic subjects were reconciled to him, so that the Hungarians found it
advisable to conclude a peace. Podiebrad died March 32, 1471. His sons, Yiciorin.
and Henry of Munstcrbcrg, fell back into the ranks of the Bohemian aristocracy; but in
the stormy days that followed they rendered good service to their native land.
PO'DIUM, a pedestal continued horizontally, so as to form a low wall on which
columns may be set. Like the pedestal, it has a lease, die, and corona, all continued.
"When, the podium breaks forward so as to form a pedestal for a column, it i.> called the
stylobate.
PODCCAE'PUS, a genus of trees of the naturr.l order covfferce, suborder taxinece, the
order taracctz of some botanists. The leaves, like those of the allied Gingko tree, have
a remarkable resemblance to the fronds of ferns. The species are natives of .New
Zealand, the South Sea islands, and the Indian Archipelago. Some of them are valuable
Podgoritza.
Poe.
timber trees. Podocarpus cupressina is one of the best timber trees of Java. It is found
also throughout the neighboring islands and the South Sea islands. It is a beautiful
tree, 50 to 80 ft. high, with spreading pendulous branches; the wood is yellowish, and
takes a very tine polish. P. totarra, the TOTAKKA or TOTARRA PINE, is the most
valuable timber tree of New Zealand. It grows in the southern parts of New Zealand,
and its trunk has been known to attain a diameter of fully 12 ft. Its wood is equal to
the best Baltic pine in durability and for ship-building. The wood of P. elatus, the
GAGALI of the Fijians, is peculiarly elastic.
PODO'LIA, or KAMINETZ, a government of West or "White" Russia, north of Bessa-
rabia, and bordering on the Austrian frontier. Area, 16,170 sq.m. ; pop. '70, 1,933,188.'
The surface is a table-land, strewn with hills, and containing many beautiful districts.
Nearly three fourths of Podolia is either arable or available for pasturage. Great quan-
tities of corn and fruits, especially melons, are produced, and the fine climate is also
favorable to the growth of the vine and mulberry. Hemp, flax, and tobacco are culti-
vated with success, and the rearing of bees is an important branch of industry. So rich
and strong is the grass in the pastures or prairies, that the cattle, of which there are
immense herds, can hide themselves from view in it. The population is composed of
various races, who live together unmixed. The Russniaks (formerly " serfs"), make up
the majority, and number over a million; next come the Cossacks; and then the Jews,
\vlio are almost all traders. The aristocracy are Poles; the officials and soldiery,
Russians.
PODOPHTHAL'MA (Gr. stalk-eyed), a name often applied to a section or sub-class of
crustaceans, part of the malacoatraca of Cuvier, including the orders decapoda (crabs,
lobsters, etc.) and stomapoda (shrimps, etc.). A distinguishing character, from which
they derive their name, is their stalked and movable eyes. The stalks of the eyes are
short in many, but very long in some, of which a beautiful example is presented by the
sentinel crab of the Indian ocean.
PODOPHYL'LIN is the name commonly given to the resin obtained by means of recti-
fied spirit from the root of podophyttum peliatum, or May-apple, a plant common through-
out the United States. This resin, which occurs as a pale greenish amorphous powder,
has (as well as the root from which it is derived) been introduced into the new British
pharmacopoeia, in consequence of the general favor which it has experienced during the
last three or four years from the medical profession in this country. It is an active
purgative, and seems to have the power of relieving the liver by exciting copious bilious
discharges. As its activity seems to vary in different patients, it is better to begin with
a small dose of half a grain, which may be combined with extract of henbane, with the
view of preventing its griping. It is likely to prove one of the most valuable additions
to our pharmacopoeia.
PODOPHYL LUM, a genus of plants variously ranked by botanists in the natural order
rfiiniiicnhifcfe, or made the type of a small distinct order, podophyllew, or podophj/Uacece,
differing from •nuniurirdcefK chiefly in having a solitary carpel. The genus podophyl-
lum has 3 sepals, 6 to 9 petals, 12 to 18 stamens, a broad round stigma, seated almost on
the top of the germcn, and a many-seeded berry. P. peltatum is a perennial plant, with
a solitary white flower in the axil of the two leaves; the fruit oval, an inch and a half
long, smooth, yellowish, succulent, having a mawkish sweet and subacid taste. It is
common in North America, growing in moist woods and on the shady banks of streams,
and is known as MAY-APPLE, because it flowers and ripens itsfruit very early in summer,
also as 1t<i;/-<i.iipie, and wild-lemon. The fruit may be eaten, but is not agreeable. All
the other parts are actively cathartic. See PODOPHYLLIN.
PODTJRA, a genus of small wingless insects of the order thystanoura (q.v.), having a
linear or cylindrical body, a distinctly articulated thorax, rather long antenna?, and a
long abdomen, terminating in a tail, which divides at its extremity into two branches.
They bend the tail beneath the abdomen, and by suddenly extending it, make prodigi-
ous leaps. Hence their popular name, SPRING-TAIL. The species of this and allied
genera are numerous, and some are found on plants, some under stones and in other
damp places, some on the surface of stagnant waters. Their bodies are covered with
scales, which are extremely interesting objects, and are among the favorite test-objects
for the powers of microscopes.
POE, EDGAR ALLAN, perhaps the finest and most original poetical genius as yet pro-
duced by America, was b. at Boston, Feb. 19, 1809. His father, the son of gen. Poe, a :
distinguished ollicer in the revolutionary army, was educated for the law, but, falling in •
love with a beautiful English actress, he married her and went himself upon the stage.
In a few years the youthful couple died within a very short time of each other of con-
sumption, leaving three children entirely unprovided for. Edgar, the second child, was ,'
adopted by Mr. John Allan, a rich merchant, who had no children of his owrn. In 1816
the boy came to England with Mr. and Mrs. Allan, and was sent to a school at Stoke
Newington. In 1821 he returned to America, and attended an academy at Richmond,
Va. In i826 he entered the university of Charlottesville, where he was a very successful
student, but quitted it at the end of a vear, deeply involved in debt, chiefly incurred -
through his strong passion for gaining. For a year or two he now remained quietly at
Poe. ft OO
Poetry.
home; the story of his having gone to assist the Greeks in their heroic efforts to throw
olf the yoke of their Turkish oppressor.-* has no 01 her foundation th:m the fact that, his
elder brother, who had gone to sea, got into some trouble with the police at St. Peters
burg, from which lie was rescued by the American minister. In l*v!) Poe published a
volume of poems, his lirst known essay in literature, under the title of Al Aunmf, Tam-
erlane, and other poems. He now expressed a wish to enter the army, and Mr. Allan
exercised his influence to secure him a cudetship in the military academy at West
Point. Here he grossly neglected his duties, drank to excess, and was finally cash-
iered on Mar. 6, 1831. In the same year he published an enlarged colled ion" of his
poems, dedicated to the U. S. corps of cadets. Upon leaving West Point. Poe re;
to Richmond, and was kindly received by Mr. Allan, who had become a widower and
married a second wife. It is related that Poe's conduct to this lady was such thai Mr.
Allan had to eject him from his house, but there is some reason to Lope that this is mere
calumny. It is certain, however, that Mr. Allan had some strong reason for disple: sure
•with Poe, and at his death in 1834 he left him unmentioned in his will. Thus thrown
upon his own resources, Poe devoted himself to literature as a profession. In 1833 the
publisher of a Baltimore magazine having offered prizes for the best proM story and the
best poem, Poe competed, and won both prizes. This led to his friendship with Mr.
John P. Kennedy, one of the prize committee, who procured him literary employment
in connection with the Southern Litiniry Mi .w< ///•/< /• at Richmond. While hen.' Poe
married his cousin, Virginia Clemm, a beautiful and saintly creature, a* destitute as
himself, who died in 1848. In 1837 he removed to iSew York, wheie he lived by con-
tributing to the New York Quarterly lt< r« ir and other periodicals, and where in 1
published The Narratire of Arthur Gordon Pym. In 1839 he became editor of '/'/< <;//>,-
tleman'ts Magazine at Philadelphia, and published a collection of his lust stones with the
title, TaUs of the Arabesque and Grotesque. The next few years were spent in similar
literary employment, chiefly at New York; the year 1845 being marked by (he a;
auce of his famous poem The Haven, and 1848, by the publication of Eureka, a PTOM
Poem, in which he endeavored to elaborate a system of cosmogony.
In 1849 he went to Richmond, and it is said became engaged to a lady of considerable
fortune. On Oct. 4 he left Richmond by train, which he quitted at Baltimore. Some
hours later he was discovered insensible in the streets, and taken to the ho pital, where
he died on Oct. 7. The ordinary explanation of his condition at Baltimore is that he
had met some old cronies, and drunk himself into a state of helpless intoxication.
Scarcely any such dark and disastrous career as that of Poe lias a place in all the sad
'records of genius. From the sins and aberrations of a creature so obviously abnormal,
•we need not seek to " point a moral." There is no doubt that Griswold in his life of
Poe has been guilty of imputing to him a most exaggerated state of moral depravity;
but the fact remains that the failure of his life was mainly owing to his habits <,f
frantic dissipation. There was about Poe a strange fascination; his friends loved him —
those best who best knew him, and knew him in his \vretchedest aberrations. By his
•wife and her mother he was regarded through all with an obstinacy of lender affection,
not for an instant to be shaken.
Whatever may be thought of his morals, of his genius there will be little question.
Slight in substance as for the most part it is, small in quantity, a;id in range lii. ited,
there is that in his poetry which ranks it above everything of this kind which his coun-
try has hitherto produced. Save for some traces of imitation in its earlier specimens, his
verse is eminently a peculiar and individual product. In keen, clear, lyric,-,! quality the
music of Poe at his best is scarcely surpassed by that of any other poet. Many of his
short prose tales are wildly and weirdly impressive, though too frequently indulging by
morbid preference in ghastly and painful effects. Over very much that Poe h;:s written,
alike in prose and in verse, there broods a significant shadow of misery and hopeless
portentous gloom. A much more favorable view than "sual of Poe's chaiacter is taken
by Mr. Ingram in the memoir accompanying his edition of Poe's works (I vols., Ediu.,
1874); and Mr. Stoddard, in a memoir prefixed to a collection of his poems (New York
and London, 1875). though not so favorable to his character as Ingram, shows him in a
far better light than Griswold.
POE, ORLANDO M., b. Ohio, 1832: graduated at West Point with high honors in
1856. and entered the corps of topographical engineers. In 1861 he served for a time as
Johnston's surrender. He was made brevet brig. gen. for gallant conduct. Since the
war he has been secretary and member of the U. S. board of light-house commissioners,
and had charge of the construction of the light-house at Spectacle Reef, lake Huron.
POE BIRD. See HONEY-EATER, ante.
POERIO, CARIX), a noble Italian patriot, was b. Dec. 10, 1803. His father, Giuseppe
P., baron Belcastro, was also highly distinguished for his love of liberty and for his suf-
ferings in her cause. Born at Belcastro, in Calabria, in 1775, lie took part in the Nea-
politan revolution of 1799, and suffered imprisonment on its suppression, but was released
in 1802. He also took part in the revolution of 1820, for which Ferdinand handed him
Poetry.
over to the Austrians, who assigned him as a place of abode, first Gratz, in Styria, and
afterward Florence. On the recall of the exiles by Ferdinand, in 1883, Poerio returned
to Naples, where he spent the rest of his life, and died Aug. 15, 1843. He left two sons,
the elder, Alessandro [born in 1802, celebrated as a poet and patriot, and died (of ampu-
tation of a limb) after the battle of Mestre, Oct. 27, 1848], and Carlo, the subject of our
notice. Carlo was educated with great care under the parental roof, and trained even
from infancy, by the example of his father and brother, to place the love of his country
above every other affection. In 1828 he joined the liberals of Naples, and took part in
the conspiracy of Avcllino, for which he was imprisoned until Mar., 1838. He was
concerned in 'the attempt made in 1847 to extort liberty, but was discovered, and after
the movement at Reggio was sent back to prison with D'Ayala, Bozzelli, De Augustinis,
Assanti, and others. " The revolution in Sicily, which broke out at Palermo on Jan. 12,
1848, set him at liberty, and he immediately gave himself to the organization of the
famous demonstration of Jan. 27, 1848, which was destined to produce the constitution
of Feb. 10. Carlo was successively nominated director of police, and minister of pub-
lic instruction; but he soon resigned, and also refused the rank of privy councilor,
offered to him by Ferdinand. He was appointed deputy to the parliament.
On July 18, 1849, an unknown hand left in Poerio's house a note to the following
effect: "Flee without a moment's delay. You arc betrayed. Your correspondence
with the marquis Dragonetti is in the hands of the government." As there had been no
such correspondence, "and as it was Poerio's wish to maintain the combat to the last on
the ground of legality, he did not flee. On the following day he was arrested, and his
house was ransacked. Six days after a letter of Dragonetti's was given him to read, in
which he spoke of an invasion by Garibaldi, instigated by Mazzini and Palmerston.
The letter was a forgery of the police! Poerio compared it with other authentic letters
of Dragonetti, and proved it to have been forged. As the government could not bring
him to trial on that pretext, it had recourse to a spy, Jervolino, who accused Poerio of
being at the head of a sect — which never existed — called the Italian unity, which aimed
at proclaiming a republic, and murdering the king and the ministers. Poerio demanded
to be confronted with Jervolino, but this was refused. When this accusation also fell
to the ground. Pcccheneda, who was at the head of the police, tried to induce the others
who wore indicted for political reasons to denounce Poerio as a revolutionist, promising
them liberty as the reward. His design partly succeeded. He extorted from Romeo
the printer, and from Margherita some false accusations, which the fear of death caused
those unfortunate persons to make. But they were of no avail, and recourse was again
had to the accusation made against Poerio by Jervolino; and although Poerio brought
forward many clear proofs that the informer was paid by the police to do him harm, the
court paid no attention to that, nor to any other of his objections, and concluded by
inflicting on him the penalty of passing 24 years in irons, and of a heavy fine.
Thus Carlo Poerio, a minister, and a member of parliament, a man of rare genius
and of exemplary life, was cast into the hulks at Nisida, dressed as a felon, and dragging
15 pounds of chains; and thenee, through the suspicions of the government, who dreaded
his escape, he was conveyed from hulks to hulks, from Nisida to Procida, from Ischia to
Montefusco, and finally to Moutesarchio. Assassins and thieves were given him as com-
panions in order to humble him, as if the virtue of the truly great man could be sullied
by the presence of miscreants and cut-throats. He indignantly spurned the proposal to
petition for his liberty.
The protests of the English and French diplomatists against the iniquitous state trials,
which had been instituted in Naples with the sole object of condemning persons obnox-
ious to the king; the letters of Mr. Gladstone; the constant dread of a popular rising on
behalf of the condemned political offenders, and especially of Poerio, disturbed the mind
of Ferdinand II. to such -a, degree that he sought some means of ridding himself of the
prisoners of Montesarchio. Having failed in every attempt to force them to ask pardon,
lie resolved to send them to America. On Jan. 19, 1859, Poerio and 66 other prisoners,
among whom were Settembrini, Spaventa, Pica, the duke of Castromediauo, Braico,
Schiavoni, Argentine, Pace, Damis (all of whom became members of the Italian parlia-
ment), were conveyed to Pozzuoli, and put on board of the Stromboli, which immediately
set sail fur New York. When they reached Cadiz, Poerio and his companions were
put on board an American vessel, the captain of which, however, was induced to land
them at Cork, whence they returned, by London, to Turin. In the following year
Poerio was elected deputy by two colleges in Tuscany, and took his seat in parliament.
When Garibaldi (q.v.) had driven out the Bourbon dynasty, Poerio returned to
Naples. He declined the ministerial office offered to him by Cavour, and also the gov-
ernorship of the southern provinces proposed to him by Constantino Nigra, out accepted
the office of privy councilor. The privy council elected him its vice-president; then,
being re-elected deputy, he was proclaimed vice-president of the parliament. He aied
in April, 18G7.
POET-LAUREATE. See LAUREATE.
POETRY (from the Greek poieo, to make, or to create), according to the mere etymol-
ogy of the word, signifies a creation or production of any kind; but its classical equiva-
lent, poiesis, was applied by the Greeks almost exclusively to designate the artistic
Poey.
Poiusctt.
productions of the imagination, expressed in language. Poetry is thus not necessarily
associated — as many people seem to lliink — with verse or rhyme. It may find expres-
sion in prose, and in point of fact has often done so. both in ancient and modern times.
The book of Ruth, for example, is dcc'dcdiy poetical in Milistance, yet in form it is
strictly prosaic. The same may be said in a still more remarkable degree of the book of
Job and the prophetical writings, as they appear in our English vcr>ion. Jeremy Tay-
lor, Hooker, Rousseau, Burke. Carl vie, Ruskin, Hawthorne, Emerson, and other modern
proso writers, arc often as richly or profoundly imaginative as poets by profession; but
although the essence of poetry lies rather in the nature and adornment of the thoughts
expressed than in the form of the composition, yet in general it has subjected itself to
certain rules of meter or measure, and often also to rules of rhyme. The reason of this
practice lies in the fact that the music so produced by the mere words is found to
heighten the emotions which their meaning is calculated to produce, and thus furthers
the end that the poet has in view. It is from this circumstance that the term poetry has
become almost synonymous with metrical composition. Poetical compositions are of
several kinds or classes, to which particular t-rms are applicable; the principal are the
epic (q.v.), the lyric (q.v.), and the drama (q.v.). To the first of these ] (dungs the ballad
(q.v.); to the second belong the song (q.v.) in all its varieties, serious and comic, the
hymn (q.v.), ode (q.v.), anthem (q.v.), elegy (q.v.), sonnet (q.v.), etc.; the third embraces
tragedy and comedy. Besides these three principal kinds others of less consequence
may be mentioned, such as didactic poetry (q.v.), satirical poetry (see SATIKK), in which,
however, imaginative and ideal elements "in general mingle so sparingly that the stricter
kind of critics exclude them from the circle of poetry altogether. The theory of poetry, or
poetics (a branch of esthetics, q.v.), has been largely discussed in every cultivated lan-
guage. Histories of the poetry of the several nations are numerous: Roscnkranz a;.u
Zinmiermaim have given us universal histories of poetry.
POEY, FELIPE, b. Havana, 1802; educated at Madrid, which he was compelled to
leave on account of his connection with a political conspiracy. In 1837 he became a
director of a natural history museum, which he had assisted in organizing, and soon
afterward he was called to the chair of natural history in the university of Havr.ua.
He has published, among other works, La Centurie des Lepidopteres; Geografia ( 'niri'i-xnl;
and Memorias svbre la Historia Fisico-natural de la lala de Cuba, His son AM>KKS. b.
Havana, 1827, is a meteorologist, and has been director of the Havana physico-meteoro-
logical observatory. He is also known as an advocate of the positive philo.-ophy of
Couite. Among his works are Electrical Storms, 1855, Catalogue of Earmquakei in the.
West Indies, 1858; and Chronoloc/ical Table of 400 Cyclones, etc., 1802. In the lleport of
the Smithsonian, Institution for 1870 he proposed a new classification of clouds.
POGGE, Aspidophorus Europeans, a fish of the family sclerof/enidce, or mailed <•/,
and nearly allied to the bullhead (q.v.), but having the body cuirassed with large bony
scales from the head to the tail fin, so that it is in form nearly a pyramid with eight faecs.
The head is thicker than the body, with points and depressions, the snout furnished with
short recurved spines. The pogge is also known on the coast of England as the armed
bull/lead; and on the coasts of Scotland by the names lyric, pluck, and noble. It is
pretty common on the British coasts. It is seldom more than six inches long. Not-
withstanding its uncouth appearance, its flesh is good.
POGGENDORF, JoiiANx-CHUiSTiAN, a German physicist, was born at Hamburg,
Dec. 29, 1796. He studied pharmacy, chemistry, and physics; and was professor of
physics at Berlin from 1834 till his death. In 1838 he became a member of the academy
of sciences. His chief discoveries were in connection with electricity and galvanism,
and these are reckoned of great value; he also invented a multiplying galvanometer for
measuring the calorific action of currents. From 1824 onward he edited the Annalen der
Phyidk und Chiinie, contributing to this collection many important memoirs. He was
one of the triad (Liebig and Wohler being the other two) who prepared the l)i<-tn>n mitre
de Chiinie (Brunswick, 1837-51). The two works published by-himself are the Linicit
eu einer Geschichte der exacten WissenscJuiften (Berlin, 1853), and Eiographisch-littera-
risches Worterbuch zur Geschichte der exacten Wissenachaften (Ltip. 1858-63, 2 vols.).
Poggendorf died in Jan., 1877.
POGODIN, MIKHAIL PETKOVITCH. b. Russia, 1800; professor at the Moscow uni-
versity in 1833, but resigned in 1844 to pursue the study of archaeology. His collection
of Russian antiquities was bought by the government in 1852. He has written novels,
histories, and a tragedy. He founded in 1867 'a literary and political periodical called
the Ilusxki. He is an advocate of Pan -Slavism.
POGO'NIAS, a genus of acanthopterous fishes, of the family *ci<vnid(e, having two
dorsal fins, one of them deeply notched, and many small barbels under the mouth. The
fishes of this genus are found on the coasts of warm countries; and are remarkable for
sounds which they emit, which somewhat resemble those of a drum, and have obtained
for them the name of DKUMFISH. It is not known how these sounds are produced; but
sailors in vessels anchored near the shore, where species of this genus abound, are often
prevented from sleeping, until they have become habituated to them. Some of the
species attain a large size, one hundred pounds or more, and are excellent for the table.
Poey.
Poiiisett.
POICTIERS, or POITIERS, a corruption of the Latin Pictavium, so called by the
Gallic tribe, the Pictari, who inhabited the district in Csesar's time, is one of the old-
est towns in France; it is the capital of the department of Vienne, and formerly of
the province of Poitou. It occupies the summit and slopes of a little eminence,
round tiie base of which flow the Chun and the Boivre, is encircled by -walls and towers,
and has a veiy dull appearance. Pop. 76, 31,692. It is connected by railway with Tours,
from which it is 63 in. distant, and Bordeaux. Before the revolution, Poictiers bad
an immense number of churches, chapels, monasteries, and nunneries; even yet these are
sufficiently numerous. The principal are the church of St. Jean (now converted into a
mifit'e), one of the oldest Christian monuments in France; and the cathedral of St.
Pierre, one of the finest in France, belonging (in part) to the 12th c., and in which, or in
the older edifice that occupied its site, 23 councils were held — the first in the 4th, and the
last in the loth century. It also contains the ashes of Richard ccrur-cle-lcon. Its univers-
ity, founded by Charles VII. in 1431, was also abolished after 1789, but its place has been,
supplied by a university-academy with two faculties. Poictiers possesses, besides, a
very celebrated lyceum, and a variety of other educational institutions, a public library
of 25,000 vols. and MSS., a museum, and several learned societies, of which the most
distinguished is that for the cultivation of the antiquities of western France. In and
around Poictiers are numerous Celtic and Roman remains. In the vicinity, Alaric II. ,
the Visigoth, wras defeated and slain by Clovis in 507. Somewhere between Poictiers
and Tours a great battle took place in 732, between the Franks under Charles Martel
(q.v.)and the Moors under Abd-ur-RahmSn. The Moors were routed .with enormous
slaughter — 375,000 of them (according to one old exaggerating chronicler) being left dead
on the field; later still (in 1356), at Maupertuis-le-Beauvois, about 5 n. of Poictiers,
Edward the black prince, with some 12,000 or 14,000 Englishmen and Gascons, beat
60,000 of the troops of king Jean of France, and took the .monarch Jiimself and one
of his sons prisoners.
POIX'DEXTEPv, GEORGE, 1779-1853; b. Va.; of Huguenot ancestry, and left an
orphan in early childhood. Having studied law at Richmond and practiced successfully
in Virginia, he removed to Mississippi 1802; was appointed attorney-general of the ter-
ritory 1803; was its delegate to congress 1807-13; U. S. district judge 1813-17; a rep-
resentative of the state in congress 1817-19; governor of the state 1819-21; practiced
law exclusively 1821-31; U. S. senator 1831-35. He was involved in many personal
and political quarrels, one of which led to a duel, in which he killed his adversary, Abi-
jah Hunt, a leading merchant of the southwest. In this affair he was accused of unfair-
ness, and was consequently forced into bitter and protracted disputes. While in the
house of representatives, 1819, he made a speech in defense of gen. Jackson, which con-
tributed greatly to the triumphant acquittal that followed. He did not vote with his
party on the U. S. bank question, and brought on himself Jackson's bitter hostility by
voting for the Clay resolution censuring the president. In 1835 lie removed to Louis-
ville, Ky., but returned soon after to Mississippi. He published a revised code of the
laws of the state 1824.
POINDING (same root as Eng. pound), in the law of Scotland, means the seizing and
selling of a debtor's goods under process of law, or under the warrant of a debitumftnidi,
in order to pay the debt. It is either real or personal. Real poinding is the attaching
of goods or movables on the land over which some real or heritable security exists. It is
one mode in which heritable security is made effectual. Thus the s-uperior of lands can
poind the ground to obtain payment of his feu duties; and the holder of a herita-
ble bond can do the same in order to recover his debt. Personal poinding is
the mode in which a decree of the court is made effectual by the messenger or
bailiff seizing the movables of the debtor. They are then appraised or valued,
and the messenger reports his execution to the sheriff, or other judge ordinary, who
grants warrant to sell the goods by public roup after advertisements. The net amount
of the sale is paid over to the creditor, or if no purchaser bid for them, they are deliv-
ered to the creditor at the appraised value. There is also another kind of poinding,
called a poinding of stray cattle, which takes place whenever the cattle of a stranger
trespass on lands, in which case the owner or occupier of the lands can seize them brtvi
manu, and keep them as a security until the damage done by the cattle is paid to the
owner of the land. By an old Scotch statute the owrner of the cattle is bound to pay,
besides the damage, half a merk for each head of cattle; and for the damage, penalty.
and expense of keeping the cattle, the owner of the land can detain the cattle until pay
meut. The poinder must, however, take care to keep the cattle in a proper place, and
feed them. In England the word poinding is not used, the corresponding term being
distraining, or distress (q.v.).
POIX'SETT, a co. in n.e. Arkansas, bounded on the e! by the St. Francis river, and
Jake St. Francis, drained also by L'Anguille and other rivers; about 500 sq.m; pop. '70,
1720 — 225 colored. The surface is level, with much wood-land. The soil is fertile. The
principal productions arc cotton and corn. Co. seat, Ilarrisburg.
POINSETT. JOEL Ror.KRTS, I.L.D., 1779-1851; b. Charleston, S. C. ; educated in
Connecticut under president D wight. He made a tour through Europe and Asia,
studied medicine and military science, and on his return in 1809 was sent by president
Point. R9J.
Poisoning.
Madison on a mission to South America to inquire into tlie condition of the Spanish
provinces, then in revolt. He established commercial relations between this country and
Buenos Ay res, and went across the continent to Chili. Therewith the assistance of a
band of Chilians he re-captured from the Spanish authorities of Peru 10 American whale-
ships which they had seized during an invasion of Chili. Returning to South Carolina
he entered the state legislature, and was a member of congress 1821-25. He went on a
- mission to Mexico in 1822, and was minister to that country 1825-59. On his return he
opposed nullification, and became the leader of the union party in South Carolina. He
was secretary of war in Van Bureu's cabinet. He afterward opposed the Mexican war.
He founded an academy of Cue arts at Charleston, and gave a museum to the Smith-
sonian institution.
POINT, in heraldry, a triangular figure issuing from the dexter and sinister base of the
shield. It is common in French and German heraldry, and occurs in the shield of Han-
over, which was a part of the royal arms of Great Britain from the accession of <.
I. till that of our present sovereign. A shield charged with a point is in heraldic draw-
ing hardly distinguishable from one parted per cheveron.
POINT-A-PITRE, a t. of the French West India island Gaudeloupe, capital of the
division of Graude-Terrc, on the Little Cul-de-Sac, 20 in. n.e. of Basse-Tcrre. The town
is well built, and has a safe and spacious harbor. It is the center of the commerce of
the colony. Pop. 14,000.
POINT-BLANK. See GUNNERY. The point-blank range of a cannon varies from 20J
to 300 yards.
POINT DE GALLE, a fortified t. and sea-port on the s.w. extremity of the Maud of
Ceylon, stands on a low rocky promontory of the same name, in lat. 6° 1' n., long. 80°
12' east. The harbor, fornled by a small bay, the entrance to which is about a mile in
width, is good, although there are numerous rocks, and a pilot is required to conduct
vessels to the anchorage. Among the principal edifices are the fort — a mile in circum-
ference— the old Dutch church, a Roman Catholic chapel, an excellent orphan asylum,
barracks, and light-house, 103 ft. above sea level. This town has become important
within recent years, and specially since the organization of the Peninsular and Oriental
steam-navigation company. Vessels plying between Suez and Bombay and Calcutta,
Australia, China, Penang, and Singapore, call here to coal and to tranship pas^-nge:^.
It is the seat of government of the southern province of the colony of Ccylm. Gold and
silver ornaments, work boxes, etc., are made with great taste and nicety by the native
workmen. Pop. '71, 47,954.
POINTE COUPEE, a parish in central Louisiana, bounded on the e. by the Mi-- is-
sippi, on the w. by Atchat'alaya bayou; about 600 sq.m.; pop. '80, 17,799—13.017 col-
ored. The surface is even and low, frequently inundated, and well wooded. The soil
is fertile. Corn, sugar, and cotton are the principal productions. Co. seat, Poiul
Coupee.
POINTED ARCHITECTURE. See GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.
POINTER, a kind of dog nearly allied to the true hounds (q.v.), but not reckoned one
of them.. It is remarkable for its habit of pointing at game; its whole body, and partic-
ularly its head, indicating the position of the game to the sportsman; and a well-trained
pointer will remain long immovable in the attitude of pointing, not going forward to dis-
turb the game which its exquisite power of scent has enabled it to discover. It is
recorded of two pointers that they stood an hour and a quarter without moving, whilst
Mr. Gilpin painted them in the act. The pointer, when he scents game, slops so sud-
denly and. completely, that even the fore-foot, already lifted, remains suspended in the
air. Without the pointer, the sportsman would have comparatively little success in the
pursuit of grouse; but the dog performs for him the laborious task of " beating" the
wide moors. Well-trained pointers will scarcely point at anything except "game:" but
inferior dogs often point at almost any living creature the odor of which affects their nos-
trils. The habit of pointing, once acquired, appears to become hereditary, so that very
young pointers often exhibit it in great perfection. It has been explained, with the
crouching of the setter, as " the natural start of surprise or interest which all dogs give
when coming suddenly upon the scent or sight of their natural prey; modified by culti-
vation, and by transmission through many generations, each, by education, improving
upon the capahilitieb of the former. — See Bell's British Qmt//r>/j'< r/.v.
The breed of pointers now most common in Britain is believed to be crossed with the
fox-hound, to which there is considerable resemblance in colors as we'd as in form. The
,, figure is very muscular, the hair short, the ears pendulous, the upper lips moderately
' large, the tail pointed and destitute of brush. Dogs of this breed are very active, and
1 capable of long-sustained exertion. The original breed, the Spanish pointer, probably
brought to Spain from the e., is of more bulky form, less active habit, and less capa-
. bility of continued exertion. The pointer is very forward and familiar in its manners.
but is both affectionate and intelligent, although it has a reputation of inferiority in
these respects to many other kinds of dogs.
POINT LEVI. Sec LEVIS.
Point.
Poisoning.
POINT PLEASANT, BATTLE OF, Oct. 10, 1774, between colonial troops of Vir-
ginia uuder gen. Andrew Lewis, and the Shuwanees, Delawares, and other Indians of
the northern confederacy, led by Cornstalk as sachem of the Shuwanee tribe. Its field
•was on the e. bank of the Ohio river, just above its junction with the Great Kanawha.
The village of Point Pleasant has since grown up on the spot where this battle was
fought; and in the region the battle has always been spoken of as the first in the revolu-
tion. Lord Dunmore, governor of Virginia, had been busy in the interests of England,
in stirring up a hostile feeling between the white settlers and the various tribes of Indi-
ans, the object of which had become apparent. At last a crisis was reached. The leg-
islature took action, under which gen. Andrew Lewis gathered together 1200 men at
Lewis Spring, now Lewisburg, W. Va., and proceeded to Point Pleasant, acting, as was
understood, in concert with the colonial governor, who, in person, led about 1000 men
through the wilderness, striking the Ohio at Wheeling, from which point he was to
meet gen. Lewis. All this time, unknown to gen. Lewis, the agents of lord Dunmore
had been busy concentrating the Indians in the neighborhood of Point Pleasant, and
subsequent events indicate that he never intended to join his force with the troops under
Lewis.
In this bloody battle about one-fifth of the entire army of gen. Lewis were either
killed or wounded, and of the Indians the number must have been oven greater. It was
fought, on both side.-:'., from behind trees, in a dense forest of primeval growth on one of
the richest bottoms of the Ohio. It was wholly unexpected — the object being, on the
part of gen. Lewis, in fulfillment of the purposes of the legislature, to proceed with an
overpowering force in conjunction with governor Dunmore from Point Pleasant, to the
Indian settlements on the Scioto beyond the Ohio. In vain did the brave Lewis look for
the troops from Wheeling. During the night of the 9th and 10th, a body of Indians
was reported by a scouting party as having encamped near the site of an old Shuwanee
village about 6 in. above. At the same time advices were received that lord Danmore
would cross the country direct to the Scioto. Before sunrise on the morning of the
10th a hunting party returned and brought the startling report of a large body of Indians
about a mile above the camp of gen. Lewis. The party had been tired upon. At once,
on receipt of this news, the main body of the troops under col. Charles Lewis and col.
Fleming, were mustered into line. The battle, which soon began, raged with varied for-
tune through nearly the entire day. The brave col. Lewis fell mortal!}- wounded. Col.
Fleming was soon, after disabled, when col. Field, who had come up with a re-enforce-
ment, took command. This officer had learned a lesson under the unfortunate Brad-
dock, but he, too, soon fell. At times the battle raged like a tempest. The roar of
musketry was continuous. The clarion voice of Cornstalk was nevertheless everywhere
heard bidding his warriors "be strong!" "be strong!" Seeing a warrior shrink he
sunk his tomahawk into his skull. Late in the afternoon three companies under capts.
John Stewart, Isaac Shelby, and George Matthews, that had been detained in camp.
perhaps on account of Indians in large numbers on the opposite shore of the Ohio,
reached the rear of Cornstalk by a well-planned movement, and decided the fortunes of
the day.
POINTS OP THE ESCUTCHEON', in heraldry. In order to facilitate the description of
a coat-of-arms, it is the practice to suppose the shield to be divided
into nine points, which are known by the following names: A, the
dexter chief point; B, the middle chief ; C, the sinister chief; D, the
collar or honor point; E, the fess point; F, the nombril; or navel
point; G, the dexter base point; II, the middle base point; and I, the
sinister base point. The dexter and sinister sides of the shield are so
called, not in relation to the eye of the spectator, but from the right
and left sides of the supposed bearer of the shield.
POISONING, SECRET, a mode of taking away life by poisons so
slow in their operation that the gradual sinking of the victims under g°irtf 2f the
their influence closely resembled the effects of disease or the ordinary
decay of nature. It has been practiced in all ages, and several undoubted and numei
ous supposed instances of it are mentioned by Greek and Roman writers. It was not,
however, till the 17th c. that this atrocious practice became of frequent occurrence; but
from this time it rapidly increased, spread over western Europe like an epidemic, and
became gradually a regular branch of education among those who professed a knowl-
edge of chemistry, magic, or astrology. These persons regarded the knowledge of the
mode of preparing secret poisons as of the highest importance, and many of them real-
ized large sums by the sale of their preparations, and occasionally of the secret of their
composition. It was in Italy and France that this art wras chiefly practiced and brought
to the highest perfection; but it seems also to have prevailed in England to a considera-
ble extent, for we find that in the 21st year of Henry VIII.'s reign an act was passed
declaring the employment of secret poisons to be high treason, and sentencing those
who were found guilty of it to be boiled to death. The only undoubted instance of
this crime which appears prominently in English history is the murder of sir Thomas
Overbury (q. v.) by viscount Rochester (the favorite minion of James VI.) and his wife,
the divorced countess of Essex; though many suppose, and with some show of proba-
Poisons.
826
bility, that James VI. himself was a victim to similar nefarious practices on the part of
Vilhers, duke of Buckingham; and undoubtedly such VMS the popular impression Mt the
time, for Dr. Lamb, a conjurer and quack, who was hilieved to have furnished Buck-
ingham with the poisons, was seized by the angry populac" in Wood street. ( heapMde,
London, and beaten and stoned to death. But it VMS in Italy when- ibis n:<,de of
poisoning was most prevalent. There, judging from the writings of various auth< re, it
seems to have been looked upon as a not unjustifiable proceeding to get rid of a rival or
enemy by poison; and from the time of the Lombard invasion down to the l?lh c.
Italian history teems with instances vhich sufficiently show that poison w;:s b<;th the
favorite weapon of the oppressor, and the protection or n vi nge of the cppn-si d. The
Borgias are generally singled out and held up to the horror and detestation of mankind,
but as far as their poisonings are concerned, they merely employed this i;:<ihod of
destroying their adversaries a little more frequently than their neighbors. To show the,
popular feeling on this subject, we may instance the ca>e mentioned in the men •
Henry II., fifth duke of Guise, of a soldier who was requested to rid the duke ol (ien-
naro Anriese, one of his opponents in Naples. Aivotxsiinhloii was the mode propped to
the soldier, but he shrank with horror Jiom the suggestion, stating at the same time that
he was quite willing to poison Aunese. It was shortly after the date of this ston
that secret poisoning became so frequent; and the Catholic clergy, despite the rules of
the confessional, felt themselves hound to acquaint pope Alexander VII. wilh the
extent of the practice. On investigation it was found that young widows were extra-
ordinarily'abundant in Rome, and that most of the unhappy marriages were speedily
dissolved by the sickness and death of the husband; and further inquiries resulted in
the discovery of a secret society of young matrons, -which met at the house ol an old
hag, by name Hieronyma Spara, a reputed witch and fortune teller, who supplied tlx^e
of them who wished to resent the infidelities of their husbands, with a slow poison,
clear, tasteless, and limpid, and of strength sufficient 10 destroy life in the courx- < I' a
day, week, month, or number of months, as the purchaser preferred. The I,-.'
Home had been long acquainted with the "wonderful elixir" compounded by La Sp:.ra;
but they kept the secret so well, and made such effectual use of their knowledge that
it was only after several years, during which a large number of unsuspected victims had
perished, and even then through a cunning artifice of the police, that the whole pro-
ceedings were brought to light. La Spara and thirteen of her companions were hanged,
a large number of the culprits were whipped hall-naked through the struts of Home,
and some of the highest rank suffered fines and banishment. About half a century
afterward the discovery vas made of a similar organization at Naples, headed by an
old woman of three-score and ten, named Toffania, who manufactured a poison similar
to that of La Spara, and sold it extensively in Naples under the name of (tc.f/iH'Iftt, and
even sent it to all parts of Italy under the name of " manna of St. Nicola of Bari," giv
inn it the same name as the renowned miraculous oil of St. Nicola, to elude discovery.
This poison, now best known as the "acqua Tofana" or " acqua di Perugia," is said
by Hahnemann to have been compounded of arsenical neutral salts; while Garelli states
that it was crystallized arsenic dissolved in a large quantity of water; but both agree that
it produced its effect almost imperceptibly, by gradually weakening the appetite and
respiratory organs. After having directly or indirectly caused the death of mere than
COO persons, Toffania was at length seized, tried, and* strangled in 1719. From this
time the mania for secret poisoning gradually died away in Italy.
About the middle of the. 17 c, this horrible practice seems to have first become
prevalent in France, and under similar circumstances, the agents being married won. en,
and their husbands the victims; and as in Italy, the extent to which the practice was
carried was first made known by the clergy. The government, acting on the informa-
tion thus obtained, seized and imprisoned in the Bastille two Italians named Exili and
Glaser.who were suspected of having been the manufacturers and venders of the poisons.
G laser died in prison: but Exili, becoming acquainted with another prisoner named St.
Croix, communicated to him his secret, which the latter made considerable use of after
his release, compounding in particular the poison known as "succession powder."
which subsequently became so celebrated. It was the same St. Croix who pla\ed such
a prominent part in the tragical history of the marquise de Brinvilliers (q.v.). Penautier,
the treasurer of the province of Languedoc, and the cardinal de Eon/.y, were both pupils
of St. Croix, and managed, the one to pave the way for his own advancement, and the
other to rid himself or his numerous creditors, by the administration of poison; but the
' great influence of these men, and the want of direct evidence, barred all proceedings
against them. Secret poisoning now became fashionable; the passior.s of jealousy,
revenge, avarice, and even petty spite, were all satisfied in the same way. and as a neces-
sary consequence, other offenses decreased in proportion. The prisons teemed with
suspected criminals, and the " chambre ardente" was instituted for the special purpose
of trying these offenders. In Paris, this trade was chiefly in the hands of two women
named Lavoisin and Lavigoreux, who combined with the ostensible occupation of mid-
wife that of fortune-teller, and foretold to wives the decease of their husbands, to needy
heirs that of their rich relatives, taking care at the same time to be instrumental in fulfill-
ing their own predictions. Their houses were frequented by numbers of all <
both from Paris and the provinces, among whom were the celebrated marshal de Lux-
827
Poisons.
embourg (q.v.), the duchess de Bouillon, and the countess de Soissons; the two former
of these, however, went merely from curiosity. Lavoisin and her confederate were at
last discovered, tried, condemned, and burned alive in the Place de Greve, Feb. 22, 1680;
and from 30 to oO of their accomplices were hanged in various cities of France. So
common had this atrocious practice been, that madamede Sevigue, in one of her letters,
expresses a fear lest the terms " Frenchman" and :< poisoner" should become synony-
mous. For t\vo vears after the execution of the two Parisian poisoners, the crime con-
tinued to be largely committed, being fostered by the impunity with which offenders of
of high rank were allowed to escape; and it was not till more than 100 persons had died
at the stake or on the gallows, that the government succeeded in suppressing it. The
mania for secret poisoning has not since been revived to the same extent, though isolated
instances of its practice have occasionally been discovered, particularly in England,
where, within the last 40 years, very extraordinary disclosures have at different times
been made of the prevalence of this frightful crime among the laboring classes in several
of the rural districts. For further information consult Beckrnann's History of
the historians of the period of James I. 's reign, the French Causes Celebres, and
kay's Popular Delusions.
POISONS. A poison is commonly defined to be a substance which, when adminis-
tered in small quantity, is capable of acting deleteriously on the body; but this definition
is obviously too restricted, for it would exclude numerous substances which are only
poisonous when administered in large doses, as niter, and the salts of lead, antimony, etc.
A person may be as effectually poisoned by an ounce of niter as by five grains of
arsenic, and hence the quantity required to kill must not enter into the definition. Dr.
Taylor suggests the following as the most comprehensive definition that can be given:
"A poison is a substance which, when taken internally, is capable of destroying life
without acting medicinally on the system;" but this definition is not perfect, for it does
not include poisons that act by absorption when applied to athin and delicate membrane,
as glanders, syphilitic poison, etc., or those which must be introduced directly into the
circulation by a puncture or abraded surface, as the poison of insects, scorpions, and
serpents, the wourali poison, and that of animals suffering from hydrophobia. Omit-
ting, for the present, the consideration of the cases not included in Dr. Taylor's proposed
definition, we may consider poisons as divisible into three classes, according to their
mode of action on the system — viz., irritants, narcotics and narcotico-irritants.
The irritants, when taken in ordinary doses, speedily occasion intense vomiting and
purging, and severe abdominal pain. They act chiefly on the stomach and intestines,
which they irritate, inflame, and frequently corrode, and may thus occasion ulceration.
perforation, or gangrene. Among those which possess corrosive properties, are the
strong mineral acids, caustic alkalies, corrosive sublimate, etc. ; while among the pure
irritants which exert no destructive chemical action on the tissues with which they come
in contact, may be mentioned arsenic, cantharides. carbonate of lead, etc. The narcotics
act specially on the brain and spinal cord. Among their most common symptoms are
giddiness, headache, obscurity of sight or double vision, stupor, loss of. power of the
voluntary muscles, convulsions, and, finally, complete coma. Moreover, many of the
narcotic poisons present special symptoms, in some cases strongly resembling pure special
diseases. Thus there is an almost exact similarity in the syinptoms of poisoning by opium
and of apoplexy, while prussic acid and some other poisons give rise to symptoms
closely resembling those of epilepsy. These poisons have no acrid, burning taste, nor
do they usually give rise to vomiting or diarrhea, and, excepting a slight fullness of the
cerebral vessels, they leave no well-marked post mortem appearance. They are few in
number, and none of them belong to the mineral kingdom. The naereotieo-irritantt
have, as their name implies, a mixed action. " At variable periods," says Dr. Taylor,
"after they have been swallowed, they give rise to vomiting and purging, like irritants.
and soon or later produce stupor, coma, paralysis, and convulsions, owing to their effect
on the brain and spinal marrow. They possess the property, like irritants, of irritating
and inflaming the alimentary canal. As familiar examples, wemaypointto nux vomica,
monkshood, and poisonous mushrooms The fact of the symptoms occurring
after a meal at which some suspicious vegetables may have been eaten, coupled with the
nature of the symptoms themselves, will commonly indicate the class to which the
poison belongs. Some narcotico-irritants have a hot, "acrid, taste, such as the aconite or
monkshood; others an intensely bitter taste, as nux vomica and its alkaloid strychnia."
For a notice of the most important rules to be observed by the physician in all
cases of suspected poisioning, both with respect to the symptoms and to the inspection
of the body, we must refer to any of the standard works on poisoning, or on medical
jurisprudence.
Under the head of irritant poisons may be included, (1) mineral acids, as sulphuric,
nitric, and hydrochloric acids; vegetable acids, and other salts, as oxalic acid, bin-
o.xalate of potash, and tartaric acid (in doses of half an ounce or more); the alkalies, as
pearl-ash (carbonate of potash), soap lyes (carbonate of soda), ammonia and its sesqui-
carlionate; and metallic compounds, as white arsenic (arsenious acid); yellow arsenic
(orpiment), corrosive sublimate, bicyanide of mercury, pernitrate and other salts of this
metal, acetate of lead (sugar of lead) in doses of an ounce and upward, carbonate of
Poisons.
828
lead (white load), sulphate of copper (blue vitriol) subncetate of copper (verdigris), nrson-
ite of copper (commonly known us Scheme's green or niu raid f/ >•<•<•• n, and mucE employed
under the uame of extract of spinach for coloring confectionary), tartarized antimony,
chloride of antimony (butter of antimony), chloride- of zinc (sir AVr. Burnett's fluid),
nitrate of silver (lunar caustic), sulphate of iron (copperas and green vitriol), and bichro-
mate* of potash. (2.) Vegetable substances, vi/,., colocynth and gamboge in large doses,
savin, crotoii oil, the leaves and flowers of the common elder (S'//<////f//.x //////w), etc.
(3.) Animal substunces, such as cantharides, to which must be added the occasional
cases iu which sausages, and certain fish and mollusks, usually quite innocuous, act as
irritant poisons.
The .mrcvtic poisons include opium, hydrocyanic (or prussic) acid, oil of bitter
almonds, cyanide of potassium, henbane, especially the seeds, alcohol, ether, chloral,
and chloroform; while nareotieo-iarritant yWw//.x are mix vomica, meadow saffron
(colchicum), white hellebore, foxglove, common hemlock, water hemlock, (i-ii-ntu riroxa),
hemlock water-dropwort (cenantfw crocata), fool's parsley, thorn-apple, monkshood or
wolf's bane, deadly nightshade, tobacco, Indian tobacco (lobelia iajlata), the bark and
seeds of the common laburnum, the berries and leaves of the yew-tree, and certain kinds
of fungi.
The cases in which there are antidotes qualified to neutralize chemically I lie action of
the poison are few in number. For the mineral acids we must prescribe chalk cr mag-
nesia, iu water, with the view of neutralizing them, after which milk should be given
freely. The alkalies and their carbonates must be neutralized by vinegar and water, or
lemon-juice mixed with water, after which milk should be given. For ».i-<ili<- «rnl the
antidote is chalk or magnesia in water, by which an insoluble oxalate of lime or mag-
nesia, is formed. For arsenic, the hydrated peroxide of iron has been regarded as an
antidote, but its efficacy is doubtful. Vomiting should be excited by the administration
of a scruple of sulphate of zinc in warm water, and after tiie stomach has been well
cleared out, demulcent fluids, such as flour and water or milk should be given. C<>rr<>-
sice sublimate combines with albumen (white of egg), and forms an insoluble inert mass;
nitrate of silver is neutralized by chloride of sodium (common salt) dissolved in water;
iartarized antimony is to a great degree rendered inert by the administration of decoction
of bark or gall-nuts; and acetate of lead is rendered inert by the administration of sul-
phate of magnesia, which converts it into an insoluble sulphate of lead. In all cases of
suspected poisoning, in which the nature of the poison is not known, the safest course is
at once to produce vomiting by sulphate of zinc, or in its absence by a dessert-spoonful
of flour of mustard suspended in tepid water, and to continue the vomiting till all the
contents of the stomach are discharged, after which milk should be given freely.
Most of the known gases — except hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen — have a poison-
ous action when inhaled into the lungs; but in these cases death, if it ensues, is popu-
larly said to be due to suffocation, although strictly sneaking a person who dies from the
effect of carlx>:iic acid, or sulphureted hydrogen, or of any other noxious gas, is in
reality just as much poisoned as if he had taken oxalic acid or arsenic. Carbonic acid
(q.v ), although seldom employed as an instrument of murder, is a frequent cause of
accidental death, and in France is a common means of self-destruction. It is established
by numerous experiments that air containing more than one-tenth of its volume of car-
bonic acid, will, if inhaled, destroy life in man and the higher animals. In its pure
state it cannot be inhaled, because its contact with the larynx causes spasmodic contrac-
tion of the glottis; but when diluted with two or more volumes of air, it can be breathed,
and produces symptoms of vertigo and somnolency; and so great a loss of muscular
power, that the individual, if in an erect or sitting position, falls as if struck to the
ground. The respiration, which at first is difficult and stertorous, becomes suspended.
The action of the heart is at first violent, but soon ceases, sensibility is lost, and the per-
son now falls into a comatose or death-like state. Those who have been resuscitated
usually feel pain in the head and general soreness of the bod)' for some days and in a
few severe cases, paralysis of the muscles of the face has remained. As a winter seldom
passes without several deaths being recorded from coal or charcoal being employed as
fuel in ill-ventilated rooms (often without any kind of chimney), it is expedient that
every one should know what is to be done in such an emergency. The patient must,
of course, be at once removed from the poisonous atmosphere, after which artificial
respiration should be had recourse to. If the skin is warm, cold water may be poured
on ihe head and spine; while if the surface be cold, a warm bath should be employed.
When respiration is re-established, venesection will often relieve the congestion of the
vessels of the brain. The inhalation of oxygen gas is said to have been of service in
these cases. Carbonic oxide, which exists largely in coal gas, is at least MS active a poi-
son as carbonic acid, and is doubtless the principal cause of the effects produced by the
inhalation of diluted gat. Both carbonic acid and carbonic oxide act as powerful nar-
cotic poisons. Sulphureted hydrogen, which occurs abundantly in foul drains, sewers,
cess-pools, etc., is a gaseous poison whose effects are often noticed. Nothing certain is
known of the smallest proportion of this gas required to destroy human life: but air con-
taining only one eight-hundredth of its volume of this gas will destroy a d< g. and when
the pas exists in the proportion of one two-hundred-and-fiftieth. it will k 11 a hoi>e.
Dr. Taylor states that the men who were engaged in the construction of the Thames
Poisons.
tunnel sufferer! severely from the presence of this gas, which was probably derived from
the action of the water on the iron pyrites in clay, and which issued in sudden bursts
from the walls. By respiring this atmosphere, the strongest and most robust men were
in the course of a few months reduced to an extreme state of exhaustion, and several
died. The symptoms with which they were first effected were giddiness, sickness, and
general debility; they became emaciated, and fell into a state of low fever accompanied
by delirium. In this case the dilution was extreme; when the gas is breathed in a,
more concentrated form, the person speedily falls, apparently lifeless. It appears to
act as a narcotic poison when concentrated; but like a narcotico-irrritant when much
diluted witli air.
The action of the vapor of hydrosulphate of ammonia, which is also commonly pres-
ent in cesspools, etc., is probably much the same as that of sulphureted hydrogen. The
experiments of Dr. Herbert Barker show, however, that these matters do iiot produce
similar symptoms on dogs (On Malaria and Miasmata, p. 212).
Many of the gases, which are only found as products of the laboratory, are in the
highest degree poisonous, as arseniureted hydrogen, cacodyl. etc. ; but as few persons
run the risk of inspiring them, it is unnecessary to enter into any details regarding
them.
We now turn to the consideration of the poisons not included in the definition, which,
for want of a better, we have adopted. The poisons that may affect the body by direct
introduction into the circulation, through a puncture or abrasion, may be derived from
the mineral, the vegetable, or the animal kingdom; but, with a few exceptions (as, for
example, wourali poison, q.v.), the poisons derived from the mineral and vegetable
kingdoms would act as efficiently if introduced into the stomach as if injected into the
circulating blood; while the animal poisons act only by direct introduction into the
blood, and are inert when introduced into the stomach. Poisoned wounds derived from
the dissection of recently dead bodies, commonly known as dissecting wounds, are occa-
sionally attended with most alarming symptoms, and often terminate fatally. In the
case of Dr. Pett, quoted by Travers in his work On Constitutional Irritation, the symp-
toms on the third day were "a haggard and depressed countenance; violent shiverings,
followed by s-ome degree of heat; extreme alteration in appearance; countenance suf-
fused with redness; the eyes hollow and ferrety; some difficulty of breathing, which was
sudden, irregular, and amounting almost to sighing: excessive torpor, and the whole
aspect resembling one who had taken an overdose of opium: on the following day there
was extreme exhaustion and feebleness, and death ensued on the fifth day." The symp-
toms produced by the bites and stings of insects, arachuidans, and serpents, and the
treatment that should be adopted, are described in the article VENOMOUS ANIMALS, BITES
AND STINGS OF. The poise ned wounds derived from diseased animals are sufficiently
discussed in the articles GLANDERS and HYDROPHOBIA.
In point oflmr, the use of poison to kill or injure a human being or certain animals,
renders the poisoner amenable to the criminal courts. With regard to the sale of poisons,
the legislature found it necessary to put some restrictions on one description — viz.,
arsenic — in order to prevent persons obtaining it with facility, and in such a manner as
to avoid detection. The 14 and 15 Vic. c. 13, requires every person who sells arsenic to
enter in his books the date and quantity and purpose of its use, and later acts apply this
rule to other poisons. It is not to be sold to one who is unknown to the vender unless
in presence of a witness who is known, and whose place of abode is recorded in the
book. The arsenic must also be mixed with soot or indigo, in the proportion of \ oz. of
soot or indigo to the pound. All the boxes, bottles, etc., must be labeled "poison."
Those who offend as to arsenic incur a penalty of £20; but, in ordinary prescriptions,
poisons may be used in the ordinary way by duly qualified medical practitioners. As to
the restriction on the sale of other'poisons* see "CHEMIST. The offenses committed by
those who administer poisons to mankind are as follows: Whoever causes death by
poison commits murder, for the means are immaterial if the death was caused by such
means with a felonious intent. Where death is not caused, nevertheless whoever
administers poison, or causes it to be administered to any person, with intent to commit
murder is guilty of felony, and is liable to penal servitude for life, or for not less than 3
years. Moreover, whoever attempts to administer poison, or other destructive thing, to
any person with intent to commit murder, is guilty of felony, and is punishable in the
same way. These offenses are committed whether the poison administered, or attempted
to be administered, does injury or not; and it is a sufficient committing of the offense if
the poison is put in such a place that a party was likely, and was intended to take it.
Moreover, even though murder was not intended, but merely an intent to endanger life
or inflict grievous bodily harm, still the offense is felony, and is punishable by penal
servitude varying from 3 to 10 years. There is also a similar punishment for the attempt
to administer any stupefying drug. Not only is it a crime to administer, or attempt to
administer poison to human beings, but if cattle are maliciously killed by poison, the
offense is felony, punishable by penal servitude of from 3 to 14 years. So to kill by
poison any dog, bird, beast, or other animal, ordinarily kept in a state of confinement, is
an offense punishable by justices of the peace with imprisonment for 6 months, or a fine
of £20 over and above the injury done. If any person lay poison on lands to kill game,
he incurs a penalty of £10. And though tenants of farms, when entitled to kill the
Poison. QOA
Poland.
game on the estate, may kill hares without having taken out any game certificate, yet
they are prohibited from killing such hares hy poison. Moreover, l>y :i recent ;u-t,"x!6
and 27 Vic. c. 11-!, extending to the United Kingdom, whoever sills, or oilers to sell
poisoned grain, seed, or meal, incurs a penalty of £10. Whoever BOWS, lays, or puts on
ground such poisoned grain incurs a like penalty. The use of poisoned lle.-h hi also pro-
hibited. But the s;de or use of any solution, material, or ingredient tor dressing,
protecting, or preparing any grain or seed for agricultural use only, it' used bond fide, ia
not interfered with.
POISON UDER, POISON IVY, POISON OAKS, POISON SUMACH, and POISON VINE. See
SUMACH.
POISSON, SiMEON-D KMS. a celebrated French geometer, was 1». at Pithivicrs, in the
dcp. of Loiret, June 21, 1781 ; and displaying an aptitude for mathematics, he was received
into the ecole polytcchm'quc in 17i)S. The sinking talent he thus early exhibited
attracted the notice of Lagrange and Laplace, both of whom anticipated for iiiiu a brill-
iant future. In 1802 he became a professor in the polytechni<]ue ; in I: OS a member of
the bureau des longitudes; in 1809 pn>i'e>.>or of mechanics to the facility of sciences;
member of the institute in 1812. etc.; and this list of distinctions w; s crowned in ls;!7
by his elevation to the dignity of a peer of France, lie died in Jsjii. 1'oi-son's wlx-le
life was devoted to the prosecution of scientific research, and the fmii - of bis pen num-
ber about 300 memoirs, inserted in the publications of the ecole polyti elmioue, of the
academy of sciences, and other scientific journals. A complete summary of ihese labors
by Poisson himself is published by Arago (Notices J!if>>/rt/j///it/'/ix, \ol. ii.). Of tli.
arate treatises published by Poisson, the following are the chief: Traife de Mecant
vols.. 1833); Nouvdle Theorie de V Action CapiUaire ; Theory. Mntlienniii<r ' </,'< ///•
(18.35); Memoire sur le Mbueement des Projectiles dans I' Air, <n ni/nn/ <:;,<;r</ <i In lli>t<iii<iii
de la Terre (1839); and lastly, the celebrated work, &/>/• ''Inmrtuhi i'ii- des M"/// a* Mm re.
m?nts des grands Axes Pkinvtaircs. Poisson is fairly considered one of the chief founders
of the science of mathematical physics, which was brought by him to ureat perfection,
especially in what concerns statical electricity and magnet ism. .Many other ingenious
discoveries and speculations are dispersed throughout his writings.
POITEVIN, AuorsTE. 1819-73; b. France: studied sculpture at Paris. His first
work of value was "The Devotion of Viola,'' exhibited in 1840. Among his other
works arc two statues called "The Renaissance " and "Greek Art," executed for the
Amiens museum. A number of symbolical groups in the Louvre, some tine busts, and
the group called " Judith."
POITIERS. See POICTIERS, ante.
POITOU, a former province of w. France, is now mainly comprised in the depart-
ments of Deux Sevres, Vendee, and Vienne. It was divided into I'rpir ;;nd I
Poitou, and had for its capital Poictiers (q.v.). Poitou first becr.rne a ] oesession of the
English crown when Eieanor, countess of Poitou and duchess of Aquitaine, after her
divorce from Louis VII. of France in Sept. 1151, married, on Y.-'hii.-nnd y following.
Henry of Arijou, afterward Henry I. of England. Philippe-Auguste reconquered
the province in 1204, and in 1295 it was formally ceded to France. Hy the p( ;
Bretigny, in 1360, it again reverted to England, but was soon after r^tnl-ea by Charles
V., who gave it to his brother, the duke of Berri. It was subsequently incorporated
with the French crown.
POITEINAL, or PECTORAL, in ancient armor, was the horse's breastplate, formed of
metal plates riveted together as a covering for the breast and shoulders.
POKANOKETS. See MASSACHUSETTS INDIANS.
POKE, the common name for phytolacca decandm, called also g:\vct, pigeon berry,
and scoke, the only representative in America of a small i-petalous i vlaccaeecB.
It is found also in n. Africa, the Azores, China, and the Sandwich islands, and has
been' naturalized in southern Europe and the West Indies. Phytolar •••:; (rvandra grows
on roadsides, farmyards, and uncultivated fields. It has a stem from four to nine ft.
high, bearing alternate, ovate-oblong acute leaves, with large peiiolcs; calyx of five
rounded and petal-like sepals, stamens 10, styles 10. The flowers, with vJiite calyx and
green ovary, grow on terminal racemes, which become lateral and oppo.-ite the leaves.
It commences blossoming in June. The green ovary develops into ;• t.eprcsscd globose-
five to ten-celled berry, with a single vertical seed in each cell. The berry ripens
in Aug. and Sept., becoming a very dark purple, filled with crimson juice. The
young shoots are often collected in the spring, and eaten as a substitute for a-pai
or cabbage sprouts. The root is large, fleshy, conical, and branched, i •< •\\\» at the 1.
part often more than four in. in diameter. When dried, as seen in (ommerce, it is lon-
gitudinally wrinkled, brownish, yellowish gray-externf.lly, breaking with a fibrous frac-
ture. Internally it is of a dingy white color, possessing little odor. The taste is at first
somewhat sweet, afterward acrid. It contains tannin, starch, resin, malate of nme. and
other common constituents of plants, but no active principle lias ycl b:rn separated.
The powdered root is emetic and purgative in doses of one or two drams, and two
teaspoonfuls of the juice of the fresh root has produced similar effects. It requires an
hour or two for an ordinary dose to have its effect. An overdose, besides the effects
CO 1 Poison.
Poland.
above named, .causes great prostration of the nervous system, coldness and blueness of
the skin, feebleness of the pulse, drowsiness, dimness of vision, coma, and sometimes
convulsions. It has produced tetanic symptoms in a child, which, however, recovered.
These effects are not produced unless more than thirty grains of the powdered root are
given. It lists been used in rheumatism, diseases of the skin, such as scabies, tinea capita,
»f/<'(Miyfticn.n, and mange in dogs, both internally and in the form of an ointment made of
the powder, in the proportions of one part of the powder to eight of lard.
POKER, a game introduced into the United States about 40 years ago. The form
of the game most popular at the present time is termed draw poker, to distinguish it from
twenty-deck poker. It was formerly played with 20 cards, excluding all below the tens,
the number of players being two, three, or four, who were confined to the cards first
dealt. The entire pack is now used, cards being drawn from it to improve the gams
originally dealt to the players. The relative value of hands in their order, beginning
with the best, is as follows: 1. A sequence flush of five cards, all of the same color; 2.
Fours, which is four of the same denomination; 3. A full, consisting of three cards of
the same denomination and two of likewise equal denomination; 4. A flush, containing
all live cards of the same suit; 5. A sequence, containing all tive cards in sequence, but
not of the same suit; 6. Threes, with three cards of the same denomination, and two of
different denomination from each other; 7. Two pairs; 8. One pair; 9. When a hand.
docs not contain any of the above, the count is by the cards of highest value. In esti-
mating the value of a sequence, an ace counts either as the highest or lowest card, that
is, above a king or below a deuce. When two persons hold each a pair, or two pairs, of
the same value, the next highest card or cards in each hand must be compared to deter-
mine who wins. An excellent pamphlet on the rules of draw poker was published in
London by R. C. Scheuck, in 1874.
POKHTTRN, a t. of India, in the Rajpoot state of Jodhpoor, 340 m. s.w. of Delhi. It
is situated close to a deserted town of the same name, the site of which is marked by a
very conspicuous temple in an elevated situation. Pokhurn has a considerable trade and
a pop. of about 15,000.
FO'LA, the most important naval station of Austria, and one of the most beautiful
havi us in Europe, belongs to the markgrafate of Istria. The town occupies an emi-
nence overlooking the Adriatic sea, 75 m. by sea south of*Trieste. The bay is thor-
oughly sheltered, and is spacious enough to accommodate the largest fleet. The town
is surrounded by bastioned walls, is protected by numerous batteries, and is overlooked
by the citadel by Avhich it and the bay are commanded. Pop. '69, 16,473.
Pola, a very ancient town, is said to have been founded by the Colchians, who were
pent in pursuit of Jason. It was destroyed by Julius C&sar, but rebuilt by Augustus at
the request of his daughter Julia, on which account it was named Pietas Julia. In
ancient times it had 30,000 inhabitants, and was a station of the Roman fleet. It con-
tains numerous and interesting Roman remains, among which are a beautiful and well-
]>:( -served amphitheater. 436 ft. long and 346 broad. A temple and several ancient gates
are also extant. See Allason's Antiquities of Pola (Lond. 1819).
POLACCA, or POLACRE, a species of vessel in use in the Mediterranean, with three
masts and a jib-boom; the fore and main masts being of one piece ("pole-masts"), and
the mizzen-mast with a top and top-mast. They generally carry square sails, though a
few are rigged with a peculiar form of sail to which the term polrtcre is also applied.
The fore and main masts have, of course, neither tops, caps, nor cross-trees.
POLAC CA, or POLONAISE', a Polish national dance of slow movement in f time. It
always begins and terminates with a full bar, and a peculiar effect is produced by the
position of its cadence, the dominant seventh in the second crotchet of the bar precediug
the triad on the third crotchet :L2W — »-' — - — - — * 4 The characteristic features
of the polacca are sometimes adopted in a rondo, or other lively and brilliant composi-
tion, which is then r>aid to be written alia polacca.
PO LAND, called by the natives polska (a plain), a former kingdom of Europe — re-
nowned, in mediaeval history, as the sole champion of Christendom against the Turks;
and, till recently, an object of general and profound sympathy throughout western
Europe, from its unprecedented misfortunes — was, immediately previous to its dismem-
berment bounded on the n. by the Baltic sea from Dantzic to Riga, and by the Russian
provinces of Riga and Pskov; on the e. by the Russian provinces of Smolensk, Tchern-
ip>v, Poltava, and Kherson; on the s. by Bessarabia, Moldavia, and the Carpathian
mountains; and on the w. by the Prussian provinces of Silesia, Brandenburg, and Pom-
crania. Its greatest length from n. to s. was 713 English miles; and from e. tow., 693
miles, embracing an area of about 282,000 English sq.m. ; an area which, in 1859, had a
population of 5?4.000,000. This extensive tract forms part of the great central European
plain, and is crossed by only one range of hills, which springs from the n. side of the
Poland.
832
Carpathians, and runs n.e. through flic country, forming the water-shod between tli*
Baltic and Black sc:t rivers. Tlie soil is mostly a light fertile loam, well adapted for tlie
cereal crops, though here and there occur extensive barren tracts of sand, heath, and
gwamp, especially in tlie eastern .districts. Much of the fertile land is permanent pas-
ture, which is of the richest (Duality: and much is occupied with extensive forests (if
pine, birch, oak, etc. Rye, wheat, barley, and other cereals, hemp, wood and its prod-
ucts, honey and wax, eatlie, sheep, and horses, inexhaustible mines of salt, and a litile
silver, iron, copper, and lead, constitute the chief natural riches of the country; and for
the export of tlie surplusage of these products, the Vistula, Dnieper, Duna, and their
tributaries afford extraordinary facilities.
The kingdom of Poland, during the period of its greatest extent, after the accession
of the grand-duchy of Lithuania in the beginning of the 15th c., was subdivided for pur-
poses of government into about 40 palatinates or voivodics, which were mostly yovemed
by hereditary chiefs. The people were divided into two great classes — nobles and sc 1 1 -.
The noble class, which was the governing and privihgvd class, included the.hiuh;r
nobles, the inferior nobles (a numerous CKISS, corresponding to the kniirhK fen try. etc.,
of other countries), and the clergy, and numljcrcd in ail more than 200,000; the serfs
were the merchants, tradesmen, and agriculturists, and were attached, not. as in other
countries, to masters, but to the soil. The serfs were thus much less liable to ill -i.
and retained more of human energy and dignity than the generality of slaves. '1 he
nobles were the proprietors of the soil, and appropriated the larger portion of its prod-
ucts, the serfs in many cases receiving only as much as was necessary for the support of
themselves and their families. The nobles weie chivalrous, high-spirited, hospitable,
and patriotic; the serfs, who had also a stake, though a small one. in the independence
of the country, were patriotic and good-natured, but sluggish. The present population
of the provinces included in the Poland of former days consists of Poles, Lithuanians,
Germans, Jews, Russians, Roumanians, gipsies, etc. The Poles, who number lo.iiuu.-
000, form the bulk of the population; the Lithuanians, 2,100,000 in number, inhabit the
n.e. of the country; the Germans, of whom there are 2,000.000, live mostly in towns and
in villages apart by themselves, and bear the usual character for economy, industry, and
that excessive love and admiration for the "Fatherland," which guided their politics
during the last days of Polish independence; the Jews are very numerous, l:«-ing reck-
oned at 2,200,000, but here they are poorer and less enterprising than in other countries;
the remainder is composed of Russians (who are few in number, excepting in some of
the eastern districts), Russian soldiery, Roumans, gipsies, Maa-yars, etc. Of Roman
Catholics, there are about 9,400,000; Greeks, united and non-united, 7,900,000: Protest-
ants (mostly Lutherans and German), 2,360,000; the rest are Jews, Armenians, Mos-
lems, etc.
JEBitory. — Tlie Poles are ethnologically a branch of the Slaves (q.v.). The name
appeai-s first in history as the designation "of a tribe, the Polani, who dwelt between the
Oder and Vistula, surrounded by the kindred tribes of the Masovii, Kujavii, Chrobates,
Silesians, Obotrites, and others. In course of time, the Polani acquired an ascendency
over the other tribes, most of whom became amalgamated with the ruling race,. whose
name thus became the general designation. Polish historiars profess to go as far back
as the 4th c. ; but the list of rulers which they give are probably those of separate tribes,
and not of the combined race now known as Poles. At any rate, the history of Poland,
previous to the middle of the 9th c., is so largely adulterated with fables, as to be little
trustworthy. Ziemovicz, said to be the second monarch of the Piast dynasty, is con-
sidered to be the first ruler whose history is to any extent to be relied upon; and it v, as
not till a century after, when his descendant, Micislas I. (962-92), occupied the throne,
and became a convert to Christianity, that Poland took rank as one of the political
powers of Europe. Micislas (as was the general custom among the Polish rulus),
divided his dominions among his sons; but one of them, Boleslas I. (992-1C25). surnamed
"the great," soon reunited the separate portions, and extended his kingdom beyond the
Oder, the Carpathians, and the Dniester, and sustained a successful war with the
emperor Henry II. of Germany, conquering Cracovia, Moravia, Lusatia, and Misnia.
He also took part in the dissensions among the petty Russian princes. Under him,
Poland began to assume unity and consistency; commerce, the impartial administration
of justice, and Christianity were encouraged and promoted; and about the same time,
the distinction between the nobles or warrior class (those who were able to equip a
horse) and the agriculturists was distinctly drawn. Boleslas was recognized as " king"
by the German emperors. After a period of anarchy, he was succeeded by his son,
Ca^imir (1040-58), whose reign, and that of his warlike son, Boleslas II. (1058-81), though
brilliant, were of little real profit to the country. The latter monarch having with his
own hands murdered the bishop of Cracow (1079), Poland was laid under the papal
interdict, and the people absolved from their allegiance; Boleslas accordingly fled to
Hungary, but being, by order of the pope, refused shelter, he is said to have committed
suicide (1081). Boleslas III. (1102-39), an energetic monarch, annexed Pomerania,
defeated the pagan Prussians, and defended Silesia against the German emperors. A
division of the kingdom among his sons was productive of much internal dissension,
under cover of which, Silesia was severed from Poland, though still nominally subject
to it. Ultimately, Casimir II. (1177-94) reunited the severed portions, with the excep-
833
Poland.
lion of Silesia, and established on a firm footing the constitution of the country. A
senate was formed from the bishops, palatines, and castellans, and the rights of the
clergy and of the peasantry were accurately defined. His death was the signal for a
contest among the various claimants for the throne, which was speedily followad, as
usual, by a division of the country, and during this disturbance Pomerania emancipated
itself from Polish rule. About the same time, the Teutonic knights were summoned by
the duke of Masovia to aid him against the pagan Prussian*: bvi!; they soon became as
formidable enemies to Poland as the Prussians, and conquered great part of Podlachhr
and Lithuania. The Mongols swept over the country in 1241, reducing it to the verge
of ruin, and defeating the Poles in a great battle near Wahlstatt. From this time,
Poland began to decline; various districts were ceded to the markgrafs of Brandenburg,
while many districts began to be colonized by Germans. Numbers of Jews, persecuted
in western" Europe about this time, took refuge in Poland. Wladislas (loU3-33), sur-
named fokictrk (the short), again restored unity to the country, judicial abuses and all
illegally acquired privileges were abolished, and the first diet (1331) assembled for legis-
lative purposes, In conjunction with Gedymiu, grand duke of Lithuania, a vigorous
war was carried on against the Teutonic knights, on returning from which the ageil
monarch (he was now 70 years old) experienced a triumphant reception from his sub-
jects, wrho hailed him as the " father of his country. His son, Casimir III. the great
(1333-70), greatly increased the power and prosperity of Poland by cultivating with zeal
the arts of p?ace, amending the laws, and consolidating his territories by profitable
exchanges with the neighboring powers. In the latter part of his reign, lie was com-
pelled to defend sundry new acquisitions against the Tartars, Lithuanians, and Wallach-
ians, which he did successfully. With Casimir, the Piast dynasty became extinct, after
a sway of 510 years, according to the old Polish chroniclers. His nephew, Lewis the
great, king of Hungary, succeeded him, by the will of the deceased monarch and tho
election of tiic diet; but during his reign, Poland was treated merely as an appanage of
Hungary. On his death without male heirs, the crown fell to Jagello (Wlauislas^II ),
grand duke of Lithuania, the son-in-law of Lewis, who founded the dynasty of the
Jagellons (q.v.) (1386-1572), and for the first time united Lithuania acd Poland, thus
doubling the extent, though not the population of the kingdom. However, his suc-
cessor, Wladislas III., was acknowledged only in Poland proper, the Lithuanians pre-
ferring the rule of the younger son, Casimir. Wladislas was also chosen king of Hun-
gary, and fell at the battle of Varna, being succeeded in Poland by Casimir IV. (1444-
93), who ag lin united it to Lithuania. Casimir recovered v/est Prussia from the Teu-
tonic knights, and compelled them to do homage for east Prussia, rewarding the inferior
nobles, or warrior class, with more extensive privileges, putting them on an equality of
rank with th-.; great chiefs of the realm, and at the same time necessarily oppressing the
peasantry. Manufactures and commerce revived to a wonderful extent during his reign
in the western provinces. The brief reigns of his three sons were marked only by the
increased power of the two houses of the diet, which had by this time absorbed all but
tin; symbols of supreme authority, and had converted Poland from a monarchy to an
oligarchy (the king possessing little power beyond what his personal influence gave him).
Sigismund I. (1508-48) surnarnecl the great, the fourth son of Casimir, raised the country
to the utmost pitch of prosperity. Generous and enlightened, he was beloved by the
ma--<s, whom he endeavored to benefit physically and mentally, while his firmness and
justness commanded the respect of the turbulent nobles. He wisely kept aloof from the
religious quarrels which distracted western Europe, by allowing'his subjects perfect
freedom of choice in matters of religion; he was, however, forced into a war witli
Russia, in which he lost Smolensk; but he was partly compensated by obtaining lord-
ship over Moldavia. His son, Sigismund II. , Augustus, was a successor worthy of him.
During his reign many abuses were rectified, and the extraordinary privileges of the
higher nobles were curtailed or abolished; Lithuania was finally joined indissolubly to
Poland, and from this time there was to be but one diet for the united realm; each
retained, however, its own army, titles, treasury, and laws. Lithuania was at the same
time reduced by the annexation of Podlachia, Volhynia, and the Ukraine, to Poland.
Livonia was conquered from the kuights sword-bearers (a community simikr to, though
much less distinguished than the Teutonic knights); and the power, prosperity, and
opulence of the state seemed to guarantee its position as the most powerful state in
eastern Europe for a long time to come. The population almost doubled itself under
sed
to
chambers of the diet — viz., the senate or chamber of the chief nobles, and the' chamber
of nuncios, or representatives of the inferior nobles. He who was chosen king pos-
sessed the right of assembling the diet, but had to give a list of the subjects to be dis-
cussed; and the representatives, before setting out, were instructed as to the side they
were to support. The diet only lasted six weeks, and its decisions were required to be
unanimous; so that if the liberum veto (the right of forbidding the passing of any
measure) were freely exercised even by a single membsr, all legislation was at a stand-
still. The evil effects of these regulations were not so much felt at first, as the memberg
U. K. XI.— 5?
Poland.
834
•were characterized by honesty and 7.cal for the general good: but latterly, -when vcnalily
and subservience to the neighboring powers began to show themselves, all the measures
necessary for protecting Poland from dependence on her neighbors were, by a I'ow
corrupt and treacherous representatives, rendered of no av:iil. The lir.st elective im.n-
arch was Henry of Valois (III. of France, q.v.), who, however, soon abandoned the
throne for that of France, and was succeeded by Stephen Bat'ory (lo^-sO). voivode of
Transylvania, a man of energy and talent, who carried on war successfully against the
/iussians, who liad attempted to seize Livonia, pursued them into the very heart of their
own country, and compelled the czar to sue for peace; he also subdued the semi-inde-
pendent Cossacks of the Ukraine, and to some degree introduced civilization among
them. His successor, Siirismund HI. (1586-1632), "who was succeeded by his sons,
Wladislas IV, (1683-48) and John Casimir (1648-72), was of the Yasa. family, and was
the crown-prince of Sweden; but his election, f;sr from cementing a bond of union
between the two countries, only imbittered former dissensions. These three Swedish
jnonarchs were most unworthy successors to Poland's ablest king, as they had neither
talents for governing, nor characters and sentiments congenial to a warlike nation; on
the contrary, their policy was weak, tortuous, and vacillating. Yet they were always
quarreling with their neighbors, declaring war with Ru.-sia. Sweden, or Turkey, in thy
most imprudent and reckless manner, and often without valid pretext. But the Polish
armies, though .as little fostered and cared for as the other portions of the nation, were
everywhere victorious; the Swedish and Muscovite armies were successively annihilated;
Moscow was taken, and the Russians reduced to such an abject condition, that they
offered to make Sigi^mund's son, Wladislas, their czar. Sweden made a similar offer to
another sou of the Polish monarch; but the hitter's absurd behavior lost for Poland this
rich result of her great ^-victories; and the foolish policy of the whole three not only
rendered fruitless all the lavish expenditure of Polish blood and treasure, but lost to the
country many of her richest provinces, and left her without a single ally; while their
religious bigotry commenced that reign of intolerance and mutual persecution between
the various sects which was the immediate cause of Poland's downfall. To show the
power of the Poles at this period, it will be sufficient to notice that Great Poland, Little
Poland (Galicia, Podolia, Ukraine, etc.), Livonia, Lithuania, (inclm i:: : S/mogitia. and
Black and White Russia, Polesia, and Tchernigov), Pomerelia and Enneland, (,'ourland.
Moldavia, Btikovina, Wallachia, Bessarabia, and Prussia, were either integral parls of
the Polish monarchy, or were subject to it. The imprudent attempts of the Swedish
sovereigns to amend the constitution only excited the suspicion of the nobles, and led to
a further curtailment of royal authority. During the reign of this dynasty, Wallachia
and Moldavia were snatch1 -d by the Turks from under the Polish protectorate; Livonin
with Riga was conquered (1605-21), along with part of Prussia (1G29), by Sweden; and
Brandenburg established itself in complete independence. The Cossacks, who had been
goaded almost to madness by the most atrocious oppression and religious persecution,
rose in rebellion to a man, put themselves under the protection of Russia, and ever
afterward proved themselves the most inveterate enemies of the Poles. In the reign of
John Casimir, Poland was attacked simultaneously by Russia, Sweden, 1'raudenbnrg
(the germ of the present kingdom of Prussia), the Transylvanians, and the
the country was entirely overrun; Warsaw, Wilna, and Lemhcrg taken; and the king
compelled to flee to Silesia. But the celebrated staff of Polish generals was not y< ;
extinct; Czarniecki's sword was as the breath of the destroying aftgel to Poland's
enemies; and after being defeated in detail, they were ignominiously expelled from the
country. But in the subsequent treaties, Ducal or east Prussia was wholly given up to
Brandenburg; almost all Livonia to Sweden; and Smolensk. Severia or Tchernigov, and
the Ukraine beyond the Dnieper, were given to Russia. Michael Wisniowiecki (1GGS-
74), the son of 'one of the g:oup of famous generals above alluded to, but himself an
imbecile, was (contrary to his own wish — for he was well aware of his own deficiencies)
elected as their next monarch; a war with Turkey, concluded by an ignominious peace.
was the chief event of his reign. But the senate rejected the shameful treaty, the Polish
army was again re-enforced, the Polish monarch resigned the command to John Sobieski
the Hetmari (q.v.), and the Turks were routed with great slaughlcr at (T.oc/im (1673).
After some dissensions concerning the election of a successor, ,lohn (III., q.v.) Sobieski
(1674-96) was chosen; but his reign, though it crowned the Poh's with abundance of the
laurel wreaths of victory, was productive of no good to the internal administration. As
Sobic-ski's successor, the prince of Conti was legally elected, and proclaimed king; but
the cabinet of Versailles allowed this splendid opportunity of becoming supreme in
Europe to escape; and Augustus II. of Saxony, a protege of the house of Austria.
entered Poland at the head of a Saxon army, and succeeded in obtaining the throne.
Augustus, unlike all his predecessors, never seemed to identify his interests with tlioso
of his Polish subjects; and though he gained their hearts by promising to reconquer for
Poland her lost provinces, yot this promise was chiefly made as an excuse for keeping
1 •• Saxon army in the country, in violation of the pntin cnnrenin (the "mngna chart a"
of Poland). His war with the Turks restored to Poland part of the Ukraine and tho
fortress of Kaminiec; but that with Charles XII. brought nothing but misfortune. Tha
war with Sweden was unpopular in Poland; in fact, the Poles of the eastern provinces
received Charles with open arms; but his attempt to force upon them Stanislas Les-
835
Poland.
zynski as their king severely wounded their national pride. Augustus returned after
the battle of Poltava (q.v.); his rival retired without a contest; a close alliance was
formed with Russia, and the Russian troops which had campaigned in Poland against
the Swedes were, along with his Saxon army, retained. The Poles demanded their
extradition, but in vain; and the Russian cabinet interfered (1717) between the king and
his subjects, compelling both parties to sign a treaty of peace. This was the commence-
ment of Poland's dependence on Russia, and her consequent decline. By the instigation
of Peter the great, the Polish army was reduced from 80,000 to 18.000; and the country
was further weakened by the diffusion of effeminacy, immorality, and prodigality,
through the evil example and influence of the court. Religious fanaticism also more
fully developed its most odious features during his reign, and the mass-acre of the Prot-
estants at Thorn (1724) and the legalized exclusion of them from all public offices w$yg
the result. The succeeding reign of Augustus III. (1733-63) was of the same character;
the government fell more and more under Russian influence, and its political relations
with other countries gradually ceased. Toward the end of his reign, the more
enlightened of the Poles, seeing the radical defects of the constitution, the
want of a strong central government, and the clangers of the liberum ve'o,
entered into a league to promote the establishment of a well -organized hereditary mon-
archy. But the conservative or republican party was equally strong, and relied on
Russian influence; and the conflict between these parties became more imbittcred from
the fact that the monarchists supported the Jesuits in disqualifying all dissenters from
holding public offices, while the republican party supported the dissidents. The dissi-
dents dated their grievances from 1717, but the great conflict between them and their
opponents did not break out till 1763. The cabinets of St. Petersburg and Berlin now
(1764) presented to the Poles Stanislas Poniatowski as their king. This gross insult,
intensified by the incapacity of Stanislas for such an office, could not be borne in quiet;
the king and the Russian ambassador were compelled in the diet to listen to the most
spirited protests against Russian interference; but the intense national spirit of the Poles
only recoiled upon themselves, for the Russian ambassador craftily incited them to
insurrection, and kept alive their mutual dissensions. The monarchic, or Czartoryski
party (so called because it was headed by a Lithuanian prince of this name), had suc-
ceeded in abolishing the liberum veto, and effecting many other improvements; but they
at the same time more severely oppressed the dissidents; and Russia, finding that the
political policy of this party was speedily releasing Poland from her grasp, joined the
party of the dissidents as the champion of religious toleration! Her ambassador caused
the chief leaders of the Catholic party to be secretly kidnapped, and sent to Siberia, and
compelled the republicans to accept the protectorate of Russia. The "confederation of
Bar" (so called fuom Bar in Podolia) was now formed by a few zealous patriots, an
army was assembled, and war declared against Russia. The confederates were sup-
ported by Turkey, which also declared war against the czarina; and Russia, alarmed at
the appearance of affairs, proposed to the king and diet an alliance, which both firmly
refused. Frederic the great of Prussia, who had formerly gained the consent of Austria
to a partition of Poland, now, in 1770, made -the same proposal to Russia, and in 1772
the first partition was effected; Stanislas and his diet claiming the mediation and assist-
ance of the other powers of Europe without effect. He was forced in the following
year to convoke a diet for the purpose of recognizing the claims of the three partitioning
powers to the territories they had seized, but few members appeared, and these preserved
perfect silence. The territories seized by the three powers were as follows:
Eng. sq. Miles. Pop.
Russia 42,000 1,800.000
Prussia 13,000 41fi,000
Austria 27,000 2,700,000
The whole country was now aroused to a full sense of its danger; and the diet of the
diminished kingdom labored to amend the constitution and strengthen the administra-
tion by a liberal code of laws and regulations, which gave political rights to the cities,
civil rights to the peasantry, and rendered the kingly authority hereditary. In this they
were encouraged by Prussia, whose king, Frederic William, swore to defend them
ngainst Russia; but in 1791, Catharine II., after great labor, obtained, by means of
intrigues and bribery, the services of Jive (out of 200,000) of the Polish nobility, who pro-
tested against the new constitution which had just (May 3. 1701) been established, and
drew up a document at Targowitz (q.v.), which they forwarded to the Russian court.
Catharine, thus armed with a pretext for interference, advanced her army, and Prussia
proving traitorous, a second fruitless resistance to the united Prussians and Russians,
headed by Joseph Poniatowski (q.v.) and Kosciusko (q.v.), was followed by a second
partition (1793) between Russia and Prussia, as follows:
Eng. sq. Miles. Pop.
Russia 96,000 3,000,000
Prussia 22,000 2,100,000
"which the diet were forced to sanction at the point of the bayonet. The Poles new
Poland.
836
became desperate; a general rising took place (1794); the Prussians were compelled to
retreat to their own country, and the Russians several times routed; but then a new
enemy appeared on the scene. Austria was chagrined at having taken no part in the
second partition, and \vas determined not to be behindhand on this occasion ; her army
accordingly advanced, compelling the Poles to retreat; and fresh hordes of Russian!
arriving, Kosciusko, at the head of the last patriot army, was defeated; and the sack of
Praga, followed by the capture of Warsaw, finally annihilated the Polish monarchy.
The third and last partition (1793) distributed the remainder of the country as follows:
Eng. sq. Miles. Pop.
Russia ....................................... 43,000 1 ,200,000
Prussia...1 ................................. 21,000 1,000.000
Austria ...................................... 18,000 1,000,000
King Stanislas resigned his crown, and died broken-hearted at St. Petersburg in 1798.
The subsequent success of the French against the Russians, and the tempting promises
of the emperor Napoleon to reconstitute Poland, rallied round him u faithful army of
patriots, who distinguished themselves in the campaigns of the French against Russia
»nd Austria; but all that Napoleon accomplished in fulfillment of his promise was the
establishment, by the treaty of Tilsit (1807), of the Duchy of }\'<i>:«n/r, chii liy out of the
Prussian share of Poland, with a liberal constitution, and the (lector of Saxony at its
head. • The duchy was an energetic little state, and under the guidance of prince Joseph
Poniatowski, wrenched western Galicia from Austria (1809), at the same time furnish-
ing a numerous and much-valued contingent to the French armies; but the advance of
the grand allied army in 1813 put an end to its existence. After the cessions by Austria
in 1809, the duchy contained 58.290 English sq.m., with a population of about 4,000,000.
Dantzic was also-declared a republic, but returned to Prussia (Feb. 3, 1814). The division
of Poland was rearranged by the congress of Vienna in 1815, the original shares of
Prussia and Austria were diminished, and that part of the duchy of Warsaw which was
not restored to Prussia and Austria was united as the kingdom of Poland (see next article)
to the Russian empire, but merely by the bond of a personal union (the same monarch
being the sovereign of each), the two states being wholly independent of and uncon-
nected with each other; and the other parts of Poland were completely incorporated
with the kingdoms which had seized them. The partition of Poland, as thus finally
arranged, was as follows:
Pop. (in 1859.) Present Political Divisions.
( Provinces of Courland. "\Vitebsk. *Kovno, Vilna, Grodno, Minsk,
Russia ....... 220,500 16,000,000-! Mohilev, Vo'.hynia, Kiev, Podolia; ancf the kingdom of Po-
( land (q.v.).
Prussia ...... 26,000 3,000.000 Posen, most of W. Prussia, and several districts in E. Prussia.
Austria ...... 33,500 5,000,000 Galicia, Bukovina, Zips, etc.
while, as if in mockery of its spirit of independence, the town of Cracow, with a small
surrounding territory, was declared free and independent, under the guardianship of
Austria. The czar at first gave a liberal constitution, including biennial diets, a respon-
sible ministry, an independent judiciary, a separate standing army, and liberty of
the press; and he seemed to take pride in his title of king of Poland; but his brother
Constantino, having been appointed military governor, speedily put an end to the har-
mony between the csar'and the Poles, and drove the latter into insurrection. Their dis-
content at first found vent in secret societies; but on Nov. 30, 1830, Constantine and hi*
Russians were driven out of Warsaw, and a general insurrection of the people, headed
by the aristocracy, took place. Prince Czartoryski was appointed president of the pro-
visional government, and military leaders, as Radzivil, Dembinski, Bern, etc., were soon
found; but a general want of energy in the administration, dilatoriness on the part of the
military leaders, and the checking of the spread of the insurrection till fruitless negotia-
tions had been entered into with Nicholas, were errors fatal to the success of the Poles.
From Jan., 1831, till Sept. 8 of the same year, a series of bloody conflicts were fought.
in which the Prussians and Austrians, with pitiable subservience, aided the czar. At
first the Poles were successful; but the taking of the capital by Paskevitch (q.v.) soon
ended the war, which was followed, as a matter of course, by imprisonment, banish-
ment, confiscation, and enforced service in the Russian army. From this time the inde-
pendence of Poland was suppressed, and in 1832 it was declared to be an integral part
of the Russian empire, with a separate administration headed by a viceroy of the czar's
choosing; the constitution and laws were abrogated; strict censorship of the press and
the Russian spy police system established in all its vigor; the country was robbed of its
rich literary collections and works of art; and the most severe and arbitrary measures
taken to Russianize the people. The outbreaks of 1833 and 1846 were punished by the
callows. Simultaneous disturbances (1846) in the Prussian and Austrian portions < f
Poland were summarily suppressed; their leaders in Prussia were imprisoned, and only
saved from death by the revolution of Mar., 1848, at Berlin ; and those in Austria were
butchered by the peasantry, who preferred the Austrian to a national government. On
Nov. 6, 1846, the republic of Cracow was incorporated with Austria. After the acces-
837
Poland.
eion of the czar Alexander II., in 1855, the condition of the Poles was considerably
ameliorated; nn act of amnesty brought back many of Ihe expatriated Poles, and various
wther reforms were hoped for, when, in 1861, another insurrection broke out. Its origin
is curious, and gives a thorough insight into the relations between the Poles and their
Russian rulers. A large multitude (30,000) had assembled in the neighborhood of the
battle-field of Grochow (where two battles had been fought in the spring of 1831) to pray
for the souls of those who had fallen; they were engaged in prayer and in singing
religious chants, when they were charged by the Russian cavalry and gens d'arines,
several of them killed, and numerous arrests made. This event excited intense national
feeling throughout the country; and other national demonstrations, attended with simi-
lar massacres on the part of the Russians, produced such an intense dislike to the latter
that most of the Poles in the Russian service either resigned or deserted. The Russians
immediately had recourse to the most severely repressive measures, forbidding all
assemblages even in the churches, punishing those who appeared to mourn the death of~
relatives killed in the previous massacres, or who wore garments of certain shapes or
colors. The application of the Polish nation to the czar (Feb. 28) for the re-establish-
ment of the Polish nationality, was rejected, but certain necessary reforms were prom-
ised. These reforms were on the whole very liberal, and tended greatly to allay the general
excitement; but the Russian government was very naturally not trusted by the Poles,
and new disturbances broke out in October of the same year. Poland was then declared
to be in a state of siege, and gen. Luders appointed military commandant under the
grand duke Constantino, the nephew of the grand duke Constantino above mentioned. The
country continued in a state of commotion without any very decided ombrcak; attempts
were made to assassinate the grand duke and the other Russian officials; and on Jan. 13,
1863, Lithuania and Volhynia were also put in a state of siege. The committee of the
national insurrection issued its first proclamation in Feb., 1863; and a week afterward
Mieroslavski raised the standard of insurrection in the n.w., on the Poscn frontier. Tho
insurrection committ.ee continued to guide the revolt by issuing proclamations from tim«
to time; and many districts of Augustovo, Radom, Lublin, Volhynia, and Lithuania
were speedily in insurrection. It was a mere guerilla war, and no great or decisive con-
flicts took place: but the sympathy of Europe was largely enlisted on behalf of the Poles.
Remonstrances from Spain, Sweden, Austria, France, and Britain conjointly and repeat-
edly, Italy, the Low Countries, Denmark, and Portugal, were wholly disregarded by the
czar's ministers, and mutual reprisals continued; incendiarism and murder reigned ram-
pant; the wca'thier Poles were ruined by fines and confiscations; and the whole popula-
tions of village.; were put to the sword by the Russians; while murders and assassina-
tions marked the reign of terror of the national committee. At last, with the officious
: sisianco of Prussia, and the secret sympathy and support of Austria, the czar's troops
(succeeded in trampling out (1864) the last embers of insurrection. Great numbers of
men, women, and even children, concerned in, or supposed to have favored the revolt,
were executed; crowds were transported to Siberia; and these vigorous measures seem
to nave restored "tranquillity, but it is the tranquillity of the desert." Contemporary
with t'uis last outbreak, symptoms of similar disaffection were distinctly noticeable in
Prussian Poland, but a strong force of soldiery in the border districts toward Russia
prevented any outbreak. It deserves to be noticed that, with the exception of the singls
revolt of 1846 (which perished almost of itself), no rebellion has ever taken place in the
portion of Poland belonging to Austria.
POLAND, KINGDOM OF, a province of European Russia, which was united to that
empire in 1815 — though the title of kingdom was left, and a peculiar form of government
long continued to distinguish it from the other provinces — is. surrounded by Prussia,
Austria, and western Russia or Russian Poland, and contains 48,863 English sq.m., Avith
a pop. (1873) of 6,356,049. In 1867 there were 4,326,473 Roman Catholics, 783.079 Jews,
331,223 Protestants (Lutherans and reformed), and 259,192 Greek church (mostly united}.
The surface of the country is in general very level, with now and then a hill, or rather
undulation, which relieves the uniformity of the scene. In Radom, however, there is a
range of hilK some peaks of which attain a height of 2,000 ft. above sea-level. The
chief river of Poland is the Vistula, which enters the country by its southern boundary,
and flows first n. and then n.w., making its exit near Thorn; two of its tributaries, the
"Wieprs atxl the Pilica, belong wholly, and third, the Bug, partially to Poland. The
"VVarta, one of the tributaries of the Oder, drains the w. , and the Niernen, the n.e. dis-
tricts. The Vistula and the Niemen are wholly navigable in Poland; and the BUST,
Navew. and "Warta are so for a considerable portion of their course. By these means of
communication the exports of the country are collected at Dantzic, Stettin, Memel, and
Tilsit, on the Balt;c, and the imports introduced into the country. The climate is severe;
the summers being very hot, and the winters excessively cold. The soil very much
resembles that of ihe other parts of the former kingdom of Poland, producing magnifi-
cent crops of wheat, rye, barley, oats, and buckwheat, the usual leguminous plants,
hemp, tobacco, flax, and orchard-fruits. Upward of 13,000 sq.m. are covered with
forests, and fully 8,000 sq.m. are waste. Since 1867 Poland is divided for administrative
purposes into 10 governments — viz. •
Poland.
1'olar.
Governments Eng. sq. Miles. Pop.
Kaliscz ............................ ............. 4,197 687,371
Kielcc ......................................... 8,621 5:30,146
Lomza ......................................... 4,400 495,105
Lublin ........................................ 6,260 734,018
Piotrkov ........................................ 4,484 682,495
Plock .......................................... 3.995 490,143
Radom ......................................... 4.7.V, 54fi,»45
Siedlce ........................................ 5,295 550.103
Ssuwalki ....................................... 4,050 5-J-J.750
Wai-saw ....................................... 5,433 1,090,973
Total 47,090 6,35(5,049
The population is about 128 to the sq.m., being more than three times as dense as that
of the rest of European Russia. A large proportion of the country population employ
themselves in the rearing and breeding of horses, cattle, and pigs; sheep are not so com-
mon; but swarms of bees abound, and there is a large export trade in honey. The pop-
ulation of the towns is largely employed in. wool-spinning and the manufacture of
•woolen cloth, cotton and linen spinning and weaving, the production of liqueurs, oil,
Yinegar, glass and earthenware, paper, beer and porter, etc. The most of the commerce
is in the hands of the Jews. Poland, which had a separate government till 1864, was in
that year deprived of the last remnant of its administrative independence. After the
suppression of the revolt (see preceding article), the country was placed under eight mil-
itary governors; iu 1867 the administration was committed to a commission silting at
St. Petersburg; and by an ukase, dated Feb. 23, 1868, the government of Poland was
absolutely incorporated with tlurt of Russia. The total value of Polish industries in
1873 was £12,000,000, a very large sum, considering that the population is chiefly agri-
cultural. In the same year the commerce of Poland reached £25,683,874. The Warsaw
daily press has an issue of 24,000 copies; and there are 31 scientific and literary period-
icals. Besides, newspapers are published iu the other principal towns.
POLAND, LUKE P., LL.D., b. Vt., 1815; studied law and was admitted to the bur
in 1836; he rose rapidly in the profession, was probate register in IK!!), pn»eciiting
attorney in 1843, and in 1848 became a member of the state supreme court. lie remained
on the bench 16 years, for the last five of which he was chief-justice. In 1805 he was
elected U. S. senator to fill a two years' vacancy. From 1867 to 1875 he was a mcmlx r
of congress from Vermont, and was prominent among the republican leaders.
POLAR CIRCLE, or ARCTIC CIRCLE. See ARCTIC.
POLAR CLOCK, an instrument invented by sir Charles Whcatstor.e for telling the
time of day by means of light which has been polarized by passing through the aimos-
phere. The- reader of the article POLARIZATION will understand the manner in which
the light of the sky is polarized in a direction at right angles to the sun's rays. If the
Nicol's prism.which is described in that article, is used as an anatyzer and placed with its
axis parallel to that of the earth and turned around so as to change its position toward
the plane of polarization, there will be a change of intensity of light and color. The
game changes will be produced if the axis of the prism is not revolved with respect to
the earth, because the earth's axial rotation will change the relative plane of polarization
of the sun's rays. These remarks, taken in connection Avith the article POLAKI/ATK.N,
explain the principle of the polar clock, whose description by the inventor may be con-
densed as follows: At the extremity of a vertical pillar a hollow conical tube is mount id
upon a hinge so that its axis may be brought, at any part of the earth's suitY.ce, parallel
with its axis. The plane of the base of the cone consists of a ring in which tlieie i.s
fitted a glass disk, whose plane is. of course, perpendicular to the earth's axis. On the
lower half of this disk there is a graduated semicircle divided into 12 parts, indicating
the hours from VI. to VI. This ring and glass disk arc fixed upon an arm. ::nd cannot
be rotated. The other part of the cone, however, whose l.ase fits within the ring, may
be revolved on its axis, and in this base there is also fitted another glass disk, in win >.-e
center there is a small star, formed of thin scales of sclenite, which, when examined by
polarized light, exhibits strong contrasts of colors. An index upon the plate is placed
in such a position as to be a prolongation of one of the principal sections of the sclenite
scales or plates. At the smaller end of the conical tube there is a N'icol s prism vhich
has either of its diagonals 45° from the principal section of the sclenite plates. Placing
the eye behind the Nicol's prism the observer will find that the star will in general be
richly colored; but as the tube is turned on its axis the colors will vary in inten-iiy,
and in two positions will entirely disappear. In one of these positions a smaller circular
disk in the center of the star will be of a certain color, while in the other position it will
have the complementary color. This effect is obtained by placing the principal t-eetion
of the small central disk 22^° from that of the other sections of sclenite forming the star.
The time is ascertained as follows: the tube is turned on its axis until the color of the
star entirely disappears, while the central disk remains red, when the index will j.omt :;t
the hour within a very few minutes. Unlike the sun-dial, the polar clock need not be
QQQ Poland.
Polar.
placed in the pun's rays; it may stand in the shade of a tree or a building, or at an.
window, and it maybe used when the sky is overcast if the obscurity is not great,
particularly in the direction of the u. star.
POLAB EXPEDITIOUS. Under this head are classed all those voyages of discovery
which have been made toward the n. and s. poles, and to the regions within the Arctic
and Antarctic circles. The u. polar regions present a much greater land-surface than
these round the s. pole, and on this account possess a higher temperature, and offer a
more valuable field for discovery, for which reasons, as well as by reason of their greater
proximity, polar expeditious have been far more frequently directed to the n. than to
the south.
Arctic Expeditions. — Polar expeditions were commenced with a view to discover a
shorter route to the golden realms of the east; but the first attempts were made by coast-
ing along the n. of Europe and America. See NORTH-EAST AND NORTH-WEST PASSAGES.
It vras not till 1603 that the first arctic exploring expedition, consisting of one vessel, the
Godspeed, commanded by Stephen Bennett, started for a voyage of northern discovery;
and this, as well as the succeeding expeditions of Bennett, were devoted to morsc-hum-
ing rather than to geographical investigation. In 1607 Henry Hudson (q.v.) was sent
out by the Muscovy" company to penetrate to the n. pole, but he was stopped about the
n. of 'Spitzbergen (in lat. 81^30) by the ice. The succeeding voyages of Jonas P'-ole in
1610, 1611, and 1612, and of Baffin in 1613, were not primarily voyages of discovery,
and they added nothing to the previous knowledge of the polar regions; but in tho
expedition of Fotherby and Baffin up Davis's strait, in the following year, the latter dis-
covered a northern outlet to the bay called by his own name, which wus denominated
Smith's sound. Fotherby was sent out again in 1615, and attempted to pass through tint
sea which lies between Greenland and Spitzbergen, but was again baffled, and compelled
to return, after correcting some erroneous observations of Hudson. These seven expe-
ditions were all sent out" by the Muscovy company; and the cargoes of seal-skins, oil,
teeth, etc., which they brought back helped to defray the expense of their outfit. For
the next century and a half the attempts to reach the n. pole were not resumed; but the
extraordinary zeal in the cau-;e of naval discovery which sprung up in the beginning
of George III.'s reign, produced two renewed efforts. The first of these was made in
the spring of 1773 by an expedition consisling of two vessels, under capt. John Phipps
(afterward lord Mulgrave), and fitted out by the admiralty purely for scientific pur-
poses. Phipps sailed along the shore of Spitzbergen till he was stopped by the ice at
Cloven CliiT; he then coasted backward and forward r.iong the ice-field for nearly a
month, trying the various narrow openings, some of which were two leagues in depih,
till lie found one which took him into open water. By a sudden change in the climate
he was frozen in, and only extricated his ships after severe labor. The highest point to
which he reached was lat. 80° 48' n., less by 49 m. than the most northerly latitude,
attained by Hudson; and though he had a more than usual amount of difficulties If)
encounter, yet his failure, along with that of capt. Cook, who attempted to reach tho
pole by Behring's strait, but only penetrated to lat. 70° 45' n., greatly disheartened other
explorers. The offer of £3,000 by the British parliament to the crew that should pen-
etrate to within 1° of the pole, awaked no competition; but in 1806 Mr. Scorcsby, then
mate of a Greenland whaler from Hull, reached a point directly u. of Spitzbergen, in
lat. 81° 80' n., and therefore only about 510 geographical m. from the pole. In follow-
ing expeditions the same enterprising navigator made many geographical explorations of
Jan Mayen'3 land and the e. coast of Greenland, largely adding to our knowledge of the
character and products of the arctic regions. The subsequent expeditions of Buchan
and Franklin in 1818, of Clavering in 1823, of Graab (Danish) in 1828, of De Blosseville
(French) in 1833, may be considered as failures, as far as geographical discovery is con-
cerned; for, omitting the French expedition, the fate of which is still involved in mys-
tery, none of them reached so high latitudes as the previous English expeditions After
the failure 01 Buchan and Franklin's expedition, the impossibility of ever reaching the
pole was generally accepted in this country as fact; but Mr. Scoresby, in a memoir which
lie communicated to the TVrerncrian society, endeavored to prove that this supposed
impossibility was by no means such; in fact, that a journey to the pole could be mad :
without any enormous amount either of difficulty or danger. The principal obstacle t<r
be encountered being the alternation of ice-fields and water, which prevented all advauc ;
cither by ships or sledges, Mr. Scoresby proposed the use of a vehicle which could ) a
used either as a sledge or boat, and recommended a team of dogs to draw it, they bein .j
lighter (for conveyance by water, and for traveling over thin ice) and more tractabl >.
than reindeer. After some time this suggestion began to receive a consideiable share of
attention, and capt. Parry (celebrated for his discoveries in the polar seas n. of America/
was put in command of an expedition fitted out in accordance with Scoresby'n plans.
He sailed from. England in the llccln, on Mar. 27, 1827; but it was June 22 before the
exploring party quitted the ship, which was left on the n. shore of Spitzbergen, in charge
of a small crew, and betook themselves to the boats; and in spite of the advanced season
of the year they in the first two days advanced to 81° 13'. Here they began to encounter
many difficulties; the ice-fields were small, and near each other, necessitating a constant
conversion of the vehicle from a sledge to a boat, which could not be effected without
Kolar. OAf)
Polarity.
unloading it, an operation •which consumed much time. This hardship, however, was
endurable; but, to Parry's intense chagrin, he discovered, about July '22, that the ice
over which they were traveling was moving southward us rapidly as they were advancing
n., so that on the 24th, after having traveled apparently 22 in. in the three previous days,
they found themselves in the same latitude as on the 21>t. Under these circumstances
Parry resolved to return, which he accordingly did, reaching his ship on Aug. 21. The
highest point reached by him was 823 40'. A new laud, about 200 in. n. ol' Nova Zcmblu,
to which the name Franz Joseph laud has been assigned, was discovered by the Austro-
Jlungarian polar expedition of 1872-74, under lieuts. \Veyprecht and Payer. Its s. < oast
lies about the 80th parallel, and it was explored, by means of sledges, up to h2 5 n.,
while land was seen extending as far as 83 north. In 1854 two American explorers
passed through Smith's sound, and reached cape Constitution in 82 ' 27' n. lat., and taw,
as they thought, a boundless open polar sea. The Polar in sailed in July, 1871, from
New London, Conn., and reached 82° 16' north. The supposed polar si ;. being a sound
entering Kennedy channel, gave hopes of reaching the pole through Smith's sound. An
English arctic expedition under capt. Nares sailed in 187.3, and, through Smith's sound,
reached the highest latitude ever attained, 83° 20'. Unable to penetrate further, it
returned in 1876. See NOKTII-EAST AND NORTH-WEST PASSAGES.
Antarctic Expeditions. — The attempts to penetrate to the s. pole arc of very recent
date, inaiuly because a knowledge of the southern polar regions is only valuable to
Europeans from a scientific point of view. Cook and Furneaux are the lii>t navigators
who are known to have crossed the antarctic circle, but the former penetrated only to
lat. 71° 10' s., and neither made any discoveries of importance. Beliiiighauscn, a Rus-
sian navigator, reached lat. 70' s. in 1819, and two years after discovered Alexander's
land and Peter's land, then the most southerly islands known. In 18:J3 cant. Weddell
reached int. 74° 15' s., long. 34° 10' w., and saw beyond him an open sea t:> the s., but
made uo important additions to our geographical knowledge. In 18:"»1 eapt John !
discovered Lnderby land; and in 1830 flic scaling-schooncr /.' , from New Zea-
and, discovered Sabriua land (q.v.); and in the same year the U. S. expedition, under
capt. Wilkes, set out on a career of exploration, which resulted in the discovery (Jan.,
1840) of what he'with reason supposed to be a continuous coast-line, though an ice-line
of from 8 to 12 m. in width prevented him from establishing iis continuity beyond
dispute. Tim (.supposed continental) coast stretched from Riugold's knoll on the e. to
Enderby land on the w., and was distinguished by the absence of currents to disturb the
ice-barrier, and by a much less precipitous character than belongs to islands. In i
French expedition, under D'Urville, discovered a line of coast lying directly s. from
Victoria (Australia) on the antarctic circle. But the most important dix ovei ies of all
were achieved by capt. (afterward sir James) Clarke Ros.\ who made three several voy-
ages in 1841-43, discovering Victoria land (q.v.), and tracing its coast from lat. 71 to
lat. 78° 10' (the highest southern latitude ever attained). In his tln'rd voyage Poss proved
that the lands discovered by D'Urville were islands of inconsiderable magnitude; and
his nntarciic expedition has besides supplied much important information to the students
of natural history, geology, and, above all, of magnetism (q.v.). Ross's geographical
discoveries have since been confirmed; but a large extent, of surface within the aularctio
circle still remains unexplored.
POLAR EXPEDITIONS (ante). In 1860 Dr. Isaac I. Hayes mnde r,n expedition to
Smith sound; and, by sledge, to a point as far n. as 82.45; and in 186;) visited Greenland,
and explore:! a considerable portion of its southern coast. See HAYL:S, ISAAC I. mite.
Unsuccessful efforts were made to reach the n. pole by way of Bare 11 tz sea, from 1857 to
1867, by the Swedes, Germans, and Austrian*: the German geogr-yhcr, Petermann hav-
ing given the weight of his authority to the opinion that this was the most feasible route.
Capt. H«ll made his first expedition in 1860: and his last, on the IVnri*. in 1870. See
HAT/L, CHAIU/ES FKAXCIS. He added materially to the existing geographical knowledge
concerning the arctic regions, and gained valuable information regarding the fate of the
Franklin expedition. Lieutenants Weyprecht and Payer, of the German expedition of
1870. discovered the farthest northern land yet found, reaching to lat. 83°. In 1875
capt. Nares made an unsuccessful attempt to reach the n. pole by Smith sound. In
1875, '76, and '78, prof. Nordenskjold explored from the Norwegian coast by way of
the Kara eea. find past the mouth of the Lena river, skirting the whole of Siberia to
Behring's straits, demonstrating the practicability of making the voyage by this route
from Norway to Japan. On July 8, 1879, the Jeannette, a bark-rigged steam-yacht of
420 tons burden, sailed from San Francisco for a voyage of exploration to the arctic
regions, via Behrinir's straits; the first to attempt it by this route. This expedition was
Sited out by James Gordon Bennett, proprietor of the New York //. raid, who. in 1877
had bought the Pandora (which had made one arctic voyage under capt. Young), and
*.fter having her thoroughly refitted, had christened her the .l^nnxiic. She was con
royed as far as St. Paul's, by the U* S. steamer Alaxka, and after taking in coal, and a
supply of trained Esquimaux do<rs, set sail for the discovery of the n. pole: at the pres-
ent writing (April, 1881) the success or failure of this expedition is not known, and the
subject of fitting out a vessel to go in search of it is under consideration by congress.
The Jeannette was commanded by lieut. George W. De Long, U. S. N. In 1877 capt.
04.1 Polar.
Polarity.
H. "W. Howgate, U. S. N., proposed a plan for future exploration within the Cist paral-
lel, which met with general approval. This was to establish a colony at some point of
the region named, to be made up of hardy and experienced arctic exj lorers, with a view
,/>f making this the base of constant future exploring northward. A bill appropriating
£50,000 for this purpose was introduced into congress; but thu design, though not aban-
doned, has not been as yet accomplished.
Antarctic exploration has not been pursued to near the extent of that which has been
directed toward the n. pole. Sir James Ross reached iat. 78° 11' s. in lS!if;-48, and this
as the most southern point made by any navigator. The climate of the antarctic region
is much move severe than that of the arctic; and while there are more and different
varieties of birds, there arc apparently no quadrupeds. Vegetation, which is prolific
vithin the arctic circle, ceases in the antarctic at a certain point, which for trees is
about 50° s. Iat.
POLAIUSCOPE, an instrument used for testing the amount of polarization in abeam
of light. See POLARIZATION OF LIGHT. As polarization of light consists in reducing
the luminous vibrations to one plane, that part of a polarizing apparatus — of which there
are several kinds— which is called the analyzer performs the office of a polariscope; but
to make an cllicieut instrument, several additions are required. There are different
forms. In Arago's polariscopo a plate of quartz cut across its axis is placed in one end
of a tube, which carries at the other end a double refracting prism, by means of which
two images are cecn, which in common light arc colorless, but in polarized light exhibit
complementary colors. In the saccharimcter of £oleil there is a ditk of rock crystal
made of two semicircular plates respectively cut from crystals of right and left-handed
rotatory power. This disk produces the Lest effect when of a thickness of 0.148 of an
inch. "When common light passes through this disk, and then through an analyzer, it
does not become colored: but if it has been polarized, that is, reduced to vibrations in
one plane, the two semicircles of Avhich the disk is composed will exhibit complementary
colors, except in one position, when the tint will be the same in both. Any alteration
in the power of the medium through which a polarized ray passes to turn the plane of
polarization to the right or to the left will cause a reappearance of color, and therefore
this instrument is useful in examining sugars. Sec SACCHAHIMETEH and SACCHAROM-
CTER.
FOLAEITY. The n. and s. poles of the earth's axis are terms familiar to all, and
t»o are the derived terms of the n. and s. poles of a magnet (q.v.). A right-handed and a
left-handed corkscrew, or helix, are also perfectly well known. The distinction
between the numbers of. any of these pairs leads us to the consideration of polarity,
which it is dliiicr.lt to define except by illustrations. In the case of the helix, it is the
difference between i ;.• /lit -handed and left-handed; not as in a magnet, the difference
between the two ends. If we look closely into the question, we find that it is impossible
to define ihe term " right-hardcd rotation " in the abstract. We may define it as being
the same P.S that of the hands of a watt:!), or that of the apparent motion of the celestial
bodies ah:>"t u:; in <'/</'* northern fienu'xpl.crc; but to a person at the equator, or to one
who had never reen a watch, such comparisons would be without meaning. In fact, it
is impossible to i;ive a definition of even such a simple term as right, d(,irn, cant, etc.,
independent of reference to the motion or position of some external object. But there is,
in many cares, a:i important scientific reality underlying, nud perhaps causing these dif-
ficulties. To a spectator looking down upon the n. pole of the earth, the axial rotation
would appear to be left-handed, or opposite to that of the hands of a watch; while at the
s. pole the appearance is the reverse. In fact, as motion in a horizontal straight line
appears to bo from right to left, or from left to right, according to the side on which the
spectator stands; so "motion in a curve appears to be right -handed or left-handed,
according to the side of its plane from which i't is looked at. And this is now known to
be the cause of the difference of poles in a magnet; the hypothesis of two magnetic
fluids is dismis-cd, and Ampere's explanation, that in a magnet currents of electricity
revolve round each particle in planes perpendicular to the direction of magnetization, at
once accounts for the dissimilarity of the poles. Such a figure as this gives a clear idea
of the subject. A little electric current, such as that in the figure, in which positive
electricity passes in the direction indicated by the arrow-head, acts upon external bodies
exactly as a small magnet would whose axis 'is. as in the cut, perpendicular to its plane,
the arrow-head representing the north pole; that is, the pole which turns
toward the south. Again, an electric current passing in a straight wire
would at first sight appear to l:e altogether independent of polarity; yet
;t is found that such a current moving in the #trt tight line in the cut, in
the direction of the arrow-head, tends to make the north pole of a magnet
rotate round it in the direction indicated by the arrow-head in the circle.
An'ain, there are certain crystals, which, when heated, become electric.
One end of a prism of tourmaline, for instance, takes positive, the other
negative electricity. Al«o certain crystals of quartz cause a ray of polarized light, which
passes along their axis, to rotate right-handedly; others left-handedly. The difference
in these cases is due to molecular arrangement, other effects of which arc easily seen in
ihe tourmaline, in the dissymmetry, of the two terminals of the prism, and, in quartz, in
Polarization.
842
the position of certain small faces of the crystal, so that a preliminary inspection enables
us to predict the direction of the effect to be obtained from any particular specimen.
The term has various other applications, amongst the least defensible of which is that
to light. See POLAKIZATION OF LIGHT.
POLARIZATION OF LIGHT. A ray of light from the sun or a lamp, which has not
been reflected or refracted in its course to the eye, po-^v-ses no properties by which one
tide of it can be distinguished from another; if, for instance, it be divided into two by a
colorless doubly refracting crystal, such as Iceland spar, these two rays will be of appar-
ently equal intensity in whatever position the crystal be placed (RKFUACTION, Dorm.;.).
But if the ray has 'been reflected from a surface of glass or water, it is found that in
general the intensities of the two rays into which it is divided by the doubly-refracting
crystal are not only unequal, but dependent upon the position of the crystal with reler-
ence to the plane in which the light was previously refracted or reflected. This i- a
conclusive proof that the light has undergone some change by reflection or refraction,
so that it is no longer the same all round, but possesses sirh'8 (in the language (if Newton),
or (in modern phraseology) is, polarized. Perhaps the most complete illustration of this
very important fact is to be found by using two doubly-refracting bodies — two small
crystals of Iceland spar, for instance — and pasting on a side of one of them a slip of
paper with a pin-hole in it. On looking through0this crystal, the covered side being
turned toward a bright body, we see two images of the pin-hole, t"tm>Vtj bright. Look
at these through the second crj'stal. each is in general doubled; we see four images of
the pin-hole, but these are generally unequal in brightness;* and by turning either of the
Crystals round the, line of sight as an axis, we find that there are positions, at right
angles to each other, in which only two images are visible. If we turn further, the lost
images appear faint at first, and gradually becoming brighter, while the others become
fainter in proportion; till, when we have completed a quarter of a revolution, the ne>v
images alone remain, the others having disappeared. From this it follows that each of
the rays into which a single beam of light is decomposed by double refraction pos-
sides, or is polarized; and to such an extent as to be incapable of being again doubly
refracted in certain positions of the second crystal. By taking advantage of the differ-
ence of the refractive indices (REFRACTION) of the twro rays produced by Iceland sj-ar,
and the close agreement of one of them with that of Canada balsam, Nicol constructed
his "prism," which is one of the most useful pieces of polarizing apparatus. It consists
of two pieces of Iceland spar. cemented with Canada balsam, and allows only one t>f t'iC.
two rays produced by doable refraction to pass through. When we look at a flame through
two Nicol's prisms in succession, we find that the amount of light transmitted depends
on their relative position. If they arc similarly placed, we have the maximum amount
— viz., half the incident light; if they are crossed, that is, if one be made to rotate
through a right angle from the position last mentioned, no light, not even the most pov. -
erful sunlight, can pass through the transparent combination. There are certain doubly-
refracting bodies, such as tourmaline, iodosulphate of quinine, etc., which by absorption
stifle one of the two rays into which they divide a beam of light, and which act there-
fore precisely as Nicol's prism does. But they have the great disadvantage of coloring
the transmitted light very strongly; and this renders them unfit for the study of the
gorgeous phenomena of color (perhaps the grandest displays in optics) which are pro-
duced by polarized light. But for the verification of the facts to which we now proceed,
a tourmaline or a Nicol's prism will do equally well, and will be called the analyzer.
And first as to the reflection of light, a cause of polarization first delected by Mains. If
we examine by the analyzer light reflected from water, unsilvcred glass, polished or var-
nished wood, jet, etc., we find that it is more or less completely polarized; but that
there is a particular angle for each substance, at which if light be reflected (see REFLEC-
TION) from its surface it is completely polarized; that is, can be completely stopped by
the analyzer in certain positions, just as a ray which has passed through a N 'col's prism.
It was discovered by Brewster that this angle, called the polariziny 'angle, has its tan-
gent equal to the index of refraction of the reflecting body: or, in another form, the
reflected light from a surface of glass, water, etc., is completely polarized when its direc-
tion is perpendicular to thr.t of the corresponding refracted ray. The light reflected
from the second surface of a glass plate is also completely polarized at the same angle;
and one of the most useful polarizers which can be made is a pile of thin glass plates,
from the surfaces of which light is reflected at the proper angle, which is for ordinary
window-glass about 54°. The light which passes through the glass plates is partially
polarized, and its polarization is more nearly complete the greater the number of plates
employed. And it appears that these rays are polarized in planes perpendicular to each
other — i.e., that the analyzer which extinguishes the reflected ray has \f> be turned
through 90° to extinguish* the refracted ray.
In order that we may arrive at some ideas as to the nature of polarization, we must
consider on the basis of the uudulatory theory of light (q.v.) flow a ray of light can have
bides. If we take, for a comparison, waves of sound, as we know that in them (SOUND)
the particles of air move back and forward in the l.'.ne in which the sound travels, we see
that a beam of sound cannot possibly have sides, since the motions of the particles of
air in it are precisely the same from whatever side we consider them. Next take waves
Polarization.
In water, where we see the water rising and falling as the undulation (not the water)
travels uniformly onward in u horizontal direction; and this at once gives the required
analogy. So far as phenomena of interference (q.v. ; see also DIFFKACTION) are con-
cerned, waves, whether in air or in water, present them, so that they merely show us
that light depends on undulations, but not the kind of undulation. But when, frcm the
facts of polarization, we find that a ray of light can have sides, we tee ihat the vibra-
tions of the luminiferous medium must be transverse to the direction, of the ray. Common
light, then, consists of vibrations which take place indifferently and in succession in all
directions transverse to that of the ray; while light which is completely poiari/ed has
its vibrations limited to a particular transverse direction. A Nicol's prism allows no
light to pass through it except that which vibrates in a particular tninsver.se direction,
depending upon the position of the axes of the pieces of Iceland spar of which it is made
Light which has passed through one Nicol's prism is sifted so as to contain none but such'
transverse vibrations, and will of course pass freely through a second prism, or be com-
pletely or partially stopped by it; according as the two prisms are .similarly situated, or
lurueu1 so that the directions of the vibrations they can transmit are inclined at right
angles, or at any oilier angle. •
It is not yet settled what the direction of these vibrations is in any particular case;
whether they take place in, or perpendicular to, the plane of polarization; and the point
is extremely important in the theory of the subject, though not to the explanation of the
ordinary experimental results. To explain the nature of this difficulty, we merely men-
tion the simple case of polarization by reflection at a glass plate. Do the vibrations of
the reflected ray take pkicv perpendicular to the plane of reflection (i.e., parallel to the
reflecting surface), or do they take place in the plane of reflection? Some high authori-
ties are in favor of the latter hypothesis, but the general opinion of scientific men at
present unquestionably leans to the former. Many delicate experiments have bees made
to decide ihe question, but their results have been irreconcilable with each other. From
the results which we have just arrived at, it is evident that the oscillations, or vibrations of
the luminiferous medium, of which light consists, are similar to those of the bobof a pen-
dulum (q.v.), the ray in this case being supposed to proceed vertically downwards. Polar-
ized light consists oi' vibrations analogous to those of the ordinary pendulum, backward ai:d
forward in a line. But we have seen that any motion of the pendulum may be compounded
of two such motions in planes perpendicular to each other. This is analogous to the decom-
position of common light by a doubly-refracting crystal into two rays polarized at right
angles. But we tind in nature, and can produce artificially, motions of the luminiferous
medium resembling exactly the elliptic, and circular motions of the (conical) pendulum.
They occur in nature in all cases of reflection from metallic surfaces, and also from ;he
surfaces of highly refractive bodies, such as diamond, etc. The easiest artificial method
of procuring them is to allow polarized light to pass through a thin
plate of a doubly refracting crystal, such as a film of mica. Thus if
OA be the direction of vibration of the polarized light, the ray
moving perpendicularly to the paper Oa, Ob, the directions (at
right angles to each other) of vibration of the two rays into which
it is divided by the mica, we have only to let fall from A perpen-
diculars on Oa and Ob to determine the extent of the resolved
vibrations in these directions. Now if (he two rays moved equally
rapidly through the mica, they would simply recombinc on leaving
it into a single plane polarized ray, whose vibrations would be
represented by OA as before. But. in general, one of the rays is
retarded more than the other, and the combination of two such
oscillations is seen by geometrical considerations to give an ellipse
whose center is at O, and which touches each side of the rectangle
of which Art and Ab are halt' sides. The limiting forms of these FlG-
ellipses are, of course, the diagonals of the rectangle; so that there are two cases for the
light remaining plane polarized after passing through the mica, for an infinite number in
which it will be elliptically polarized. Also the difference of retardation of the two
rays may be such as to correspond to a description of these ellipses either right-handedly
or the opposite. In particular cases the ellipse may be a circle; then it is obvious that
the rectangle must become a square, that the directions of vibration of the two rays in
the mica must be equally inclined to that of the original polarized ray, and that one ray
must be retarded an odd number of quarter oscillations more than the other. If it he 1,
5, 9, etc., quarter oscillations, the rotation is in one direction; if 8, 7, 11, etc., it is in
the opposite. Circularly polarized light cannot be distinguished by the eye, even wi'h
the help of a Nicol's prism, from common light; but by the interposition of a thin plalo
of a doubly refracting crystal, phenomena are produced which common light cannot
give. Before we leave this part of the subject, it may be remarked that the composition
of two equal and opposite circular vibrations produces a plane vibration, whose plane
depends upon the simultaneous positions of the revolving bodies in their circular orbits.
Hence a plane polarized ray may always be considered as made up of two circularly
polarized rays, and if these pass through a medium which retards one more than the
other, the plane of polarization of their resultant, when they leave the medium, will in
general not be the same as that of the incident ray. In other words, the plane of polar-
PoTe. Q < I
Pofeaxe.
ization will have been caused to rotate through a certain angle, which will be propor-
tional to the difference of retardation of its circular components. This is the explanation
of what Biot called Tolatoiy polarization in quartz, turpentine, sugar, etc., and of the
rotation of the plane of polarization discovered by Faraday when a polarized ray passes
through a transparent body under the action of a magnet.
In the first of these cases, the retardation, is due to molecular heterogeneity; in the
second, it depends upon molecular motions produced by the magnet. The effect is
greater in each case the more refrangible the rays; and therefore. \\hen the light v. l.ich
has passed through the medium is examined witli an analyzer, the successive colors of
the spectrum are cut olF each at a different angle, and the observed tint is that <um
pounded of those which remain. The saeeharometer (q.v.), for the determination of
sugar in a liquid, is an application of the first case; the second has not as yet been
lipplied to any practical purpose, but it has given most valuable information as to the
ultimate nature of magnetism.
When polarized light passes through a slice of any uniaxal double-refracting crystal,
nearly in the. direction of its axis, it is obvious that the difference of retardation of the
two rays into which it i.-j divided will depend only upon (1) their re frangibility and (S) their
inclination to the axis of the crystal. Hence, if we suppose the light To be hoir.ngc neons,
the effects of interference, and subsequent application of the analyzer, mils! l.e to pro-
duce appearances of bright and dark spaces, symmetrically disposed round tl:e axis;
that is, a series of concentric circular rings. The superposition of the separatee
rings, for each color of the spectrum, produces the appearance actually ol«erved; a
series of colored rings, like those known as Newton's rings, due to inU i fi rence (q. v.).
Besides these, however, there is a dark or bright cross, coi s'sting of two black or \\hite
bands, intersecting each other in the common center of
the rings. The dark bands are due to the absolute
stoppage by polarizer or analyzer, when | -.laced in
positions 90° from symmetry, of all light whose vibra-
tions are executed in the principal plains of the polar-
izer and analyzer. A similar explanation a| piles .o any-
other case. The system of colored rings thus produced
Is one of the most splendid results of the ( plical combi-
nations yet produced; and may be seen by any one by
the help of such simple apparatus as two fragments of
window-glass and a piece of clear ice fiom the surface
of a pom'. In undisturbed freezing, the axis of the iee
crystal is perpendicular to the surface of the water, and
the cake of ice is therefore, as it wen', cut for our
purpose. If light be reflected at an angle cf about .".4°
Fig. 2. -Uniaxal Crystal; Black Cross, from the first piece of glass, pass per] cndieularly
through the ice, and be again reflected (at 54 ) from the
cccond piece of glass, the phenomena above described will be at once seen, the appear-
ances varying wijh the relative position of the planes in which the re llec; ;<•;:.- lake place-
from the pieces of glass. If these planes be at right angles to each other, we have the
black cross as in figure 2; if parallel, a white cross.
If, instead of a uniaxal crystal, a biaxal crystal, such as niter or arragonite, be
employed, the system of colored rings and dark* brushes is more complex: symmetry
now requiring their arrangement about the two optic axes. The general appeara,1
the rings and brushes depends now, not only on the relative position of the polarizer and
analyzer, but also on the position of the crystal (which is no longer symmetrical about
an axis) with reference to these planes.
By employing circularly or elliptically polarized light, the appearances may be still
further varied, but we cannot enter into details.
Every donblv refracting body produces a change upon polarized 1'ght which passes
through it. Hence the application of the polarizer and analyzer (usually glass mirrors,
or Nicol's prisms) to the microscope is often of very great use in detecting crystalline,
ind other structural peculiarities. Solid bodies, suckas glass, which are singly refractive,
become doubly refractive when strained either by external forces or by unequal heating.
A permanent state of strain is produced in glass when it is cooled quickly. All these
phenomena are beautifully exhibited by polarized light. Again, the application of polar-
ized light is sometimes of "great importance in qualitative analysis, where only an e:
ingly small quantity of ii substance is procurable for examination, by enabling the
chemist to determine whether a minute crystal is doubly refractive or not.
A practical application of a polarizing prism niny be mentioned. In salmon spearing
it is often exceedingly difficult to see the fish at the bottom of the stream, on account of
the glare of liirht reflected from the surface. But as this light is always partially, some-
times wholly polarized, a great, part of it may be arrested by the analyzer held in a proper
azimuth: while the light escaping from the water \\ill Miller little loss.
The light of the sky, being mainly reflected light, is of course partially polarized.
The investigation of this subject has been most ably conducted by Brewster (Trans.
R 8. E., 18G2-63).
Pole.
Poloaxe.
POIDSE, .1 \vord used in the topography of the Netherlands, is the name given to
land below the level of the sea or nearest river, which, originally a morass or lake, has
been drained and brought under cultivation. An embankment, forming a canal of suffi-
cient height to command a run toward the sea or river, is made, and when carried quite
round, as in the case of the Haarlem lake, it is called the riiiyeiiurt. At one or more
points on the embankment apparatus for lifting water is placed, and worked by wind
or steam power. It' the lake deepens toward the center, several embankments and
canals are necessary, the one within the other, formed at different levels as the water-
surface becomes lessened, a connection being maintained with the outer canal, which
secures a run for the drainage water. In the Schermer polder, north Holland, are four
canal levels, the land between forming long parallelograms. The water from the inner
space is lifted into the first canal; that again, with the drainage of the second section, is
thrown into the second, and so on until the outer canal is reached, and a fail obtained.
The Netherlands polders are very numerous. The Becmster, a rich district of north
Holland, till 16 L2 water, is crossed at right angles by One avenues, and dotted with farm-
houses and orchards. In 1805. pop. 3, 933. TheZy'pe, Schermer, and Purmer are fertile
polders, but the most important is the drained Haarlem lake (q.v.). The land reclaimed
amounted to nearly 50,000 acres, and, in 1875, had a pop. of 12,570, with 3,867 horses,
5,897 head of horned cattle, 7,9:23 sheep, etc. There were iu cultivation — colza, 033
acres; madder, 318; flax, 2,573; beans, 2,353; potatoes, 737; wheat, 4,553; rye, 2,303;
barley, 2,145; oats, 12,734; beet, 400; peas, 737; mustard, 95; canary seed, 42; and other
crop.-!, 270. In 1874 in the Haarlemmeer were 614 births, 3 Ji deaths, and 95 marriages.
Iu connection with the new canal from the North sea to Amsterdam, several extensive
tracts of land have been reclaimed from the Ij, and formed into valuable polders, soma
of which are now bearing heavy crops.
POLE, Cardinal REGINALD, b. in Staffordshire in the year 1500, was the son of sir
Richard Pole, lord Montacute, by Margaret, countess of Salisbury, daughter of the duke
of Clarence, the brother of Edward IV. His early education was received from the
Carthusians at Sheen, whence, being liberally provided for by the king his relative, he
passed to Magdalen college, Oxford, and having received deacon's orders, was advanced
to several valuable preferments, through the favor of the king, Henry VIII. For tho
future prosecution of his studies, he went to the university of Paris, and thence to
Padua, where he formed the friendship of a distinguished group of scholars and friends,
all of whom subsequently took a leading part in public affairs — Contarcni, Bembo,
Sadoleto, and others. In 1535 he returned to England, where the highest ecclesiastical
dignities awaited his acceptance. But it was about this time that Henry had resolved
upon the divorce from his queen Catharine, and Pole not only withheld his assistance in
carrying out the project, but provoked the undying resentment of the king by his well-
known treatise, Ds Unitate EeclesiasticA. His preferments and pension were withdrawn,
and preparations were made for his impeachment. This, and probably still more
extreme measures, he evaded by withdrawing from England. The king's resentment
fell instead upon his elder brother, and upon his aged mother, the countess of Salisbury.
During the rest of Henry's reign, Pole remained in exile. The pope, for the mainte-
nance of whose authority, in the cause of the injured Catharine, Pole was regarded as a
martyr, treated him with distinguished favor, and elevated him to the cardinalate. lie
•was employed in many affairs of the highest importance, being sent as legate, iu 1537,
to France and the Low Countries, from both which states Henry VIII. in vain demanded
his extradition. He also took an active part in the discussion on the interim, and when
the council of Trent was opened, he was appointed one of the three legate- presidents who
acted in the name of the pope, Paul III. (q.v.). On this pontiff's death in 1549, Pole
was all but elected to succeed. For some time after Paul's death, he resided chiefly in
a monastery neat Verona, in comparative retirement, until the accession of Mary called
him back to active life, as the main instrument of the reconciliation of England with the
papacy. On Nov. 24, 1554, Pole solemnly entered London as legate and plenipo-
tentiary of the Roman see, possessing in an equal degree the confidence of the queen.
In the arduous charge thus intrusted to him, he acquitted himself with much prudence,
and, _ considering the circumstances of the time, with singular moderation. In the
religious or politico-religious severities which marked the later history of Mary's reign,
it is all but certain that Pole had no share. He was created archbishop of Canterbury,
and chancellor of the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. On the difficult and criti-
cal question of the disposal of the church property confiscated in the former reign, Pole,
who saw the necessity of moderation, was for a time at issue with the pope; but his rep-
resentations were successful in producing a more moderate policy, and the work of
reunion appeared to proceed with every prospect of a complete permanent issue, when
it was interrupted by the death of the queen in 1558. Pole died within less than twenty-
four hours afterward. Besides the treatise De Unitate, already mentioned, he is also the
author of a book De Condlio, and of other treatises on the authority of the Roman pontiff
and the reformation of England, and of very many most important letters, full of
interest for the history of the time.
POLEAXE, a weapon consisting of an axe-head mounted on a long pole. There were
many varieties of this arm, passing from a great hand-axe to an axe-headed spear or
Polecat. OA(\
Police.
halbert, several of the longer sorts bearing but little resemblance to an axe. In the navy,
a poloaxe or boarding-hatchet is a hatchet with a handle about fifteen inches long, and a
sharp point bending downward at the back opposite the blade. It is used for boarding
or resisting boarders.
POLECAT, or FITCIIET, Mustdn putnrin*, or Fatal-ins futidnx, a quadruped of the
weasel family (musteliihr), and commonly referred to the same ire n us with the weasel,
stoat, or ermine, etc. It is the largest British species of that genus, the length of the
iiead and body being about a foot and a half, the length of the tail more than iive, inches,
the form stouter than that of the weasel or of the ermine. Its color is a deep blackish
brown; the head, tail, and feet almost black, the under parts yellowish, the ears edged
with white, and a whitish space round the muzzle. The hair is of two kinds — a short
woolly fur, which is pale yellow, - son:, what tawny; and long shining hairs of a rich
black or brownish black color, which are most numerous on the darkest parts. The
nose is sharp, the; ears short and round, the tail pretty equally covered with longish hair.
There is a pouch or follicle under the tail, which exudes a yellowish, creamy substance
of a very fetid odor; and this odor is particularly strong when the ar.imal is irritated or
alarmed. Hence, apparently, its nama foumart {foul marten), which, with various pro-
vincial modifications, as fiiiiunirt. lltoumart, etc., is prevalent in most purls of Britain,
The origin of the names polecat and titchet is much more uncertain.
The polecat was much more common in Britain in former times than now, and is
almost extirpated from some districts, through the constant war waged against i! by game-
keepers and others. It eats everything thai the gamekeeper wishes to preserve. It is
extremely destructive in the poultry-yard, the abundance present there inviting it to
drink blood and eat brains, which seem to be its favorite luxuries. The rabbit is fol-
lowed by the polecat into its burrow, and its ravages among poultry are partly compen-
sated by its destruction of rats. — The taming of the polecat does not seem to have been
attempted. The smell prevents it. — The skin is imported from the n. of Europe under
the name of fitch, and is used as a kind of fur, similar but inferior to that of the marten
(q.v.). It is imported to some extent from the n. of Europe. To artists, the hair of the
jitch orjitcfict is well known as that of which their best brushes are made; the hairs used
for this purpose being the long hairs already noticed, which grow7 through the lighter-
colored fur of the animal — The ferret (q.v.) is supposed by some to be a mere variety of
the polecat. — A dark-colored kind of ferret is commonly regarded as a cross between the
polecat and the ferret, and is sometimes called the polecat-ferret. The polecat breeds
in May or June, making its n?st in an old rabbit burrow or similar hole, and producing
four, five, or six young. — In North America the skunk (q.v.) is called polecat.
POLEH02TIA'CE.ZE, a natural order of exogenous plants, allied to mnrohulacece. and
containing more than 100 known species, natives of temperate countries, and particu-
larly abundant in the north-western parts of America. They are mostly herbaceous
plants, with alternate and often pinnated leaves; regular hermaphrodite flowers; 5-cleft
calyx; 5-lobed corolla; 5 stamens, springing from the tube of the corolla; the ovary free,
surrounded with a fleshy disk; the style surmounted by a 3-cleft stigma; the fruit a cap-
sule v/ith 3 cb'ls and 3 valves; the seeds often enveloped in mucus, which contains spiral
threads. Some of the species are favorite garden flowers, as polemonimn c<rrulfwn,
cadcgft scanden*, and species of phlox, iponwpxis, gilia, etc. None are of value otherwise.
Polenwnium wernleum, the only British species, and a rare plant in Britain, is well known
in gardens by the curious name of Jacob's ladder. It is also called Gnr/,- w/mVm. It is
not supposed to be really the polemonium of the ancients, to which great medical virtues
were ascribed by them. It has a stem from one to two feet high, pinnate leaves, and a
panicle of blue (or white) flowers.
POLEH TA, a preparation of semolina (q.v.) or of Indian corn or maize meal, which 13
used as food by all classes in Italy. By the poorer classes, maize is universally used.
The material is mixed with milk or wa'ter, and boiled until it is just thick enough to
pour out into a dish, in which it becomes as firm as a thick jelly. Cheese is grated over
it, and other condiments are added according to taste, and it is cut out in slices, and
either eaten at once, or sometimes the slices are lightly fried in oil or butter. Semolina
being much more expensive, is only used by the wealthier people, and many ingredients
are added to suit their taste.
POLES (Gr. polos, a turning-point.), in geography, are the Iwo extremities of the axis
round which the earth revolves; they are therefore situated the one on the n. and the
other on "he s. side of the equator, and equidistant from all parts of it, or in lat. 90° n.
and l?t. 90° south. They are called the north and south poles of the earth. — In as
the poles, which, for distinction's sake, are frequently denominated " celestial poles," are
those points in the heavens to which the earth's axis is directed, and round which the
heavens seem to revolve. The celestial poles are valuable points of reference to astrono-
mers and geographers, so that the determination of their position in the heavens is a
matter of the utmost importance. Unfortunately no stare mark their exact situation
(sec POI.E-STAU) though there is a minute telescopic star only a few seconds from the north
pole, which may be employed instead of it in rough observations — and therefore it is
necessary to adopt some means for discovering its precise position. This is effected in
the following manner: A bright star (generally the pole-star) is selected, and its position
Polecat.
Police.
in its upper and its lower culminations (q.v.) is accurately noted; the point midway
between these t«'o positions of the star is the pole of the heavens. The observation of
tue stub's tvvo positions must be corrected for refraction, and it is for this reason that the
pole-star is selected, since the effect of refraction is much the same in both positions of
I lie slur. The term "poles" has, however, a wider application, as denoting the extremi-
ties of a line passing through the center of a great circle perpendicular to its plane; thus,
we have the poles of the horizon (viz., the zenith and nadir), the poles of the ecliptic, the
poles of a meridian ; and in the'same sense, the terestrial and celestial poles are spoken
of as the poles of the equator and equinoctial respectively. — Pole, in geometry, is used
in a very indefinite sense; and in pltysics, it denotes those points of a body at which its
Attractive or repulsive energy is concentrated. See POLARITY.
POLE-STAR, or POLARIS, the nearest conspicuous star to the north pole of the celes-
tial equator. The star which *>t the present time goes under the name of the " pole-star"
is the star a in the constellation of Ursa Minor. By examining attentively the general
movement of the stars throughout a clear winter's night, we observe that the}' describe
circles which are largest at the equator, and become smaller and smaller as we approach
a certain point (the north pole of the celestial equator), close to which is the star above
mentioned. This " pole-star" is, however, a little less than l-i° from the pole, and has a
email but sensible motion round it. See POLKS. Owing to the motion of the pole of the
celestial equator round that of the ecliptic (see PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES), this star
will in course of time (about 2100 A.D.) approach to within 28' from the north pole, and
will then recede from it. At the time of llipparchus (1,~6 B.C.), it was 12°, and in 1785, 2°
2' from the north pole. Its place can easily be found in the heavens, for a line drawn
between the stars a :ind ft (called the two pointers, from this peculiarity) of the constella-
tion Ursa Major, or the Great Bear, and produced northwards for about 4i times its
own length, will ::Imost touch the pole star. Two thousand years ago, the star ft of
1'i'sa Major was the pole-star; and about 2,300 years before the Christian era, the star
a in the constellation of the dragon was not. more than 10' from the north-pole; while
12,000 years alter the present time, the bright star Vega in Lyra will be within 5° of it.
The" south pole of the celestial equator is not similarly marked by the near neighbor-
hood of a bright star, the only star deserving the name "of the south pole-star being of
the sixth or least visible magnitude.
POLIAK THIS. See TUEEROSE.
POLICE' (Lat. f'lnia, Gr. politcia,, civil government; from polis. a city) are constables
or peacc-oilicers appointed in all parts of town and country for the purpose of watch-
ing property and detecting crime, and arresting offenders and maintaining public order.
Though the word policeman is now, especially in towns, a household word, the legal
denomination is that of constable; but he is a paid constable, to distinguish him from
unpaid constable^ raid special constables. In each parish in England the justices of
the peace have power to appoint constables to act gratuitously and compulsorily; but
the vestry has power to resolve that one or more paid constables shall be appointed, in
which case the justices are to make the appointment, and these paid constables super-
«de the unpaid constables. The salary of these parish constables is paid out of the poor
rates of the parish by the overseers. The justices also appoint a superintendent consta-
ble for each petty sessional division, to settle the fees and allowances which are to be
paid to the constables for the service of summonses, and for the execution of warrants
incidental to tlie office of justices of the peace. In all boroughs in England, the cor-
poration is empowered, by the municipal corporation acts, to appoint a watch commit-
tee, Avho appoint a sufficient number of men to act as constables. The treasurer of the bor-
ough pays their salaries, wages, and allowances, as well as extraordinary expenses incurred
by "theirt. By nn act of parliament applicable to counties, the justices are empowered to
establish a sufficient police force for each county, and a chief constable is appointed
to govern the whole.
The duties of constables or police-officers are exceedingly multifarious, and they
receive printed regulations to guide them in the proper discharge of such duties. They
have important duties in reference to the apprehension of offenders, and their powers are
necessarily larger than those of private individuals. Wherever a person is seen in the
act of committing a felony, it is the duty of every one, not merely of constables, to
anprehcnd him or her witliout any warrant, for no warrant is needed. Persons found
offending in many misdemeanors may also be apprehended by anybody without a war-
rant ; but in other cases, a constable only can make an arrest. In case of a riot, anybody
may arrest the rioter. Constables are bound to arrest hawkers trading wit bout a license;
and vagrants who are offending against the vagrant acts, such as telling fortunes, loiter-
ing about premises, etc. The powers of constables are much greater than those of
individuals with reference to crimes after they are committed. Thus, where the consta-
ble has not seen the offense committed, but is merely told of the fact, and he has reason
t<> believe it, he is entitled to arrest the party charged without any warrant; he must,
however, in such cases act only on reasonable suspicion. He is not justified, for exam-
ple, in apprehending a person as a receiver of stolen goods on the mere assertion of
the principal felon; nor is a constable justified in taking a person into custody for a
mere assault without a warrant, unless he himself was present at the time the assault
Police. 53J.Q
Polignac.
•was committed, or reasonably apprehends n renewal of it. If a constable have n
reasonable suspicion that a man has committed a felony, he may apprehend him; ai.d
so a private individual iiiuy do so. The difference between tin- authority of the consta-
ble and the private person in this respect is, that the hitler is justified only in case it
turn out that a felony was in fact committed; but the constable may Justify the arrest
and detention whether a felony was committed or not. It is the duty of a constable to
raise a hue and cry in search of a felon, and all private individuals are bound to join in
it, otherwise they may be indicted and fined. An arrest by a constable is u.aially made
by laying hands on the part}', and detaining him; but it is enough for the constable ta
touch him and say: " I arrest you, in the queen's name." If the party arrer;ted I :> in •>
house in hiding, the constable may demand admittance, and if ho is refr. erl may then break
open the doors; this is so in all cases where the pariy has committed treason or felony,
or has dangerously wounded another. In cases where the co:i.-l }•}•• is not authorized
at common law or by some statute to arrest a party without a warrant, then he must
produce a warrant signed by a justice of the peace, and show it to the party if it is
demanded; and if the constable happens not to have the warrant in his pocket at UK;
time, even though it is not asked for, it is an illegal arrest. When a party is arrested,
it is the duty of the constable to take him without any unreasonable delay b-l'ore a jus-
tice of the pence, and meanwhile lodge him in safe custody. The party arrested must
not be treated with harshness beyond what is necessary for safe cr •! therefore
it has been held that a constable has no right to handcuff a person whom he has appre-
hended on suspicion of felony, unless such person lias attempted to escape, or it be,
necessary to prevent an escape. Nor has a constable in general a right to search a per-
son apprehended, unless the latter conduct himself violently.
Tne conduct of constables in reference to public-houses is of some importance. It is
an offense in publicans and beer-house keepers, and indeed the keepers of all places of
public resort, to refuse to admit the constable into such house or place at any time. Thus,
in the case of these places being open on Sundays at the times prohibited by statute, the
constable, if he suspect that the act is being violated, may demand admittance, and
thus satisfy himself as to the fact. It is owing also to this power of a constable to
enter at all times, that he is enabled to detect other offenses in public-houses, .such as
harboring prostitutes and disorderly characters. Constables, when suspecting that a
betting house is kept, must first get a warrant from a justice of the peace, which can bo
obtained without notice to the parties, and can then break into the house. So as to gam-
ing-houses. While constables have summary power of entering public-houses, still this
is not to be abused; and it is a distinct offense in the keepers of all public places where
wine, spirits, beer, cider, or any fermented or distilled liquors are sold on the premises,
to knowingly harbor, or entertain, or suffer to remain there such constables during the
time they are on duty, except when quelling disturbances or restoring order. It is an
offense punishable with more than usual severity to assault constables when in the execu-
tion of their duty. Though constables are paid in great part by each county and borough,
and thus by the public at large, it is often requisite for individuals to require the services
of extra constables, in which case such individuals must pay for them at their own
expense, as is usual in theaters and large establishments. Of late years, considerable
complaint had been made as to constables interfering in the protection of game-pre-
serves and fisheries, it being considered that the owners of those properties ought to bear
the extra charge, if required, of the constables' giving more than ordinary attention to
poachers. But by the recent act, extended powers of detecting poachers of game were
given to constables, who are now entitled, whenever they suspect people on the high-
way of being engaged in poaching, to stop and search them, and then summon the poach-
ers, if necessary, before justices. See POACHING.
In 1875 the total police and constabulary in England and Wales amounted to 28,286
men. These are subdivided into chief constables of counties, 60; head constables of
boroughs, 158; superintendents, 488; inspectors, 976; sergeants, 3,064; constables, !2-
additional constables, 801. The proportion of policemen to the population is about 1 to 800.
In 1872 the total police expenses amounted to £2,372.880, of which £504,453 was paid
by her majesty's treasury, and £79,600 out of the superannuation fund. In the estimates
for 1878-79, the total expenditure on the police force of the United Kingdom was entered
at £2,543,235. It is noticeable that in the same year in which the clothing and accouter-
ments of the police cost £177,678, the station-house charges, printing, and stationery
amounted to £187,372. The public revenue pays nothing toward the city of London
police; it pays all the cost of the dock -yard police; it pays nearly one-fifth of the othtr
branches of the police.
In Ireland, the first regular police force was established in 1814, which was improved
in 1836 and 1839. Originally, the expense was defrayed partly out of the consolidated
fund; but in 1846 the whole expense was borne by the consolidated fund, with trifling
exceptions. In 1874 the total cost of the constabulary of Ireland amounted to £1,081.-
467. which included items of expenditure; such as pensions, gratuities, rent of barracks,
horses, forage, arms, ammunition, pay, and clothing. The number of constables in
1875 was Il,'l64.
In Scotland, during the year ending Mar., 1875, the police force for the counties was
1160, and that for the burghs was 1915; total, 3,075. In addition to this number, the
849
Tweed commissioners paid for 27 constables; 12 more are paid by other fishery commis-
sioners, 20 employed by companies or private persons, and 161 by harbor boards.
POLICE, MILITARY, has two significations — 1st, the organized body employed within
an army to preserve civil order, as distinct from military discipline; and 2d, a civil
police with a military organization. The police of an army commonly consists of steady
intelligent soldiers, who act under the orders of the provost-marshal, and arrest all per
sons out of bounds, civilians not authorized to pass the lines, disorderly soldiers, etc. ;
they also attend to sanitary arrangements. As in all military matters, the police of an
army possess summary powers, and a sentence of the provost-marshal is carried out
immediately after it is pronounced.
Of civil police with military organization may be instanced, as specimens, the gen-
darmerie (q.v.) of France, the Sbirri of Italy, and, in an eminent degree, the Irish con-
stabulary.
POLICY (a corruption of the Lat. polypiyr.ha, [analogous to diptycha, i.e., two- fold, or
a pair of tablets] applied in the middle ages to memoranda or registers written on a set
of several tablets), as a legal term, denotes the contract of insurance (Ital. polizza cCasse-
curazioitf). The usual contracts arc for the insurance of life, or rather against the risk of
death, against tire, against loss of a ship; but the same name is given to a similar instru-
ment adapted to meet any other risk. See INSURANCE.
POLIGNAC, an ancient French family, which takes its name from a castle said to have
been built in the 5th c,, on a rock of the Cevennes, near Puy-en-Velay, in the depart-
ment of Haute-Loire, on the site of a Roman temple dedicated to Apollo, whence —
according to certain rather credulous genealogists — the castle was originally called
AiyiAlin n-ifjne, of which Polignac is affirmed to be only a later corruption. The first of
the Polignacs who acquired celebrity was MELCIIIOR DE POLIGNAC, younger son of
ARMAND, 16th MARQUIS DE POLIGNAC, and born at Puy-en-Velay, Oct. 11, 1661. Destined
by his parents for an ecclesiastical career, he received" an excellent education at Paris in
the colleges of Clermor.t and Harcourt. In the negotiations of cardinal de Bouillon with
pope Alexander VIII. at Rome in 1689, the young but astute and insinuating abbe took
a principal part. In 1695 he was sent to Poland as French ambassador, when John
Sobieski was dying, and diplomatized and intrigued so cunningly in favor of prince de
Conti, that the latter was actually elected his successor. Events, however, frustrated
this policy, and both Conti and Polignac had to leave Poland rather precipitately, in
consequence of which the latter lost the royal favor. He now retired to his abbey at
Bonport, where he spent the next four years, partly occupied in the composition of a
Latin poem entitled Anti-Lucretius, which was intended as a refutation of the skepticism
of Bayle. It appears to be a very respectable and even able performance. In 1702 —
after ;«, stroke of his usual neat flattery — he was recalled to Versailles, and rose higher
i;-to favor than ever. Named auditeur de rote in 1706, he was sent to Rome, where he
d ivoted himself to the study of canon and civil law, was associated in the negotiations ot
Cardinal de la Tremouille, and honored with the friendship of pope Clement XI. In
1712 he was appointed French plenipotentiary at the congress of Utrecht; and after his
return, obtained the abbeys of Corbie and Anchiu. When Louis XIV. died, Polignac
was at the top of his reputation and influence. During the regency of the duke of
Orleans, he took part in the conspiracy of Cellamare, and was banished to his abbey of
Anchin. In 1720 he was sent to Rome, charged with the conduct of French affairs, and
remained here for about ten years, and signalized his mission by healing the quarrel
that was dividing the Galilean church on the subject of the famous bull Un-ipenitus. In
1726 he was raised, in his absence, to the archbishopric of Audi; and on his return to
France, spent the remainder of his days in literary repose, and in the high esteem of
courtiers, scholars, and the like. He died April 3, 1742. Polignac succeeded Bossuet
at the academic Francaisc in 1704, and became an honorary member of the academic les
sciences (1715) and of the academic des belles-lettres (1717). See C. Faucher's Histoire dtt
I'.inliinil de PoliyrMC (2 vols., Paris, 1772), St. Simon's Memoires, and D'Argensou's
Me moires.
The other members of the Polignac family who have an historical name at all are
more notorious than noteworthy. In the reign of Louis XVI., TOLANDE-MARTINE,
GABRIELLE DE POLASTDRON, DUCHESSE DE POLIGNAC (born 1749; died at Vienna, Dec.
9, 1793), and her husband, JULES, Due DE POLIGNAC (died at St. Petersburg, 1817), were
among the worst, but unhappily most favored advisers of Marie Antoinette. They
obtained vast sums of the public money from their royal master and mistress, and were
largely, if not mainly responsible for the frightful pecuniary extravagance of the quint.
The discovery of the famous libre rouge occasioned the exulting cry of Mirabeau -^Mille
/•>v.s d Ifi famille d' Aftsas pour avoir sanve I'etat; un million d la famille Polignac pour
V avoir perdu! The Polignacs — knowing' the deep hatred felt toward them by the
French people — were the first of the noblesse to emigrate (July 16, 1789). From the
empress Catharine -of Russia the duke received an estate in the Ukraine, and did not
return to France at, the restoration. He left three sons and a daughter, of whom only
one has become historical — AUGUSTE JULES ARMAND MARTE, PRINCE DE POLIGNAC
(born at Versailles, May 14, 1780). On the restoration, he returned to France; became
intimate with the comte d'Artois, afterward Charles X. ; showed an ardent attachment
U. K. XL— 54
Polish. OK ft
Polishing.
to the church of Rome — or at least to its policy — and, in consequence, received from his
holiness, in 1820, the title of prince; was appointed ambassador at the English court in
18~3; and finally, in 1829, became head of the last Bourbon ministry, in wuicb capacity
he promulgated the fatal ordonnances that called France to arms, and drove Charles X.
from the throne, lie then attempted to flee from the country, but was captured at
Granville on Aug. 15; was tried, and condemned to imprisonment for life in the castle.
of Ham, but was set at liberty >y the amnesty of Nov. 29, 1836. He took up his resi-
deuce in England, but died at Paris, Mar. 2, 1847.
' POLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. The Polish language is one of the most
•wMely-spread branches of the {Slavic, forming (according to Dobrmvskyj, along with the
Bohemian, the western branch. It surpasses almost all the other Slavonic tongues in
euphony and flexibility, and is scarcely excelled by any language in point of brevity.
It does not make use of the article, but has a most elaborate declensional system, com-
prising seven cases. The conjugation of the verb is equally elaborate, and enables a
Pole to express transitions and delicate niceties in the conditions of time and gender
quite unknown to the French, or German, or English verb. The Polish vocabulary is
also uncommonly rich. The number of harsh consonants in the language, it nm>t be
admitted, is large, and this fact is a marked distinction between it and its (astern sister,
the Russian; but in pronunciation, these are so much softened that its euphony is
preserved. It alone of all the Slavic dialects, with exception of the old Slavic church
language, lias two uasal sounds: one like the French on, the other like the French in.
The letter I has also a peculiarly broad snarling sound. After the introduction of Chris-
tianity, Latin, the language of the church, exercised a powerful influence on its structure
and development, and subsequent to the 14th c. it adopted into its vocabulary numemus
German words. In the 16th c., Polish, as a written language, rapidly attained so liigh
a degree of perfection that it supplanted even Latin itself, until then the language of the
state and of the learned. The best Polish grammars are those of Mrongovius (8d ed,,
Danz. 1837), Bandtke (Breslau, 1824), Muczkowski (Crac. 1845), and Booch-Arkossy
(1866); the most comprehensive dictionary is that of Linde, after which rank ti
Bandtke (2 vols., Breslau, 1806), Mronsrovius (Konigsb. 1835), Trojanski (4 vols., Posen.
1835-46), and Liebkind (1855).
The history of Polish literature is divisible into five clearly-marked periods. The
first extends from a date antecedent to the introduction of Christianity down to the close
of the 15th century. Of pre-Christian Polish literature, nothing has survived but some
popular songs and proverbs. Among the very oldest literary monuments is a hymn to
the virgin Mary, ascribed to St. Adalbert. The introduction of Christianity paved the
way for a Latin literature more or less ecclesiastico-historical. Casimir III. (q.v.), sur
named the Great, did more than any other early Polish monarch for the encouragement
of literature, and, among other things, founded the university of Cracow, whicb, from
the beginning of the loth c., long continued to be the center of intellectual life and
culture in Poland. To the 15th c. belong Jan Dluglosz (Lat. Lonyiiiux) author of a most
interesting and valuable llistoria Polonice, in 13 books, and otherwise worthy of remem-
brance' as an able diplomatist and philanthropist; also Jan Las-ki, archbishop of Gin-en
(b. 1457, d. 1531), whose collection of the oldest Polish laws. Commune Incli/H l'»ronut>
Rf.yni Privilecjium, is of great historical importance. In 1490 the first printing-press in
Poland was established at Cracow.
The second period of Polish literature embraces the 16th and first quarter of the 17th
c., and is marked by the use of the Polish as a written language. The reigns of Sigis.
mund I. and Sigismund II. Augustus are regarded as the golden era of Polish literature.
properly so called. The series of poets begins with Nikol. Rej (b. 1515, d. 1568), com-
monly called the father of Polish poetry, a native of Zoravno, in "Little Russia," and:
educated at Lem berg and Cracow. He spent his life at the court of the Sigismumls.
His principal works; Wizerunek Zywotn Czlowieka Poceeiwego (Cnc. 1560) and Ap»i>}ithft;-
mata (Crac. 1568), are full of sharp wit and strong satire, and though the language is
rough and unpolished, it is genuinely poetical. After Rej, the brothers Jan and Piotr
Kochanowski hold the highest rank. Szymonowicz or Simonidea (d. 1629) acquired by
bis Latin odes the name of the "Latin Pindar;" and his Sielanki ("Idyls," new ed..
Leip. 1837), modeled on those of Theocritus, exhibit a charming simplicity of style.
Still more original, if scarcely so graceful, are the Sielanki (new ed , Leip. 1836) of his
friend Zimorowicz (d. 1629). Sebastian Klonowicz, called Acernvs (d. 1608), ifc celebrated
as a satirist and descriptive poet. The reformation, which rapidly made way in Poland.
bein$ tacitly approved of by the rulers and magnates, gave a powerful stimulus to tlit
intellectual and spiritual activity of the nation — visible in translations of the Bible, hymn-
books, and an important pulpit or sermon literature. Among ihe historians of this period,
the most celebrated are the brothers Biclski; Lukas Gornieki (d. 1591). author of a history
of the Polish crown (Dzifje in Koronir, P<>l*ki<>j, Crac. 1637. Wars. 1804): Btrzikowski (it.
1582). whose Chronicle of Lithuania (Konigsb. 1582) is an admirable work; and Paprocki
(d. 1614).
The third period of Polish literature, extending from 1620 to 1750, is coincident with
the rule of the Jesuits, who first obtained a footing in Poland about 1566. through the
influence of cardinal Hosius, soon possessed themselves of the schools, aud, on the whole.
Polish.
Polishing.
seriously checked the literary and religious growth of the nation. The most conspicuous
poet of this retrogressive period is the Jesuit Kazimierz Sarbievski (1595-1640), who
wrote only in Latin; others more or less noteworthy are Kochowski (d. about 1700);
Tvardovski (d. about 1660); Opalinski (d. 1655); Chros'ciuski, the translator of Lucan;
Morsztyu, the translator of Corneille; and Elz'sbiela Druz'backa (d. 1760). Among the
historians of this period, it may suffice to mention Starovolski (d. 1656), author of Polonia,
tsive Status Regni Polonice Descriptio (Wolfenbuttel, 1656), and other works; Kojalowicz,
a Jesuit (d. 1677), and Kaspar Niesiecki, a Jesuit (d. 1745), whose Korona Polska (4 vols.,
. Lemb. 1728-43) is the most important work on Polish heraldry.
The fourth period, commencing with the middle of the 18th c., and extending into
the first quarter of the 19th, owes its characteristics partly to the influence of the French
literature of Louis XIV. 's time; partly also to the liberal patronage of literature- and
science by king Stanislas Augustus, the princes Czartoryski, Jablonovski, and other
magnates, and the educational reforms of Stanislas Kouarski (b. 1700, d. 1773). The good
work begun by Konarski was carried on by Kopczyn'ski (1735-1817). who was the'first
to thoroughly establish on a scientific basis the grammar of the Polish language in his
Grammatyka, Norodom; by Piramowicz (d. 1801); by Bohomolec, the Jesuit, who trans-
lated a multitude of stage-pieces from the French; but above all, by Adam Stanislas
Naruszewicz, the accomplished translator of Tacitus; and Ignacy Knisicki (1735-1801),
called the "Polish Voltaire," the center of the whole Polish literature of his age, whose
satires and fables are reckoned the first in his native language. As poets of this renais-
sance period, occur the names of Trembecki, Cajetan Wegierski, Godebski, and AVezik.
The most noted dramatist is Boguslavski (d. 1829), who wrote about 80 plays — the
majority of which, under the title of Dzielu Dramatzezne, were published at Warsaw
(9 vols., 1820).
The political storms that swept over Europe at the close of the 18th and the*first
years of tlie 19th c., did not quite destroy the new literary life that had burst into blos-
som under Stanislas Augustus. In 1801 the historian Tadeusz Czacki, Franciszck
Dniochowski, and bishop Jan Albertrandy founded at Warsaw the "society of the
friends of knowledge," which, especially under the auspices of the state-councilor
Staszyc, bore good fruit till it was dissolved in 1832, when its library of 50,000 vols. was
carried off to St. Petersburg. At the same time, Jozel Maximilian Ossolinski, Hugo
Kolontaj. and Stanislas Potocki, by word and writing exercised a mighty influence on.
the renovation of the national spirit. The transition to this newest or fifth period was
made by Karpinski (174-5-1823), whose songs and idyls (4 vols./ Warsaw, 1804; new ed.,
Leip. 1836) live on the lips of the Polish people; by chancellor Voronicz (1757-1829), a
richly imaginative poet, and a great orator; by Niemcewicz (1757-1841), a statesman,
soldier, and author of celebrity in his own land; and by the poet Kasimierz Brodzinski
(1791-1835). At Wilna, which, after 1815, became the center of Polish literary
activity, and a rallying-point for all the enthusiastic spirits of the land, several young
men united, with Adam Mickiewicz (b. 1798) at their head, in a crusade against the still
dominant French style of literature. We can only name some of his numerous and
brilliant associates, as Malczevski (1792-1826), whose best production is his epic-lyric
narrative of Ukraine life, entitled Marja; Goszczyuski (b. 1806; poems. 3d ed., Breslau,
1852); Bohdan Zaleski (b. 1802); Poezye, Pos. 1841, and later); Tomasz Paclura (Pienia,
Lemb. 1842); Odyniec (Poezye, Pos. 1833): Korsak (Poezye, Pos. 1833); Chodzko
(Poezye, Petersb. 1829); Groza (Poezye, Wilna, 1836); Lucyan Siemienski (b. 1809), an
excellent novelist and translator; Bielovski(b. 1806), a lyric poet and translator; Gorecki,
renowned for his pungently sarcastic fables (Bajki i Poezj now, appeared at Paris
in 1833); Garczynski (Poezye, Paris, 1833); and Slowacld, the most fertile of all
the recent Polish poets. Most of these writers became either " banished men," or men
who, while living, were forced to expatriate themselves. They belonged to the "Polish
emigration," whose headquarters was Paris. The most many-sided and prolific of all
the modern Polish novelists is Jozef Ignacy Kraszevski, who was born at Warsaw in
1812. _ The new national tendency of Polish literature, which naturally first showed
itself in poetry, soon became visible in other departments also. Thus. Joachim Lclewel
(b. 1786) rose to the first rank as a writer of Polish history, and a study of his works is
absolutely indispensable to a knowledge of that subject; next to him (and later) in the
same department stand Bandtke, Maciejovski, count Raczynski, and count Plater. Nar-
butt of Wilna wrote a very solid and comprehensive work on Lithuanian history (Wilna,
1837 et seg.). and Lukaszcwicz of Posen has furnished numerous important contributions
to the history of the reformation in Poland. A multitude of works more or less weighty
have been devoted to a record of the revolution of 1830, chiefly, of course, by Polish
emigrants. In philosophy, theology, and physical sciences Poland has nothing of con-
sequence to show. — The principal works on Polish literature are those of Muczkovski,
Bentkovski, Ossolinski. Chodynicki, Lukaszewicz (Posen, 1860) and the comprehensive
Historya Literatury Polskiej (Crac. 1840 et seq.) of Viszuievski.
POLISHING MATERIALS. See DIAMOND-GRINDING, EMERY, PASTES, and PUTTY
POWDER.
POLISHING OF METALS. This is effected by first removing any tarnish or oxidation
by means of some material which will chemically act upon it; for this purpose sulphuric,
Polishing. Q.";0
Political.
hydrochloric, oxalic1, and acetic acids are used to different metals, and in various states
of dilution. Usually, it is necessary to remove the acid with clean water, and dry rap-
idly, to prevent re-oxidation; and then either friction with various polishing materials,
or rubbing with a smooth hard surface or burnisher, brings out the luster of the mcial.
POLISHING SLATE, a mineral composed chiefly of silica, with a little alumina, lime,
oxide of iron, t>nd water; white, yellowish-white, or yellow; and of specific gravity
about half that of water. It is lound in Bohemia, Saxony, and Auvergne, and is sup-
posed to be a volcanic product. It is used for polishing glass, marble, and metals.
POLISHING OF STONE. See STONE-CUTTING.
POLISTENA, a t. of s. Italy, province of Reggio, Calabria. The village which occu-
pied the site of the present town was totally destroyed bv an earthquake in l?t>3. Top.
'71, 7,559.
POLITIANUS, ANGELUS. See POLIZIANO, ante.
POLITICAL ECONOMY. The word economy is derived from the Greekfor house-law
or house-regulation. It refers to the material portion of domestic regulations, and does
not, for instance, embrace the observance of religion or the communication of instruc-
tion. The most important part of it is the adjustment of the expenditure of the house-
hold to the income at their command. Hence the word economy is sometimes applied,
both in a public and a private sense, to the saving of money. The term "political"
came to be used along with it as a convenient method of exprosing the application to a
state of a sound system of management in relation to its atl'airs. In later times, how-
ever, the word, as applied to a community, came to be something totally different from
its application to a household. It was thought that one 'could regulate a people just as
a house is regulated, by adjusting the spending and the getting of the national wealth.
Hence arose several doctrines now discarded — such, for instance, as " the balance of
trade," which taught that the trade with any nation is only profitable when you sell
more to that nation than you buy from it; the system of bounties upon special trades, as
being more profitable to others; and lastly, the system of protection to native industry —
the last relic of what may be called the positive school of economists. Political economy
now means, not the art of regulating communities in this re-pect, but the science of those
laws which Providence has established for their regulation. Hence the analogy with
domestic economy ceases. Domestic economy is the positive regulation of a household
— not the leaving of it to follow its own dictates; and, indeed, that there is adispo>iiion.
more or less in the head of every house, to limit its expenditure to its income, is one of
the phenomena by which things right themselves, as it were, and make up those laws of
nature which constitute political economy. A man knows that if he buys too much, he
will become bankrupt; but we do not now order the wholesale merchant not to buy too
much from this or that country, so as to place the balance of trade against us — we 'know
that this naturally rights itself, because we must expect our own produce Jto pay for
what we bring in. Even if we should have to pay for it in gold, tlmt is a com-
modity produced by our people. The income and expenditure of the government, as
apart from that of the people of the community, are of course under regulation like those
of a household; but these forma separate field of operation, called finance (q.v.). There
are a few people who still hold that there is no natural system sufficient in itself to regu-
late the material affairs of mankind, and that these should be committed to the hand- of
special managers. Finding the approved doctrines of political economy going further
and further from their direction, such persons, though few in number, have been
very absolute in their views, and zealous in pushing them. One class of these are called
socialists; and another, who go further lengths, are called communists. It has not been
considered necessary here to go beyond the mere description or definition of the nature
of political economy, because the various parts of which it consists are given each under
its own head, as BOUNTY. CAPITAL, COLONY, COMMUNISM. COMPETITION, CORN LAWS,
DEMAND AND SUPPLY, EXCHANGE, FKEE TRADE, LABOU, MONOPOLY, NAVIGATION
LAWS, RENT, VALUE, etc.
POLITICAL OFFENSES, crimes considered injurious to the safety of the state, or such
crimes as involve a violation of the allegiance due by a subject to the supreme authority
of the state.
By the Roman law, in the early times of the republic, every act injurious to the state
was comprehended under the name perdusttio, and visited with death. That term
included conspiracy against the government, aiming at kingly power, aiding the enemies
of Rome, and losing an army. The word perdiicttio afterward fell into gradual disu-e,
and the chief state offenses were known by the term majesta-s or crinn // lota
somewhat akin to the treason of modern times. In the republican period, the crimes to
which the epithet tosa majestas was most frequently applied, were the betrayal or sur-
render of an army to the enemy, the excitement of sedition, and such a course of admin-
istration as impaired the dignity of the state. In imperial times acts and words disre-
spectful to the reigning emperor were included, and an indignity to his statue was vis-
ited nearly as severely as an offense against his person. Laesa majesfatt was generally
punished with death, confiscation, and infamj'. The criminal might even be tried after
his death, to the effect of confiscating his property, and rendering his memory infamous
Polishing.
Politick
^a practice which has been resorted to both in France and Scotland as late as the begin-
ning of the 16th century.
In modern times, the acts brought under the category of political offenses have varied
much at different periods and in different countries. They have in general been more
leniently dealt with under constitutional than under despotic governments. It is, how-
ever, a principle which has been generally recognized by the most constitutional of gov-
ernments, that when the legislature thinks itself endangered by a secret conspiracy
against the state, or an understanding with the enemies of the country, it permits the
executive, for a limited time, to arrest suspected citizens, without the formalities which
are required in ordinary circumstances.
In England, a large number of the graver political crimes are included under the
denomination of treason, and the treason law has sometimes been stretched so as to
include offenses which, by a fair construction, could hardly come within it, such as the
use of violence to reform religion or the laws, or to remove the councilors of the
sovereign. Even riotous assemblies with the object of destroying all property of a
particular class have been held treason. Political offenses also include a number of crimes
against government falling short of treason, and passing under the name of sedition.
which, though they have for their ultimate object the violation of the public peace,
do not aim at direct and open violence against the laws or the sovereign, but rather
the dissemination of a turbulent spirit tending to produce such violence. The British
government does not permit the political offenders of other countries to be included
in extraditional treaties; and in modern times, generally speaking, extradition does not
apply to political offenders; contrary to the doctrine laid down by Grotius. In some
countries, conspiracy against the sovereign of any country in league with the state is a
special offense; in Givat Britain, however, this seems not to be the case. A bill intro-
duced in 1858 to make it felony to conspire to commit a murder without as well as
wilhin her majesty's dominions, was rejected by the house of commons on the second
reading, from the idea that it was dictated by France.
POLITICAL PARTIES, FRENCH. The states-general, that is to say, a convoca-
tion made up of deputies from all classes in France, convened by royal order in 1789,
opened jts .sessions May 5. in Paris. It was called the constituent assembly, but by its
own act, June 17, 1789, named itself the national assembly. At its opening, which was
in a temporary hall erected for the purpose at Versailles named the "hall of the three
orders," there was no such distinction as "left" or "right" to characterize political
opinion. The deputies of the tiers-etat, or common people, as distinguished from the
nobility and clergy, were in that building seated in the lowest and back seats; while the
nobles occupied elevated seats prepared for them on the left side of the hall, and the
clergy the corresponding seats on the right side. The nobles numbered 285, the clergy
308, and the commons CGI. Mirabeau, though of the nobility, had been deprived of its
privileges for misdemeanors, and entered the assembly as one of the deputies of the tiers-
elat, and was seated with them on the floor of the great hall. Among the deputies on
the floor were also Bailly, Robespierre, Danton, Barnave, Sieyes, Camille Desmoulins,
and a host of others, who little dreamed then of the conspicuous figure they were soon to
make in history. For a time the nobles and the clergy endeavored to have separate sit-
tings from the commons; but the latter resolutely refused to go on with business except
as one body. A universal desire for the abrogation of all feudal privileges seized all
classes, and even, those who were about to lose them resolved to offer voluntarily as a
sacrifice what they foresaw would soon be demanded. On the motion of the marquis de
IS'oailles, Aug. 4, 1789, all feudal privileges except royalty were abolished, including
those of the religious orders. All deputies v/ere thenceforward at liberty to range them-
selves according to their individual opinions and affiliations. The revolution was in full
ferment in Paris, and demanded that the king, the court, and the assembly should
come thither. The great riding hall connected with the Tuileries was prepared for the
•assembly. There the seats seem to have been ranged as in an amphitheater. The histo-
rians of the revolution here for the first time allude to la dr&ite and la gauche, the right,
and the left, as representing the extremes of political opinion. At that time the represent-
atives of the old nobility and clergy and their friends grouped themselves on the right
side of the hall, those with less decided opinion occupied the center, and deputies of
more boldly progressive opinions took the left side. The most violent democrats seem
to have taken the highest seats on the extreme left, probably to be in more direct
communication with the populace outside. "Danton took his seat on the high and
remote benches which gave the name of 'the mountain,' to the thorough-going revolu-
tionists who sat there." Mirabeau. though the leader in all the great reforms of that
convention, was not in the classification of "the mountain." It was his pride to consider
himself alone a party. It was not, however, until the flight, of -Louis XVI. in 1791, that
Firtiesin the assembly became sharply defined so that the left signified republicans alone,
revious to that time the assembly, though legislating to root out all other feudal
institutions, had been singularly moderate as to royalty; and had shaped the new con-
stitution for France so as to keep the king as the nominal executive, completely subject
to constitutional control, yet still an integral part of the new system. But after his flight,
eapture, and return to Paris, the subject of royalty became the puppet of the demagogues
Political.
Pet ion and Robespierre charged " the center" with weakness for not declaring tlio throne
vacant, and proceeding to judge tin; king. In the center were then .Mirabeuu. IJarnave,
and u group of strong men with wlioin the more radical mountain was beginning to
measure swords. The club of the Jacobins thenceforward directed the policy of "the
left."
The assembly after its two years' work on the new constitution interdicted its mem-
bers from becoming members of the new legislative assembly. It resulted that the
experienced statesmen of the old center were not in the new legislative assembly. .Most
of the old members of "the left'' were members of the Jacobin, club, and the old mem-
bers of the center were not. The club had every element of forensic ami political power,
and all the turbulent population of the city in affiliation. The left and the mountain in
the assembly became little more than its mouth-piece, voicing the aggressive and destruc-
tive force of the revolution. It was not republican, it was ultra-democratic. Its appe-
tites for absolute equality were only equaled by the individual appetites of its leaders for
absolute power. Inspired by Robespierre and Dauton from without, Chabot and liazire
were the club speakers from the mountain. Below that group, but still on the left, or
left center, and known as ardent republicans, were the party of the Gironde — all new
members — men of education, young, gifted, and ambitious. They prided themselves on
their superiority in character and qualifications to the leaders of the Parisian club, and
actuated by pure and noble motives, would not associate with them orsubir.it to their
leadership. Its principal members were Verguiaud, Gaudet, Gensonne, IJarbaroux. The
house of Mme. Roland was their place of meeting, and the genius of that noble woman
was one of their inspirations. Eloquence and fine philosophy was their forte. Too
proud to use the means employed by the Jacobins to secure popular support in the city,
and too advanced in their radical republicanism to have the support of the classes who
regretted the downfall of the old order of things, though outnumbering the mountain,
they were not able to make head against the club which governed Paris and laid out the
work of the assembly.
A new assembly called the national convention was elected and convened in Sept.,
1792. This body by the law of its existence had uncontrolled power. The guaraniees.
of individual liberty secured by the constitution established by the national assembly,
were abrogated by it for "the defense of France." The Girondists who had been with
the left in overthrowing the monarchy and establishing the republic, now became the
center and tlie right. They had a majority in the new convention. The mountain, now
led by its real leaders restored to their seats who were still leaders of the Jacobin club,
and that under the control of Robespierre, was practically a unit for all combats, knew
what it wanted, and knew how to make the people seem to impel them to do it. Driven
by this power of Robespierre, not alone the leading Girondists, but Danton and Camille
Desmoulins as well, went to the guillotine during the life of that convention. The moun-
tain has always suffered much of the reproach for the horrors of that time; yet it suf-
fered almost as much from the infernal policy of Robespierre as the right or the center.
Danton and his friends of the left would gladly have joined with the Girondists in polit-
ical legislation to check the tyranny of the clubs; but the leaders of that party rejected
help which did not subordinate itself to them. It was lack of appreciation of the good
motives and practical sagacity of such members of the mountain that dissipated the
power of the majority and enabled a few leaders of the clubs to commit France to the
reign iu which accusation, trial, and judgment, all emanated from the same individual,
Robespierre. He at last, and not the left or the mountain, reigned in the convention, in
the clubs, iu the committee of public safety, and in the Paris commune. It was the
mountain that first dared his power. Its leaders made the overtures to the moderate of
the center and the left center, which resulted in his. complete overthrow. On Nov. 11,
1794, soon after the death of Robespierre, the reactionists of the right and the republicans
of the center and left center had become strong enough to suppress the Jacobin club,
and the high left or mountain complained that the reaction was against the republic. A
crowd of Girondius proscribed from the convention when their leaders were guillotined,
returned to it. They demanded and procured the accusation of the remaining leaders of
the commune and the Jacobin club; even those who had been conspicuous in aiding the
downfall of Robespierre. The remains of the Girondist party became the extreme right,
vindictive in retaliation. The guillotine, which had laid low the heads of all the great
leaders of both parties, left the followers to beat against each other in aimless conflict.
The mountain was stigmatized as the top-knot. It kept up its habit of trying to secure
its influence over the convention by organizing outside mobs to make a show of pressure
of public opinion upon it. That old trick was now met by the other side, by the organi-
zation of similar mobs to meet them on the way. The center and right, with a majority
of the convention, had the advantage of the law, that made the defense of the convention
the defense of the representatives of the republic. On April 1, 1795, the leaders of the
clubs, with the sympathy of a small knot of the mountain, made a last attempt by a mob
to overawe the convention. Again the convention found its salvation in summoning a
counter-crowd of its friends from the streets of Paris, and sent 1'7 members of the high
left to prison. On May 20 the mob of Paris succeeded in getting possession of the hall
of the convention; beheaded one of its orators who expostulated with them: scattered
the deputies of the right, and dictated to the rest of the convention a series of measures to
855
Political.
restore themselves and their proscribed friends to power. Curiously enough it was the
same butcher Legendre whose brutal violence at the top of the mountain in ttie beginning
of the revolution made him one of the most notorious leaders, who uo-v came to the
relief of the besieged convention at the head of a resolute body of Parisians better organ-
ized than the other, and drove out the intruders. The victory of the moderates was com-
plete. But no sooner were men secure from the tyrannies of the Jacobin club und the
revenges of the Girondists than the royalists raised their heads, and the extreme right
and right center used the laws to shed the blood of the Jacobins, which flowed at their
instigation all over France. The reaction was called the "Avhite terror." In legislative
p u lance it was a reaction of the right against the left. Toward the close of the session
of the convention in Aug., 1795, it had matured a new constitution, called the constitution
of the year, 3 which gave the future power of government to three distinct and co-op-
erative bodies, called the council of the live hundred, the council of the ancients (sen-
ate), and an executive directory of rive members. Naturally when the discussion of pub-
lic questions was divided between two deliberative bodies, and executive authority lodged
in a third, the divisions among members were less sharply denned, both in real opinions
and in leadership, than when all the powers of the slate were wielded by one body.
There was still the old division of left, right, and center to mark three shades of opinion,
but there was far more freedom for all opinions. Old Jacobin leaders had secured a
majority in the directory, but the right and center controlled the new councils. Honest
royalists were not strangled for their opinions, and the center or belly of the council, as
the Parisians called it, was swayed to the right or to the left as the reaction, or the
Jacobin side, seemed to be the stronger. The conflict between the mountain and the con-
servative part of the council was changed to one between this conservative majority
and the majority of the directory. Not long before this time the last well-organized
insurrection against the convention had been crushed by the skill of the young lieut.
Bonaparte, and the actions of the new councils were therefore more free from popular
intimidation than any of their predecessors. The glamour of Bonaparte's military tri-
umphs, and his assumption of all powers in France, soon made its legislative assemblies
only the echoes of his will. On the accession of Louis XVIII. it was the same, but
from a different cause; the people were tired of wa.' both in the field and in the forum.
In 1817, however, the weak attempts to re-establish the feudal system awakened the
republicans, who elected 25 members to the chamber of deputies. Among them were
Lafayette, Benj. Constant, Dupont, Lafitte, and Manuel They were the nucleus of a
new left. Their ability and integrity gave them an influence disproportioued to their
numbers. In 1819 their number had increased to 86. In 1820-21 the left and the
extreme right joined votes against the ministers, though with different objects in view.
In 1822 the right became the governing power, and under Viilele, the chief minister of
Louis XVI II., went forward boldly to restore France to the feudal condition preceding
the revolution. The press of Paris was the chief weapon of the left. Its opposition and
that of the republican leaders in the chamber of deputies was met by suppression and
arrest. Charles X., on coming to the throne, pursued the same policy. But while that
Bourbon policy \vas apparently suffocating all republican aspirations in France, the
pamphleteers, the caricaturists, the encyclopaedists, were filling the nation with the yeast
of a great rising. The left, crowded out of the halls of legislation, found expression as
it best could through the press. The revolution of 1830 which chased Charles X. out of
France and installed Louis Philippe was the work of the journalists. Thiers and Gui-
zot appear among its leaders. For a time the new chambers were composed principally
of men so anxious to avoid the confusion and anarchy to be dreaded, in a change of gov-
ernment that no other thought seemed to be dominant than that of crystallizing the con-
stitutionality of the last kingly experiment. The nucleus of a distinct left hardly showed
itself in the chamber of deputies until the election of Armand Carrel and Garnier-Pagfis
in 1832. They took seats as avowed republicans. The great mass of the deputies of the
center, however, who supported the government of Louis Philippe, were at heart repub-
licans; but they were so fearful of revolutionary uncertainties that they desired to* test
in peace the value of the change already made before attempting another. The right,
while dreading the power that could so quickly banish one branch of the Bourbons and
plant another in its place, were mostly wealthy members of the old aristocracy, who
decidedly preferred to save their estates at the sacrifice of their titles, rather than make
war against the new monarchy. On April 1, 1833, an occasion offered for the left to
show itself. The Tribune newspaper had charged the government of Louis Philippe with
constructing the fortification around Paris for the purpose of buckling it in — to
menace rather than to defend. The editor was summoned to appear at the bar of the
liaise. The left opposed it as unbecoming to the house and unjust to the editor, against
whom the laws alone should be used if he had violated them. Rochefoucauld, Gautier
de Rumilly, generals Bertram! and Lafayette, Thouvenel, and Gamier-Pages, were its
speakers. The vote was 205 to 92, the latter being the full strength of the left. But,
after hearing the bold and able speeches of Cavaignac and Marrast, the two arrested
editors, their censure was confirmed by a vote of 804 to 204 against. Notwithstanding
the terrible exposures of the selfishness and corruptions of Louis Philippe's government,
the king managed to keep the chamber of deputies at his service till near 1848. In the
beginning, Thiers, Guizot, Lamartiue, and many who subsequently became thoroughly
Political.
856
republican, were his supporters; but Odillon Barrot, Garnicr-Pages, Beranger, Portnlir.;
Lafayette, and others, divorced themselves I'vou, liis government, and opposed his meas-
ures almost from the beginning. The dct'ens.' of the liberty of the press against the laws
for its suppression was the main subject of difference between the left and the center. Ill
Feb., 1848, the left, and the center \vere gradually uniting against the tlien pronounced ten
dency to despotism of Louis Pl)ilippe. Gui/ot was endeavoring to sustain his policy;
Odillon Barrot and Thiers were joined in the opposition. The government could com-
mand but 33 majority aguinst them. Paris row in revolution, and on the ~24(\\ the king
abdicated in favor ot his sou. Thiers and Odillon Barrot — the one leader of the center,
the other of the left — were called to form a new cabinet. But the nation then demanded
a provisional government, and not a new king's cabinet. Lamartine. Dr.pont de 1'Kure,
Arago, Gamier-Pages, Marie, Lcdiu-Rollin, C'remieux, all radical republicans of the left in
the assembly, were made the provisional government, with Lamartine the lending spirit
of the committee. A singular incident in the flight of the old king was that ( '.x-mieux,
one of the extreme left in the assembly, helped him into the carriage hired for the occa-
sion, and when the king expressed his obligation for the kindness, he replied — " >iot at
all; it is 17 years I have been waiting for this day." Until the election of a new assembly
under the provisional government, there was of course no right or left. That body,
composed of 900 members, convened May 4. Lamartine. to the astonishment of those
who supposed that his thoroughly aristocratic culture would entrain his opinions against
a democratic republic, became frankly the leader of the left in the a-.-embly. and. while
wielding all the power of his eloquence to prevent excesses by Paris mobs, defended the
progressive republic. In fact, the left-center became suspicious that he was abandoning
the conservatives to throw himself into the current of the democrats. At this time he
acted frankly with Ledru-Kollin. The assembly rcappointcd live of the old members
of the provisional government as their executive committee, leaving out Cieinieux and
Dupont de 1'Eure ; the former a radical of the left, and the latter the superannuated leader
of the center. On May 15 the hall of the assembly was invad( d and taken posM-»ion of
by the communists of Paris under the lead of Barbe, Blanqui, and others, using the
name of Lcdru-Rollin as one of their party. The latter tried to expostulate with them in
the assembly, but was obliged to desist. Lamartine could not be heard, and retired to
wait an opportunity to make head against the movement outside the assembly roc in.
When the mob left he joined Ledru-Rollin, put the troops of the government in motion,
and soon afterward arrested the leaders of the mob. Speaking of the commis-ion
appointed by the assembly to draft a new constitution for Fiance, lord Nonnanhy. then
English ambassador in Paris, and a watchful eye-witness to the daily jegisiatioii of the
assembly, writes: " The composition of the committee is good. There are hardly any
of the very violent party upon it, and almost all the leading men of the yai/che."
This shows how well the patriotic republican movement of that time was divorced
from the violent leaders of the Paris commune. By the month of June, Lamartinc's
popularity was on the wane. The government was in disrepute. It was too republican
to suit the provinces, too conservative to suit the Paris commune. The election to till
some vacancies showed a large vote of republicans and royalists accidentally united on the
same persons. Thiers, Victor Hugo, Louis Napoleon, were among the members retur m d.
In general the election showed a desire to strengthen the center rather than the left.
Louis Napoleon's name caused uneasiness at once; and ,itie more, that the hangers-on
around the assembly were raising a hurra for Napoleon that indicated the dangerous
popularity of the name. Viee I Empereur was heard on the streets, and so promptly was
the danger of that name felt, that Lamartine at once moved for the exclusion and exile
of Louis Napoleon by virtue of an old law. It was adopted by the executive committee,
though Napoleon had been regularly elected from three different districts. The next
day an- order was issued by the executive committee for the arrest of Napoleon' wherever
lie might be found. The left was nervously afraid of the name. The mountain recon-
ni/ed instinctively the divergence between republicanism and Bonapartism. On this
occasion M. Jules Favre, though of the left, reflected severely upon the committee l'< r
its unwarranted subversion of the rights of Napoleon as a deputy. In the assembly the
vote for his admission was carried by a large majority against the executive committee.
M. Thiers.'Louis Blanc, and the extreme right or legitimists, found themselves voting
together with the left in the minority; the center and scattering votes from both the
extremes being apparently spontaneously united to support Napoleon's right to sit as
deputy in the assembly. The army soon afterward began to cry, "Down wills liberty!
Vite V Empereur!" A, letter from Louis Napoleon to the executive committee, dated Lon-
don, June 14. 1848, was read in the assembly on the 15th. and created great excitement.
It was a shrewdly modest missive. It expressed regret that his election should Kejhe
occasion of unfortunate wrangles nnd suspicions of his ambition; but that if the people
imposed upon him a duty he would fulfill it: that his name was a symbol of order, of
nationality, of glory; and he announced his willingness to remain in exile rather tnan to
add to the present misfortunes of France. He caused to be distributed at the same time
a letter of thanks to the constituencies who had voted for him. The letter produced a
tumult in the mountain. There had not been a word of mention by Napoleon n
existence of the republic. The republicans felt, rather than knew, its import, l-'ven
those who the day before had voted for his admission, now perceived the imperial shadow
857
Political.
Favre openly expressed regret for his vote of the day before. The next day, however,
anot her letter, dated London the loth, directed to the president of the assembly, contained
his resignation as deputy in cunning phrases, well adapted to increase his popularity,
and alluded to the republic in these words; "I desire order, and the maintenance of a
wise, grand, and intelligent republic," etc. The assembly had no ground then for any
action concerning him. Legitimists now hardly raised their voices, and there was there-
fore no extreme right. The center continued to be more and more Napoleonic in its
d'.-sires. The commune, red republicans, and ultra radicals of the laboring classes, fought
their battles outside the halls of the assembly, in clubs, emeutes, and barricades. On
Jan. 23, 24, Paris was declared in a state of siege, and the executive powers were placed
in gen. Cavaignac alone; the rive members of the executive committee resigning. Three
davs of bloody fighting in the streets of Paris resulted in the defeat of the insurrection
on the 26th, after some of the most horrible incidents of such warfare; among which was
the death of the archbishop of Paris when seeking to prevent the further effusion of
blood. On the 28th, the insurrection having been repressed, a law for the transportation
of the prisoners was opposed by a group in the mountain, but passed by an immense
majority. The other part of the left, among whom were Thiers and Berrycr, busied them-
selves to secure an executive council in conjunction with Cavaignac. It resulted in making
Cavaignac president of the assembly, with power to nominate heads of bureaus; in short,
president of the republic. Measures, vigorous, despotic, and essential for the moment,
were sanctioned by the assembly. Liberty of the press and the clubs was required to con-
form to laws of surveillance akin to suppression. The center, by some again called the
Gironde, was becoming anti-republican. Louis Napoleon sent in another letter of resigna-
tion of another election, with characteristic words of devotion to the republic, " devoid of
personal ambition," etc. The la\v against the clubs passed by a majority of about 6 to 1.
A proposition of Proudhonfor the confiscation of property, under the guise of a new system
of taxation, was voted down by a majority of 691 to 2; Ledru-Rollin, Louis Blanc, and
others of the mountain, being of the majority. M. Emile Girardin had been imprisoned,
and his journal, La Presse, had been suppressed by Cavaignac. This grievous stretch of
dictatorial powers against a fellow-republican called up a discussion, in which Victor
Hugo took part and asked Cavaiguac whether the duration of the suppression was a
mere matter of personal will on his part, or to be regulated by law: to which the presi-
dent made no reply, and the assembly acquiesced in that assumption of power. A week
afterward he relieved eleven journals, including La Pressc, of the disabilities imposed on
them. In August the left were searching for means to delay elections for vacated seats
in the assembly, evidently afraid of the conservative turn in public sentiment. The
legitimists, or right, were gaining strength. The country in general endured the existing
government, called a republic, not because it liked it, but because it dreaded a worse.
The legitimists were stronger than the Orleans party in the country. Both, however,
voted for candidates who endured the republic rather than for those who desired a
republic. The legitimists of these days were a very different class of men from the disso-
lute courtiers of Louis XVI. in the first revolution. They had profited in the school of
misfortune. They had become country gentlemen in the true sense of the word; and
while a part of their old family possessions had been restored to them, they had been
forced to attend to their management in order to secure incomes, and had become citizens
identified with the interests around them. They, therefore, took part in politics with a
strong common sense and courage in doing the best thing possible under the circum-
stances that was wanting among the ancient eiiiiyres. They now voted for the best can-
didates put up, and used their influence for them without' much reference to the class
from which they came; thus exercising a sort of balance of power in the provinces.
Their candidates were usually elected. In this assembly they numbered from 120 to
130. M. Berryer was their leader, as M. Thiers was of the center. These two great
men usually worked together for the consolidation of the republic as the intermediary
by which the legitimists might come to the monarchy without plunging France into a
worse revolution; and the republicans hoped that they might arrive at a better form of
republic through the present experiment. But after Napoleon had been elected a
deputy, the left, the right, and the right-center had to make common cause against a senti-
ment in " the belly of the assembly," which sprang into existence with unexpected force.
His skillful letters of resignation brought him* into a prominence that surprised every-
body. His strength in the provinces spread like fire in a dead forest that has waited for
the torch. The dissatisfaction of all parties with the miserable failures and blunders of
the last three Bourbon kings, and with the equally bad record of half a dozen ephemeral
constitutional republics, made the advent of Napoleon seem like a godsend to the dis-
satisfied of every shade. Memories were awakened of all that was glorious about the
first empire in a generation that had not felt, or had forgotten, its meannesses and the
horrors of its glory. With such a mingling of all shades of opinion, the strong men of
the assembly were able to form another republican constitution, with a president to be
elected. But when the election came on, to the surnrisc of the left, Louis Napoleon had
an enormous majority of all the votes of France. He took the oath of office Dec. 20,
1848. From that lime the left had to make a strange battle to try to defeat his foreseen
perfidy to the republic by efforts to abridge the universal suffrage which they had always
before insisted oa. Napoleon had the logic of the situation all iu his favor, and, had he
Politics.
Polk.
been content to keep his oath as president, it is difficult to see what remedy the demo-
cratic republicans would have had against his domination without stultifying their own
democratic: principles. But they did seek to revise the constitution so as to get rid of
the preponderating peasant vote by which Napoleon was made president. The latter
finally cut short the struggle by his <•<>'//) d'ttdt of Dec. 2, 1851, by which he accepted
perjury as the price of the imperial crown, and stifled the voice both of the left ami the
right for a period of eighteen years of his remarkable reign.
POLITICS (Gr. polls, city or state), that branch of ethics which has for its subject the
proper mode of governing a'Statc, so as to secure its prosperity, peace, and .-al'cty,
mid to attain, as perfectly as possible, the ends of civil society. ~ Ann mg the subjects
which political science embraces are the principles on which government i> founded, the
hands iu which the supreme power may be most advantageously placed, the duties
and obligation of the governing and governed portions of society, the development and
increase' of the resources of the state, the protection of the rights and liberties of the
citizens, the preservation of their morals, and the defense of the independence of the
State against foreign control or conquest. While the philosophy of governing constitutes
the aaeiice of politics, the art of politics consists in the application of that science to
the individual circumstances of particular states. The ancient Greek writers treated
politics with reference to an ideal perfect state, which each propounded according to
iris own speculative views, pointing out the variation of every existing government from
his standard. The politics of a country, in common parlance, Implies the course of its
government, more especially in its relations with foreign powers.
POLIZIANO, ANGELO, whose name is perhaps better known under the Latin form of
POLITIAXUS, was the son of a doctor of civil law, and was b. at Monti pulciano in Tus-
cany, July 14, 1454. The family name was Ambroginis, but Poliziano took his from his
native town — in Latin, MOHS Pvli1i<inii*. He studied Latin at Florence under Cristoforo
Landia, Greek under Androuicus of Thessalonica, the Platonic philosophy under Marsilio
Ficino, and the Aristotelian under Argyropulos. He also devoted some attention to
Hebrew. Poliziano's talent for poetry was early developed. When scarcely 15 years of
age he took the Florentines with surprise by the publication of his famous >'/,//,;, (a
poem of 1400 lines) in honor of Giulio de Medici, who had carried off the palm at a
tournament. Lorenzo de Medici took notice of the brilliant lad, and at once placed him
in a condition to continue his studies without any pecuniary harassmcnts, by appointing
him tutor to his two sons, and subsequently gave him a residence in his charming villa
near Fiesole, where Poliziano, who was passionately fond of country life, resumed his
studies with fresh ardor. In 1484 he accompanied the Florentine ambassadors to Rome,
and was received in a flattering manner by the pope, at whose request he translated (into
Latin) the Greek historian Herodianus, for which he received 200 golden crowns. He
also made Latin versions of the Enchiridion of Epictetus, the Channides of Plato, and
other works, with such elegance, that Erasmus pronounced him a master in translation.
After having filled for some years a chairof Latin literature, he commenced the teaching
of Greek. His popularity as a professor was great. Pupils came to study under him
from all the great cities of Italy, and even from distant parts of Europe; the principal
were Francesco Pucci, Fortiguerra, Maffei de Volaterra, P. Crinitus Guillauine
Grocyn, Thomas Linacre, and Michael Angelo. His copies of Ovid, Statins, Pliny the
younger, Quintilian, etc., and other authors, are still preserved in the different libraries
of Italy, and are covered with marginal notes. His copy of the famous Dir/rst of Roman
law, with an elaborate philological and grammatical commentary, is still preserved in the
Laurentian library at? Florence. In 1489 appeared his Miscellanea, a collection of critical
and other observations on the ancient authors. Toward the close of his life he entered
into orders, and was made canon of the cathedral of Florence. He died Sept. '24, 1494.
Among the brilliant scholars of the classical renaissance, Poliziano occupies a foremost
place in virtue of his vigor and originality. His intellect was indeed penetrated by an
admiration of the chaste and noble literature of antiquity; but there was nothing servilu
in his imitations; he reproduced without difficulty — because he was a himself : kindred
genius — the strength of Tacitus, the elegance of Livy, and the conciseness of Sallust ; his
Latin poems, especially his elegies, display the beauty and ardor of his imagination.
Among his vernacular pieces maybe mentioned his Uanti Carnascialeschi (Carnival or
Merry Ballads), remarkable for their felicity of style, sweetness of pathos, and abundance
of imagery. Another proof of his varied poetical power was his Orfeo, one of the earliest
dramatic compositions produced in Italy. The'editions of Poliziano's separate writings
have been numberless. See Seraszi'sF/to diA. Politiano; N. A. Bonafous's De A. l'»iitiani
Vita et Operibns (Paris, 1845), Tiraboschi's Storia detta Litterat. Itnlimut ; Greswell's
Memoirs of Politiano, and Roscoe's Lives of Lorenzo de Medici and of Leo X.
POLK, a co. in w. Arkansas, watered by Cossatot river, the Brushy fork of Ounchita
river, and Saline bayou; about 950 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 5,857 — 64 colored. The surface is
irregular and hilly. The soil is fertile in some parts. Cotton and corn are grown. There
are deposits of iron, lead, and slate. Co. seat. Dallas.
POLK, a co. in central Florida, bounded on thee. by Kissimmee lake and river; about
1900 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 3,153 — 120 colored. The surface is level, heavily wooded, and
Politics.
Polk.
contains a number of lakes. The soil is fertile in parts. Corn, potatoes, and live stock
are the principal productions. Co. seat, Bartow.
POLK, a co. in n.w. Georgia, adjoining Alabama, drained by Coosa river and
Euharlee creek; 400 sq.m. ; pop. '70, 7,822 — 2,578 colored. The surface is hilly, and
heavily timbered. The soil is fertile in parts. The principal productions are corn,
cotton, and wheat. Slate is quarried. Co. seat, Cedar Town.
POLK, a co. in s. central Iowa, drained by the Des Moines, Raccoon, and South
Skunk rivers and Beaver creek, traversed by the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific, the
Des Moines and Minnesota, and the Keokuk and Des Moiues railroads; 575 sq.m. ; pop.
'70, 27,587 — 23,944 of American birth. The surface is prairie or woodland. The sftil
is fertile. The principal productions are wheat, corn, oats, hay, and live stock. Bitu-
minous coal is mined. Co. seat, Des Moiues.
POLK, a co. in n.w. Minnesota, adjoining Dakota, bounded on the w. by the Red
River of the North, drained by Red lake and Wild Rice rivers, intersected by the St.
Paul and Pacih'c railroad; about 4,500 sq.m. ; pop. '70, 937. The surface is level, mostly
prairie. The soil is fertile. The principal productions are corn and wheat. Co. seat,
C;ookston.
POLK, a co. in s.w. central Missouri, drained by the Pomme de Terre and Little Sac
river.-,; about 650 sq.m.; pop. '80, 15,745 — 15,649 of American birth. The surface is
rolling or hilly, much of it covered with forests. The soil is fertile. The principal pro-
ductions are wheat, corn, oats, and live stock. Lead and limestone are found. Co. seat,
Bolivar.
POLK, a co. in e central Nebraska, bounded on the n.w. by the Platte river, drained
also by the north fork of the Big Blue river; about 450 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 6,846—4,963 of
American birth. The surface is rolling or level, with few trees. The soil is fertile.
The principal productions are corn, wheat, oats, and hay. Co. seat, Osccola.
POLK, a co. in s. North Carolina, adjoining South Carolina; drained by Green river;
about 200 sq.m. ; pop. '70, 4,319 — 978 colored. The surface is hilly, and heavily tim-
bered. The soil is fertile. The principal productions are corn, oats, hay, and pork.
Co. seat, Columbus.
POLK, a co. in n.w. Oregon, bounded on the e. by "Willamette river; drained by the
Rickreal and the s. fork of the Yam Hill rivers; about 750 sq.m.; pop. '80, 6,601 — 6,129
<jf American birth. The surface is irregular, intersected by the Coast range in the w., and
heavily timbered. The soil in the Willamette valley is fertile. The principal produc-
tions are corn, wheat, oals, hay, and live stock. Lumber is exported. Co. seat, Dallas.
POLK, a co. in e. Tennessee, adjoining Georgia, drained by the Ocooee and Hiawas-
see rivers; about 450 sq.m.; pop. '80, 7,269 — 7,208 of American birth. The surface is
uneven and mountainous, and heavily timbered. The soil is partly fertile. The prin-
cipal productions are corn, grass, and wheat. There are valuable copper mines. Co.
seat, Ben ton.
POLK, a co. in e. Texas, bounded on the s.w. by Trinity river; watered by Sandy
and other creeks; about 800 sq.m. ; pop. '80, 7,191—7,123 of American birth— 2,848 col-
ored. The surface is mostly level, and heavily timbered. The soil is fertile. Corn,
cotton, and live stock are the principal productions. Co. seat, Livingston.
POLK, a co. in n.w. Wisconsin, adjoining Minnesota; bounded on the w. by St,
Croix river; drained also by Apple river; about 950 sq.m.; pop. '80, 10,018 — 6,212 of
American birth. The surface is irregular, contains many small hakes, and is heavily
timbered. The soil is partly fertile. The principal productions are corn, wheat, and
oats. Co. seat, Osceola Mills.
POLK, JAMKS Kxox, eleventh president of the United States of America, was born in
Mecklenburg co., N. C., Nov. 2, 1795. His ancestors, who bore the name of Pollock,
emigrated from the n. of Ireland early in the 18th century. Though his father was a
farmer in moderate circumstances, he was educated in the university of North Carolina,
and studied law with Felix Grundy of Tennessee, an eminent lawyer and statesman.
Admitted to the bar in 1820, he was three years after elected a member of the legislature
of Tennessee, and soon after to the federal congress by the democratic party. In 1826
he was chosen speaker of the house of representatives, a position hj filled during five
sessions with firmness and ability. After serving fourteen years in congress he was, in
1839, elected governor of Tennessee; and in 1844 unexpectedly nominated, as a compro-
mise candidate, for the presidency, against Henry Clay, and elected. During his term,
the Oregon boundary was settled by a compromise offered by England, though the party
cry which helped to elect him was a Jlaim for the entire territory to 54° 40' n. lat. The
annexation of Texas caused, in 1846, a war with Mexico; 50.000 volunteers, added to the
small regular force, sufficed to take the capital (Sept. 14, 1847), and enabled the govern-
ment to dictate terms of peace, by which it acquired California and New Mexico. Hav-
ing pledged himself to a single term of office. Mr. Polk refused a renomination, and
retired to his home in Nashville, Tenn., Where he died three months afterward, June 15,
1849. Mr. Polk was a man of respectable abilities, and of a solid, firm, honest, and
religious character. He was devoted to the principles of the democratic party of Jeffer-
Folk. RAH
1-uilaitz.
son nnd Jackson — state rights, a revenue tariff, independent treasury, and strict construc-
tion of the constitution.
POLK, LEONIDAS, p.n., 1806-04; b. N. ('. ; graduated at West Point in 1S27; -was ap-
point cd brevet second lieut. of ariillery. with leave of absence, Resigning, he studied the-
ology, and was ordained in the Protestant Kpiscopal church in 1831; missionary bishop
of Arkansas and Indian Territory, with the provisional charge of the diocese of Alabama
ami Mississippi, in 1838-41; bishop of Louisiana in 1841-01. In 1801 he took up anus
against the union, was appointed maj. gen. of the rebel army; occupied Columbus, Ky.,
Sept., 1861, and evacuated il Mar., 180:2; commanded a division at the battle of Shiloh in
• April, 1863, also at Murfrecsboro, Chattanooga, and ( hickamauga; served as lieut. gen.
at the battle of Stone river in 1863. He was killed near Keuesaw mountain, Ga., iu
June, 1864.
POLK, THOMAS; b. N. C. about 1732; was the owner of a large estate near Char-
lotte: took part in the war of the revolution; led an expedition against the lories of North
Carolina; was commissary-general for the slate. The time of his death is not known.
POLK, WILLIAM, 1759-1835: b. N. C.; present at the MecklcnHirg declaration of
independence, 1775; joined the army of the revolution 1777: was in the kittle.; of Braudy-
wiiie and Germantown; with generals Gates and Greene in the southern stales. ;md was
wounded at Eutaw Springs; after the war, was iu the legislature of North Carolina, 1787;
removed to Raleigh and was an active politician; declined a nomination as b:i.
1813, because of his opposition to the war with England; was himself a witness and col-
lected the testimony of others to establish the genuineness of the Mecklenburg declara-
tion. He lived to be the last surviving field officer of the North Carolina line.
FOLK A, a species of dance, of Polish or Hungarian origin, the music to which is in J
time, and has the rhythmical peculiarity of being accented on the third quaver <>i' the
measure. It was introduced as a fashionable dance into western Europe about Ib 11.
POLLACK, Merlanflus pottachiua, a fish of the family gadidte, of the same gcmi wi.li
the whiting and coal-fish. It is common on the coasts of all parts of Britain; and in Scot-
land and some parts of Ireland it is called It/the. It is a very playful fish, often gambol-
ing on the suface of the water. It attains about the same size as the coal-lish. It has
three dorsal fins; the body is of a longish shape; the lower jaw is much longer than the
upper; the tail is slightly 'forked. The flesh is reckoned superior to that of the coal-fish.
Young pollacks are sometimes sold as whitings, to which, however, they are not nearly
equal. No fish more readily rises to the artificial fly. and in this way great numbers ate
caught on the British coasts". The fly is merely a bit of white feather tied to a common
bait-hook. Worsted is sometimes used instead of the feather; and flies of different colors
are sometimes used together, with great success No reel is employed, and any stick i.s
good enough for a rod; a few yards of string make a sufficient line.
POLLAN, Corcgonus pollan (see COREGONUS), a fresh-water fish of the family salma
a native of lakes in Ireland. It is particularly abundant in lough Neagh." where it is
often seen in large shoals, which issue from the deep waters, and haunt the shore from
spring to autumn, when great numbers are taken by nets, and sold in the neighboring
country. The pollan is from 10 to 12 in. in length; it resembles the gwyniad, but has >>< -t
the snout produced like that fish; and there are differences in the size and position of the
fins. It is very like coregonus sikus, a species found in the most, northern parts of Nor-
way. The spawn of the pollan is deposited in November and December on the rockv < r
stony parts of the bottom of the lake which it inhabits. It is a well-flavored fish. Th-
cry of "fresh pollan" is even more common in Belfast during summer than that of
" fresh herring."
POLL-ACT, a sanguinary act, passed at Trim, in Ireland, by the junto of the Pale, in
1465, under the earl of Desmond, deputy. It ordained " that' it shall be lawful to all
manner of men that find any theeves robbing by day or night, or going or coming to rob
or steal, or any persons going or coming, having no faithful man of good name and
fame in their company in English apparell, that'it shall be lawful to take and to kill
those, and to cutoff their heads, without any impeachment of our sovereign lord the king.
And of any head so cut off in the county of Meath, that the cutter and his ayders there
to him cause the saed head so cut off to be brought to the portreffe to put it upon a stake
or spear, upon the castle of Trim, and that the saed portreffe shall testify the bringing of
the same to him. And that it shall be lawful for the saed bnnger of the saed head to
distrain and levy by his hand (as his reward) of every man having one ploughland in the
barony, two pence, and of every man having half a ploughland. one penny; and of every
man having an house and goods, value forty shillings, one penny; and of every collier.
having one house and sinoak, one half-penny." Much slaughter is said to have been
committed under this remarkable act.
POLLAN ARRUA, an ancient city of Ceylon now in ruins, in the province of Taman-
kadme, about 60 m. n.e. of Candy. It was the capital, 769-1319. It was a larire and
splendid city in the reign of Prakrama Bahoo I., who surrounded it with a rampart.
The streets were from 16 to 26 m. long. It contained a palace of 7 stories, two edifices
o&5 stories for priests and devotees, and a coronation hall, all built by Prakrama Bahoo,
also the Rankot Dagoba, built by lu's queen, several hospitals, a college for medical stu-
8A1 Polk.
Pollnitz.
dents, built by king Dappola I. ; also a superb structure of several stories containing a
golden image of Buddha. The city was n peatedly taken by the Malabars, and recovered
by the Singhalese, but the last time the Malabars took it, about 1204, they demolished and
reduced it to its present condition. The most remarkable building is the Jailawanarama
temple. Opposite the entrance is an image of Gautama Buddha 50 ft. high. The Satmaha
Pra>ada is a handsome pyramidal building. The palace of Prakrama Bahoo 1. is on the
borders of the Toopawewa, an artificial lake, the waters of which were carried through
the buildings and poured by an ornamented spout into the king's bath, which is a large
circular space built of hewn stone. There are two stones covered with inscriptions, one
of which, neatly ornamented, is 25 ft. long aud 4 broad. The characters are small and
beautifully cut, and for the most part Singhalese.
POLLARDING (to poll, to cut off, or shave the head) is the cutting off of the whole
crown of a tree, leaving it to send out new branches from the top of the stem. Trees
thus treated are called p<Alardx. The new branches are never equal in magnitude to the
original branches of the tree, although often more numerous, and when pollarding is
often repeated, the scars and stumps form a thick ring at the top of the stem, liom which
many small branches spring. Pollards are not beautiful; but pollarding is practiced
with advantage in districts where fuel is scarce, the branches being cut off in order to be
used for fuel, and the operation repeated every third or fourth year. It is much more
prevalent in many parts of Europe than in any part of Britain, and in Britain is almost
confined to those districts of England which are furthest from coal. Willows, poplars,
alders, elms, oaks, and limes are the trees most frequently pollarded, and in some parts
of Europe the white'mulberry. The trees o.:' most rapid growth are preferred where fuel
is the object; and willows, poplars, and alders are planted along water-courses, and in
rows in moist meadows and bogs. Oaks are sometimes pollarded chiefly for the sake of
the bark of their branches, and the wrhole treatment very much resembles that of copse-
wood. In some parts of Germany, landscapes may be seen of open country with many
scattered oak and elm pollards, presenting a very peculiar appearance.
POLLEN. See STAMEN and FECUNDATION.
POLLEN ZA, a well-built t. in the northern part of the island of Majorca, about 2 m.
w. of the bay of Pollenza, and 28 u.w. of Palma. It has a Jesuits' college and some
manufactures of black woolen cloth. Pop. about 7,500.
POLLIO, C. AsiNirs, a politician, soldier, and author of considerable merit, and still
more considerable reputation, was b. in Home 76 B.C., but belonged to a family of Mar-
rucinian descent. His first ambition was to be an orator, and in his youth he seized
every opportunity of hearing such men as Hortensius and Cicero. When civil war broke
out between Caesar and Pompey. Pollio sided with the former, was present at the crossing
of the Rubicon, and accompanied the great general in his rapid triumphal march through
Italy. lie joined Caesar in his expedition to Greece against Pompey, and took part in
the decisive battle of Pharsalia, 48 B.C. At the time of CaBsar's assassination (Mar. 15,
44 B.C.). Pollio was governor of Hispania Ulterior (further Spain), and carrying on the
war against Sextus Pompey. In the subsequent struggles, he sided with the triumvirate
(Antony. Lepidus. and Ociavian) against the oligarchic senate; and on the triumph of
the former, was appointed administrator of transpadaneGaul, in which capacity he saved
the property of the poet Virgil at Mantua from confiscation. After Antony and Octavian
had quarreled, it was Pollio who effected their temporary reconciliation at Brundusium,
40 B.C. ; next year he conducted a successful campaign against the Parthini, a people of'
Illyria, and in consequence, obtained a triumph. After this event, however, he withdrew
altogether from political life. He lived 18 years after the emperor Augustus, dying at
his Tusculan villa, 4 A.TX. in the 80th year of his age. Besides having a reputation for
oratory, Pollio was celebrated as a historian, poet, and critic; and there seems little rea-
son to doubt that he was an author the loss of whose writings is to be regretted. His
literary and political criticism of his contemporaries, in particular, appears to have been
valuable. He also claims remembrance as a distinguished patron of men of letters, such
as Catullus, Horace, Virgil, and as the founder of the first public library at Rome.
POLLNITZ, KARL LrmviG VON, noted as a writer of memoirs of his time, was b.
near Cologne in 1692. He was equally remarkable for his talents and want of principle;
and while his father's position as minister of state to the elector of Brandenburg gave
him access to court-circles, his extravagance and eccentricity, coupled with his vagabond
ii.'ib'ts, often reduced him to the greatest poverty. But after wandering all over Europe,
taking service in the church in Austria, and in the army in Spain, he finally attracted
the favorable notice of Frederick the great, who appointed him his reader, and made
him director of the theater at Berlin. After having twice changed from Catholicism to
Calvinism, he proclaimed himself a member of the church of Rome shortly before his
death, which occurred in 1775. Among the numerous memoirs, either written by or
ascribed to him, the following were the most popular in their day, and the most
applauded for the powers of observation aud the wit which they exhibit: Lettres et Mem. ,
<.'f la Rdation de sen premiers Voyages (Amst. 1735); Etat abrege de Snxe sous Auguste III.
(Frankf. 1734); Hint, secrete de In !»/>•],< **e d'Han,ovre., epouse de George I. (Lond, 1732).
After his death, Brunn brought out Pollnitz's Memoires pour servird I'Histoire des quatre
derniers Souwmiiis de la Maison de Bmndenbourg (2 tomes, Bed. 1792).
Pollock.
Poltava.
POLLOCK. See POLLACK, ante.
POLLOCK, Sir FREDERICK, 1788-1870; b. England; brother of sir George; gradu-
ated at Cain bridge in 1NOO. and a year later became a fellow of Trinity college, and was
admitted to the bar, of which he became a distinguished member. In 18'JT lie was king's
counsel, and was knighted in 1834. He was Ihe representative from Huntingdon in
parliament 1831-44, and served as ally. gen. under sir Robert IVel in 1834-;!.1), also ls-(l
-44. He was lord chief-baron of the court of exchequer and privy counselor 1844-16,
after which he retired with a baronetcy.
POLLOCK, Sir GEORGE, 1786-1872; b. England; received his education at Wool-
wich academy. In 1802 entered the army as lieut. of the Bengal artillery, in service of
the East India company, and in 1805 became capt. He took part in the sieges (A' Dieg
and Bhurtpore in 1809, and was promoted to the rank of col. ; became maj.geu. in 1841,
and a year later took command of the British troops in the war against the Afghans,
forced the Khyber pass, and a few months later, reduced Cabul to submission. For
these valuable services, on his return to London, he received a pension of tl(H)0 from
the East India company, of which he was a director for 2 years. .Many marks of dis
tiuction were conferred upon him, among which were the freedom of the city of London,
and the order of grand commander of the star of India. He was brevetted field-marshal,
and became constable of the tower of London in 1871, and baronet in 1872.
POLLOCKSHAWS, a municipal borough in theco. of Renfrew. Scotland, is situated
on the banks of the White Cart, about 2^ m. s.w. of Glasgow. The name is derived
from the estate of Nether- Pollock, on which the town stands, and from the Scotch word
"shaw," which means a "grove" or "plantation." Pollockshaws is entirely a manu-
facturing town; cotton-spinning, calico-printing, silk-weaving, bleaching, iron-founding,
and fancy dyeing are extensively carried on. Pop. '71, 8,921.
POLLOK, ROBERT, a Scottish poet, was b. in 1799 at Muirhouse, in the parish of
Eaglesham, in the co. of Renfrew. After receiving the ordinary course of instruction in
country schools, he was sent to the university of Glasgow, and on the completion of his
curriculum in arts, he entered the divinity hall of the secession church, when- he studied
5 years. In 1827 he was licensed to preach. By this time he had written the C,H/I-I>< ,,f
Time, and its composition, together with the ardor with which he pursued his studies,
brought on consumption. The poem was published by Mr. Blackwood in the same year
in which the author received license. It was highly praised, but the voice of praise fell
on a dying ear. In his critical state, his medical attendants recommended residence for
a time'in Italy, and in compliance with 'heir advice, he set out, accompanied by his sis-
ter. On his arrival in London, his symptoms became suddenly worse, and unable to
Erosecute his journey, he went to reside at Shirley common, near Southampton, where
e died on Sept. 17, 1827. He was interred in the churchyard at Millbrook, and over
his grave an obelisk has been erected.
The Course of Time has run through more than 20 editions, and is extremely popular
in Scotland. It is awork of genius, but curiously unequal in merit. It contains eloquent
and spirited passages, but considerable portions 'of it read like a dull sermon turned into
blank verse. The writer drew his inspiration from nature, from Milton, and the shorter
catechism — from the last, perhaps, most of all. His memoir, written by a brother, was
published in 1843. Pollok also wrote Tales of the Covenanters, which .were published
anonymously.
POLL-TAX. See CAPITATION.
POLLUX. See CASTOR AND POLLUX.
POLLUX, JULIUS, b. at Naucrates, Egypt, and flourished in the reign of the emperor
Com mod us in 183 A.D. After a preparatory training under his father, he studied under
the Sophists, and became a learned grammatical critic. He opened a school of rhetoric
at Athens, and became so famous that he was made precept or of the emperor Commodus.
He prepared for the use of the emperor an Qn.omaftt.tcon, a Greek vocabulary divided into
10 books, designed to facilitate the learning of the Greek language by the young prince.
It contains a variety of synonymous words and phrases, is useful in the study of (Jreek
literature and art, and is valuable also because in the first part it treats of the gods and
their worship. An edition was published by Dindorf at Leipsic in 5 volumes, and fol-
lowed by that of Bekker of Berlin. Pollux was the author of several works, of which
Suidas has preserved the titles.
PO LO may be described as hockey on horseback. It is a game of Asiatic origin, and
was introduced into England in 18'~2 by cavalry officers who had learned it in India.
Two goals, as for football, are set up about 350 yds. apart, and the object is to drive a
ball about the size of a cricket-ball through the goal by striking it with long sticks hav-
ing bent or crooked ends. The players are mounted on ponies, and much depend* on
the skill with which these are managed. Four or five a side are the usual numbers, and
those scoring the greater number of goals win the game. Polo has become very popular
among English cavalry officers, and a few clubs have also been formed.
POLO, MARCO, the celebrated traveler, was born of a noble family of Dalmatian origin,
at Venice, about 1250. His father, Nicolo Polo, and his uncle, Matteo Polo, both cmi
Pollock.
Poltava.
ncnt merchants, had, previous to his birth, set out on a mercantile expedition, visiting
Constantinople, Soldiiya or Sondach (on the Euxine), and Bulgar (on the Volga), the
capital of Barkiii, the khan of Keptchak. Thence they traveled rour i tlie north side
of the Caspian sea to Bokhara, where they remained three years, studying th« Mongol
language and trading; but in 1261, some ambassadors fron; the Perao-Mogul khan to
Kublai (q.v.), the grand khan of the Mongols, happening to pass through Bokhara, the
brothers Polo resolved to accompany them to Kemenfti, the summer residence of the
khag.in. They were well received by Kublai, who was very inquisitive concerning the
peoples and mode of government in Europe, and commissioned them to act as his envoys
to the pope, bearing a written request for 100 Europeans, well learned in the sciences
and arts, to act as instructors to the Mongols. They reached Venice in 1269; but rind-
ing it impossible to discharge the mission with which they -had been intrusted, they set
out on their return in 1271, taking with them young Marco, and arrived again at the
court of Kublai khan in 1275. Their second reception wras still more honorable than
the first, and the khagau took special notice of Marco, from the rapidity with which he
learned the customs and language of the Mongols. His wisdom and the nobility of his
demeanor also recommended him as a fit envoy to the various neighboring rulers; and
during his residence at their several courts, Polo was in the habit of closely observing
the manners and customs of the country, and delivering on his return a detailed report
to the khagan. These reports were the groundwork of the book which informs us regard-
ing the state of central and eastern Asia in the end of the 13t.i century. Polo's first
mission was to the court of Annam or Tonquin (1277), and during lib residence there,
he acquired much information, both from his own observation and from report, concern-
ing Thibet, Yunnan, Bengal, Mien (or Pegu), and the south of China; he was next
employed to aid in making an inventory of the .archives belonging to the court of the
Song dynasty; and soon afterward was appointed governor of the town of Yang-tchow,
in the province of Kiang-si, in eastern China, a post he held for three years. He also
accompanied a Mongol army to the attack of the kingdom of Pegu; and closed the list of
services rendered to Kublai by accepting the embassy to Tsiampa, the south part of
Cochin-China. Having thus passed 17 years in the service of the Mongol khan, and
visited the chief countries and cities in eastern Asia, traveling through kingdoms (as
China) which no European had ever seen before, and acquiring much knowledge of
other kingdoms (as Japan, called by Polo Zipangu), the existence of -which was not even
suspected, he succeeded in obtaining permission to join the escort of a Mongol princess,
who was traveling to the court of Persia. The three Polos accordingly set out in 1291,
traveling through China, and thence, by sailing through the Chinese sea and Indian
ooean, finally arrived at Teheran, where they stayed for some time; but learning that
Kublai khan was now dead, they continued their journey, and arrived at Venice in 1293,
bringing with them much wealth and many precious objects, the fruits of their trading.
Marco, in the following year, fought his own galley in the great battle off Curzola, in
which the Venetians, under Daudolo, were defeated by the Genoese under Doria, and
was taken prisoner and immured in a dungeon at Genoa. Here he dictated, with ihe
aid of the memoranda he had made during his travels, an account of his journey through
the east, which was subsequently revised with care. After his liberation he returned to
Venice, where he was appointed member of the grand council, and died in 1328 eleven
years after his father. His work is variously entitled, but the best edition is 11 Milione
di Messer Marco Polo Veneziano, edited by count Baldelli (Florence, 4 vols. 4to, 1827), and
accompanied with a map, notes, and illustrations. Polo's narrative created an immense
sensation among the learned public, and many did not hesitate to affirm that it was a
pure fiction; but the Catholic missionaries and subsequent Venetian travelers into these
remote regions, verified many of Polo's statements, and then came a reaction of public opin-
ion ; Polo's wonderful minuteness, extensive research, and accuracy being the theme of
universal admiration. His work was of inestimable value as a stimulant and guide in geo-
graphical research; it encouraged the Portuguese to find the way to Hindustan round the
cape of Good Hope ; and it roused the passion for discovery in the breast of Columbus, thus
leading to the two greatest of modern geographical discoveries. The first edition of
Poio's " Voyages" was published by Ramusio in his Roccolta di Navigazioni 'e. Viac/yi
(Venice, 1550-59). English translations have been published in Edinburgh (1844). and
in London (1854 and 1871-75). There is also a German one by Burck, with notes bv
Neumann (1846).
POLOTSK', a t. of west Russia, in the government of Vitebsk, on the banks of (he
Diina, where that river is joined by the Polota. It was founded in the 9th c., is the scat
of a bishop of the Greek United church, and has several churches, besides a convent and
a school for the nobility. Here, in 1812. the Russian general, Wittgenstein, defeated the
French under Oudinotand Sire. Pop. '67, 11,418.
POLTAVA, a government of Little Russia, between the governments of Kiev on the
w. and Kharkov 011 the east. Area, 19,071 sq.m.; pop. '7072,102,614. The surface is
flat, with a gradual slope s.w. to the banks of the Dnieper, which forms the southern
boundary, and into which the chief rivers — the Sula, Psiol, and Worskla — flow. The
government does not aoound in wood, but possesses rich and extensive pastures. The
soil is for the most part clay and fertile vegetable mold, and the climate is healthy.
Poltava. QAJ.
1'oly basic.
Agriculture and cattle-breeding f.rc the staple occupations. Many of the peasantry are
employed with their oxen in bringing salt from the takes of the Crimea, and li-h from
the Don. The manufactures are imt numerous nor important. Commerce is chiefly in
the hands of Jews, and is mostly transacted at the fairs, the most important of which are
those of Poltava and liomny.
POLTAVA, chief t. of the government of the same time, is situated on the right bank
of the Worskla, a tributary of the Dnieper, about SK34 in. s.s.e. of St. Petersburg. Pop.
'67, 31,852. Poltava has lew manufactures, and its trade displays activity only during
the annual fairs, of which there arc four. The most important is called the Illinsky,
which lasts about a month. At these fairs merchandise is exposed for sale \\orth
£4,000,000. The principal articles of traflic are cloths, woolen tis.-ues, colonial produc-
tions, fur, wool, horse-, and agricultural produce and implements. Poltava is famous
as the scene of Charles XII. 's defeat by Peter the Great in 1709, and a monument com-
memorating the victory of the czar stands in the principal square; while three m. from
the t. a mound surmounted by a cross still known as the " Swedish Tomb," marks the
baule-lield. Poltava has a cathedral, numerous churches, and a school for cadets.
POLYANDRY, or POLYANDRIA, that form of polygamy which permits a woman to
have several husbands. See MARRIAGE. The hot-bed of polyandry is Thibet. There
a wife commonly is the wife of a whole family of brothers — the elder brother being chief
husband. In the Himalayan and sub-Himalayan regions adjoining and under the influ-
ence of Thibet it is of frequent occurrence in the same form; as in the valley < : ( ,i^h-
mere, in Ladak, among the Koech, among the Telingese. Further s. in India, we find
polyandry among the Tudas of the Nilgherry hills, the Coorgs of Mysore, and the
Nayars of Malabar. We find it again off the Indian coast in Ceylon; and going east-
ward, atrikc on it as an ancient though how almost superseded custom in New Zealand,
and in one or two of the Pacific islands. Going northward, we meet it again in the
Aleutian islands; and taking the continent to the w. and n. of the Aleutians, it is found
among the Koryaks, to the n. of the Okhotsk i-ea. Crossing the Russian empire to the
w. side, we meet it among the Saporogian Cossacks; and thus have traced it at points
half round the globe. This is not all-, however. It is found in several parts of A
and it occurs again in many parts of America among the red men. We have the
authority of Humboldt for its prevalence among the tribes of the Orinoco, and in tlm
same form as in Thibet. " Among the Avarocs and the Maypures," he says, " brothers
have often but one wife." Humboldt also vouches for its former prevalence in Lan-
cerota, one of the Canary islands. Thus, polyandry is a phenomenon of human life,
independent of race and country. — See Latham's JD<?.v/vy>iV/r Ethnology (1859), vol. i. pp.
24, 28; vol. ii. pp. 898, 406, and 462; Humboldt's Personal Karnilin, William. ;'s tran>I.:-
tion, 1819, vol. v. part 2, p. 549; and chap. i. vol. i. p. 84; Hamilton's .\< >r Account "j ' tl'e
East Indies (Ed\n. 1727), vol. i. pp. 274 and 308; Reade's Savage Afrifa, p. 48: Knnan's
Travels in Siberia, vol. ii. p. 531; Marriage Ceremonies, by seignior Gaya (translation),
2d edition (Lond. 1698), pp. 70 and 96; Emerson Teunent's Ceylon, 3d edition (1859), vol.
ii. p. 429; Grey's Polynesian Mythology (1855), p. 81; A Summer Ramble in. tin Uinti'Ini/ux
(1860); Vigne's Kashmir; Journal Azi. Soc. Bengal, vol. ix. ; Axint. /,W//.. vol. v. ; also
M'Lennan's Primitive Marriage (1865); and Herbert Spencer's Principles of Sociology
(1876).
From ancient history we learn that the area over which polyandry at one time
existed was even more extended; while in certain cantons of Media, according to Slrabo
(lib. ii. p. 798. ai,d see Goguet, vol. iii book vi. c. i.) polygynia was authori/rd i>y
express law, which ordained every inhabitant to maintain at least seven wives; in other
cantons, precisely the opposite rule prevailed: a woman was allowed to have many hus-
bands, and they looked with contempt on those who had less than five. Ca>ar informs
us that in his time polyandry of the Thibetan type prevailed among the Britons (D<: Jl< 'lo
Gallico. lib. v. c. xiv.). We" find direct evidence of its existence among the Picts in the
Irish Xennitis App. Ii., not to mention the traces of it remaining; in the Piclish laws of
succession. Indeed, to pass over communities in which something like promiscuity of
intercourse between the sexes is said to have prevailed — such as the Mass
Agathyrsi, and the ancient Spartans — we find several among which polyandry, or a
modified promiscuity, must have been the rule. Assuming that the legal obligation laid
on younger brothers in their turn to marry the wives of their deceased elder brother, is
a relic of polyandry of the Thibetan type, then we must hold that polyandry prevailed at
one time throughout India (Institutes of Menu, chap. iii. s. 173, and chap. ix. s-. 57. 5S),
among the ancient Hebrews (Deut. xxv. verses 5-11); in Siam, Burmah. in Syria :•.
the Ostiaks, the But (Bodo), the Kasia, and the Puharies of Gurhwal. Traces < f it
indeed remained in the time of Tacitus among the Germans (Tac., Germ., xx., Latham's
edition, p. 67 et seq.). In short, polyandry maybe regarded as one of the transitional
forms in the advance from a state of promiscuity, on the assumption that pure pi
cuity ever existed. Of the origin of this peculiar institution our space forbids us to
write; but we believe it to be connected with the want of balance between the numbers
of the sexes, due to the practice of female infanticide, which is its almost invariable
accompaniment. Tribes of warriors, wholly devoted to a military life, find women an
incuuibrauce rather than a solace; and from this cause, and probably from the difficul-
C £ X Poltava.
Folybasic.
ties of subsistence, formed the practice of killing their female children, sparing them only
when they were the first-born. The disparity of the sexes would lead to polyandry, and
once instituted, the custom would in many cases continue to exist after the habits and
necessities which produced it disappeared. In several places, as in Landak, where poly-
andry prevails, the sexes are now either equally balanced, or the female sex predomi-
nates. In these cases, polygynia and polyandry are commonly found existing side by
side. The subject is one which demands, "and as yet has not received full investigation.
POLYANTHUS (Gr. many-flowered), a kind of primrose (q.v.), much prized and culti-
vated by florists. It is generally believed to be a variety of the common primrose
(primula rndgaris), produced by cultivation, in which an umbel of numerous fknvers is
supported on a common scape (leafless flower-stem), instead of eacli flower rising on its
own stalk from the crown of the root; a modification to which a tendency often appears
in the wild plant itself. Thus in its habit it somewhat resembles the cowslip and oxlip,
whilst in the size of its flowers it is more like the common primrose; but instead of the
pale uniformity of the wild plant, it exhibits great variety of delicate and beautiful
colors. The subvarieties are innumerable, new ones being continually produced from
seed, and of short duration. The seed is sown about midsummer, and flowers may be
expected in abundance next year, if the young plants are properly planted out. A rich
free soil is most suitable. The polyanthus loves shade and moisture more than its con-
gener, the auricula. It is very hardy, and seldom suffers from the most severe winters.
Fine kinds are preserved for a time by dividing the root. The cultivation of the poly-
anthus is prosecuted with particular assiduity and success in England.
POLYANTHUS NARCISSUS. See NARCISSUS.
POLYATOMIC ALCOHOLS. The term alcohol, originally limited to one substance —
viz., spirit of wine, or hydrated oxide of ethyl, has begun to be applied to a considerable
number of organic compounds, many of which, in their external characters, bear little
resemblance to common alcohol. Most of them are fluid and volatile, some of them are
combustible, and all of them are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, behave in
a precisely similar manner toward the same decomposing agents, and are perfectly
neutral to test-paper.
Every alcohol, when acted on by oxidizing ngents, loses two equivalents of hydro-
gen, and is converted into an aldehyde; and by the prolonged action of the oxidizing
jigent, the aldehyde takes up two equivalents of oxygen, and is converted into a special
ncid. Moreover, all alcohols, by the abstraction of the elements of water, yield ethers.
Hence, every alcohol has its own ether, aldehyde, and special acid; the aldehydes of the
alcohols termed polyatomic, have, however, not been formed.
According to the theory of organic radicals, the alcohols are hydrated oxides of an
alcohol radical. Thus, common alcohol, or spirit of wine, is the hydrated oxide of the
radical ethyl (C4HB), and is represented by the formula C4H5O, HO; similarly, wood-
spirit is the hydrated oxide of the radical methyl (G'2H3), and is represented by the
formula C9H»O,HO. According to the theory of chemical types (see TYPES, CHEMICAL),
the alcohols are divided into monatomic and polyatomic. A molecule of water consists of
two atoms of that substance, and is therefore represented by the formula H2O2, which
TT J
may be arranged in the form TT [• O2. If half the hydrogen in this typical formula be
replaced by an organic radical, such, for example, as CuIIn+i,CnHn-i,CnHn-3,CnHn-7 or
CnIIn-9 (n being even in all these cases), we obtain what is termed a monatomic alcohol
one equivalent of hydrogen being here replaced. Besides the primary water-type repre-
sented by one molecule of water, there are derived or secondary and tertiary types,
reDresented by two and by three molecules of water, and expressed in the forms
TT \ TI \ TT )
| j- O4 and p ' I O8. If half the hydrogen in ^ ' - O4 be replaced by an organic radical,
we obtain an alcohol said to be diatomic, in consequence of its being formed by the
replacement of two equivalents of hydrogen. Similarly, if half the hydrogen in
TT \
>• O6 be replaced by an organic radical, we obtain a triatomic alcohol. The term
polyatomic is applied to all alcohols which are not monatomic.
POLYBA'SIC ACIDS. Most of the inorganic acids combine with bases in such a man
ner that one atom of the acid is united with one atom of a metallic oxide to form a neu-
tral salt. Nitric acid may be taken as an illustration of the acids possessing this prop-
erty, and which may therefore be called monobasic. In other cases, as, for example, that
of pyrophosphoric acid (see PHOSPHORUS), one atom of acid possesses the property of
combining with two atoms of base; such acids are termed bibasic or dibasic. There are
strong grounds for believing that sulphuric acid is bibasic, in which case its formula
would require to be doubled, and to be written 2HO,S2Oe. Common phosphoric and
arsenic acids are examples of a third class of acids in which one atom combines with
three atoms of base, and which are therefore termed Iribasic. Whether any polybasic
acids beyond tribasic acids exist, is uncertain, but it is probable that silicic acid is a
tetrabasic acid.
Amongst the organic acids a similar relation takes place, acetic, succinic, and citric
acids affording examples of the monobasic, dibasic, and tribasic class.
U. K XI. -55
Folyblin.
The following are the most important general differences shown by acids of different
degrees of basic i I y :
1. Erich monobasic acid can form but one ether, which is neutral. 2. A. monofjitx'r.
acid cuunot form a stable, well-delined acid salt or a salt with two or more metallic
bases.
1. Each dUxixic acid can form tiro ethers, one neutral, and the other acid. 2. Dibasic
acids can form with each metallic base a neutral salt and an acid salt. They can al>o
form double salts containing two metallic bases.
1. Each trilMftic acid can form three ethers, one neutral, and two acid. 2. 7'/-i?><mir. acids
can form three sails with the same metallic base, two of them acid and one neutral.
Many attempts have been made to account for the polybasic or monobasic
character of an acid, from its composition. According to Kckule (/,<// /•//'/<•/,- <1> /• Onj<ini*<'!i.
Chemie, vol. i. p. 210-219), the basicity depends not", as was formerly Mipposcd. on the
molecular constitution of the acid, but upon the amount of oxygen contained in its
radical. For further details on this subject, the reader is referred to the article ACIDS in
Watt's Dictionary of Chemistry, vol. i. 1863.
POLYBIUS, the Greek historian, was born about 204 B.C. in Megalopolis, a town of
Arcadia. From Lycortas. his father, who was among the leading men of the Acha-an
league, he received valuable instruction in the science of politics and in tl ; art of war.
Iul81 he would have visited Egypt in the capacity of ambassador, but the project of
sending an embassy to that country was given up. His engaging in public affairs prob-
ably dates from this period, and he rapidly gained the confidence of his countrymen.
He was one of the 1000 noble and influential Achaeans who, after the conquest of .Mace-
donia in 168", were sent to Rome on the summons of the commissioners from that city to
answer the charge of having failed to assist the Romans against king Perseus. On their
arrival in Italy in 167 they were not put upon their trial, but were distributed among
the towns of Etruria. Owing, perhaps, to his having formed the friendship of yEmilius
Paulus, or of liis sons Fabius and Scipio, he was more fortunately allocated than others
of his countrymen. His residence was fixed at Rome and in the house of Paulus.
Scipio, then about 18 years of age, became strongly attached to Polybius. made him his
companion in all his military expeditious, and profited greatly by his knowledge and
experience. Polybius in his turn derived much advantage from the protection and
friendship of Scipio, who gave him access .to public documents, and aided him in the
collection of materials for his great historical work. In 151 the surviving Ach;ean exiles
were permitted by the Roman senate to return to Greece, and among them was Polyhius,
who arrived in Peloponnesus after a residence of 17 years in Italy. He soon, however,
rejoined Scipio, followed him in his African campaign, and was present at the destruc-
tion of Carthage in 146. But the outbreak of war between the Ach;eans and Romans
summoned him again to Greece, where he arrived soon after the taking of Corinth. All his
influence was now exerted to procure from the conquerors favorable terms for the van-
quished; and so grateful were his countrymen for his services in their behalf, that they
erected statues in his honor at Megalopolis (his native town), Mantinea. Palianlium,
Tegea, and other places. It must have been about this time that Polybius undertook
the writing of his great historical work, the materials of which he had so long been col-
lecting. We cannot now fix with accuracy at what period of his life he visited in foreign
countries the places which he had to describe in his history. We know from himself
that at one time, probably while accompanying Scipio. he undertook long and laborious
journeys into Africa, Spain, Gaul, and even as far as the shores of the Atlantic, in order
to add to the scanty knowledge previously existing with regard to these regions. In the
latter period of his life he traveled in Egypt; and about 12 years before hisdeath, he prob-
ably accompanied Scipio to Spain, where he witnessed the fall of Numantia. He died
about 122 H.C., in his 82(1 year, in consequence of a fall from his horse.
As a historian Polybius occupies a high rank. His work, which bciran where that
of Aratus broke off, includes the period between 220 and 146 B.C., the year when Corinth
fell, and, with it, the independence of Greece. Of the two parts into which it was di-
vided. the first embraced a period of 53 years, commencing with the second Punic war
and the social war in Greece, and concluding with the subjugation of the kingdom of
Macedonia in 168. This, the chief portion of his history, was designed to show how.
in the short space of 53 years, the greater part of Ihe world had been conquered by the
Romans; and in order that his countrymen might have a better knowledge than they
posses.se- 1 of the rise of that people, he gives a sketch of the history of Koine from its
capture by the Gauls to the outbreak of the second Punic war. This occupies the lir>t
two books, and may be regarded as an introduction to the work. The second part em-
braces the period from the fall of the Macedonian kingdom, in 16S. to the taking of
Corinth in 146. This part is to be viewed as supplementary to the first, at.d seems to
have brought down the history of the conquer t of Greece to its completion in the 39th
book, while the 40th and last pmbably contained a chronological summary of the entire
work. The style of Polybius is not his most striking feature, and he incurred the cen-
sure of later Greek critics for his negligence in the choice of words and in the structure
of his sentences. His great merits are the care with which he collected his materials,
C«'7 Polyl.ius.
|D ' Folycat p.
his strong love of truth, and his sound judgment, which was materially assisted by his
familiarity with political and military life. His tone is too didactic in general, and
although liis readers are prepared for this by his calling his work not a Hiztoria, but a
Pni'jiiiateia, still the continuity of the narrative is too often interrupted by digressions,
sometimes interesting and valuable in themselves, but fatal to artistic effect. Much the
greater part of his work has perished. Of the 40 books, we possess only rive entire; and
of ihe rest, merely fragments or exrracts. Some of these latter, however — such as the
account of the Roman army — are of considerable length and value, and four separate
collections of them have been added from time to time to the remains of the work. The
tirst of these, discovered soon after the revival of learning, in a MS. of Corfu, gives us
the greater part of the 6th book, and portions of the remaining 11. The second consists
of extracts made in the 10; li c., entitled E.i-arptu de J^fjationibus, and published at Ant-
werp by Ursinus in 1582. The third, entitled Exce-rpta de Virtnlibus et Vitiis, was pub-
lished in Ifi.j4 by Valesius. The fourth, entitled Kxcerpta de Sententiix, was discovered
by cardinal Mai in the Vatican, and published by him at Rome in 1827. The history of
Polybius was very closely followed by Livy after the period of the second Punic war,
and by Cicero in his account of the Roman constitution in his treatise De Republicd. —
The best annotated edition of Polybius is Schweighauser's (Leip. 1789). The best edi-
tions of the text, including that of the Vatican fragmtuls, are those of Bekker(Ber. 1844)
and L. Dindorf (1866).
POLYCARP, Bishop of Smyrna, and one of the most illustrious of the early Christian
martyrs, was born in the latter part of the 1st c. A.D. , but neither the date nor the place
of his birth is known. He was, however (according to a legendary fragment ascribed to
an unknown Pionius), brought up at Smyrna, where his pupil, Irenaeus, states that Poly-
carp was taught the doctrines of Christianity by the apostles, particularly by John, with
whom he had "familiar intercourse." The testimony of Irenaeus on this point is of
immense value, as it furnishes the chief historical link uniting the apostolic age — that
age which is reflected in the later parts of the New Testament — with the rising church of
the 2d century. The passage occurs in an expostulatory epistle to a Roman heretic,
Florinus, and is preserved by Eusebius (Hist. Ecd. chap. xx.). "I can tell also the very
place where the blessed Polycarp was accustomed to sit and discourse; and also his
entrances, his walks, the complexion of his life, and the 'form of his body, and his con-
versations with the people, and his familiar intercourse with John, as he was accustomed
to tell, and also his familiarity with those that had seen the Lord. Also concerning his
miracles, his doctrines, all these were told by Polycarp, in consistency with the lioly
Scriptures, as he had received them from the eye-witnesses of the doctrine of salvation."
The fragment of Pionius <> which reference has already been made) informs us that
Polycarp, when only a little child, was adopted by a rich Christian lady named Callisto,
who left him heir to all her wealth; in consequence of which he was enabled to gratify
his love of works of beneficence and charity. We are, however, utterly without the
means of determining what truth (if any) there is in the narrative of Pionius, and can
only feel certain that in some way or other he had distinguished himself at a compara-
tively early period, for before the" death of the apostle John (i.e., at the latest, before 104
A.D.). he was ordained bishop or Smyrna (according to Tertullian and Jerome) by John
himself; according to Irenaeus, by "the apostles;" and according to Pionius, by "the
bishops of the neighboring churches" — statements which are quite reconcilaole with each
other. Polycarp was in the exercise of his episcopal functions when Ignatius of Antioch
passed through Smyrna on his road to Rome (107-16 A.D.), and we are told that th«
two pupils of St. John, who had probably known one another in earlier years, had much
delightful Christian converse. Almost half a century afterward Polycarp himself visited
Rome, when Anicetus was bishop there (157-68 A.D.), and had a friendly conference with
his brother on the subject of the proper time to hold Easter. They could not agree — but
they Mii-reed to differ. His martyrdom, which is related at great length and in a touch-
inn- manner by Eusebius (Hut. Ecd. chap, xiv.), took place probably in 166 A.D., during
the persecution under the emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. When asked,
or rather entreated "to revile Christ" by the proconsul Statins Quadratus, who, being
deeply impressed with the venerable appearance of the aged bishop, wished if possible to
save his life, Polyoarp replied, "Eighty-and-six years have I served Him, and He never
did me wrong: and how can I now blaspheme my King that has saved me?" Polycarp
was burned alive. In such profound reverence was he held by his fellow-Christians, for
his almost perfect graces of character, that the Jews (who had been conspicuously zeal-
ous in collecting "wood and straw from the shops and baths" to burn him) instigated
the proconsul not to give up the corpse of the martyr to his co-religionists, " lest, aban-
doning Him that was crucified, they should begin to worship this one." More convincing
evidence of a saintly character has never been adduced.
Polycarp wrote several Epistolip, of which only one has been preserved, the Epislola
ad Pkuippenses, valuable for its numerous quotations from the New Testament — espe-
cially from the writings of Paul and Peter. It is, however, doubtful whether this epistle
is really by Polycarp. In the most recent edition of the Apostolic Fathers (Patnnu Apos-
foUi-'innn Opera, Leipsic, 1877), prof. Zahn defends its genuineness. There are English
versions by Cave, Clemeutson, and Wake.
Polychrome.
Poljgaleae.
POLYCH7.0XS PRINTING, the art of printing in one or more colors at the same
time. Although several attempts had been previously made to carry out this process,
-Congreve, in LS'M, was the first to do it successfully with metal plates. Sir William
Congreve had seen Applcgath's polychromatic block printing press, by which verv rude
colored pictures were produced, and he conceived the idea of improving upon it, and
doing it with metal. His plan is extremely simple, though requiring great nicety in
carrying it out. First, the picture is outlined upon a metal plate; and supposing it
intended to have two colors, then the details of only the chief color are completed upon
it, and all the parts for the other color are cut out, and into those parts other plates are
fitted, like the portions of a child's puzzle-map, but with very <rreat exactness; and upon
these the engraving for the parts of the second color are completed. When these are
done, a thickness of type-metal is attached to the back of these interior pieces, so that
they can be held separately, and pushed forward or drawn backward at pleasure. Then
they are so adjusted to the machinery of the press, that they are withdrawn when the
first color-roller passes over the surface of the main plate, and are pushed forward beyond
the face of the main plate, so as to receive the color of the second roller, which tbea
pusses over them without touching the first or main plate. Having received their colored
ink, the secondary plates are again moved back to a perfect level with the other, so as to
form an entire plate, carrying two colors, which are thus, in the ordinary way, imprinted
oil the paper. Since sir William Congreve's patent very many improvements have been
ma le, the principle, however, remaining the same, and it has now a very wide applica-
tion.
POLYCLETUS, a Greek sculptor and architect, supposed to have been b. at Sicyon
about 430 H.C., and a citizen of Argos. He is said to have been the pupil of Argive Agela-
das. who was also the instructor of Phidias and Myron. His greatest work is thought
to be the statue of "Hera," in the temple, between Argos and Mycenae, carved in ivory
and gold. The goddess is represented on a golden throne, crowned with a garland o'n
which are cut the graces and hours, and holding the scepter surmounted by a cuckoo
in one hand, and a pomegranate in the other. The upper portion of the figure and the
feet are of ivory, the robe of gold, falling from the waist. Polycletus probably intended
this statue to surpass the chryselephantine statues. '"Athena" and " Zeus," the works of
Phidias, and though it equaled them in beauty, it was exceeded by them in size. His
celebrated statue, the " Spear-bearer,'' was considered the canon for students on account
of its fine symmetry. He designed the theater at Epidaurus. thought to be the most beau
tiful of all theaters, whether Greek or Roman, and was considered the greatest architect
of his time. Phidias, it is said, was unrivaled in his images of gods; Polycletus in his
images of men. He was the author of a treatise on the proportions of the human body
Nothing is known of his personal history.
POLYCOTYLED'ONOUS PLANTS, those plants of which the embryo has more than two
seed-lobes or cotyledons. See COTYLEDON and DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS. In some of
the conifercK in particular, there are numerous cotyledons; the genus pi i tint has from three
to twelve. These cotyledons are placed in a whorl, and have the gemmule of the embryo
in the midst of them. Polycotyledonous plants do not form a separate division of the
vegetable kingdom, but are ranked with the dicotyledonous plants; for plants with two,
and plants with more cotyledons are found not only in the same natural order, but in
the same genus.
POLYC RATES, "tyrant" of Samos, is a well-known name in ancient Greek history.
He was b. in the first part of the 6th c. B.C., but nothing is known of him until the time
when, with the assistance of his brothers, Pantagnotus and Syloson, he obtained ]>
sion of the island. The three brothers at first ruled conjointly, but after a short time,
Polycrates put Pantagnotus to death, banished Syloson, and made himself sole despot.
His energetic, unscrupulous, and ambitious character now showed itself more conspicu-
ously than ever. He conquered several islands of the Archipelago, and even some towns
on the Asiatic mainland, waged war successfully against the inhabitants of Miletus, and
defeated their allies, the Lesbians, in a great sea-fight. His fleet amounted to 100 ships,
and was probably at that time the most powerful in all Greece. Polycrates seems to
have aspired to "the sovereignty of the ^Egean, if not also of the cities of Ionia. His
intimate alliance with Amasis," king of Egypt, proves the importance in which this
daring island-prince was held even by great monarchs. According to Herodotus, Amasis
drew off from his alliance through alarm at the uninterrupted good fortune of Polyc-
rates. He dreaded, we are told, the misfortunes that the envious gods must be prepar-
ing for so lucky a mortal, and to which his friends would also be exposed. The particular
incident that is said to have finally ruptured the alliance is doubtless n.ythical. bin
well known that we cannot, afford to overlook it. Amasis is reported to have written a
letter to Polycrates, earnestly advising him to throw away the possession that he deemed
most valuable, and thereby avert the stroke of the spleenful gods. Polycrates, in com-
pliance with this friendly advice, cast a signet-ring of marvelously beautiful workman*
*hip into the sea; but next day a fisherman presented the "tyrant" with an unusually
big fish that he had caught, and in its belly was found the identical ring. It was quite
c-lear to Amasis now that Polycrates was a doomed man, and he immediately broke off
the alliance. So, at least, Herodotus tells the story; but Grote (History tf Greece, vol. iv.
Polychrome.
Polygaleas.
_.„ likely
invaded Egypt (525 B.C.), Polycrates sent him a contingent of forty ships, iu which lie
placed all the Samians disaffected toward his "tyranny," and told the Persian king
privately not to let them come back! However, they escaped in some way or other the
fate which Polycrates had designed for them, returned to Samos. and made war against
th
enlistiiu
Corinthi;]
deadly hatred against Polycrates, and having enticed the latter to visit him, by appeal-
ing to his cupidity, he seized and crucified him. Thus perished ignominiously, in the
midst of his power and splendor, one of the most famous tkalassokrate, or sea kings, of
Greek antiquity. He was a patron of literature and the fine arts, and had many poets
and artists about his court. His intimacy with Auacreon, in particular, is quite a cele-
brated thing, and in his praise that joyous bard wrote many songs. To Polycrates also,
in all probability, belongs the construction, or at least the enlargement, of those great
buildings which Herodotus saw at Samos.
POLYDIPSIA (Gr. great thirst) is the term now commonly applied to the disease for-
merly known as diabetes insipidus. It is characterized, as its name implies, by extreme
thirst, and by an .enormous discharge of pale watery urine. The affection is one of rare
occurrence, and the persons most liable to it are dyspeptics who have passed the period
of middle life, and whose bodily powers are failing, although (us the case we shall imme-
diately notice, and one recorded by Dr. Watson, show) it may begin in childhood. The
two prominent features of this disease usually lead to the suspicion that true diabetes is
present; but the low specific gravity of the urine, and the absence of sugar in it in
Bjlydipsia, and the reverse condition in diabetes, seem to make the distinction easy,
r. Willis, in his work On Urinary Diseases, records the case of a man, aged 45, who
was admitted for an accident into the Hotel-Dieu at Paris, and who passed daily, on an
average, thirty- four pounds of urine, and drank thirty-three pounds of water, the normal
daily excretion of urine being a little less than two pounds. This person reported that
he had been affected in a similar manner ever since his fifth year, and that, from the age
of 16 upward, he had daily consumed not less two bucketfuls of water, and dis-
charged a commensurate quantity of urine. Little good can be affected by treatment,
further than stimulating the action of the skin by the use of Dover's powders, Turkish
baths', etc., and by inducing the patient to take as little drink as may be at all consistent
with his comfort.
POLYGFALE.ZE, or POLYGALACE.E, a natural order of exogenous plants, herbaceous or
shrubby, sometimes twining; the leaves without stipules, and generally simple; the
flowers resembling papilionaceous flowers, but tjie odd petal inferior, and the odd sepal
superior; the flower-stalks with three bracts; the calyx of five very irregular sepals; of
which the two interior are usually petal-like; the corolla of three, or sometimes five
petals, the anterior petal the largest, and often crested; stamens eight, monadelphous or
diadelphous, or four and distinct ; the ovary superior, generally 2-celled, one ovule in each
ceil; style and stigma simple; fruit generally a capsule opening by valves, sometimes a
drupe. There are about 500 species, diffused throughout all parts of the world. — The
genus poll/gala has a persistent calyx, eight stamens, the lateral sepals large and petal-
like, and hairy or wrinkled seeds. The species are very numerous, annual and per-
ennial herbaceous plants, and small shrubs, natives chiefly of warm and temperate
climates. One is found plentifully in Britain; the COMMON MILKWORT (P. vulgaris), a
small perennial plant, growing in dry hilly pastures; with an ascending stem, linear-
lanceolate leaves, and a terminal raceme of small but very beautiful flowers, having a
finely-crested keel. It varies considerably in size, in the size and even shape of the
leaves, and in the size and color of the flowers, which are sometimes of a most brilliant
blue, sometimes purple, pink, or white. — Several species are natives of the south of
Europe. — North America produces a greater number. The cape of Good Hope and
other subtropical countries produce many beautiful species, some of which have become
common ornaments of greenhouses. — P. senega is a North American species, with erect
simple tufted stems, about 1 ft. high, and terminal racemes of small white flowers. The
root, which is woody, branched, contorted, and about half an inch in diameter, is the
SENEGA ROOT, SENEKA ROOT, or SNAKE ROOT of the United States, famous as an imag-
inary cure for snake-bites, but really possessing important medicinal virtues — stimulating,
diuretic, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, and in large doses emetic and purgative — employed
in catarrhs, pulmonary affections, rheumatisms, low fevers, ete. Its chief active prin-
ciple is potyf/alic acid, C22Hi8Oii. The root of P. senega has been employed as a cure
for snake-bites by the American Indians from time immemorial, and it is a curious fact,
that P. crotalarioides is employed in the same way in the Himalaya. P. vulgaru is tonic,
stimulant, and diaphoretic; and P. amara, a very similar European species, possesses
Polygamous. 8*70
1'olygoncae.
the same properties in a higher degree, as docs P. rubella, a small North American
species. The root of P. pout/a, a Brazilian .-[.cries, with leathery leaves, is an active
emetic, and in a fresh state, is employed in bilious fevers. Similar properties seem to
pervade the whole genus. Another medicinal plant of the order is raitnny (q. v.) root.
Species of several genera are used as tonics. The bark of the roots of nu/nninapolystachiQ
and M. salicifolia is used in Peru as a substitute for soap. Mundia spirwsa, a s. African
bhrub, produces an eatable fruit.
POLYGAMOUS (Gr. p»lyn, many, game, marriasre), in botany, a term employed to
designate those plants which produce both unisexual and hermaphrodite llowers either
on the same or different plants. In the Linuajan sexual system these plants formed a
class, POLYGAMIA, the genera included in winch were perhaps more completely dis-
joined from their natural allies than those, of any other class of that system, forming by
themselves a very heterogeneous assemblage.
POLYGAMY. See MAKKIAGE.
FOLYGASTKICA. See INKUSOKIA.
POLYGLOT (Gr. polys, many; and gldtta. tongue) means, in general, an assemblage of
versions in different languages of the same work, but is almost exclusively applied to
manifold versions of the Bible. The Hexapla (q.v.) of Origen contained,' besides the
lle'irew text, several other versions. All these, however, were in the Greek language,
and the Hexapla is not commonly reckoned among the polyglots. They are divided into
two classes, the greater and the lesser polyglots. To the former belong four works,
known as the Complutensian Polyglot; the Antwerp, or king of Spain's Polyglot; the
Parisian Polyglot, and the London or Walton's Polyglot. — The Compfntensi.-m Polyglot
derives its title from Com pi u turn, the Latin name of Alcala de Henares, where ii was
printed irj 6 vols. folio, 1502-1517. It was published at the cost, and under the direc-
t-ion of the celebrated cardinal Ximenes, who spared no expense, whether in collecting
the most ancient and authentic MSS., or in bringing together the most distinguished
scholars of all countries for the carrying out of his design. The Complutensian Poly-
glot contains, besides the Hebrew text, the Septuagint Greek and the Chaldee teach with
a literal Latin version), and the Latin Vulgate. — The Antwerp Polyglot, so called from
its being there printed (1569-72), at the celebrated press of Plautin, was published at
the cost of Philip II. of Spain, under the direction of the distinguished scholar. Bene-
dict Arias Montanus. It is in 8 vols. folio, and contains, in the Old Testament, the
Hebrew, the Greek, the Targum of Onkelos, and the other Chaldee paraphrases, and the
Latin Vulgate. In the New Testament, besides the Greek and Latin, it contains a Syriac
version, printed both in Syriac and in Hebrew characters. Arias Montanus was assisted
by many scholars of eminence, chiefly of Spain and the Low Countries. — The Parisian
Polyglot was printed at Paris in 1645. at the cost and under the editorship of Guy
Michel le Jay. It is in 10 splendid volumes, and contains, in addition to the contents of
the Antwerp Polyglot, another Syriac version, and an Arabic version, together with the
Samaritan version and the Samaritan text of the Pentateuch, each of these b< ing accom-
panied by a literal Latin translation. — The London Polyglot was edited by Brian Walton,
afterward bishop of Chester, and it engaged for many years a number of the most emi-
nent linguists of the period. The number of its languages is not the same in all parts of
the Bible; but it may be said to contain the Bible, or portions of it, in nine languages:
Hebrew, Samaritan. Chaldee, Syriac, Arabic, Ethiopic, Persic, Greek (each of these
accompanied by a literal Latin version), and Latin. It is in 6 vols. folio, and was pub-
lished in 1654-57; and was followed in 1669 by the Lexicon Ifept<if/lnt(/,n of Edmund
Castell, 2 vols. folio, containing dictionaries of all the languages of the polyglot, except
the Greek and Latin. Of the minor polyglots the chief arc (1) the Heidelberg Polvglot
(1586), Hebrew, Greek, and Latin; (2) Wolder's Polyglot (Hamburg. 1596), Hebrew,
Greek, Latin, and German; (3) Hutter's Polyglot (Nurnbcrg, 1599), Hebrew. Chaldee,
Greek, Latin, German, and French; (4) Reinec.cius's Polyglot, in Syriac, Greek. Latin,
and German (Leipsic, New Testament, 1712; Old Testament. 1750/1751): (5) Mailer's
Polyglot, a very valuable collection of modern versions, folio (London, 1831). It con-
tains 8 versions in the Old Testament, viz., Hebrew. Greek, English, Latin. French.
Italian, Spanish, and German; and 9 in the New, Syriac being added to those already
named. (6) A useful "Hand Polyglot," containing in the Old Tt ^tam'-nt, Hebrew,
Greek. Latin, Vulga'e, and Luther's German version; and in the New, Greek, Latin,
Luther's German, and in the fourth column, in which are presented the chief differences
between this and other German versions.
Besides the Bible, many other works, or small pieces, have been published in poly-
glot. Of smaller pieces, the Lord's prayer has been the favorite, of which many collec-
tions, containing a greater or less number of languages, have been published from the
16th c. downward. Of these, the most comprehensive, and. for philoloirical purposes,
by far the most valuable, is the well-known Mithridate* of Adeluug. which contains the
Lord's prayer in nearly 500 languages, with vocabularies and grammatical explanations
of most of the specimens.
POLYGNOTUS, a distinguished Greek painter of antiquity, was b. toward the begin-
ning of the 5th c. B.C. He was a native of the isle of Thasos, and belonged to a family
O>71 Polygamous.
Polygoiicii).
of painters, who came to Athens to practice their profession, probably after the subjuga-
tion of Thasos by Cimon. Pulygnotus and his brother, Aristophon, were instructed in.
the principles of art by their father, Aglaophoii. We know almost nothing of their
lives, except that Polyguotus was a friend of the Athenian general above mentioned,
and is said to have been attached to his sister, Elpinice. He died about 426 B.C. Polyg-
uotus was a contemporary of the great sculptor Phidias (q.v.), and flourished during
the supremacy both of Cimon and Pericles; but we hear little or nothing of him
under the latter ruler; and although the first painter of his day. It does not appear that
he was engaged in the decoration of any of those splendid buildings with which that
statesman adorned Athens. It is not at all unlikely that Pericles was avevse to patron-
izing a friend of Cimon. and, at all events, Polygnotus was absent from Athens for 14
years (449-485 B.C.) of Pericles's rule, painting at Delphi and elsewhere. His principal
works (following a chronological arrangement as far as it can be ascertained) were: 1.
Paintings in the' temple of Theseus at Athens. 2. In the stoa poecile (or painted por-
tico) at Athens, representing the Greek princes after the taking of Troy, assembled to
judge of the violation of Cassandra by Ajax. 3. In the anakeiou, or temple of the
Dioscuri, a painting of the marriage of the daughters of Leucippos. 4. In the temple
of Athena Areia at Plataea, a picture of Ulysses after having slain the suitois of Penel-
ope. 5. In the lesche (or "conversazione saloon"), a famous quadrangular court, or
peristyle, surrounded by colonnades, built at Delphi by the Cnidians. The walls of this
edifice were covered by Polygnotus with a series of paintings representing the ware of
Troy, and the return of the Greek chiefs, and considered Polygnotus's masterpiece. 6.
In the chamber adjoining the propylsea of the acropolis. From -the criticism of the
ancients, it seems quite clear that Polygnotus was a great advance on any of his prede-
cessors. He was the first who gave life, character, expression to painting. According
to Pliny, he opened the mouth and showed the teeth of his Jgures; he was the first to
paint women with transparent drapery, and with rich head-dresses. Luciau also
speaks of his exquisite skill in painting eyebrows and the blush on the cheek; while
Aristotle extols the ethical or ideal beauty of his conceptions, saying that Polygnotus
"represented men as better than they were," and finding a parallel for his style in the
epic poetry of Homer.
POL YGON (Gr. polys, many; gunia, a corner), a plane figure, bounded by a number of
straight lines; the name is conventionally limited to those plane figures whose bounding
straight lines are more \\\an fmtr in number. Polygons of 5, 6, 7, 8, etc., sides are
denominated pentagons, hexagons, heptagons, octagons, etc.; and when the number of
sides exceeds twelve, the figure is merely mentioned as a polygon of so many sides. The
quindecagon, or figure of 15 sides, is the.only common exception to this rule. Polygons
have many general properties; such as that the sum of the angles of a polygon, when
increased by four right angles, or 360°, is equal to twice as many right angles as there
are tides in the polygon, and that (supposing the number of sides of the polygon to be
expressed by ri) the number of its diagonals is — — ; also if a polygon of an even
o
number of sides be circumscribed about a circle, the sums of its even and odd sides are
equal ; and if a polygon of an even number of sides be inscribed in a circle, the sums of
its even and odd angles are equal. A polygon which has all its sides aud tingles equal
is called a regular polygon. All polygons of this class are capable of ber-ii Inscribed in
or circumscribed about a circle; but though the problem is merely to divide the circum-
ference of a circle into a number of equal parts, corresponding to the number of sides in
the polygon, geometry was till lately only able to perform it in those cases where the
number of sides of the polygon belongs to one or other of the series 2, 4, S, 16, etc.: 3,
6, 12, 24. etc.; or 5, 10, 20, 40, etc. Gauss (q.v.), however, in the beginning of the
present century, showed how it could be done in the case of all polygons, the number
of whose sides was of the form 2n -f- 1 (provided it be a prime number), or a multiple of
this prime number by any power of 2. This discovery supplies us with innumerable
series representative of the numbers of the sides of polygons which can be described
around or inscribed in a circle, such as 17, 34, 68, etc. ; 257, 514, 1028, etc.
POLYGO NE2E, or POLYGONA!CE^E, a natural order of exogenous plants, mostly herba-
ceous plants, but including a few shrubs, and even trees. The leaves are alternate,
sometimes without stipules, but more generally with stipules cohering around the stem.
The flowers are not unfrcquently unisexual. They have an inferior, often colored peri-
anth, generally in four, five, or six segments; three to nine stamens inserted into the
bottom of the perianth; a one-celled ovary, usually formed of three carpels, but con-
taining only one ovule; styles and stigmas 'as many' as the carpels of the ovary: the fruit
generally a nut, often triangular, the seed with farinaceous albumen, which has an
economic importance in buckwheat. A few species produce a succulent edible fruit.
The order contains nearly 500 known species, natives of almost all parts of the world,
but particularly abundant in the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere. Many
of the species are common weeds in Britain, as different species of dock (q.v.) rnd poly-
f/'»nnn. Bistort (q.v.). buckwheat (q.v.), and sorrel (q.v.) belong to this order. — The
genus polyfjonum has a colored perianth of five segments, stamens in two rows, styles
moreorlessunitedatthebr.se, and two or more in number; the fruit invested by the
Polyhyimil. . W7O
Polynesia. ° « *
persistent poriantli. The species arc very numerous. A number arc natives of Britain.
KNOT-GRASS (P. acicnlnr< ). a very common British weed, is one of the plants remark-
able for most extensive distribution over the world. It is an annual of very humble
growth, but very variable, with much branched trailing stems, small lancelafe leaves,
and very small flowers, t\vo or three together, in the axils of the leaves. Thunberg says
that in Japan a blue dye is prepared from the plant. P. /t/nji/ti/iin/n, one of the species
often called pewiMria, is abundant about margins of ponds and ditches in Britain and
throughout Europe, and is remarkable for the difference between the leaves which float
on the water, as is often the case, and those on steins growing erect, those of the former
being broad and smooth, those of the latter narrow and rough; the spikes of flowers
being also of somewhat different form, and the stamens in the flowers of the floating
stems shorter than the perianth, in the upright stems about as long a> tlie perianth;
differences which might be held to indicate different species, yet both may be found
growing from one root. The stems have been used on the continent of Europe as a sub-
stitute for sarsaparilla. Some other species are occasionally used for medicinal nur-
poses. P. hydropiper, often called WATER PEPPER, a plant common by sides of lakes
and ditches in Britain, is acrid enough to be used as a vesicant. Several species are-
occasionally used for dyeing, as the SPOTTED PERSICAKIA (P. perxictirin). a very com-
mon weed on dunghills and in waste places in Britain; but the only species really
important on this account is that called DYERS' BUCKWHEAT (P. tinclm-iuno, a native of
China, biennial, with ovate leaves and slender spikes of reddish flowers, the cultivation
of which has been successfully introduced in France and Flanders. It yields a blue dye
scarcely inferior to indigo. — P. orientiile has long been occasionally cultivated in flower-
gardens in Britain, and is quite hardy, although a native of the West Indies. — /"//",/'//-
rum cynvtsum, a species of buckwheat abundant oil the mountains of the n. of India,
affords an excellent substitute for spinach. — M&Meribeelcia (idprexxa is the Macquarrie
Harbor vine of Tasmania, an evergreen climbing or trailing shrub of most rapid growth,
sometimes 60 ft. in length. It produces racemes of fruit somewhat resembling grapes
or currants, the nut being invested with the large and fleshy segments of the calyx. The
fruit is sweetish and sub-acid, and is used for tarts. Coccolsba uvifera is the SEA-SIDE
GRAPE (q.v.) of the West Indies. See also CALLIGOKUM.
POLYHYMNIA, orPoLYMNiA ("the many-hymned one"), one of the nine muses (q.v.).
She was reputed by the ancients to be the inven tress of the lyre, and to preside over
lyric poetry and eloquence. In works of art she is usually represented in. a pensive atti-
tude, with the forefinger of the right hand upon the mouth.
POLYMERISM, a form of ISOMERISM (q.v.).
POLYNE MUS and POLYNEMIDJE. See MANGO FISH.
POLYNE SIA, or the region of many islands (Gr. polys, much or many, and news, an'
island), is the name usually given, with more or less of limitation, to the numerous
groups of islands, and some few single islands, scattered throughout the great Pacific
ocean, between the eastern shores of Asia and the western shores of America. In its
widest signification, the term Polynesia might be understood as embracing, besides the
groups hereafter to be mentioned, the various islands, large and small, of the Indian
archipelago, in one direction; and the vast island of New Holland or Australia, with its
dependency of Van Diemen's land, in another. Including these, the whole region has
sometimes been called Oceania, and sometimes Australasia — generally, however, in
modern times, to the exclusion of the islands in the Indian archipelago, to which cer-
tain writers have given the name of Malaysia. In proportion, also, as the area of mari-
time discovery has become enlarged, it has been thought convenient by some geogra-
group,
groups and single islands, together with New Zealand, from the area of Polynesia, and
give to these, in union with Australia, the collective designation of Australasia. To all
these, with the exception of New Zealand, French writers have given the name of .Mi!<i-
neaia or the Black Ixbinda; while a similar name, Kelanonesia. has been given to them
by Prichard and Latham — purely, however, on ethnological grounds, as we shall pres-
ently notice.
Thus we have the three geographical divisions of Malaysia, Australasia, and Poly-
nesia, the last mentioned of which embraces all the groups and single islands not
included under the other two. Accepting this arrangement, still the limits between
Australasia and Polynesia have not been very accurately defined; indeed, scarcely any
two geographers appear to be quite agreed upon the subject; neither shall we pretend
to decide iii the matter. The following list, however, comprises all the principal groups
and single island not previously named as coming under the division of Australasia:
viz., 1. North of the equator — The Ladrone or Marian islands, the Pelew islands, the
Caroline islands, the Itadack and Ralick chains, the Sandwich islands, Gilbert's or
Kingsm ill's archipelago, and the Galapagos. 2. South of the equator — The Ellice
group, the Phoenix and Union groups, the Fiji islands, the Friendly islands, the Navi-
gator's islands. Cook's or Harvey islands, the Society islands, the Dangerous archi-
pelago, the Marquesas islands, Pitcairn island, and Easter island.
8*7 Q Poly h ym n I a.
' ° Polynesia.
These islands, which extend from about 20° n. of the equator to about 30° s. of it,
are some of them volcanic in their origin, and some of them coraline. The volcanic
islands generally rise to u considerable height above the level of the ocean, and are there-
fore called the high islands, in contradistinction to the coraline or low islands. They
consist of basalt and other igneous formations. Of these, the principal are the Friendly
islands, one of which, Otaheite or Tahiti, has a mountain rising to the height of 10,000
ft.; the Marquesas islands, also very high; the Samoan or Navigator's islands; and the
Sandwich islands, of which Owvhee or Hawaii possesses several both active and extinct
craters, 13,000, 14,000, and even 16.000 ft. high. The Galapagos group, nearest of all
to South America, are likewise of igneous origin, and have several still active craters.
The remaining islands are for the most part of coraline formation.
The coral islands (q.v.) maybe distinguished into three classes — namely, atolls or
lagoon islands, barrier reefs, and fringing reefs. The atolls are rings of coral reefs, sur-
rounding a basin of sea-water of considerable depth, which is inclosed within this area.
Examples of these are found in the Caroline islands, the Dangerous archipelago, and
several other groups. Barrier reefs differ from the atolls chiefly in the fact of their con-
taining an island in their center, the island being separated from the reef by a body of
deep water; while the reef is in some instances entirely converted into land, and in
others the sea washes over it, except in certain portions which project above the level of
the ocean. Barrier reefs occur among the Society islands, the Gambier islands, and
many other groups. Fringing reefs are collections of coraline formation, which are
found skirting the coasts of an island in the same manner as the barrier reefs, but with-
out any interior deep water channel. They are found in almost all the groups. From
the fact of some of these islands being undoubtedly volcanic, it has been argued that all
were originally of the same character; those of coraline formation being based upon the
crests of submarine volcanoes, over which the coral insects have for an'indefiuite series
of years been engaged in rearing their limestone structures. In opposition to the vol-
canic tlreoiy, Dr. Darwin has propounded one of his own — namely, the theory of subsi-
dence, which, after mature consideration, he believes to be the only one capable of
explaining the various phenomena observable in the coral atolls, barrier reefs, and fring-
ing reefs of the Pacific. All these he considers as being the production of saxigenous
insects, working upward from the foundations of what were originally so many islands,
erect above the surface of the ocean, but which during long ages have been in a state of
gradual subsidence. With respect to the atolls, he states it as his belief, that the lagoon
is precisely in the place which the top of a shoal, and, in other cases, the highest part of
an island, once occupied. So soon as these have sunk to a depth of from 120 to 180 ft.
below the surface, the coral insects (which it is agreed are never found at a lower
depth) commence their operations, and these working on in countless myriads, the
pun-ken island, or a portion of it, is in process of time again reared to the level of the
surrounding sea. H would take too long to specify all the phenomena upon which Dr.
Darwin has based this ingenious theory, especially those connected with what are called
the flinging reefs. It must be mentioned, however, that paradoxical as such a theory
may seem, it has received the hearty support of no less distinguished a geologist than
sir Charles Lyell, who, in the early editions of his Principles of Geology, having held to
the volcanic theory, has since abandoned it for that propounded by Dr. Darwin. Nor
is this all; for. in the last edition of sir C Lyell's work, we find him mentioning with
approval Dr. Darwin's "important generalization that the Pacific and Indian seas, and
some of the lands which border.them, might be divided into areas of elevation and areas
of subsidence, which occur alternately.
Of the islands generally, we need only further observe that, although situated within
the tropics, the heat of the atmosphere is delightfully tempered by a succession of land
and sea breezes. The soil is exceedingly fertile; and besides the vegetable productions
found growing when the islands were first discovered by Europeans, it has given a
welcome home to the orange, lemon, sugar-cane, guava, cotton, potato, melon, and
other fruits and plants introduced by foreign visitants. The only native quadrupeds
on any of the islands when first visited were pigs, dogs, and rats: but the ox, the sheep,
the goat, and even the horse, have since been successfully introduced into many of the
groups. The. feathered tribes are numerous, likewise the insects, and the coasts every-
where abound with a vast variety of fish and Crustacea, highly important as a matter of
food to the inhabitants of those islands in which quadrupeds, whether native or intro-
duced, are found in only a small number.
For a more particular description of the several groups, we refer to the distinct
articles of FI.TIS, FKIENDLY ISLANDS. SANDWICH ISLANDS, etc. ; and shall now proceed
to speak of the inhabitants generally under the head
POLYNESIANS. — This race of people, supposed at one time by certain writers to be of
American origin, is now almost universally admitted to have a close affinity with the
Malays of the peninsula and Indian archipelago, and hence is classified with them by
Dr. Latham under his subdivision of Oceanic Mongolulm. In physical structure and
appearance, the Polynesians in general more nearly resemble the Malays than they do
any other race, although differing from them in some respects, as. indeed, the natives of
several of the groups also do from each other. In stature, they are generally taller than
the Malays, and have a greater tendency to corpulence. In color, also, they more nearly
Polynicea. ft'T/t
Polypi.
approach that of the Europeans. The hair is often waved or curling, instead of long
and straight, and the nose is frequently aquiline. These differences, however, which
may all have been produced by !ap.-e of tune and different conditions of exislcnco, offer
HO Udrrier to the Strong preaUUlptlbQ, that at sonic long antecedent period these islands
were colonized by Malay adventurers. The Malays are known at the present time to he
expert and daring sailors, and in the 16th c. were MI powerful at sea, that they had fre-
quent naval combats with European Heels in the, Indian archipelago. In 15iy the king
Of Acheen, with a powerful armament, attacked and destroyed three Portuguese frig-
ates; and in 1582 the --anie king attacked Malacca with a licet of 150 sail. At a latei
period — uamely, in 1015, one of his successors attacked the same settlement with a licet
of 500 vessels of various sizes and 60.000 men. If this was their strength and cnterprif-e
at a comparatively modern period, may they not have b"cn as < ntcrprising. if not quite
so powerful, in far more remote times? The distance between the more western groups
of Polynesia and the eastern islands of the Indian archipelago is not so great but that it
could have been easily overcome by a hardy race of sailors, even although their vessels
may have not been so well constructed as iu modern limes; and the same reasoning
holds good with respect to the other groups extending still further e., or still more to the
n. or south. Each island or group, as it was attained, would only form a convenient
point of departure in process of time for some other island or group more remotely situ-
ated. It is true that the affinities of language are not great between the Malays and the
Polynesians; still, some affinity has been recogni/.cd by phiiologcrs; while in their man-
ners and customs a strong resemblance has been shown to exist, as in the institution of
caste, the practice of circumcision, the chewing of the betel-nut, and other things.
Many other facts might be mentioned in favor of the theory of a Malay settlement, not
only of Polynesia, but of the islands called Melanesia or Keleeuonesia as well ; the last
mentioned being inhabited by a race almost identical with the Negritos or Pelagian
Negroes of the Eastern archipelago. Dr. Latham, in treating of tlie Polynesians, divides
them into two branches — viz., 1. The Micronesian branch, and 2. The proper Polynesian
branch. His theory as to the probable line of migration is as follows: " The reason for
taking the Micronesian branch before the proper Polynesian, involves the following
question: What was the line of population by which the innumerable islands of the
Pacih'c, from the Pelews to Easter island, and from the Sandwich islands to New Zea-
land, became inhabited by tribes different from, but still allied lo, the Protone.-ian
Malays? That line, whichever it be, where the continuity of successive islands i< the
greatest, and whereon the fewest considerable interspaces of ocean are to be found.
This is the general answer a priori, subject to modifications from the counterbalancing
phenomena of winds or currents, unfavorable to the supposed migration. 'Now, this
answer, when applied to the geographical details regarding the distribution of land and
sea in the great oceanic area, indicates the following line. New Guinea, New Ireland,
the New Hebrides, the Fijis, and the Tonga group, etc. From hence, the Navigator's
islands, the isles of the Dangerous archipelago, the Kingsmill and other croups, carry
the frequently diverging streams of population over the Caroline islands, the La^i rones,
the Pelews, Easter island, etc. This view, however, so natural an inference from a
mere land and sea survey, is complicated by the ethnological position of ihe New
Guinea, New Ireland, and New Hebrides population. These are not Proiom -ian. and
they are not Polynesian. -Lastly, they are not intermediate to the two. They brink.
rather than propagate the continuity of the human stream— a continuity which exists
geographically, but fails ethnographically. The recognition of this conflict between the
two probabilities has determined me to consider the Micronesia n archipelago as that part
of Polynesia which is most likely to have been first peopled, and hence a reason for
taking it first in order." The islands comprised in the Micronesian branch arc the IVlew
islands, the Caroline islands, the Marian islands, and the Tarawan or Kingsmill group.
In physical appearance the inhabitants of these groups more nearly resemble the Malays
than is the case with the Polynesians proper. In person they are not so tall as the
latter. Their language has numerous dialects, most of which would perhaps be unintel-
ligible to the groups further s. and cast. In religion they are pagans; but their my I hoi
ogy and traditions differ from those of the Polynesians proper. Neither is the custom
of the taboo and the use of kawa so prevalent us they are found to be among the latter.
The proper Polynesians, so called, are found in the Fiji islands, but not to the same
extent as in the following— viz.. the Navigator's or Samoa n Hands, the Society islands,
and Friendly islands; also in the Sandwich islands, the Marquesas, the Dangerous archi
p;-lago, etc. In physical appearance, they are the handsomest and tallest of all the
natives of the Pacific islands, with the exception, perhaps, of the New Zealanders or
Maoris The aquiline nose is commonly seen among them, and there are many varieties
both of hair and complexion. Their face is generally oval, with largish ears and wide
nostrils. In the islands nearest to the equator, the skin is said to be the fairest, and il is
darker in the coral islands than in the volcanic Their language is said to bear some
affinity to the Tagala, and is split up into numerous dialects, all. however, to a great
extent mutually intelligible among the several groups. Paganism, originally prevalent
amort? all the groups, is becoming gradually extirpated through the efforts of the mi*
sionaries. principally Enirlish and American, as in the Samoan. Sandwich, and Society
groups, where but few absolute pagans now remain. The superstition of the taboo, Ihe
Polynices.
• Polypi.
use of kavva as an intoxicating drink, cannibalism, infanticide, tattooing, and circum-
cision, which were also formerly prevalent in all the groups, are now fast disappearing,
tinder the influence of Christianity. Unfortunately, however, the contact of these
islanders with civilization has not been always productive of unmixed good; the intro-
duction among them of the use of ardent spirits, and of the vices and diseases of Euro-
peans, having thinned the population to a lamentable extent. Further particulars with
respect to the natives of Polynesia will be found in some of our articles ou the groups
regarded as being the most important.
POLYNICES. See ETEOCLES.
POLYPHEMUS, a genus of branchiopoda (q.v.), of the order cladocera, remarkable for
the extraordinary size of the solitary eye, which occupies almost the whole head. One
species (P. stay no rum), is common in stagnant pools and ditches in some parts of Britain
and of the continent of Europe. It is about the size of a flea, and moves rapidly in the
water, executing all kinds of evolutions, employing both its legs and antennae as organs
of swimming. The sJiell, consisting of two pieces, is so transparent that all the viscera
may be seen through it. The abdomen is terminated by a long tail suddenly folded
back.
POLYPHEMUS, in the Homeric mythology, the son of Poseidon and the nymph
Thoosa, the most celebrated of the fabulous Cyclops (q.v.), who inhabited the island of
Sicily. He was of immense size, and had only one eye. When Ulysses landed on that
island, he entered the cave of Polyphemus with twelve companions, of which number
this tremendous cannibal ate six. "The others stood expecting the same fate, but their
cunning leader made Polyphemus drunk, then burned out his single eye with a blazing
torch, and so escaped, leaving the blinded monster to grope about iu the darkness.
POLYPHONIC (Gr. polys, many, and phone, voice). When a musical composition
consists of two or more parts, each of which has an independent melody of its own, it is
said to be polyphonic, in opposition to a homophonic composition, consisting of a prin-
cipal part with a leading idea, and accessory parts employed to strengthen it. Each part
of a polyphonic composition aims at melodic perfection, and while supporting the other,
has an equal share in the entire effect,' as in the following example:
A fugue (q.v.) is the most perfect example of polyphonic composition. The differ-
ence between homophonic and polyphonic compositions is not always so marked as to
leave it free of doubt whether a part is subordinate or independent; and many compo-
sitions consist of an alternation of hornophonic and polyphonic passages. The construc-
tion of polyphonic phrases is called counterpoint.
POLYPI, or POLYPS, a class of animals which were, till the last few years, included
in the RADIATA of Cuvier, but which, since the radiata have ceased to be regarded as a
sub'kiugdom, have found a place in the subkingdom C<ELKNTERATA. See SUBKING-
UOMS. ANIMAL. The name polypi,, or polyps, was given by Reaumur about the middle
of the last century to these animals, on account of their external resemblance to the
many-armed cuttle-fishes, which were so denominated by Aristotle; and our knowledge
of these organisms, as members of the animal kingdom, hardly dates back much more
than a century. All polyps are aquatic in their mode of life, and almost all of them
are inhabitants of the sea, two genera only (hydra and cordylophord) of fresh-water polyps
being as yet known. Most of them live in societies of considerable extent, supportecl
on a common stock, to which the term polypidom (polyp-home) is usually given, and
which is sometimes horny, and sometime calcareous. The polyps are either imbedded
in cavitbs in the substance of the calcareous polypidom, or inclosed in minute cups or
tubes, from which the body can be protruded, and into which it can be retracted at
pleasure, in the horny poiypidoms. The solitary species often attain a considerable size
(as. for instance, many of the actinias); but the social polyps are always minute,
although the combined power of some of the species in modifying the earth's crust is
neither slight nor limited in extent. "They have built up a barrier reef along the shores
of New Caledonia for a length of 400 m. ; and another, which runs along the n.e. coast
of Australia, 1000 m. in extent. To take a small example: a single atoll (or coral island)
may be 50 m. in length by 20 in breadth; so that if the ledge of coral rock forming the
ring were extended in one line, it would be 120 in. in length. Assuming it to be a quar-
ter of a mile in breadth, and 150 ft. deep, here is a mound, compared with which the
walls of Babylon, the great wall of China, and the pyramids of Egypt are but children's
toys; and built, too, amid the waves of the ocean, and in defiance of the storms." —
Owen, Lectures on the Inrertebrate Animals, 2d edit., p. 14-3.
The bodies of these animals are generally soft, and cylindrical or oval in shape; and
Polypodium.
J •<.!>,, us.
the mouth, which is the only aperture of the digestive canal, and is quite destitute of
any masticating apparatus, lies in the center of the anterior or free exiremity of the
body, and is surrounded by a fringe or circle of tentacles or arms. The skin in the social
polyps is exceedingly soft and delicate: but in the solitary species it is often of a leathery
consistence. It almost always contains peculiar urtieating organs, or thread-like cells,
which may be regaitled as one of the distinctive characters of the cirlenterata. Various
arrangements of the polyps have been proposed, but it is sufficient for all practical pur-
poses if we admit two orders — namely, the hyilrozoa anil the imiliozon (or actini>:<Hi)t
which differ essentially in the following points: in the hy<lr»:<,,i the wall of the digestive
sac is not separated from that of the somatic (or bodily) cavity, and the reproductive
organs are external; while in the anthozoa the wall of the digestive sac is scparted from
that of the somatic cavity by an intervening space, subdivided into chambers by a series of
vertical partitions, on the faces of which the reproductive organs are developed. The hydra
(q.v.), or fresh-water polyp, is the type of the hyiln>z»ti. \ few of these polyps are simple
animals, as, for example, hydra. ci>ri/in»ri>h(i. rorttclnrit, and inyriothilti; but the greater
number are compound or composite, exhibiting a numerous colony, connected with one
another by a common trunk or axnoaarc (from the Gr. koinox, common, and xm-f, lie-In,
which usually presents an erect tree-like form. A sufficient idea of the form and structure
of the simple polyps of the class will be obtained by a reference to the article HYDRA, which
attains a length of between 4 and 5 inches, and was discovered by Forbes and Good>ir
when dredging in. the n. of Scotland. They observe that when it was placed in a
of sea-water, it presented the appearance of a beautiful pink flower, its head gracefully
nodding (whence the specific name given to it by Sars, who had previously discovered it
on the Norwegian coast), and bending the upper part of the stem; it waved its long white
tentacles to and fro at pleasure, but seemed to have no power of contracting them. The
compound hydrozoa include, inter alia, the orders xertiilnridce (embracing the various
species of sertularia, campanularia, laomedea, etc.), and tubularities (embracing the vari-
ous species of tubutaria, eudendrium, bimeria, etc.). A good idea of the nature of the
compound hydrozoa may be formed from the consideration of the campn/ni'ai in (fi<->n>t-
oma, a common organism on our shores. The compound polyp-animal, or association
of polyps, resembles a miniature tree. It consists essentially of a ramified tube of irri-
table matter, defended by an external flexible, and frequently jointed horny skeleton;
and is fed by the activity of the teutacula, and by the digestive powers of the alimentary
sacs of a hundred polypi, the common produce of which circulates through the tubular
cavities for the benefit of the whole community. The soft integument of the nutrient
polyps contains the thread-cells, to which allusion has previously been made. These
are protruded when the skin is irritated, and give the tentacles the appearance of being
beset by minute bristles. The digestive sac of each polyp is lined by a ciliated epithe-
lium; but there is a perforation at the base communicating with the central tube. This
outlet admits only of the passage of the fluid contents of the stomach, undigested mat-
ters being ejected by the mouth. There is reason to believe that sea-water enters the
branches of the tube and circulates, by means of the ciliated epithelium, through the
compound organism ; and by this means contributes to the respiratory process. "At cer-
tain points of these ramified polyps," says prof. Owen, "which points are constant in
and characteristic of each species, there are developed little elegant vase-shaped or pod-
shaped sacs, which are called theovigerous vesicles, or oricapmiles. These are sometimes
appended to the branches, sometimes to the axilla?. They are at first soft, and have a
still softer lining membrane, which is thicker and more condensed at the bottom of the
vesicle. It is at this part that the ova or germs are developed, and for some time these
are kept in connection with the vital tissue of the polyp by a kind of umbilical cord. In
all the compound hydrozoa, the ovicapsules are deciduous; and having performed their
functions in relation to the development of the new progeny, drop off like the seed-
capsules of plants." On other individuals of the same species sperm -capsules are devel-
oped, which, inform, resemble the ovicapsules, but in place of ova, contain spermatozoa.
The act of fertilization in most cases occurs by diffusion of the spermatozoa in the sur-
rounding water. There is much that still requires elucidation in reference to the vari-
ous modes of reproduction of this class. Many of the hydrozoa have been shown to be
merely larval forms of medusa?. See GENERATIONS, ALTERNATION OF.
The leading anatomical distinction between the anthozoa, or actinozoa, and the
hydrozoa has been already noticed. The common actinia (q.v.) may be regarded as the
type of this class, all «f which are marine, and principally inhabit the wanner or tropi-
cal seas. Many of the larger tropical polyps of this class combine with a structure simi-
lar to that of the actinia an internal calcaVeous axis or skeleton, which, penetrating into
the interior of the organism, presents the lamellated and radiated structure recognizable
in thefunffice, and in the skeletons of caryophyttce. madreporce, etc. Such anthozoa are
termed coralligenous ; and every hard structure deposited in or by the tissues of this
class, and forming a uniform framework, is recognized by zoologists as a coral. Like
the members of the preceding class many of the anthozoa multiply freely by gemmation,
complex or compound animals or colonies of animals being formed, in which individual
polyps are united by a ccenosarc or polypidom. For a description of the mode in which
communication takes place between the common body ir mass and the individual
polyps, we must refer to the article ALCYONIUM. Various arrangements of this class
m~ Ttlypodium.
-jlypus.
have been proposed by zoologists. If we exclude the consideration of fossil genera, we
may divide the authozoa into two orders — the alcyonaria and the zoantharia.
The alcyoimria may be characterized as anthozoa in which each polyp is furnished
with eight tentacles, not simple, as in actinia, but furnished with pinnate margins, with
eight somatic chambers, and eight mesenteries. With the exception of one genus they
are all composite in structure; their polyps being connected with "one another by a
ccenosarc, which is traversed by prolongations of the somatic cavity of each polyp, a
system of canals being thus formed whose parts freely communicate and are midily dis-
tensible. Carus, in the Handbuch der Zoologie, 1863, vol. 2 (of which he is joint author
with Peters and Gerslaeckcr), mainly adopting Milne-Edwards's arrangement, divides
the alcyonaria into the three following families: 1, alcyonida-; 2, gorgonidce; 3, pennatii-
lidoe. In the alcyonidce he includes the beautiful organ-pipe corals, of which Green and
others make a separate family. The polypidom constructed by tubipora musica consists
of successive stages of cylindrical tubes of a rich crimson color, united at various
heights by means of horizontal connecting plates. The tubes placed upon the upper
stage are alone inhabited by living polyps, of a violet or green color, the occupants of
those below having successively perished as fresh generations appeared above them. As
an example of the gorgonidai we may take isis liippuris, in which the skeleton is made up
of alternate joints of calcareous and horny matter, with the view of giving the necessary
flexibility. In the pennatulidce, the polypidom is free, and no polyps are attached to its
bas;d portion. The sea-pern (pennatidct) of our own coast afford a 'good example of this
family, bee PKNNATULA for description and figure.
The zoanlliaritt may be characterized as anthozoa in which the tentacles are either
simple or branched, in general numerous, and together with the mesenteries, disposed in
multiples of live or six. They may be arranged in the three following suborders: 1.
Z. mulacodermata; 2. Z. sclerobasica or anlipatharia (Milne-Edwards); and 3. Z. sderode r-
intita or madrepores. The first sub-order has been variously subdivided into families and
subfamilies, which it is unnecessary to notice. It contains all the sea-anemones and
animals allied to them, including the genera actinia, anthea, corynactis, copnea, adamsia,
ilyanth'iis, triyartia, bunodes, edwardsia, pcachia, etc., and the zoanthidae, which are
aggregated 'polyps arising from a common creeping root-like fleshy band, and of which
at least one species, zoanthus couchii, is an inhabitant of the British seas. All the mem-
bers of the second sub-order are composite structures. Antipathes, the type of the
group, presents a stem-like, simple, or branching ccenosarc, which in one species tapers to
a length of more than 9 ft., with a diameter at the base not exceeding three-tenths of an
inch. The third sub-order (the madrepore*) is a very extensive one. It is divided into
the madrepora aporosa and M. pcrforata. according as the coral exhibits a solid or a
porous structure. M. aporosa may be arranged in the following families: 1. tiirbinolidce
( ncluding the sub-families cdiyophyllirioe and lurbinolina); 2. oculimdae; 3. astrceidce; 4.
echinoponitcs; 5. merulmacece; Q.jimgidce, while the M. perforata are divided into (1) madre-
poridce and (2) poritidce. A few of the commoner forms of madrepora are described in
the articles CORAL and MADREPORE. Among the most important works on this
department of zoology may be mentioned Dana's Structure and Clarification of Zoophytes
(Philadelphia, 1846); and his Report on Zoophytes, and Atlas of Zoophyte* (U. S. exploring
expedition), 1849; Johnston's British Zcojihytes, in 2 vols., to which we are indebted for
many of our illustrations; Milne- Edwards and Haime, Histoire Naturelle des CoraUiaires
ou Polypes proprement dits (3 vols., 1857-60); and Lacaze-Duthiers, Histoire Naturelle du
Corail, Organisation, Reproduction, etc. (1864).
POLYPO DITTM, a genus of ferns, with spore-cases on the back of the frond, distinct,
ring-shaped, in roundish son, destitute of indusium. Several species, differing very con-
siderably in appearance, are natives of Britain, where no fern is more common than P.
It grows on rocks, trees, dry banks, etc., and has fronds 2 to 18 in. long,
deeply pinnatifid, with large son. — P. dryopteris, with delicate ternate bipinnate
fronds, is a fine ornament of many dry stony places in Scotland. — P. calagvala, a native
of Peru, is said to possess important medicinal properties — solvent, deobstruent, sudo-
rific, etc.
POLYPO EDITS. See AMADOU and DRY ROT.
POLYP TERTTS, a genus of fishes, ranked by Cuvier among malacopterous fishes and
in the family cl>ipeid&, notwithstanding very important differences of structure; but now
constituted by Mtiller and others into a family, polypteridcp., of the order of ganoid fishes.
The shape is round and elongated; the head defended by large bony plates, the body
covered with large and strong ganoid scales, which are very closely affixed to the skin.
These curious fishes, existing remains of a type which was prevalent in former geologic
periods, inhabit the rivers of Africa, and lodge in the soft mud. Their flesh is very
pleasant. The polypterus of the Nile, called bichir by the Egyptians, is said to be one
of the finest fishes of that river. It is about 18 in. long.
POL YPTTS, in surgery, is an antiquated term employed to signify any sort of peduncu-
lated tumor attached to a surface to which it was supposed to adhere like a many-
footed animal, as its name indicates. The most common seat of polypuses is the mucous
membrane, especially that of the nostrils and uterus; but these tumors are also found in
the rectum, the larynx, and the external auditory passage of the ear. The only satisfac-
Polystyle. Q*~Q
Polyzoit. ° « 3
tory mode of treatment consists in their removal, which must be, effected in various
ways, according to their position, as by the forceps, the ecrascur, the ligature, etc.
POLYSTYLE, a term applied to a building with a number of columns, but not the
strict number of any of the classic arrangement.
POLY TECHNIQUE (EcoLK POLVTI:-II \iqri:). or POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL (Gr. poly*,
many; ttchiii', art), was first established in Paris (1794) by the national convention, under
the name of ecole des tr<n-:n'.i- ;,//;<//.•>,• (school of public works). No students were admitted
but those who intended to enter the public service; and though the general object of the
institution was the supplying of well-educated youths to all branches, it was more par-
ticularly devoted to the thorough instruction of recruits for the corps of civil and mili-
tary engineers. The institution received the name of "ecole polytechnique" in 1 i!i5.
The pupils were at firs! 3K) in number, and each received, during If ; stay of two years
in the institution, an annual stipend of 1200 francs ( L'4S nearly); the teachers were in
most cases the most eminent savants of France. In 1TJJ!) some modifications were intro-
duced into the working of the school; the number of pupils was at the s-ime time limited
to 200, and they were put. into uniform. The advantages of an insiituiion of this -ort,
when ably conducted, soon made themselves evident, and the polytechnique, in conse-
quence, rose into high estimation, not only in France, but throughout Kurope. so much
so, that it became common for foreign nations, when entering imo a treaty with France,
to stipulate for the admission of a certain number of their subjects into tlie institution,
after passing the prescribe:! entrance examination. In 1804 the emperor Napoleon intro-
duced various modifications into its working, and gave it a military organi/.alion ; it was
also removed from the Palais Bourbon (where it had existed from its lirst establishment)
to the old college of Navarre. The institution became more and more, as the end of the
Napoleonic empire drew near, a training-school for young artillerists and engineers; and
such was the enthusiasm of the pupils in the emperor's cause, that, after the disasters of
1814, they demanded to be enrolled en masse in the ranks of the French army. However,
Napoleon was (to use his own words) not inclined " to kill the hen for the golden <
but he allowed them to form three out of the twelve companies of whicht the artillery
corps of the national guard was composed. These three companies rendered important
service in manning the walls of Paris, and behaved heroically in the battle of .Mar. :>0,
1814. After the first restoration, the polytechnique, being considered to be evil-di-;
to the government, suffered considerable reductions; but was restored to its former
importance for the brief period of the "hundred days." After the second restoration
(July, 1815), the staff of professors was remodeled; Lacroix and some others wre dis-
missed, and replaced by Poisson, Arago, Cauchy, etc. Notwithstanding these changes,
the government still had its doubts as to the loyalty of the establishment, and took ail van-
tage of an outbreak, April 3, 1816, to break it up. It was reconstituted in September of
the same year, under a revised code of regulations, and in 1822 the old severity of mili-
tary discipline was restored. During the war of 1870-71, the government of national
defense ordered the pupils to meet at Bordeaux, and classes were opened there under
distinguished pupils of the school brought from all parts of France. However the
attempt had to be abandoned, and the pupils having sought permission to take part in
the war, were divided among the different sections of the army, in which their services
were highly appreciated. The constitution of the school, winch has so frequently suf-
fered change, was in the end of 1873 regulated by decret of Nov. 30, 1863, and minis-
terial rules issued on Mar, 5, 1857. 1. No pupil can be admitted unle-s lie has been
successful in the public competitive examination which is held each year. 2. The con-
ditions of admission to the competitive examination are, that the candidate shall be a
Frenchman; that he shall be more than 16, and less than 20 years of age, on the M of
January of that year; and that he shall be either a bachelor of letters or a bachelor of
sciences of the university of France. If he holds both degrees he is allowed 50 marks in
the examination for admission. 3. Regular soldiers are admitted up to the age of 2o
years, provided they have been on real and effective service for two years. 4. The
charge for board is 1000 francs (£40) per annum, and the cost of outfit (to I'M- also paid by
the pupil) about 600 francs. 5. The duration of the course of instruction is two years:
the pupils, r.fter finishing their course, must pass a final examination; the successful
candidates, if found to be physically qualified, are arranged in order of merit, and choose
in order what branch of the public service they wish to enter. 6. The branches of the
public service which are recruited from the polytechnique are, the corps of land and
naval artillery, military and naval engineers, the imperial marine, the corps of hydro-
graphic engineers, that of engineers of roads, bridges, and mines, the corps of staff-
officei's, the superintendence of telegraphs and gunpowder and tobacco manufactories:
and generally every department which, requiring special scientific knowledge, may be
added by deci'fts to these.
The following branches of study were embraced in the curriculum in 1873: Mathe-
matics, physics, chemistry and chemical manipulation, history and literature. German,
written exercises, drawing, geodesy, mechanics, architecture, art militaire. Lessons in
fencing, music, and dancing are given out as optional, and must be separately paid for.
The number of pupils varies with the requirements of the public service. In 1794 there
were 396 pupils; in 1820 only 66. During the first empire, the numbers increased from
Q'TQ Polystyle.
5 I » Folyzoa.
110 in 1808, to 227 in 1813; under Louis Philippe the average number was 130. During
the second empire, it had risen to 140 and 150. After the war with Germany in 1870-71
the number rose to 260. The numerous and admirably equipped technical schools of
Germany (see TKCIIMCAI, EDUCATION in SUPP., vol. x.), often called polytcchnica. have
received no military restriction, and are available for all interested in the industrial arts;
they are in many cases scientific centers comparable to the universities.
POLYTHEISM. See GOD.
FOLYTKICHUM (Gr. many-haired), a genus of mosses, having the capsule supported
on a stalk (*eta) which is terminal, and thus appears as an elongation of the stern; the
peristome single, of 32 or 64 short equidistant teeth, which are curved inward, and
their summits united by a horizontal membrane closing the mouth of the capsule. A
number of species are found in Britain, of which the most abundant is P. commune,
sometimes called 7iair-m088, (joWcn maidenhair, and provincially goldilocks; growing in
heaths and woods, particularly where the soil is sandy; the stems not at all branched, or
only at the base, several inches long; the narrow slender leaves sometimes nearly half an
inch long. This beautiful moss is very common in the most northern parts of Europe
and Asia.
POLYZOA known also as BRYOZOA (from the Greek bryon, moss, and soon, an animal;
because many of these organisms incrust other animals or bodies like moss), and CILIO-
BKACHIATA (from the circumstance that their tentacles are ciliated), are so called from
many individuals being united into a colony or polyzoary. Although Dr. Grant, in his
Observations on the Structure and Nature of Fluslrce, in 1827, and Milne-Edwards and
Amlouin, in their Resume des Rechcrch.es sur les Animaux sans Vertebrcs faites aux ties
Chauxnc;/, in 1828, indubitably , showed that these animals more closely resembled, in
the details of their organization, the molluscous than the radiate subkingdom, with
•which they were formerly confounded, some of our most esteemed English writers
(including prof. Owens) persist in retaining them among the polyps, instead of placing
them in their true position amongst the moUuscoid animals,
Most of Hie poly/i >u arc microscopic; but as they occur in colonies, they often collect-
ively form sufficiently conspicuous masses, and although there is little diversity in the
form or structure of the animals themselves, there is much difference in the form,
arrangement, and composition of the cells or chambers in which the individual animals
reside. " In general," says Mr. Gosse, " the form of the cell is ovate or oblons*; but the
general shape is variously modified, being tubular, club-shaped, horn-shaped, cradle-
shaped, square, etc." The arrangement is often shrub-like, or the cells may be arranged
in close series, cither adhering in irregular patches, as the lepraliai, or rising into broad,
flexible leaves, as \\\e flustrce, or common sea-mats, or in solid strong walls, or coral-like
masses,' as the escltara?, or calcareous sea-mats. Each animal lives freely in its cell, with
whose walls it is connected only by means of muscular bands and threads at certain
points, and by the covering of the mouth of the cell. The animal may either expand
itself to a considerable extent out of the mouth of the cell, or it may be altogether
restricted within the latter; its movements being due partly to pressure upon the
outer walls, and partly to the muscular bands, which act chiefly as retractors. On
examining one of these organisms in the expanded state, the mouth is seen to be sur-
rounded by a crown of tentacles, which are most commonly ten or twelve in number,
and are clothed with vibratile cilia, which lash the water toward the mouth, and thug
create numberless little whirlpools, by which nutritious matter is conducted into the
oral aperture of the polyzoa. These ciliated tentacles constitute one of the essential
points of difference between these animals and the hydraform polyps, with which they
were formerly associated. The mouth !eads to a funnel-shaped cavity or pharynx,
which is succeeded by an oesophagus, and a true digestive stomach (between which a
muscular gizzard intervenes in certain genera), after which the intestine turns back
upon itself, and terminates in an anus near the mouth. In the separate intestine and
anal orifice, we have another characteristic distinguishing these animals from- the polyps,
At the base of the tentacular circle, just above the anal orifice, is a nervous ganglion,
which in all the polyzoa lies on the re-entering angle, between the two extremities of the
intestinal canal. No heart has as yet been discovered, the matters, which result from
digestion, percolating through the intestinal walls, and becoming mixed with the fluid
in which the viscera floats." According to prof. Allman, three distinct modes of repro-
duction occur in the polyzoa, viz., by buds or gemmae, by true ova, and by free loco-
motive embryos. This subject, however, requires further investigation.
Minute appendages, of a very remarkable character, are fixed to the cells of many of
the genera. They are termed avicularia, or "bird-head processes," and ribracula, or
whip-like spines. The avicularia were described by Ellis, who first noticed them (in
his Kxn<iy totr<ti-(lx a Natural History of the Corallines, '1758), as resembling " a bird's head
with a crooked beak, opening very wide;" they consist of a fixed and a movable nipper,
like a crab's glaw, the latter being worked by special muscles. These moving beaks
have been often observed to seize minute animals; but as these organs have no power of
passinir their prey to the mouth, the polyzoa cannot receive nourishment from this source.
Mr. Gosse ingeniously suggests that " the seizure of a passing animal, and the holding
of it in the tenacious grasp until it dies, may be a means of attracting the proper prey to
Pomacese.
Qfifl
the vicinity of the mouth." The vibmcula consists of a long, slender movable seta or
bristle, which, according to Gosse, serves "to rid the animal of intruding vagrants, and
to cleanse away accidental defilement, by sweeping across the orifice of the cell." Both
these kinds of organs aie of service in determining genera. Excellent magnified repre-
sentations of the acicnlnrid and rihrncula may be seen en referring to Figs. 13 and 11, in
Mr. Busk's excellent article, POLYZOA, in The, Emjlixk CyclojxeUiu, to which, as also to
that gentleman's Catalogue of Ufa/Tint Polyzoa in tin; liritixh J/'/w////. and to prof. Allmatfs
" Report on the Fresh-water Polyzoa," published in the Jfrjiortx <>f tin />/•///.-•// Axxorintimi
for 1850, the reader is referred for further information regarding this remarkable class of
animals.
FOMACEJE, or POME^E, according to some botanists, a natural order of plants, but
more generally regarded as a suborder of rosacete (q.v.). The plants -of this order are
all trees or shrubs, abundant in Europe, and chiefly belong to the temperate and colder
regions of the northern hemisphere; they are rare in very warm climates, and are not
found at all in the southern hemisphere. They have the botanical characters described
in the article rosaceae (q.v.), and in addition are distinguished by having the tube of
the calyx more or less globose, the ovary fleshy and juicy, lined with a thin disk, its
carpels adhering more or less to the sides of the calyx and to each other; the fruit a
pome (q.v.), 1 to 5 celled, in a few instances spuriously 10-cellcd; the ovules in pairs.
collateral. Many of the species are prized for the beauty and fragrance of their flow-
ers, some produce valuable timber; but the order is chiefly remarkable as producing a
number of the very finest fruits of temperate climates. See APPLE, PEAK, C^t'iM ;•;,
MEDLAR, LOQUAT, HAWTHORN, CRAT^EGUS, AMELANCIIIER, ROWAN, SERVICE. — There
are about 200 known species.
POMADE, or POMATUM, is a preparation used instead of liquid oil for the hair. It
consists of a fine inodorous fat, such as lard or suet; but neither of these are quite free
from smell, and the most careful perfumers render them so by a peculiar process.
They melt them in a steam-bath, and to every £ of cwt. add 1 oz. of alum and 2 o/. of
salt, continuing the action of the heat till any scum ceases to rise; the scum is carefully
removed, and the fat allowed to cool, after which it is levigated with cold water with
great care and patience until every particle has been acted upon, and the salt, alum, and
albuminous matters are perfectly washed out, after which it is remelted in the steam-
bath, and any remaining water falls to the bottom; when cold, it is fit for use. The
perfumer then takes portions of this prepared fat, and remelting each separately, adds
a little wax or spermaceti to give it consistency, and perfumes it with some essence.
au apple.
END OF VOL. XL
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